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Optimization of Storage Devices for Regenerative Braking Energy in Subway Systems

F. Foiadelli, Student Member, IEEE, M. Roscia and D. Zaninelli, Senior Member, IEEE
In the following a study about the storage devices, both traditional with redox batteries and innovative, is presented with reference to a real case: one of the subway lines in Milan. A mathematical model of the energy flow in the transportation system with storage devices is implemented on a software program for simulating the operation conditions. Results are given on both cases of on board and on line storage device installation. Then it has been considered the storage devices on board of the vehicles and the ones on fixed plants. II. STORAGE SYSTEMS
Index Terms: electric traction, power management, regenerative braking, storage systems, subway transportation systems.

Abstract: The paper deals with the actual theme of power management in traction systems presenting a study about the use of regenerative braking energy in electric subway transportation. Storage systems on board of the vehicles or on fixed plants can give advantages both to contain the costs of the electric power and to limit power losses along the traction line. Moreover, other technical advantages can be obtained as, for example, the reduction of contact line voltage fluctuations. With reference to a real case, one of the Milan subway lines, a software program is implemented in order to simulate the electric power flow and to optimize the storage device size and control.

I. INTRODUCTION

HE problem of power management is surely actual and since several time the industrialized countries efforts are addressed to the introduction of such machine and devices able to minimize the power ratings in order to save energy and to decrease the environment pollution. Moreover the always growing costs of the electric power pushes towards economical solutions in term of energy consumption. In the public transportation balance for instance the voice relevant to energy supply is continuously increasing. Considering the actual situation, it is evident the need to deeply study this topic in order to find out innovative technology solutions always more competitive. In transportation field, it is worthy to take into consideration the electric power regeneration in the subway systems, in order to use parts of the energy given by the vehicles during the frequent braking phases characterizing the urban public transport, [1]. Until today the braking energy is dissipated on board resistances or exchanged with other trains in line that are in acceleration phase. This latter it is difficult to apply it, in fact it is necessary to have in the same time a train absorbing power near to the braking one.

Every storage device is made up of three basic elements: Energy Storage Component (ESC) Power Transformation System (PTS) Control System (CS) as shown in Fig. 1. ESC PTS Power System

Control System

Fig. 1. Diagram of a storage system components

The ESC can store four different types of energies: thermal, mechanic, chemical and electric, [2]. In the ESC the power level imposed by the PTS is maintained constant during the charge and discharge phases. Practically, part of the energy has to be always conserved in order to let the PTS to work at the right power level. The control system continuously verifies the power levels during all the energy exchange phases, acting on power flow operation on the PTS, [3]. A. Mathematical model of the storage systems Its possible to associate a mathematical model to the three components of the storage systems, [4]. The ESC is defined from the maximum storage energy Es, as a

F. Foiadelli is with Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica of Politecnico di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy (e-mail: federica.foiadelli@polimi.it). M. Roscia is with Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica of Politecnico di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy (e-mail:cristina.roscia@polimi.it). D. Zaninelli is with Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica of Politecnico di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy (e-mail:dario.zaninelli@polimi.it).

1-4244-0493-2/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE.

function of different parameters: characteristic parameters CPi constant for a fixed system; characteristic parameters VPi varying with the storage state; time t. The characteristic relation is the following: Es = f cs (CPi ,VPi , t ) The power flow is so formulated: dE S df CS (CPi , VPi , t ) PESC = = dt dt The PTS depends from : characteristic parameters VPi varying with the storage state; regulation parameters RPi characteristic parameters CPPi constant for the power system; characteristic parameters of the electrical net PWSRPi in the connection The characteristic relation is the following: PPTS = f PTS (CPPi , RPi , PWSRPi ,VPi ) The charge and discharge control system is defined from the power flow Pwant that the system has to guarantee operating on the regulation parameters RPi. The energy balance of the whole system is at the end the following: 1 S Ec Ed E S =0 C where Ec is the energy given to the storage systems, Ed is the energy given back from the storage systems, c is the efficiency factor during the charge phase and S the general efficiency. B. Economical analysis of the storage systems The investment cost of a storage system is composed by two parts: the first one is function of the storable energy quantity, the other one depends from the power peak at which the energy has to be recovered or given back, [5]. For each one of the three elements (ESC, PTS, CS) it is possible to associate a cost. The total investment coast is:: CS=CESC+CPTS+CCS The diagram reported in Fig. 2 shows the combination of specific power and specific energy for different recovery technologies present on the market. It is important to note that different energy storage modalities (electrostatic, electromagnetic, mechanic and electrochemical) need different electric characteristics of the storage systems, [6]. The chemical storages have high specific energy values, but low specific power ones. The opposite is for magnetic storages (SMES), that are not so advanced to be used in a commercial way. Ultra capacitors and wheels have in-between characteristics with respect to the elements above mentioned and they are technologically ready (in particular the wheels) for a commercial use.

Fig. 2. Specific power and specific energy for different recovery technologies

Table 1 reports typical specific values of energy and power for the storage devices.
TABLE I TYPICAL SPECIFIC VALUES OF ENERGY AND POWER FOR STORAGE DEVICES

Batteries Energy density [Wh/kg ] Power density [W/kg] 100

Wheels 8.5

ultra capacitors 1.2

SMES 0.3

100

1000

600

3000

III. CASE STUDIED AND SIMULATION PROCESS This study is referred to a real case: a subway line of the city of Milan, Italy. The commercial service offered from this line consists of a daily work of 19 hours, from 6 AM to 12 PM, with 440 daily runs that band the two terminals with 15 in-between stations. The whole way takes 23 minutes and each working train makes every day about 7500 stop and start cycles. The time between two trains depends from the hour of the day: starting from a minimum of 210 seconds (between 8 AM and 9 AM) to a maximum of 400 seconds (between 11 PM and 12 PM). Fig. 3 and 4 present the train frequency in the two directions during a working day.

Fig. 3. Train frequency from terminal A to terminal B.

Fig. 4. Train frequency from terminal B to terminal A.

Fig. 6. Traction diagram of the vehicle in a section way 450 m long.

The main characteristic of the trains running on this line, respect to the others present in Milan, is the opportunity to use the regenerative braking. A program has been created with the software language Visual C++ and can run under Windows or MS DOS environment. The simulation tool can be employed for defining the electric data as a function of: - the electric drives on the vehicles (it is possible to simulate each type of electric drive by inserting as input data the electro-mechanical characteristic of the motors and the main electric parameters), - the load cycle as a function of the scheduled timetable, of the number of the vehicles, and of the expected passenger number, - the track configuration (length, presence of curves or inclinations, number of stations and distance between them, speed limits). In this way, it is possible to optimise, by means of the analysis of the system state variables (line drop voltage; substation current and power), the following quantities: - the absorbed energy, - the regenerative braking energy, - the maximum absorbed power, - the maximum regenerative braking power. The output data of the simulation program permit to obtain the traction diagram in every condition. The considered line is constituted from section ways between stations of different length and in the following, for the sake of brevity, only the two extreme cases are reported: - longest section way: 900 m long, - shortest section way: 450 m long. Fig. 5 and 6 present the traction diagrams of the vehicle considering the two above described ways.

The absorbed energy in the start phase and the regenerative energy during the braking phase are reported in Table 2. In the same Table it is also possible to note the values of the maximum power for both cases.
TABLE II ENERGY AND POWER VALUES IN THE TWO DIFFERENT SECTION WAYS CONSIDERED.

absorbed energy [MJ] regenerative braking energy [MJ] max absorbed power [MW] max regenerative braking power [MW]

Way long 900 m 34.6 14.2 2.2 2.2

Way long 450 m 29 12.8 2.2 2.2

III. ON BOARD STORAGE DEVICES Using recovering energy it is not only possible to reduce the energy consumption of the train, but also the maximum power value requested from the rolling stock during the way, [7]. From a technical point of view the reduction of the maximum power requested determines a favourable sizing of the converters installed in the electric substations (ESS). Considering that part of the energy requested by the train is available on board, the energy dissipated along the contact line between the rolling stock and the ESS is reduced as the voltage drop along the contact line. Using the storage systems, it is possible to store the energy produced during the brake and to use it in the following vehicles start phase. The benefit introduced from the storage system varies as a function of the recovered energy value in the braking phase. In Table 3 the vehicles electrical consumption reduction for different recovered energy values is reported. The parameter is defined as: E re cov ered Ebraking Moreover, the control systems of the storage devices can operate a selective use of this energy in order to reduce the maximum power peak absorbed by the vehicle. The power absorbed by the vehicle using a storage system, Pnet, is the difference between the power absorbed by the vehicle without the storage system, Ptrac, and the one given by the storage system, Pgiv,: Pnet=PtracPgiv The strategy is to minimize the Pnet .

Fig. 5. Traction diagram of the vehicle in a section way 900 m long.

Simulations are made with the previous mentioned software in order to study the absorbed energy variation after the introduction of a storage device on board.
TABLE III ENERGY ABSORBED FROM THE VEHICLE IN PRESENCE OF STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT BRAKING ENERGY VALUES

E recovered [MJ] 13 10 8 6 4 2 1.3

100% 75% 60% 45% 30% 15% 10%

E absorbed with storage device [MJ] 18.18 21.45 23.45 25.45 27.45 29.45 30.15

Vehicles consumption reduction 42% 32% 25% 19% 12% 6.5% 4.5%

It is possible to note that, growing PUp, the storage system gives energy in the maximum absorbing periods, but, at the same time, it is not able to give back the whole energy recovered before the beginning of the following braking phase. The storage systems introduction reduces the maximum power requested by the vehicle, in the percentage defined as: PMax _ PUp P % = 100 PMax where PMax is the maximum power value requested from the vehicle in the case of no storage systems. In order to optimize the storage systems, they have to be characterized by an high specific power and to be able to frequently support cycles of charge and discharge. Nowadays the storage systems have not achieved specific values in order to consider their use on board of the vehicles, also considering the small sizes necessary for their use on board due to the required limited size and weight. IV. ON LINE STORAGE DEVICES The regenerative braking used today implicates that the energy given back from a braking vehicle is absorbed by other trains on line and in absorbing phase. But this absorption is random, because it is connected to the trains frequency, their position and the number of vehicles in service. When trains in no absorbing phase are present, the braking energy is dissipated on board in brake resistances. In order to limit the use of such resistances, the use of on line storage energy systems is proposed as energy tanks installed along the way. In this case the storage control system has to manage the energy exchanges between the storage system and the contact line. The algorithm has to control the energy flow comparing the voltage value of the overhead contact line with the reference one previously recorded. Considering the fast voltage variations, its necessary to make several acquisitions in order to have accurate energy exchange evaluation. Simulation procedure is made in this case, using the above mentioned software. Some simplifying assumption are considered: The train runs with a constant speed equal to the commercial one; the contact line resistance is constant; the current absorptions are considered as concentrated. The superimposition principle is applied in the case of more trains in absorbing phase; the absorbed current is considered independent from the line voltage value; the electric substations generates a constant and equal voltage independently from the number of trains in line. The mean values of the absorbed and restored power of the vehicle for each way are determined, respectively equal to 1750 kW and 1000 kW. From an electrical point of view, the train run is characterized from three different phases: start, coasting and braking. For to each one it is possible to associate, as equivalent electric model, an ideal current generator with value variable with the vehicles position. Knowing the values of absorbing and braking power, under the hypothesis that the contact line voltage is constant at the

Two hypotheses are made: the storage system absorbs only the energy given back from the vehicles braking and can give back the recovered energy at every power level. In these simulations the control system uses an algorithm that considers two constant power level thresholds, PDown and PUp, for comparing the instant power absorbed by the vehicle. Knowing the maximum recovering energy, the choice of the PDown and PUp values has to be in a way that assures, at each cycle, the storage system to correctly operate during both absorbing and supplying power. In Fig. 7 and 8, as an example, the traction diagrams are reported in case of the longest section way of the studied subway with different regulation parameters.

Fig. 7. Traction diagram of the vehicle with (red line) and without (blue line) the storage system in the longest section way considered and the diagram of the storage unit power with Es = 4 kWh; PUp = 1200 kWh and PDown=0 (green line).

Fig. 8. Traction diagram of the vehicle with (red line) and without (blue line) the storage system in the longest section way considered and the diagram of the storage unit power with Es = 4 kWh; PUp = 1400 kWh and PDown=0 (green line).

nominal value, its possible to determine the values of the absorbed current. In the start phase, the value of the current absorbed by the vehicle is: P I abs = abs = 1150 A Vn During the coasting period, the current value is: I coasting = 0 A In the decelerating phase, the current value given by the vehicle is: P I giv = brk = 700 A Vn It is also possible to define the electric order of the same in function of the train position. Independently of the length of a way, the braking space covered with a constant deceleration is: v2 x = comm = 50m 2a The rest of the distance is distributed between the absorbing phase and the coasting one considering the proportions coming from the adopted sample ways. Indicating with Li the length of the i-th way, it comes out: (Li 50) * 0.4 meters in absorption; (Li 50) * 0.6 meters in coasting; 50 meters in braking. It is also very important to establish what is the best position to install such storage systems. There are two possibilities. The first one is to use the existing station space, if they have already inside technological rooms. The other solutions is to put the storage systems in those places where the contact line voltage variations are more significant. Some simulations are made considering the whole service schedule (from 6 AM to 12 PM) of a working day. It is possible to obtain the current given by the storage devices and the one absorbed by, during the whole day. Two examples are reported in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, with reference to installations inside the Electric Substation (ESS).

Knowing the current values, it is possible to find out the instantaneous power, Fig 11, using: p(t)=i(t)*Vn From the above formula, with a numerical integration, it is possible to obtain the energy given by the ESS and the one absorbed by the storage unit.

Fig. 11. Instantaneous power in a ESS between 9:00 AM and 10:00 AM, considering the presence of storage devices

As it is possible to observe in Fig. 11, the instantaneous power has an impulsive behaviour. During a time equal to 1 hour, there are 46 intervals in which the energy flow inverts itself. In these periods there are more braking trains than the absorbing ones and the energy is accumulated in the storage system. The duration of these intervals varies from a minimum of 3 seconds to a maximum of 12 seconds and they have a total time equal to 220 seconds. The maximum instantaneous power requested from the working trains is 5500 kW. During an examined hour, the total energy given back from the braking rolling stocks and not absorbed by other vehicles is equal to 32.5 kWh, a mean power equal to 530 kW with the maximum value of 1800 kW. Fig. 12 shows the trend of the overall energy given back during the whole day from the regenerative braking system.

Fig. 12. Values of the overall energy given back during the whole day

Fig. 9. Waveform of current absorbed and given back between 9:20 AM and 9:30 AM where storage devices can be installed in a ESS on the way

Fig. 10. Waveform of current absorbed and given back between 9:30 AM and 9:40 AM where storage devices can be installed in a ESS on the way

The accumulated energy has a very discontinuous trend during the day and it achieves the maximum values at morning (from 7 AM to 9 AM) and at evening (from 7 PM to 9 PM). The minimum accumulated energy is recorded at 5 PM: this time is characterized from having the same trains number in the two directions. In this way there is a balance between the braking and absorbing power on the trains. Considering the values given before, there is the necessity to have storage systems characterized from an high specific power and able to sustain frequently charge and discharge cycles. Devices with these characteristics are wheels and ultra capacitors. About these last devices, in order to find out the capacity value necessary to the energy storage, it is fundamental to make an hypothesis on the maximum and minimum voltage values applied to the ultra capacitor. On the

considered case the nominal voltage is equal to 1500 V and the specific standards (CEI EN 50163) let the lines with regenerative braking to achieve peak voltage values of 1800 V. It is possible to conclude that the use of on line storage system has some advantages: the use of braking energy that in other case would be lost; the use of this energy directly for supplying the traction vehicles and for maintaining the contact line voltage constant. Wheels are the technology more ready for commercial use: the single modules can be easily connected each other and to the electric network. Otherwise the use of ultra capacitors are still an experimentally application, but they seem to be more efficient than the electromechanical devices. Both the systems have the same control logic that command the charge and discharge of the devices, as a function of the contact line voltage. V. CONCLUSIONS The paper analyzes the technological solutions for the use of the regenerative energy coming from the braking in the urban and suburban traction electrical systems. With the line, vehicle and traffic simulation it has been possible with a created program to determine the value of the surplus energy not absorbed by other trains. The regenerative braking has a very discontinuous trend during the transportation working time and presents power picks for relatively short times. A great possibility is to use devices able to accumulate energy on board of the vehicles or along the fixed plants. The simulation process shows that with this solution it is also possible to use the accumulated energy for reducing the contact line voltage fluctuations. The application on board of the storage systems has the advantage to offer the possibility of a selective use of the recovered energy, but implies problems connected to the size and weight of the storage devices. The application of on line storage apparatus along the transportation system let to optimize the sizing of the storage devices and moreover to use technology, as the electromechanical one, that is not possible to install on board. The paper analyzes the energy flow and the possibility of the solutions on real plants. This work will be the basis for an economical evaluation that mainly depends on the cost of new storage devices. These are at the present on experimental stage but technologic developments can bring soon to interesting industrial applications of their capabilities. VI. REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] F. Perticaroli, "Electric Systems for Transportation" (in Italian), Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy, January 2001. J. Jensen, B. Sorensen, Fundamentals of Energy Storage, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1984. L. Caputo, Control of energy Storage Devices for Rail Vehicles, Department of automatic Control, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, 2000. F. Wicks, K. Donnely, "Modelling regenerative braking and storage for vehicle", Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering, San Diego, 1992. S. Hase, T. Konishi, A. Okui, Y. Nakamichi, H. nara, T. Uemura, Foundamental Study on Energy Storage System for Dc Electric Railway System, IEEE PCC, Osaka, 2002.

[6] [7]

J. D. Boyes, Overview of Energy Storage Application, Sandia National Program, IEEE PES 2000. A. Adinolfi, R. Lamedica, C. Modesto, A. Prudenzi, S. Vimercati, Experimental assessment of energy saving due to trains regenerative braking in an electrified subway line, IEEE, 1997.

VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Federica Foiadelli was born in 1980 in Milano, Italy. She received the M. Sc. Degree in Electrical Engineering from the Politecnico di Milano (Italy) in 2003. Then she attended UL as Engineer. She is now a PhD Student at the Department of Electrical Engineering of the Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy. Her area of research includes Electric Power Systems, Electric Traction. She is a Member of CIFI (Italian Group of Engineering about Railways) and Student Member of IEEE. Dr. Mariacristina Roscia received the Ph.D Degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Napoli "Federico II" , Napoli, Italy in 2004 and she is now a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Politecnico di Milano. Her area of research includes Energy and Environment, Sustainable Development and renewable resources. Prof. Dario Zaninelli was born in 1959 in Romano di Lombardia (BG), Italy. He received the Ph.D Degree in Electrical Engineering from the Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy in 1989 and he is now a Full Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Chairman of the Transportation Engineering at Politecnico di Milano. His area of research includes Power System Harmonics and Power System analysis. Dr Zaninelli is a Senior Member of IEEE, a member of AEI and a member of Italian National Research (C.N.R.) group of Electrical Power Systems.