2013

Experiment 1: To Verify Bernoullis Principle Introduction

In hydrodynamics, that is, fluids in motion, energy is stored in three forms namely: potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. From the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy in the fluid is conserved and equal to a constant. This is shown in the Bernoullis equation which is in fact a form of the principle of conservation of energy. Total nergy ! "otential nergy # $inetic nergy # "ressure nergy ! mgh # % mv& # "m ' ( ! constant The equation is rewritten in the form of total head for unit mass of fluid as Total )ead ) ! " ' (g # v& '&g # h ! constant It is assumed that the fluid is incompressi*le and no energy enters or leaves the system. )owever, in actual situations, frictional losses occurring due to certain features like sudden change in diameter, *ends, *oundaries and valves amongst others have to *e included in the equation. These conditions are difficult to satisfy especially when dealing with comple+ fluids *ut fortunately for many real situations where the conditions are appro+imately satisfied, the equation gives very good results.

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2013

Aim
The aim of this e+periment is to verify that "'. # / &'&g is a constant, where "'. is the pressure head, i.e. the height of the water in the pie0ometer tu*e and / &'&g is the velocity head.

Apparatus
"erspe+ tank, stopwatch, converging tu*e, graduated collecting tank.

Procedure
-. .ater is allowed to flow in the "erspe+ tank. &. The outflow is ad1usted so that the water levels in the pie0ometers are steady. 2. The reading on each pie0ometer which is the pressure head is recorded. 3. .ater is allowed to flow into the collecting vessel for a time t seconds and the height h of water collected in the tank is recorded. 4. The area 5 of the tank is calculated. 6. The flow rate 7 is calculated which is 859h:'t. ;. The velocity / of the flow at any section is o*tained *y dividing 859h:'t *y the area of the converging tu*e at that section.

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2013

Experimental Results
Section Number Pie#ometer Readin$!mm Pie#ometer Readin$!mm !m m -== "ime !s 6-.6

3&<

3&&

3-3

3-=

3=&

2>=

2;&

-&&

--<

--6

--&

-=3

>3

<=

-==

6>.2

5rea 5 of collecting tank ! 82=2 + 2=2: mm&

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%alculations
For first set of readings 8&or upper ead:: Time taken for water to rise *y -==mm ! 6-.6s 5verage volume flow rate 7 ! 859h:'t ! 82=2+2=2+-==:'6-.6 ! -3>=3=mm2's For second set of readings 8&or lo'er ead:: Time taken for water to rise *y -==mm ! 6>.2s 5verage volume flow rate 7 ! 859h:'t ! 82=2+2=2+-==:'6>.2 ! -2&3<=mm2's The velocity at any section / ! 7 ' 5rea of pie0ometer at that section.

"abulation o& Results

Section Number Area o& Pie#ometer!mm2 Pie#ometer *ead P!+$ ,mm. ! ,mm!s.2!2$ ,mmP!+$ / .2!2$ ,mmPie#ometer *ead P!+$ ,mm. ! ,mm!s.2!2$ ,mmP!+$ / .2!2$ ,mm2== & &;4 2 &4= 3 &&4 4 &== 6 -;4 ; -4=

(or )pper *ead 3&< 3>6.< -&.6 33=.6 -&& 33-.6 >.> -2-.> 3&& 3-3 3-= 3=& ;34.& &<.2 32=.2 -=3 66&.3 &&.3 -&6.3 2>= <4-.; 2;.= 3&;.= >3 ;4;.= &>.& -&2.& 2;& >>2.6 4=.2 3&&.2 <= <<2.& 2>.< -->.<

43&.= 4>6.& 66&.3 -4.= -<.&&.3 32;.= 32&.- 32&.3 (or 0o'er *ead --< 3<-.; --.< -&>.< --6 4&>.> -3.2 -2=.2 --& 4<<.< -;.; -&>.;

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1rap &or )pper *ead

500 450 400 350 Head /mm 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Section Number Piezometer Head P/g (mm) V2/2g (mm) P/g + V2/2g (mm)

1rap &or 0o'er *ead

140 120 100 Head /mm 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Section Number P/g + V2/2g (mm) Piezometer Head P/g (mm) V2/2g (mm)

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%onclusion
For the upper and lower heads, the shape of the graphs indicate that the pressure head decreases while the velocity head increases as the cross,sectional area of the converging tu*e decreases. The addition of the pressure and velocity head gives a slightly inclined straight line with decreasing gradient. Ideally, from Bernoullis "rinciple, the addition of the pressure and velocity head should have *een equal to a constant, the potential energy *eing constant as tu*e is hori0ontal. )owever, from the graphs it is found that there is a slight loss in head for *oth the upper and lower head. This may *e attri*uted to the fact that energ y might have *een lost due to friction *etween the fluid and the *oundaries or due to tur*ulences occurring in the tu*e of decreasing diameter. ?ther e+perimental errors might also have taken place. The ma1or pro*lem encountered while performing the e+periment was that inflow was not constant as it was connected to a ma1or tank in which the pressure was always varying. Thus it was e+tremely difficult to achieve particular steady flow for a suita*le period of time so as to measure flow rate. This factor has definitely affected the results. ?n the whole, after including the losses in energy it can *e said that the Bernoullis "rinciple has *een fairly verified

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2013

Discharge Over Weirs Introduction

!otches

8i: 5 notch may *e defined as an opening in one side of a tank or a reservoir, like a large orifice, with the upstream liquid level *elow the top edge of the opening. @ince the top edge of the notch a*ove the liquid level serves no purpose, therefore a notch may have only the *ottom edge and sides. The *ottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is known as sill or crest of the notch and the sheet of liquid flowing over a notch 8or a weir: is known as a nappe or vein. 5 notch is, usually, made of a metallic plate and is used to measure the discharge of liquids. "2pes o& notc es -. Aectangular notch &. Triangular notch 2. Trape0oidal notch 3. @tepped notch The type of notch, which we have used in the following e+periment, is the /,notch and its discharge, 7, shows the following relation: 7 ! 8<'-4: Bd&g tan 8'&: h4'& .hereC Bd ! coefficient of discharge h ! height of the liquid a*ove the ape+ of the notch. ! angle of the notch. 8ii: 5 structure, used to dam up a stream or river, over which the water flows, is called a weir. The conditions of flow, in the case of a weir, are practically the same as those of a rectangular notch. That is why a notch is sometimes called as a weir and vice versa. The only difference *etween a notch and a weir is that the notch is of a small si0e and the weir is of a *igger one. Doreover, a notch is usually made in a plate, whereas a weir is usually mad of masonry or concrete. ,;,

2013

"2pe o& 3eirs4 8a: Aectangular weir 8*: Bipoletti weir The type of rectangular weir we have used is the rectangular weir and its discharge is related *y the following equation: 7 ! 8&'2: Bd *8&g:h2'& Bd ! coefficient of discharge h ! height of the liquid a*ove the crest of the weir. * ! *readth of the weir.

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Introduction 5& Apparatus

In hydraulic engineering, weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and open channels. In some cases the relationship *etween the water level upstream of the weir and the discharge over it, is known, so that the discharge at any time may *e found *y o*serving the upstream water level.

6escription 5& Apparatus

The apparatus is as shown in the diagram, with a channel and a rectangular or /,notch at the end. The edge of the notch is sharp. The water flowing over the notch may *e collected in a hopper and can *e weighed or measured.

Experimental Procedure4
If the apparatus is fitted with Esill tu*e with )ook FaugeG, it is first leveled and the 0ero of the hook gauge is esta*lished, i.e, the hook gauge reading corresponding to the level of the crest of the notch. To do this, water is admitted from the *ench supply to the apparatus until the level is appro+imately correct, and then carefully *aled out or in, using a small *eaker, until the crest of the weir lies 1ust on the surface. For the rectangular weir, this can *e checked or illustrated in Fig 8-:a, *y placing a steel rule on the crest. For the /,notch, the reflection of the / in the surface serves to indicate whether the level is correct or not as illustrated in Fig.8-:*. .hen the correct level has *een o*tained, the hook gauge is set, in the water surface in the side tu*e and the reading taken.

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Results 7 %alculations4
Aectangular weir * ! =.=6m h ! =.-= mC 8speed -:C h2'& ! =.=2-6m2'& 1 2 3 .!,x1894- m3 <.-== ;.3== <.34= "!s 2.33 2.-< 2.6= :!,x1894m3!s&.244 &.2&; &.23; Dean!&.232

h ! =.-6mC 8speed &:C h2'& ! =.=63m2'& 1 2 3 .!,x1894- m3 -2.24 -3.-4 -2.>4 "!s 2.=4 2.&3 2.&:!,x1894m3!s3.2;; 3.26; 3.236 Dean! 3.262

h ! =.&34m 8speed 2:C h2'& ! =.-&-m2'& .!,x1894- m3 &&.2= &&.== &=.6= "!s 2.-2 2.=6 &.>= :!,x1894m3!s;.-&4 ;.->= ;.-=2 Dean! ;.-2>

1 2 3

, -= ,

2013

1rap :!,x1894m3!s- a$ainst

3!2

!m3!2

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

y = 53.082 + 0.7824
Fradient ! 42.- + -=,3 m2'&'s @ince 7 ! 8&'2: Bd *8H&g:h2'& C

0.05

0.1

0.15
8&'2: Bd

*8H&g: ! gradient ! 4.2-+-=,2C where * ! =.=6m, Bd ! =.=2 Aeadings are not taken when the level has fallen to a point at which the stream closes to spring clear of the notch plates The flow of the water is given time to *ecome steady each time the supply value or pump switch is changed to a new position.

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2013

Introduction
This e+periment uses an open channel which has a notch at its end, through which water flows at a steady rate. The discharge at the notch can *e found *y o*serving the water level in the channel. The two types of notches used in this e+periment are the /,notch and the rectangular notch. Thus, for a particular volume flow rate and water level, the coefficient of discharge can *e calculated. Iischarge definition: The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate. It is the fraction of the theoretical flow rate which gives the actual flow rate.

Aim
The aim of this e+periment is to calculate the coefficient of discharge of water passing through the notch.

Apparatus
.ater channel with a notch at end, stopwatch.

Procedure
-. The supply valve is opened to o*tain a small flow rate, &. the pointer is lowered so as it 1ust touches the surface of the water, 2. the volume flow rate is constant when the pointer stays 1ust in contact with the water surface, 3. the reading on the pointer scale is read and this indicates the water level, Balculation of Flow Aate 4. for the /,notch, the discharge valve in the square tank is closed, 6. the level of water is seen to rise on the scale found outside the tank, ;. the time for the level to rise *y a certain value ) 8e.g. &cm: is noted, and an average is taken, <. the volume flow rate, 7, is calculated, >. for the rectangular notch, the volume flow rate is calculated from a series of three readings of volume of water collected in a container in a given time, , -& ,

2013 -=. the pump switch 8or supply valve for /,notch: is ad1usted to a different position 8roughly equal increments in head: to give a new flow rate, --. steps -,> are repeated and a series of readings of low and head on the weir is found and recorded, -&. For the /,notch the height, h, and width, *, of the /,notch is measured and the angle J is calculated while the width of the rectangular notch is measured, -2. a graph of 7 against h4'& is plotted, -3. the gradient of the graph is used to find the coefficient of discharge.

Precautions
Aeadings are not taken when the level has fallen to a point at which the stream closes to spring clear of the notch plate, The flow of the water is given time to *ecome steady each time the supply valve or pump switch is changed to a new position.

Results and calculations &or .9notc

) ! & cm Initial water level ! 2.<4 cm Borrected water level, h ! 8hn K 2.<4: cm /olume, /, of water collected in tank in time t, s ! =.=& + =.>& + -.&& ! =.=&&3 m2
Time t (s) to rise by h (cm) Experiment number 1 38.50 3!.1! 41.17 37.2! 2 37.46 3!.!5 33.75 38.56 3 10.10 11.!6 !.58 11.34 4 5.53 5.43 5.58 5.77 5 3.78 3.84 3.71 3.75 6 3.!7 3.0! 3.06 3.06

Ta*le -.-: Results of volume flow rate obtained. /,notch: 5pe+ height, h ! &2.; cm .idth, * ! -&.- cm J ! Tan,- L8-&.-'&:'&2.;M ! -3.2 = Flow equation for /,notch: 7 ! Bd <'-4 8&g:-'&tan Jh4'& ! Bd <'-4 8&+>.<-:-'&h4'&tan 8-3.2: , -2 ,

2013 7 ! =.6=2Bdh4'&

Experiment number %ean time& t /s '(o) rate Q& */t x 1+," (m !/s)

1 3!.04 5.75 37.43 6.00

! 10.75 20.8!

" 5.58 40.25

# 3.77 5!.54

$ 3.30 68.13

Ta*le -.&: Flow rate values for each experiment.

height /cm 10.7 -orrected h /cm 6.85 122.8 h#/ h/1++ (m) 0.0685 1.23 h#/ x1+,! (m #/ ) 11.6 7.75 167.2 0.0775 1.67 16 12.15 514.6 0.1215 5.15 1!.5 15.65 !68.! 0.1565 !.6! 22.2 18.35 1442.4 0.1835 14.42 23.8 1!.!5 1777.7 0.1!!5 17.78

Ta*le -.2: Calculation of h5/2 (m5/2).

Graph of Q
80.00

against h

70.00

y = 3.!262 + 0.74!7

60.00

50.00

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00 0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

18.00

20.00

From graph, Fradient, g ! 2.>&6& + -=,3 + -=2 ! =.2>&6& m-'&'s Bd ! 82.>2 + -=,-: '=.6=2 ! =.64

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Results and calculations &or rectan$ular notc

For rectangular notch, * ! 6cm 7 ! Bd 8&'2:*H8&g:h4'&

%onclusions
The coefficient of discharge for a /,notch was found to *e =.64 in this e+periment. The coefficient of discharge for the different flow rates shows how much the actual flow rate agrees with the theoretical calculations. In this e+periment the actual flow rate is 64 N of the calculated flow rate. This large discrepancy *etween the actual and calculated flow rates can *e e+plained *y considering the assumptions used in the calculations: the fluid is an ideal 8incompressi*le and non,viscous: and the flow assumed to *e laminar 8steady and uniform:. Onfortunately, this is difficult to achieve in practice and this e+plains the value =.64 which is an accepta*le value if a /,notch is used to measure the flow of a river. The /,notch apparatus can *e improved *y making the channel correctly rectangular all through. The circular inlet valve can *e num*ered so that the flow can *e chosen at almost equal increments. The walls of the channel and tank 8for rectangular notch: can *e made stronger to resist *uckling 8as o*served during the e+periment: when the level of water is high.

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TO "T#D$ T%E &'OW T%(O#)% * VE!T#(+,ET(E Introduction

This e+periment uses a tu*e of varying cross,sectional area in which water, of volumetric flow rate 7, flows through it. @ince the area is changing, according to Bernoullis equations 8" # %(/& # h(g ! Bonstant, and 5-/- ! 5&/&:, the velocity of water is changing as well as the pressure at a particular cross,section. By placing pie0ometer tu*es at different positions along the constricted tu*e, the pressure at different cross,sectional area can *e found for a certain flow of water. This is the concept of the venturimeter and *y varying the flow, different pie0ometer readings can *e found. The figure *elow illustrates the *asic concept of the venturimeter. )ere, a pressure gauge measures the difference in pressure *etween points 5 and B in the constricted tu*e. In this e+periment, eleven pie0ometer tu*es with a scale are used instead of the gauge, the difference *etween any two readings giving the pressure difference.

.ater in

.ater out

Figure -.-: Pie ometers alon! a "enturimeter.

Aim
The aim of this e+periment is to investigate how the pressure varies at different positions along a tu*e of varying cross,sectional area for different volumetric flow rate. The coefficient of discharge 8Bd: is also to *e found. The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate. It is the fraction of the theoretical flow rate which gives the actual flow rate.

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Procedure
-. The scales are first levelled *y ad1usting the screws 85lready done *y the technicians:, &. The *ench valve is opened and used as it is throughout the whole e+periment, 2. The control valve is opened and water is allowed to flow for a few moments to clear air *u**les in the water supply, 3. The control valve is ad1usted conveniently to o*tain a proper value on the lowest pie0ometer reading, 4. The control valve is kept in positions so that the flow is constant and therefore the readings on the pie0ometer are noted, 6. The lowest value read is named h& while the other pie0ometer readings are called h-, ;. To measure the flow rate, water is collected in the weighing tank, the ratio of the weight of water in the tank to the load placed on the other edge of the pivoted *eam is 2:-, <. The *eam initially points downwards *ut when it *ecomes level 8hori0ontal:, the time is started and a &.4 $g load is placed on the hanger found on the edge of the *eam, >. The time, t, for which the *eam *ecomes level again is recorded, -=. For this &.4 $g load, there will therefore *e ;.4 $g of water collected on the other side of the *eam in a laps of time, t seconds, --. The control valve is ad1usted to o*tain different flows and pie0ometer readings, -&. The ideal pressure at each pie0ometer for two values of 7 is calculated, -2. 5 graph of H 8h-,h&: against 7 is plotted and the value of Bd is found.

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Results
Pie#ometer A , 1 +periment &=no.& &=4 2 &-= 3 &-3 4 &&& 6 &&6 ; &2& < &2; > &3& -= &3< ? % 6 , 2- E -<4 -64 -34 -&4 -=4 <4 64 34 &4 4 ( 1 * @ A 0

&== ->3 &=& &=6 &=> &-2 &-6 &-> &&& &&6 &&> -<; -<2 -;3 -6; -6& -4< -3> -32 -2;

-<6 -<< ->& ->3 ->4 ->6 ->6 -6< -4-24 --< -=& <6 ;44 3& -;6 -6< -4< -4= -3= -2& -&4 -=4 -=6 -<4 -<-;3 -;= -64 -6= -46 -4= -3= -<> -<6 -<3 -<2 -<= -;< -;6 -;3 -;& ->2 ->& ->= ->->= ->= ->= ->= ->= ->3 ->3 ->3 ->6 ->; ->; ->> &== &=& ->4 ->6 ->4 ->> &== &=& &=3 &=4 &=;

%alculations Balculating the ideal pressure at pie0ometer 5 and B

Osing the equation hn,h- ! 8a&:& , 8a&:& u&&'&g where, hn is the ideal head of fluid a*ove datum for a particular pie0ometer h- is the actual pie0ometer reading at pie0ometer 5 u& is the speed of flow at pie0ometer I g is the acceleration due to gravity an is the cross sectional area of the particular pie0ometer a- is the cross sectional area of pie0ometer 5 a& is the cross sectional area of pie0ometer I 8a-:& 8an:& quation -

Balculating the actual flow rate

Dass of water collected ! ;.4 $g /olume, /, of water collected ! ;.4'-=== ! ;.4 + -=,2 m2
Experiment no; t>s
Q.*/t (x 1+,"m !/s)

1 ;-.-=
1.05

2 3-.&=
1.82

3 2&.3&
2.31

4 &;.;=
2.71

5 &3.46
3.05

6 &&.&=
3.38

7 &=.-3
3.72

< -<.>3.!7

= 18 -;.&; -6.<3
4.34 4.45

, -< ,

2013 @ince at lower flow rates there are less energy losses, the flow rates of e+periment - and & are used: The reference point is at pie0ometer I. From the conservation of mass: 7 ! 5/ +periment 5rea of pie0ometer at I ! 88P'3: + -6&:'-====! &.=- + -=,3 m& 7 ! -.=4 + -=,3 m2's /elocity of flow at I, u- ! 8-.=4 + -=,3:' 8&.=- + -=,3: ! =.4& ms,O-&'&g ! -2.< mm +periment & 7 ! -.<& + -=,3 m2's /elocity of flow at I, u& ! 8-.<& + -=,3:' 8&.=- + -=,3: ! =.>- ms,O&&'&g ! 3&.& mm From quation -, hn ! 8u&'&g:L8a&'a-:& K 8a&'an:&M # hh- ! &=- mm Ideal head for pie0ometer ) for e+pt. -! -2.<L8-6&'&6&:& K 8-6&'&-.<3&:&M # &=- ! ->> mm The same calculation is done for the remaining pie0ometers for *oth e+periments and the results are ta*ulated in Ta*le -.2. Ideal pressure ! h(g .here h is the head in metres ( is the density of water 8-=== $gQm2: g is the acceleration due to gravity. 5: area /: velocity of flow 7: flow rate

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2013

Pie#ometer +periment no.Actual PressureB /g (0a) Ideal head 8mm: Ideal PressureB /g (0a) +periment no.& Actual PressureB /g (0a) Ideal head 8mm: Ideal PressureB +$ ,Pa-

A &=-

? &==

% ->3 1=83

6 , 2-<4 1<15

E -<6 1<25

( -<< 1<44

1 ->& 1<<4

* ->3

@ ->4

A ->6

0 ->6

1=72 1=62 &=-

1=83 1=13 1=23 1=23 ->> &== &==.; &=-

->>.> ->4.- -<>.- ->-.6 ->4.& ->;.4 1=14 -<; 1<34 1<55 -64 161= 1<<8 -6< 164< 1=15 -;6 1727 1=37 -<4 1<15 ->= 1<64

1=72 1=61 &=4 &=&

1=52 1=62 1=6= 1=72 -<> ->2 ->3 ->4

2811 1=<2 &=4

1<54 1<=3 1=83 1=13 ->3.2 &=& &=3.& &=4

&=-.4 -<6.> -63.< -;6.2 -<;.2 1<33 1617 1738 1<37

2811 1=77

1=86 1=<2 2883 2811

Fraph of pressure 8R'm&: against distance along the pie0ometer tu*e 8mm: from 5 for 7-:
1!80

1!60

1!40

1!20

1!00

1880

1860

1840

1820

1800 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

"dea# Pre$$%re &or '1

()t%a# *re$$%re &or '1

, &= ,

2013

Fraph of pressure 8R'm&: against distance along the pie0ometer tu*e 8mm: from 5 for 7&:
2050

2000

1!50

1!00

1850

1800

1750

1700

1650

1600 0 20 ()t%a# *re$$%re &or '2 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

"dea# *re$$%re &or '2

Ietermination of Bd: From Ta*le -.-, H 8h-,h&: is calculated for each e+periment and is plotted against the flow rate 7:
Experiment no; & 2 3 4 6 ; < > -=
Q.*/t (x

h-,h& -6.== 3=.== 64.== <>.== --;.== -3-.== -6;.== ->&.== &-;.== &32.==

C, 19 2- 1+,"m !/s)
4.00 6.32 8.06 !.43 10.82 11.87 12.!2 13.86 14.73 15.5! 1.05 1.82 2.31 2.71 3.05 3.38 3.72 3.!7 4.34 4.45

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2013

Graph of SQ1T(h1,h ) against Q

18.00 y = 3.3!31 + 0.3052 16.00

14.00

12.00 SQ1T(h1,h ) m1/

10.00

8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00

0.00 0.00

0.50 +erie$1 ,i-ear (+erie$1)

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50 Q x 1+," m!/s

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

Fradient of graph ! 82.2> + -=3:'H-=== ! -.=; + -=2 m,4'&'s By the conservation of mass and energy and from Bernoullis equation, The actual flow rate, 7 ! Bda&H&g8h-,h&: H-, 8a&'a-:& a&H&g ! >.6& + -=,3 m4'&'s ! k

H-,8a&'a-:& %d ! Linverse Fradient of graphM' k ! 8>.24 + -=,3: ' 8>.6& + -=,3: ! 8;=7 Balculating Bd for each e+periment: 7 ! kBd H 8h-,h&: Bd ! 7'LkH 8h-,h&:M

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2013

Experiment Q.*/t (x C,*19*2.d no; !m 1+,"m !/s) -Graph of -d against Q

1.05 1.82 2.31 2.71 3.05 3.38 3.72 3.!7 4.34 4.45 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.47 0.4!
0.!8

0.86 0.!5 0.!4 0.!4 0.!3 0.!4 0.!5 0.!4 0.!7 0.!4

0.!6

0.!4

0.!2 -d

0.!0

0.88

& 2 3 4 6 ; < > -=

0.86

0.84 0.00 +erie$1

0.50 ,og. (+erie$1)

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50 Q

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

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2013

%onclusions
The venturimeter has a coefficient of discharge of =.>;, which means that the actual flow rate if >;N of the theoretical flow rate. Therefore, this value of discharge is a very good estimation for flow rates and this is why venturimeters are commonly used to measure flow in pipes. The graph of ideal and actual pressure against for 7- and 7& shows that the actual fluid pressure is always smaller that the ideal flow rate. The difference in pressure *etween ideal and actual *ecomes greater as we move along the length of the pie0ometer tu*es. This is so *ecause of greater energy losses along the length of the tu*e, occurring due to tur*ulence at the diverging section and due to greater frictional losses with the inner walls of the tu*e. nergy losses accompanying the change of flow pattern within the converging section is lower than the diverging section. Doreover, at the lowest pressures 8at the trough: as the graph goes down to its lowest values, the pressure is lower since the cross,sectional areas of the tu*es are lower and the velocities are high 8pie0ometer I and :. The graph of H 8h-,h&: against the flow rate 7 is a straight line, meaning that these two varia*les are proportional to each other. This confirms the validity of the flow rate equation used *efore. The graph of Bd against flow rate 7 shows a curved line where Bd is small for small flow rates and large for large flow rates. The values of Bd *ecome more or less similar *etween flow rate values of &,3 + -=,3 m2's. In theory, a straight hori0ontal line passing through =.>; 8as calculated a*ove: should have *een o*tained. In this case, most of the values seem to *e close to =.>3. In this e+periment, a hori0ontal venturimeter was used and the reference points were all at the same elevation with respect to any hori0ontal datum. Therefore, the elevation head is similar and cancel out in Bernoullis equation 8as used *efore: and is not included for calculations. If an inclined venturimeter was used, the elevation would have *een different and hence the elevation head would have to *e included in the calculations. The actual and theoretical discharge will *oth decrease since energy is used 8or lost: to move the fluid to a higher elevation along the venturimeter and is converted to potential energy. The readings on the pie0ometer tu*es will *e lower from 5 to S than o*tained here.

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