Theories of Personality

8/28/13 Chapter 1A

8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM

I am introverted, agreeable, conscientious, studious, loyal, motivated, caring, devoted, open-minded, stubborn, independent What is personality? Origin of personality o Latin persona (mask) o Typical nature Technical definition: Psychological qualities that contribute to an individuals enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving o Enduing: somewhat consistent across time and situations o Distinctive- different individuals from each other

Issues addressed in the field Human universals vs. cultural differences o Ex: basic emotions Individual differences and uniqueness Investigation based on personality theories

Topics to be covered: Scientific study of people Personality studied and analyzed through numerous viewpoints o Psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, biological, behaviorism, personal construct theory, social cognitive theory 9/9/13 What is a theory? Related assumptions used by scientists for logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis Theories are not hypothesis Tool for gathering and organizing

Reliable, coherent and parsimonious Leads to hypothesis 1. Organize info o Keep track of what we know 2. New knowledge o Help scientists create new knowledge about field 3. New issues to study o New areas that otherwise would not have been studied (Hypotheses- statements about predicted relationships between variables, should be clear and testable ) Theory Hypothesis Research Data reshape/build theory Theory (gives meaning to data) Theory (general), Hypothesis (Specific) Why different theories? Theory comes from o Scientific evidence o Theorists perspective Psychology of science- scientists personality traits influence their theories

Theories as toolkits No one complete, comprehensive theory o Each separate theory provides unique insights Multiple theories not necessarily bad o Not question of right vs. wrong Elements of different theories as different tools to help in understanding of personality o Individual differences o Human motivation o Development of self-concept o Causes of emotions o Performance in work settings Five goals of personality theory

1. Scientific observation o Systematic descriptions of people o 3 requirements Large, diverse sample Objective observations Use of specialized tools 2. Systematic nature o Provide understanding of people o Logical, coherent description 3. Testability o Testable through objective scientific evidence 4. Comprehensiveness o Significant factors related to human functioning Behaviors, cognitions, emotions 5. Applications o Conversion of theoretical ideas to real world applications Clinical, educational, developmental, i/o psychology

Understanding Personality 3 Questions about personality o 1. What? Peoples characteristics Organization o 2. How? Influences on development o 3. Why? Reasons for behavior

Important aspects of personality Structure o Building blocks o Stable and enduring Body parts o 5 factor model (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism- we all have these 5 to varying degrees)

o Hierarchical nature Analogous to organizations Process o Dynamic aspects of personality Motivation, emotion, action o Emphasis on different motivational processes Biology, future, conscious vs. unconscious Growth and development o Patterns of development common across people Developmental stages Individual differences o Nature vs. nurture Psychopathology and behavior change o Change How people change Resistance to change o Theorists as therapists Systematic lessons from therapy o Importance of applicability, practicality of theory

Related issues in personality 1. Internal and external determinants o Internal Temperament Emotional, behavioral tendencies Fearfulness Evolutionary psychology Predisposition toward certain behaviors Human universals o External Culture Behaviors, rituals, beliefs Social class Status, roles, duties, privileges Family Parents:

Role models Shape behavior

Peers Varying levels of emphasis on internal vs. external Freud vs. Skinner Now: both as essential aspects of behavior 2. Consistency o Consistency vs. inconsistency in behaviors o Time and consistency 3. States of awareness and the unconscious o Mental activities outside of conscious awareness Aspects of personality Motivation Emotions 4. Influence of past, present and future o Agreement regarding influence of present factors o Influence of past on present o Influence of future on present 5. Personality as a science o Other sciences mostly reductionist o Should personality be reductionist?

Conclusion Theories in personality o What is a theory? o Key functions of theories o Theories as toolkits o Goals of personality theory Understanding personality o Important aspects (personality structure) Issues to consider

5-6 questions based on reading or assign own article to the class but it must be approved 2 weeks before presentation and include brief summary of article on how it relates to topic +3 bonus points Are the questions though provoking?

Do you demonstrate that you understand the reading? How well the group facilitates class discussion- ask interesting follow up questions How well prepared the group is?

9/11/13 Theory and Research Theory without research o Speculation Research without theory o Aimless fact gathering

LOTS data Life history or life record o School records (test scores, report cards), Court records Observed data o Information from observers (teachers, parents, friends), Questionnaires Tests and experiments o Intelligence tests, Standardized tests, Experimental manipulation (disgust makes judgment harsher, mood makes problem solving better, rejection and aggression) Ayduk, Gyurak & Luerssen Influence of rejection sensitivity (anticipate rejection) on participants after rejection Anxious about rejection Ambiguous situations- more likely to see rejection Participants told they were involved in study about partner selection on dating websites Wrote short bio sketches Were told bio sketches would be sent to member of opposite sex Waited at computer to see if other participant selected them

Control condition Technical difficulties Internet access cut off- no one rejected or liked you Rejected condition Email from Beth (actually experimenter) regarding rejection Then- asked helped set up for second stage of experiment for Beth Beth hates spicy food Participant left alone with hot sauce Rejection increased aggression (hot sauce placed on Beths food) only in high RS participants High rejection sensitivity more aggression after rejection

Self-report o Questionnaires o Advantages Convenient Sometimes only way to get at topic Self-monitoring scale Limitations Response distortion Social desirability/ faking Self-knowledge Match.com article Context Time of day Order of questions Wording Retrieval Schwarz o How you phrase questions with scales can shape the answers Attempts to get around limitations Situational judgment tests

Conditional tests (eye for an eye meaning) More than one method Implicit measures Diary methods Fixed vs. flexible measures Fixed Same measures given to all participants Advantages o Simple o Objective Limitations o Irrelevant to some o Not sufficient for some Nomothetic approach o Scientific laws o Fixed personality variables Flexible Unstructured personality tests Idiographic approach

o Tailored to individual participants o Unique individual Assessment type and data Guided by theory Unit of analysis Theory needed to collect, interpret data

Conclusion Theory and Research o LOTS data 9/16/13 Goals of research Reliability o Internal consistency Types Limitations Fixed vs. flexible measures

o Replicability, stability Test- retest (youll get the same scores if you take it twice) o Factors affecting reliability Test takers (age...) Aspects of test (wording...) Validity o Are you accurately describing/ measuring the psychological phenomenon you are interested in? o Problems with pervious methods E.g. phrenology Different parts of brain responsible for different functions, characteristics Some parts underdeveloped, while other developed Validity and Reliability o Must be reliable to be valid o Both necessary aspects of sound measures Personality measurement now o Recent examples Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extraversion- Introversion Intuition- Sensing Thinking- Feeling Judging- Perceiving NEO Personality Inventory Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Ethical behavior o APAs Ethical Principles Treatment of participants Informed consent Confidentiality

 Interpretation, presentation of results o Institutional Review Board Risks/ benefits 3 Approaches to research Case studies and clinical research o In-depth analysis of each case Focus on: Structures Processes o More common in clinical psychology o Matthew- dependent personality disorder o Advantages More in-depth May be only way to study certain psychological variables Takes individuals into account o Limitations Not always generalizable No definite causal explanation High level of subjectivity Verbal reports not always accurate Correlational research o Relationships among variables Positive vs. negative o Use of personality measures How certain variables are correlated E.g. tendency to experience positive emotions and life expectancy o Correlation coefficient Degree to which variables related -1 to 1 o Advantages No need for manipulation More info about variables that are impossible or unethical to manipulate

 Childhood abuse and adult aggression o Limitations Ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect Correlation does not equal causation o Questionnaires Advantages Large sample sizes can be studied relatively easy Reliability, validity Limitations Narrow range of info Self-report not always accurate Response style Acquiescence (more likely to check true) Social desirability Experimental studies o Participants assigned randomly to conditions o Variables manipulated Alcohol consumption Rejection o Causal effects Random assignment Effect of manipulation o Advantages More info regarding cause-effect o Limitations Artificiality of lab setting Applicability of finding to real world settings Extraneous influences Demand characteristics Experimenter expectancy Some things cannot be studied in a lab

9/18/13

Freud: Early history Born 1856 raised in Vienna

7 siblings, 2 step-siblings o Mothers favorite So felt like a conqueror and had confidence 1873: University of Vienna med student o Met Josef Breuer Josef met Anna O 1880: Symptoms after fathers death Headaches Paralysis of certain body parts Multiple personalities Visual disturbances Difficulties with speech Hallucinations Inability to drink o Woman with dog at a party (led to fear of drinking) Treatment o Hypnosis o Talking seemed to reduce symptoms

o Catharsis method Release of pent-up emotions Ultimately recovered True identity o Bertha Pappenheim o Feminist, social worker Implications of catharsis for Freud Mind as energy system o Release of energy Energy of mental content that people are not aware of o Different parts of mind unconscious Catalyst for psychoanalysis Disagreement between Breuer and Freud Freud- role of sexual interpretation Considered cornerstone case for psychoanalysis Beginning of use of talking treatment

o 1885: Went to France to study with Jean-Martin Charcot Charcot known for : Hypnosis Hysteria treatment Studies regarding traumatic paralysis Hysteria and genitals Freuds subsequent theory regarding sexual issues and neurosis o 1897: Father dies leading to depression Self-analysis o 1900: The Interpretation of Dreams (Book) o Late 1900s: Gains recognition o 1939: Dies in London Freuds view of the person Architecture of mental life Biological, mechanistic point of view o Mind and body are connected o Energy system Active nature of mental contents o Instinctual drives o Forces on mind Limited amount of energy o Energy used for one purpose less available for others Energy doesnt simply disappear Desire for state of balance, calmness o Tension from bodily needs behavior balance/calmness E.g. no food hunger search for food satiation o Goal of all behavior Common view in this time: tabula rasa Freuds view o Sex, aggression innate o Pleasure principle Society to restrain natural tendencies Taboos Social norms

Freuds Personality theory Reliance on case study evidence o No labs, no tests o Importance of details Structure of the mind o 2 models of the mind Levels of consciousness Conscious Aware of at any moment Preconscious Not currently conscious of but can be if asked to be Unconscious Drives, urges, instincts, not in awareness Still motivate behaviors, thoughts Anxiety- provoking Influence on unconscious on conscious Freudian slip Manifest content (dreams) Storyline Latent content Unconscious ideas, emotions, instinct High levels of symbolism Unconscious wishes 3 Reasons we dream Wish fulfillment Release of tension Sleep protection systems Oldest, most primitive Present in everyone o Stays same over time Pleasure principle o Release of tension/anxiety

Functional Id

 Ego

o Non-moral Drive energy o Life instincts+ death instincts Completely unconscious Reality principle o Rational o Mediator between id and external world 3 masters

o Desires of ID o Constraints of external environment o Morals on superego Changes over time Superego Changes over time o Life experiences, parents, culture Moral compass o Ideals, ethical standards o Control over behavior

9/23/13 Development of thinking Primary vs. secondary o How the mind processes information Primary process- language of unconscious Unconscious Illogical No distinction between reality, fantasy Young children Dreams Secondary process- language of conscious Conscious Logical Developed after primary process, with ego

Personality process Motivation o Instincts, drives Energy Questions to be addressed o Basic human instinctual drives Life and death instincts Part of id Energy driving human lives Life instinct (eros) Preserve self Reproduce Libido Primarily sexual in motivation Death instinct (thanatos) Death Self-destruction Aggression

Search for calmness Expression of instincts Blocked Modified expression Expressed directly Object of gratification Change Displacement Anxiety in psychodynamic theory o Painful emotional experience Information regarding potential threat Signal of danger to ego Previous trauma Conflict between ids desires and threat of punishment o Defense mechanisms Protections from anxiety

Repression- avoiding anxiety by not allowing painful or dangerous thoughts to become conscious Isolation of affect/ Intellectualization- Avoiding painful feelings by focusing only on ideas, separate emotions from thoughts Projection- Attributing own unacceptable impulses, motives, desires to others Undoing- Person tries to make up for unacceptable desires or acts through magical ritualistic behavior Displacement- Feelings toward dangerous object switched onto safer substitute Reaction formation- Express opposite of unacceptable impulse Sublimation- Expression of impulse or desire in socially acceptable manner, funneling energy into higher order goal

Growth and Development All people develop in stages o Significant events and development of personality styles Influence on personality o Development of instinct Erogenous zones through development Psychosexual stages Oral (infancy)- oral pleasures oral fixation Anal (2-3 yrs)- pleasure from excretion, retention of feces anal fixation; first conflict between individual (pleasure principle)and society Phallic (4-5 yrs)- pleasure from genitals, castration anxiety in boys, penis envy in girls, oedipal complex/ electra complex

Latency (6-puberty)- sex drive dormant, repression of desires, energy funneled to other pursuits Genital (puberty-adult)- refocus on genitals, normal heterosexual relationship, energy focused on opposite sex Maturity- never fully conceptualized, ultimately psychologically healthy person (rare) o Erikson- personality develops throughout life, personality determined by psychosocial development Trust vs. mistrust (1 yr) (Oral)- Trust, optimism or mistrust, pessimism Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-2 yrs) (Anal)- Self control, can make choices or rigid, doubtful, self conscious Initiative vs. guilt (4-5 yrs) (Phallic)- happy with accomplishments, purpose or guilt about goal-directed behaviors Industry vs. Inferiority (6- adolescence) (Latency)productivity, pride in completed work vs. cannot work Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) (Genital)Confidence in consistent personality or unsure of self, no consistent standards Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adolescence)- sharing of thoughts, feelings work or avoid intimacy, superficial relationships Generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood)- can lose

oneself in work, relationships or loss of interest in work, relationships Integrity vs. Despair- order and meaning, content with self or fear of death, bitterness o Marcia Identity achievement- exploration then sense of identity, high functioning, independent thought and

Cultural differences

resistance to group pressure, intimacy in relationships, moral reasoning Identity moratorium- identity crisis, can be high functioning, struggle with who they are Identity foreclosure- commitment to identity without exploration, rigidity, conforming, conventional, reject deviation from norm Identity diffusion- no strong sense of identity, selfesteem very sensitive, problems with intimacy

Self and group o Individualist The self should be independent of the group o Collectivist The self should be dependent on the group Self- concept o Individualist Self-concept primarily defined by internal attributes o Collectivist Self- concept primarily defined by social roles and relationships Socialization o Individualistic People socialized to be unique, to validate internal attributes o Collectivists People socialized to belong occupy their proper place Self- esteem o Individualistic Based on ability to engage in self- expression and ability to validate internal attributes o Collectivists Based on ability to adjust to the group, restrain his or her own desires, and maintain social harmony

9/25/13

Assessment in psychoanalysis Should be: o Valid o Efficient Problem with assessment in psychoanalysis o Unconscious content o Clients hesitation o Free association Projective tests o Ambiguous items o Clients interpretation o Personality, unconscious content revealed in indirect ways Rorschach Test o Symmetrical inkblots on paper o Shown to hospital patients o 10 cards selected Based on responses from different psychiatric groups o Patients asked: Interpretation of inkblot Reasons o Interpretation Response formation Match to inkblot Content Interpretation based on content details Behavior during session Hypothesis formed Thematic Apperception Test o Cards with ambiguous scenes o Patient creates story o Unconscious content thought to be exposed in story Sentence Completion tests o I regret... Word completion test o CH_ _R

Draw a person test Evaluation o Are these tests valid? Multiple outcomes Different scoring procedures, testing systems Test scope Long term research, scholars suggest no o Are these tests reliable? Interrater reliability

Psychoanalysis and psychopathology Freud: Neuroses found in everyone Personality types o Influence on developmental stages o Psychopathology based on fixations from development o Stages of psychosexual development Too little, too much gratification Seeking similar satisfaction later in life o 3 types: Oral Anal Narcissistic View of others related to what they might provide Envious, jealous Quick to anger Depressed Always asking for something Success= I get Struggle with power Anal triad Cleanliness Stinginess Obstinacy (stubborn) Seek power, control Concern with duty, responsible Avoid waste, loss of control

Conflict between submitting and rebelling Success= I control Phallic Gender differences Men o Hyper masculine o Excessively demonstrates masculinity Convince others that he has not been castrated o Competitive

o Success= I am a man Women o Overly feminine o Seductive, flirtatious but deny sexuality o Nave o Idealization of partners, love o Conflict and defense Fixation at developmental stages Problem Want gratification Past trauma Conflict Anxiety Defense mechanisms Successful: anxiety reduced Less successful: pathological symptoms Repressed impulse being expressed

o Therapeutic process Psychopathology: fixation, conflict, anxiety Freuds therapeutic process Free association Dream interpretation Patient must gain insight regarding wishes, anxiety Transference

Attitudes, conflicts towards parental figures directed toward therapist Oral patients: concern with feeding and receiving Anal patients: control Phallic patients: competition Transferences encouraged Patient on couch Frequent appointments Therapist as blank screen Transference neurosis Play out old conflicts o Understand nature of conflicts o Gain satisfaction that was previously denied Freedom to gratify desires in more healthy manner Deal with conflicts in safe environment Corrective emotional experience from: Less intense conflict Analyst does not behave like parents Patients more mature (ego more developed)

9/30/13 Evolution of psychoanalysis Freud devoted entire life to psychoanalysis Had numerous disciples Authoritarian nature o Cut off those who strayed from his ideas Alfred Adler 1870: Born in Vienna Sickly child Desire to prove doctor wrong 1895: Medical degree from University of Vienna

Read Interpretation of Dreams and went into psychiatry First to break from Freud Libido as more general life force Influence of inferiority complex and compensation o Inherent inferiority of infants/ obstacles from environment Emphasis on social factors Role of conscious planning for the future Presented ideas to Vienna Psychoanalytic society Hostile response Left with 8 members Individual psychology Society for individual psychology Emphasis on social urges, conscious thoughts Compared to Freuds focus on sexual instincts, unconscious Striving for future (rather than result of past) Feelings of inferiority compensation Will to power Striving for superiority o Neurotic form o Healthy from Jung 1875: Born in Switzerland Religious and troubled family In childhood, noticed Personality 1 and 2 1: school boy 2: man in touch with past 1900: Medical degree 1906: Published article gets Freuds attention Very close to Freud: crown prince of psychoanalysis 1909: Deterioration begins 1913: Psychology of the Unconscious

Carl

Resigns as president of APA Disagreement with Freud: Libido as life energy o Jungs vs. Freuds reason for breakup (Jung was going through oedipal complex) Emphasis on reasons for current behavior o Instinctual urges vs. meaning in life Evolutionary foundations of mind Unconscious Collective unconscious o Experience from past generations o Universal o Shared by everyone o Archetypes Across cultures E.g. mother archetypes Opposing forces in humans Face (private self) vs. mask (persona) Masculine (animus) vs. feminine (anima) o Man rejecting feminine o Woman rejecting masculine The self= most important archetype Fundamental goal of people: find unity Introversion vs. extraversion Introvert: inward orientation o Hesitant, reflective Extravert: outward orientation

o Active, adventuresome Additional theories Mid 1900s: Motivational forces and personality Role on interpersonal interactions Freud: Biological urges personality structures social relationships Interpersonal psychodynamic theorists

Social relationships personality structures Karen Horney Cultural influences on individual development Culture and gender identity European vs. American culture 1922: Presentation at psychoanalytic congress in Berlin o Womb envy Explanation for consistent discrimination against women Feelings on inferiority Basic anxiety Influence of social factors Feeling of being lonely, helpless in hostile world Coping with basic anxiety in neurotic form Move toward o Want to be accepted, approved of o Dependent

o Unselfish, undemanding Moving against o Assumption that world is hostile o Struggle against others o Deny need for others Moving away o Detachment, including emotional detachment Object Relations theory Developmental processes before oedipal period Object= person Drive toward object that can reduce tension E.g. object= mother Influence of early relationships on: Self Relationship with others Focus on development of mental models

Attachment theory John Bowlby Influence of separation from parents Attachment Behavior System (ABS) o Present from birth o Motivation Formation of mental representations o Self o Parents Mary Ainsworth Strange situation Role in interpersonal relationship o Secure Feel comfortable in relationships From secure attachment to caregiver o Anxious Want to be close to others, but others do not reciprocate Seek approval From insecure attachment to caregiver o Avoidant Little to no desire to for close relationships with others Wish to remain independent From insecure attachment to caregiver Relationship Rating From o Viability Acceptance Respect Trust o Intimacy Confiding o Understanding

o Passion Fascination Exclusiveness Sexual intimacy o Care Giving Assistance o Global satisfaction Success Enjoyment Reciprocity Esteem Commitment 1 Avoidant men- lowest levels of: Commitment, satisfaction, trust, acceptance, intimacy, caring, commitment Women with avoidant men- less

o Time o

negative ratings o Anxious and avoidant women Less satisfaction, intimacy and caring o Men with anxious partner More conflict, less commitment, less satisfaction and intimacy o Thus: men and women both less satisfied when a woman is anxious Time 2 o Stability Anxious men- lowest Time 3 o Stability Anxious women- highest Highest stability o Avoidant men

o Anxious women Expectations for romantic partner based on attachment style o Problems with Avoidant- avoidant Anxious- anxious Lowest stability for: o Anxious men o Avoidant women Not set in stone o Time o Relationships Limitations of studying relying on self-report

Psychodynamic theory: evaluation 5 criteria o 1. Basis in scientific observations No objective data Freud and free- association Limitations Lack of diversity in patients Subjectivity Suggestion in therapy o 2. Systematic Logical, interconnected nature of theory Connection of process and structure Id, ego, superego (structure) Gratification of instincts (process) o 3. Testability Impossible to prove wrong Can explain any outcome o 4. Comprehensive Extremely comprehensive Issues addressed Mind Relationship between individual and society

 Dreams Sexuality Development Therapies o 5. Applications Therapy for clients who need change Other therapies also beneficial No emphasis on underlying drives TEST #1 10/9/13 Carl Rogers 4th of 6 children Close to mother Religious household o Early focus on moral, ethical issues o Hard work Studied agriculture, seminary, then clinical psychology 1931: PhD from Columbia View of the individual o Subjectivity of experience Perceptions of reality Phenomenal field Subjective construction Make up reality Influenced by Outer world Inner world Subjective needs, goals, beliefs o Authenticity vs. alienation Psychological distress from psychological detachment Approval vs. adhering to ones own values Path to alienation Instincts as wisdom

 Society vs. adhering to ones own values Well adjusted individual o Human nature Fundamentally positive Desire for growth Destructive, evil behaviors result of: Fear Defensiveness Freedom= positivity o Phenomenological perspective Emphasis on conscious, subjective experiences How does individual experience the world? o Humanistic Person as whole Self-perceptions Potential for growth o Structure The self Part of phenomenological experience Conscious Organized pattern that is pervasive Idea of me or I Actual self vs. ideal self o Measuring self-concept Two methods used Q- Sort Technique Set of cards with personality characteristics on each o Has high aspiration level for self o Expresses hostile feelings directly o Values own independence and autonomy Cards sorted o 7- Most descriptive of _me/idea self__ o 1- Least descriptive of ___

Forced distribution Semantic Differential Rate concepts on each polar opposite adjective scale (bad-good, clean-dirty, beautiful-ugly, strong-weak, active-passive, cruel-kind) o My self o My ideal self o Father o My college

o Personality Process Self-actualization Fundamental motivational principle Simplicity to complexity Dependence to independence Self consistency and Congruence Maintain consistent notion of self Value system Organization of values, behaviors Consistency of behaviors Congruence vs. incongruence o Congruence Self and experience Values and behaviors o Incongruence Untrue to self Distress Anxiety

Defensive processes Denial Distortion- I am a bad student self-concept and good grade Need for positive regard Desire to be accepted and respected by others

Own values, own actualization vs. others acceptance Detachment Alienation In childhood Unconditional love Conditions of worth o Natural tendencies vs. parents positive regard o Denying aspects of self

o Growth and Development Is the child free to self-actualize? Self actualization process throughout the life Developmental factors Parent-child relationships Unconditional positive regard Acceptant, democratic attitudes Internal psychological structures Congruence vs. incongruence and defense Healthy development Unconditional acceptance o Self-esteem Self-evaluation Influencing factors Parental: Acceptance, affection, interest, warmth, permissiveness and punishment, style (democratic vs. dictatorial) Rogers view of the client o Power of client Capable agent (rather than dependent patient) o Inborn drive toward health, growth o No differentiation between pathology types o Pathological functioning Discrepancy between self and experiences Defense against incongruent experiences

 Distress from ideal self vs. actual self discrepancy o Healthy functioning Congruence between self and experience Incorporate experiences into self-concept o Psychological change Main focus psychotherapy Conditions necessary for change 1. Reflection of feeling Therapist as a mirror 2. Client-centered therapy Actively understanding client 3. Therapeutic climate Nature of relationship, interactions between therapist and client o Conditions 1. Genuineness Comfortable relationship between therapist and client

2. Unconditional positive regard Caring, respect for client 3. Empathic understanding Active listening, understanding o Efficacy of client-centered therapy Distress from incongruence, feelings of inadequacy Evidence for therapeutic change from Rogers methods 1. Reflection of felling 2. Client-centered therapy 3. Therapeutic change Types of changes Decrease in defensiveness More congruent self More positive feelings toward others

Human potential movement

Emphasis on self-growth Self-actualization Maslow o Focus of positive factors o Individuals fundamentally good Desire for good o Psychopathology Frustration Stifling of potential o Improvement from freedom to express oneself o Motivation Biological vs. psychological needs (physiological, safety, love/belongingness. Esteem, actualization) Higher level motivational processes o Focus on self-actualizing individuals Einstein, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela Common characteristics Acceptance of self, others Care for self, others

Intimate relationships Resist conformity Remain realistic Positive psychology movement Other schools of thought o Overemphasis on psychopathology, problems with human condition E.g. Freud o Classification of human strengths Criteria used Enduring Beneficial across numerous domains Encouraged by parents, society as a whole Seligman and Peterson Six categories of qualities Wisdom, Courage, Love, Justice, Temperance, Transcendence

Importance of listing qualities Different focus of positive psychology

Shimai Et Al Kindness, love, humor, gratitude, open-mindedness, fairness Evaluation of humanistic theories 5 criteria o Scientific observation Objectivity in data collection Objective methods Q sort Limitations Explicit measures Lack of diversity o Systematic nature Integrated propositions regarding individual personality Parent-child interactions Types of self-concept Psychological distress vs. well-bring Limitation Not enough information in theory o Testability Certain elements testable, while others now Testable elements Actual self vs. ideal self Q sort Conditions of therapeutic change Limitations No evidence of universal nature of self actualization motive No clear construct No objective assessment tool o Comprehensiveness Not enough info regarding the influence of: Evolution, emptions, biological impulses, genetics

o Applications Importance of client-therapist relationships Techniques for building relationships Client as person Capable of improving selves 10/15/13 Overview: Freud, Rogers Vs. Trait Theorists Freud o No objective collection o Case studies Rogers o More focused on measurement o Still no way of measuring some key concepts Trait theorists o Emphasis on measurement o Approach personality much like a physical science

Trait Concept Personality trait o Colloquial use o Definition: consistent patterns in how people Behave, feel, think o Connotations of traits Consistency Across roles, time Distinctiveness View of personality o Focus on measurement Reliable and valid o Theory based on collected data (not speculation) Contrast to Freud and Rogers o Purpose of trait constructs Description Describe typical behavior

Basic descriptive facts Taxonomy Personality scheme Aid in classification based on traits Prediction Predict everyday behavior Important applications E.g. selection for job o Myers-Briggs type o OCEAN

Explanation Scientific understanding of causes NOT the same as prediction Not pursued by all trait theorists Includes: Traits explaining behavior Figuring out possible biological factors o Shared assumptions across theories People have predispositions to behave in certain ways There exists a relationship between having a certain trait and trait-related behaviors Direct relationship Extraverted behaviors related to higher levels of extraversion Contrast to psychoanalysis Behavior, personality in hierarchy

Trait theorists

Allport, Cattell, Eysenck o Allport Youngest of 4 children Protestant upbringing Strict Purity of thoughts, behaviors 1919: Graduated from Harvard

Emphasis on healthy, organized parts of human behavior Criticism of psychoanalysis Too much focus on unconscious Traits as building blocks of personality Three properties of traits Frequency Intensity Range of situations Personality structure Focus on traits as units Consistent, stable tendencies Separate from temporary states, activities Types of traits Cardinal traits o Extremely influential in every behavior o Rare Central traits o More limited in influence o More common Secondary dispositions o Least generalized, least consistent (across situations) Influence of situation Traits not expressed in all situations o E.g. extraversion at party vs. first day at job o Trait: general tendencies across many

sitautions Limitations to Allports theory Not enough research conducted Trait idea No research on influence of heredity No model to explain psychological processes behind behavior Motivation for trait-related behaviors

Problem with use of case studies, idiographic methods

Traits: factor analysis How do we know that certain behaviors are related to a certain underlying trait? Intuitive correlation- sea monsters o By looking at the correlations between all the parts we can see (observable behaviors), we can infer something about their underlying nature (theoretical constructs) o Factor analysis- statistical method that looks at how lots of different observations correlate and determines how many theoretical constructs could most simply explain what you see Patterns in correlations Set of factors that summarize how different variables are inter-correlated Factor analytic study Test items given to participants Certain items will correlate with others E.g. Do you often go to loud and noisy parties? And Do you enjoy spending time with large groups of people? Clusters of correlated items may be influenced by underlying factors Relatively objective Can only show patterns of co-variation No explanation of why Different explanations from different psychologists Some subjectivity Number, nature of factors

10/16/13 Trait theorists Cattell o Lab of Personality Assessment (U. of Illinois)

o Extremely prolific 200 articles 15 books o Huge influence on 20th century psychology o Need for taxonomy of traits o Use of factor analysis o Personality structure Surface traits Observable behavioral tendencies Source traits Underlying structures Responsible for relationship between surface traits o Cattells 16 personality traits o Behavior: stability vs. variability People not same all the time Behavior depends on traits and: State Emotion at a particular point in time E.g. anxiety, fatigue, arousal Role Social roles one has to play o Influence of setting o Strengths and limitations Strengths Systematic approach Foundation for future trait based research Development of 16 PF measure Limitations 16 PF not parsimonious Structure based solely on factor analysis May not cover all of personality

Hans J. Eysenck o Fled to England to escape Nazis o Work influenced by Factor Analysis European psychologists (Jung)

 Research on heredity and psychology Pavlovs work on classical conditioning o Founded journal- Personality and Individual Differences Personality traits Temperament Biological foundations o Measures of individual differences Importance of underlying biology o Personality structure Superfactors Higher order factors than initial factors Continuous dimensions Initially two: Introversion-extraversion (sociability, liveliness, excitability) Neuroticism (anxiety, feelings of guilt, shyness) Used Ancient Greeks chart Later added third superfactor

Psychoticism o Abnormal traits (aggressive, cold, egocentric, antisocial, unsympathetic) More objective measures Lemon drop test Lemon juice placed on tongue Difference in amount of saliva produced Introverts vs. extraverts: who produced more? Introverts o Biological bases- introversion vs. extraversion Differences in arousal level in brain Introverts Over- aroused by intense environmental stimuli Extraverts

Less aroused by environmental stimuli Need more stimulus from environment Necker cube experiment Extraverts switched viewing of cube more than introverts Research in brain activity Support for Eysencks ideas Twin studies

Support notion of hereditary influence Other biological functions o Social context Introverts Higher pain sensitivity More easily fatigued Performance inhibited by excitement More careful, slower Higher school performance Seek solitary jobs Lower need for novelty Intellectual humor Study habits Quiet, solitary locations Extraverts Performance enhanced by excitement Seek jobs that involve working with others Like diversion from routine Enjoy more explicit, sexual humor Study habits Library Frequent study breaks

o Neuroticism Influence of autonomic nervous system High neuroticism had overly active autonomic nervous system

o Psychoticism Much less known compared to others Genetic influence Gender Testosterone o Psychopathology Psychopathology related to traits (and other biological roots) + environmental factors Neurotic patients High neuroticism, low extraversion Criminals, antisocial people High neuroticism, high extraversion, high psychoticism Limitations to Eysencks theory o Alternate models provide better fit Influence of impulsivity, anxiety o Lack of consistent support for biological bases o Personality and Individual Differences as isolating factor o Model not comprehensive enough 10/21/13 Five factor model Need for taxonomy Individual differences into 5 dimensions o The big five Factor analytic trait approach Supported by research evidence Description vs. explanation Each factor present in everyone Biological basis on factors o Genetic influence o Downplay influence of nurture o Causal influence on development Universal raw material of personality Honesty, reliability, creativity

Research evidence for the big five o Three sets of data 1. Traits described in natural, everyday language Traits selected from dictionary Big five Openness- curious, broad interests, creative, original, imaginative o Conventional, down to earth, inartistic Conscientiousness- organized, reliable, hard working, self disciplined, punctual, neat, ambitious Aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless, negligent Extraversion- sociable, active, talkative, person oriented, affectionate Reserved, sober, aloof, task oriented, quiet Agreeable- soft hearted, good natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullible Cynical, rude, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful Neuroticism- worrying, nervous, emotional, hypochondriac Calm, relaxed, unemotional, secure

2. Cross-cultural o Search for personality factors in different countries, languages Big 3 in Italy Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness o Research across 11 languages o Big 3 found across cultures o Biological basis o Uniqueness in expression o Gender differences Women- neuroticism, agreeableness (more in modern cultures than traditional cultures) . Individuals rate selves o Factor analysis to see which go together Five factors found repeatedly

o High reliability, high validity o Relative stability throughout adulthood 3. Relationship to other questions o NEO-PI-R Five factors Six narrower facets Format Self report Observer report Relationship with: Eysencks inventories E&N P: low agreeableness, low conscientiousness Cattells 16 factors Temperament

Big five facets o Hierarchical organization Extraversion Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness, excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth Bill Clinton Agreeableness Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty, tender mindedness, compliance Conscientiousness Self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, order, deliberation, achievement striving Neuroticism

Anxiety, self consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility Openness to experience Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, ideas, actions, values o Stronger relationship with School performance E.g. Anxiety and impulsivity facets of neuroticism

Job performance and attitudes Organizational citizenship behaviors Growth and development o Over time, people become less neurotic, extraverted and openness More agreeable, conscientious Personality in childhood o More complex in childhood o 7 personality factors in children o Instead of extraversion: Sociability Activity o Instead of neuroticism: Fearfulness Irritability o Merging in adolescence Five factor limitations o Main problems: 1. Link between personality structures and processes Not enough info on processes No clear link between psychological 2. (Lack of) influence of social factors Traits said to be unaffected by external factors Twenge Changes in US in 20th century o Increase in anxiety, extraversion

10/23/13 A 6th factor Person A vs. Person B o Person B-honesty HEXACO model Research suggests there may be one more factor o Honesty/humility o Truthfulness, sincerity

o Genuineness Findings from 7 languages Relation to type of religious orientation o Intrinsic orientation: truly believe in religious teachings and live life according to religious beliefs Significantly correlated with honesty-humility, conscientiousness o Extrinsic-personal orientation: focused on what religion can give you (ex: comfort during difficult times) Significantly correlated with agreeableness, conscientiousness o Extrinsic- social orientation: religiousness based on forming social connections Not strongly correlated with any Big Five or HEXACO traits

Applications of 5 factor model Conscientiousness and life expectancy o Sample followed for 70 years o Conscientious children Significantly longer lives 30% less likely to die each year o Reasons: Less likely to: Face violent death Less likely to smoke Less likely to drink heavily More likely to: Exercise regularly Eat well Have physicals Follow medication schedule Avoid toxins Predicting job performance o Extraversion- Social enterprising (e.g. sales)

o Openness to experience- artistic, investigative (e.g. filmmaking) o Conscientiousness- various roles Predicting academic performance Conscientiousness (higher) Neuroticism (lower) Personality type and therapy options o High openness to experience Exploration (free association) o Low openness Directive Medication o No one specific therapy for all patients Related trait measures o MMPI 567 True/False questions General pattern of responding 10 clinical scales Paranoia, psychasthenia (Ocd), hypomania, social introversion Validity scales

o 16 PF 16 primary personality traits Personality profile is created Person-situation controversy How much consistency do people demonstrate in their behaviors? o Enough consistency to support the notion of traits? Walter Mischel o Behavior varies based on situation o Ability to examine situations and adapt o May explain why people do not always act in accordance with their traits Consistency over time vs. situations o Skepticism about cross-situational consistency Evidence for trait consistency o Seen more within domains across time

Research on conscientiousness o Measures twice in one semester o Highest for class-related behaviors and lower for other domains

Trait theories evaluation Scientific observation o Strong foundation of data Emphasis on: Statistical analyses of objective personality tests Diversity of subjects Age, ethnicity, sociocultural factors Different sources of data Self reports, observer reports, life data, physiological measures o Limitations Lack of in-depth methods Focus on traits, general qualities Surface characteristics Not enough focus on individual uniqueness Systematic nature o Cattell Systematic theorizing about: Traits, states, roles, motivation Problem: not enough influence o Eysenck Relationship between trait and biological factors Structures (traits) and processes (nervous system) Problem Other than extraversion-introversion, not much evidence o McCrae and Costa (5 traits) No explanations of dynamic processes that influence behavior o Trait theories in general

Not enough systematic explanation regarding personality

Testability o Testable through objective methods o Many aspects that can be tested Comprehensiveness o Strengths Incorporations of important individual differences Factor analysis methods o Limitations Focused primarily on taxonomy of traits and influence of traits on behaviors, leading to deficits in other areas Not enough info regarding: Interaction between conscious and unconscious Influence of sexuality Dreams Relationship between therapist and client Role of parents Not enough focus of personality processes Theories more about structures Not enough focus on individual Traits across populations Cannot conclude that identified traits exist in everyone

Applications o Helpful in prediction Accepted set of traits Used to predict behaviors o Limitations Not very useful in clinical setting No therapy for psychological change

TEST #2 10/30/13

Phineas Gage Construction foreman o Accident involving explosion o Iron bar shot through his face Left check, front of brain, top of head o Results Damage to left frontal lobe Maintained ability to walk, speak, remember Changes in: Disposition, preferences, goals, personality Implications: Frontal brain and personality

Temperament Individual differences o Mood, emotional response, activity level Inherited (for the most part) Biologically based Early views (from ancient Greeks) Melancholic Phlegmatic Choleric Sanguine- outgoing, sociable th 19 century o Darwin The Origin of Species The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals Emotional expression in humans and other o o o o mammals are similar Contribution to Study of temperament, evolutionary psychology o Gregor Mendel Experiments on plant hybrids Modern genetics on personality development o Ernst Kretschmer

Physique and character Pyknic Plum, rounder body Extraversion Athletic Muscular Vigorous Aesthenic Frail Introversion

Temperament longitudinal studies o NY Longitudinal study Over 100 subjects followed from birth to adolescence Parental reports regarding infants: Activity level, mood, attention span, persistence Infant temperament types Easy Playful, adaptable Difficult Negative, unadaptable Slow to warm up Low reactivity, mild responding and Plomin: 4 Dimensions of temperament Emotionality- arousal in upsetting situations, level of general distress Activity- vigor of movement, fidgety nature Sociability- responsiveness to other people, ease of making friends

o Buss

Impulsivity- ability to control behavior, later dropped o Kagan Neural bases of differences in: Emotions Behavioral tendencies Research Observe behaviors in lab settings Infants (4 months)

Presented infants with novel stimuli o Voice of stranger talking o Balloon popping Results o Low reactivity: calm, laid back o High reactivity: strong negative reactions to novel stimuli Children (4.5, 8 yrs old) Presented with novel stimuli o Flashing lights, stranger in costume High reactive infants greater fear responses at ages 4.5 & 8 Some changes: role of environment

Temperament profiles Inhibited temperament (high reactive)- react to novel stimuli with Restraint, avoidance, distress More time needed to relax in new situations More unusual fears Timid, cautious Uninhibited temperament (low reactivity) Likes unfamiliar situations Responds with laughter, smiling to novelty Temperament in adulthood Adults categorized as inhibited vs. uninhibited children Presented with novel stimuli fMRI to note active brain activity (amgydala) Inhibited children have much more active amygdala compared to uninhibited

Evolutionary psychology Need to belong o Universal need seen across cultures, time

Chances for survival, reproduction o Social ostracism Akin to physical pain Evolutionary alarm Evolved psychological mechanisms o Help solve problems important to reproductive success Social behaviors o Domain specific Fear for certain stimuli Specific adaptive emotions (jealousy) Participants asked to predict distress from sexual vs. emotional infidelity 60% of male sample: greater distress from sexual infidelity 83% of female sample: greater distress from emotional infidelity Proposed evolutionary explanations Womans mate value o Reproductive capacity

Youth Markers of fertility Chastity Paternal probability Mans mate value o Resources Earning capacity Ambition o Causes of jealousy: counterevidence Question format unrealistic Participants asked to rate reaction to: Sexual infidelity Not at all upset.... Extremely upset Emotional infidelity Sex differences no longer present Both upset more by sexual infidelity

Evolutionary theory and the big five Goldberg: Lexical hypothesis o OCEAN from desire to categorize important behaviors o Value of recognizing people who are Responsive, dependable (vs. unreliable) Agreeable (vs. disagreeable) Emotionally stable (vs. unstable) o Consistent focus on certain traits Trait terms in lexicon Sex differences in the big five o Big five traits in men and women across 55 nations More and less developed, egalitarian o Findings Women higher on: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness Male-female differences greater in: More developed countries, more egalitarian countries Evolutionary theory Strengths o Explanation for: Behaviors Social structures Culture Limitations o Humans not bound by evolutionary influences o Not enough focus on environment

11/4/13 Genetics Behavioral genetics o Influence on genes on: Cognitive ability, personality, interests o Interaction between genes and environment o Cognitive ability

Most inherited Males in Denmark Correlations for full siblings Reared apart: .47 Reared together: .52 Correlations for adoptive siblings Reared together: .02 Strong influence of environment in children o Specific mental abilities Evidence for less influence of heredity for: Verbal ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed, memory

o Interests Occupational interests Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional Somewhat weaker genetic influence and stronger environmental influence compared to personality o Gene- Environment interactions Shared vs. non-shared environments Shared environment Shared by siblings in the same family Non-shared environments Unique experiences not shared by members in the same family Differential treatment from parents Which is more important in personality development? Non-shared Indications that non-shared environmental influences much stronger than shared Variance explained Genetic factors 40% Non-shared environments 35% Shared environments 5% Does not mean within family experiences unimportant

Focus on experience of individual Environmental effects Significant differential treatment of siblings o Much of this due to genetic characteristics of child Again, importance of unique experiences of child o Phenomenological experience rather than objective events Difficulty in measurement

o Measurement error Three nature-nurture interactions 1. Environment affects individuals differently based on genetic makeup (passive) E.g. conscientious vs. lazy child and intelligent parents 2. People with certain genetic makeup bring forth different responses from environment (evocative) E.g. difficult baby may cause different reactions in parent compared to easy baby 3. People choose, create different environments based on genetic makeup E.g. extraverts choice of hobbies, friends compared to introverts Research methods 3 main research methods in genetics 1. Selective breeding studies o Animals with desired trait mated Create separate strain Study behavior Manipulate environmental experiences Separate genetic vs. environmental influences on behavior 2. Twin studies

o Monozygotic (MZ0 vs. Dizygotic (DZ) twins MZ twins genetically identical DZ twins share 50% of genes o Genetic influence High: MZ twins more similar than DZ twins Low: MZ and DZ twins similar o MZ twins reared apart Evidence of genetic influence MZ twins raised together not more similar with regard to personality traits 3. Adoption studies o Individual raised by adoptive parents o Genetic influence Biological siblings

Neuroscience o Influence of Specific parts of the brain Neurotransmitters Hormones o Hemispheric dominance Depressed people: decreased left brain activity Inhibited children: greater activity in right hemisphere Uninhibited children: greater activity in left hemisphere o Role of neurotransmitter Dopamine Feel good chemical Associated with pleasure Cocaine as imitation Serotonin SSRIs and depression o Neurotransmitters and emotionality Model of emotionality

1. Negative emotionality High NE individuals o Higher levels of negative emotions o Environment seen as: Threatening, problematic, distressing o Report feelings of: Fear, sadness, anger, guilt, disgust Low NE individuals o Calm, emotionally stable, selfsatisfied Neurobiology o Low levels of serotonin in high NE Depression, anxiety, OCD behaviors, negative view of environment 2. Positive Emotionality High PE individuals o Higher levels of positive emotions, sociable, energetic, cheerful, enthusiastic o Report feelings of Joy, interest, attentiveness, excitement, pride Low PE individuals o Reserved, low energy, low confidence Neurobiology

o Association with dopamine o Relationship to left hemispheric dominance 3. Disinhibition vs. Constraint Manner of regulating emotions High DvC individuals o Impulsive, reckless, focus on feelings in the moment

o Behaviors Lower grades, lower job performance ratings, higher alcohol drug consumption o Night owls Low DvC individuals o Careful, more focused on future, avoid risk, morning people Neurobiology o Association with serotonin

Aggression, drug use o Possible relationship with testosterone Competitiveness, aggression Neurotransmitters and love o High dopamine, low levels of serotonin, high levels of aggression o In love but rejected Recently rejected participants fMRI to study brain activity Picture of rejecter Fillers Activation in brain regions associated with: Craving, emotion regulation, addiction Greater understanding of irrational, obsessive behaviors Decrease in activation with time

Plasticity o Changes in biology o Monkey leaders and serotonin- serotonin levels change when become a leader (higher levels) o Aggression and testosterone Lower testosterone levels after: Losing at sports, being fan of losing team

11/6/13 Antecedents of behaviorism Darwin

o Link between animals and humans Rise of animal psychology George Romanes o Introspection by analogy (using what we know about our thinking to infer behavior or what animals are thinking) o Comparative psychology C. Lloyd Morgan o Morgans Canon o Limit introspection by analogy to mammals o Comparative psychology closer to experimental science Edward L. Thorndike o Influenced by Morgan o Cats in puzzle-boxes Reward for escape Trial and error for effective behaviors These animals dont have insight Rules out reasoning Interested in learning and adaptive advantages Law of effect

Law of reinforcement Instrumental learning Behaviorism: View of the person Analogous to machine o Mechanisms to be studied Determinism o Contrast to free will Behaviorism: View of personality Causal influence of environment on individual o No interest in internal factors o Focus on environments impact Understanding of people built on lab research o People o Animals Environmental determinism o Human behavior guided by laws Behavior causes by environmental factors

 Comparable to rock thrown in air o Individuals thoughts, feelings all caused by environment Selection of major Selection of classes Beginning, ending relationships Research methods Environmental manipulation o Manipulate individual variables Influence on behavior o Study only observable factors Contrast to other theories Behaviorists: other theories too speculative, unscientific Simple systems strategy o Simpler system than area of research o Reasons: Complexity of environment Unethical to conduct certain tests E.g. airplanes reaction to certain elements E.g. drug testing E.g. experiments on addiction

Theories of learning Pavlovs Classical conditioning/Skinners Operant conditioning o 2 Complementary theories Foundation of behaviorism o Mid-20th century: predominant school of thought John Watson o Founder of behaviorism Research with animals Classes in neurology, physiology Philosophy then psychology o Examined how rats travel through mazes Explored the significance of the kinesthetic sense o Behaviorist manifesto Call for: New methodology, new topic of study End focus on:

Immediate conscious experience, selfobservation, internal perception, introspection The time seems to have come when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness Watsons psychology begins with: Organisms adjustment to environment Certain stimuli certain responses o Little Albert Experiment Report on conditioned emotional reactions in Little Albert Conclusion Fears as conditioned emotional reactions NOT from unconscious or other areas o Watson- most famous American psychologist of 20th century Forced to resign from scandal Went on to career in advertising and business Ivan Pavlov o Studied digestive system, salivary responses of dogs Placed food powder in mouth, measured resulting salivation After several trials, dogs began to salivate in response to: Sight of food dish Approach of researcher o Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response During conditioning Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus to elicit conditioned response Generalization Reponses to similar stimuli E.g. salivation to other noises Discrimination Animal learns which CS lead to UCS Extinction

CS presented without UCS animal no longer responds to CS

11/11/13 Behaviorism Psychopathology o Explained in terms of learned response patterns Individuals not sick or diseased o Failure to learn proper responses Behavioral deficit E.g. social inadequacies o Learning of maladaptive responses Conditioned emotional reactions o Little Albert Combination of white rat+ loud noise Rat fear Conditioned emotional reaction Generalization of fear o Watson and Rayner- fears as conditioned emotional reactions Contrast to psychodynamic explanations o Psychopathology and treatment Psychopathology not internal Abnormal behavior from maladaptive environments Treatments Provide new environment Learn different, more adaptive behaviors Want to extinguish (unlearn) abnormal anxiety Effectiveness for: Phobias OCD PTSD Systematic desensitization Relaxation training: remain calm through regulation of breathing, bodily sensations Go through fear hierarchy

o Feared situations from least to most fearful Disconnect association between hierarchical levels and fear through new connection Flooding Prolonged exposure to feared object or situation OCD Exposure and response prevention: have thoughts without performing compulsive rituals PTSD Prolonged exposure through imagining o Weaken link between actual trauma and things that cause anxiety

Skinner and operant conditioning Interest in building things Initially waned to become a writer Became interested in Pavlovs, Watsons work Harvard o Animal behavior Explanation based on environment Personality structure o Behavior as result of environment Change in situation Change in behavior o No need for stable personality structure Non-scientific Skinners behaviorism o Learning in animals o Skinner boxes o Rejected the notion of intervening variables o Operant conditioning Contrast to Pavlov: stimulus- response Instead, consequence- behavior Focused on:

Positive and negative reinforcement Positive- give something pleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes up Negative- take away something unpleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes up Positive and negative punishment Positive- give something unpleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes

down Negative- take away something pleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes down Focused on: Shaping Acquisition Extinction Schedules of reinforcement

o Skinner as inventor WWII: Project Pigeon 1940s: Baby tender 1950s: Teaching machine o Growth and development Increasing number of responses learned from reinforcement experiences Parents should pay attention to which behaviors are reinforced Most effective: reinforce good behavior No reference to specific stages Behavior change Token economy Desirable behaviors rewarded Rewards exchanged for desired goods Used in schools, hospitals Evidence for short-term effectiveness

Behaviorism: evaluation 1. Scientific observations o Strengths Systematic research major part of behaviorism Information not based on speculation Limitations Limited database Information primarily from animals Humans have capabilities not shared with animals o Language o Reason about past o Plan for future Overlooked phenomenological issues

2. Systematic nature o Strengths Extremely systematic Various phenomena explained through one system Behaviors in response to reinforcement Learning of responses Response persistence o Limitations Not enough information about other areas Internal processes 3. Testability o Testable in lab o More difficult in real world 4. Comprehensiveness o Extremely comprehensive o Skinner (1953) Behaviorist principles applied to: Analysis of individual, group behavior Government, laws Psychotherapy Economic Education

Culture

5. Applications o Not enough information regarding differences between people, animals o However, many application seen today Token economy Variable reinforcement schedules

11/13/13 George Kelly Early work in Kansas public schools Examination of teachers referrals o Construct systems/ interpretation of environment o E.g. teachers complaint that student is lazy Kelly observed Behaviors of child Teachers perception/ interpretation No absolute truth o Reality can be reconstructed Kellys Personality theory Truth vs. Utility o Search for truth o Kellys view- utility Tools for prediction Different theories as different viewpoints Constructive alternativism No one correct theory Kellys beliefs o Too much emphasis on measurement No traits within people that need to be measured Role of psychologists as statisticians Statisticians vs. experts on mind Role of clinical methods Emphasis on important issues

Understand people Work on problems

View of person o Person as a scientist Constructs used to predict events Whether or not we will succeed at certain goals What might help us achieve these goals Theory development/ hypothesis testing Weigh evidence from the past People focused on future People actively Think about environment Think about selves and others Can alter theories to make new predictions Change point of view Modify assumptions Kelly: fundamental corollary o A persons thoughts, feelings, behaviors and actions are psychologically affected by the ways in which they anticipate events A person lives his life by expecting what comes next and the only information we have about what comes next comes from the constructs we create for ourselves Personal constructs o Categories to help us make sense of world Individual categories Difference in Types of categories When certain categories used E.g. mother who fusses over child Attentive Overbearing Understanding of individual o Built from previous experiences o Used to gain new knowledge o Interpretation of environment

Cognitive processes Categorization Attributions Predictions Bring order to environment o Individual predicts events by noticing patterns o Necessary elements Similarity pole Contrast pole E.g. kind/cruel construct o Need similarity/ contrast comparison Cannot fully understand individuals construct without both E.g. respectful Need individuals views of respectful actions = disrespectful actions for full understanding Provides information regarding individuals idea of construct E.g. supportive- cold vs. supportive- unreliable o Used to interpret events in environment + anticipate future Construct systems and applications o Construct systems Core constructs Integral to functioning E.g. religious beliefs Sinful/ holy Peripheral constructs Less important Can be changed without affecting individuals core structure E.g. views regarding art o Creative/ uncreative Hierarchical organization Differences in breadth, inclusiveness Superordinate constructs Broadest

 Most inclusive E.g. nice/ not nice Subordinate constructs More narrow More specific E.g. good math student/ poor math student o Failure to communicate between Clinical health professionals Hospital managers Due to different background experiences, training, language Clinician, managers asked to describe Culture Ideal clinician and ideal manager Discussions between clinicians and managers Reveal constructs regarding common values Similarities in constructs Increased communication o Personality assessment Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test Two steps Role Title List o Names of people who fulfill different roles (20-30) o Elements Construct elicitation o 3 people selected o How are two of them alike? Different

from the third? Learn about test taker based on categorization E.g. shy/outgoing construct How individual views/interprets important individuals o Personality process Activity directed toward more accurate predictions of future events

Experiences individual notices similarities, contrast construct development Constructs used to predict future events Tested repeatedly Modified, developed with experience Desire for validation of construct system o Psychopathology Maintenance of poorly functioning construct system People stick with construct system to avoid Anxiety Current construct system not applicable Threat Feeling that imminent change in core construct(s) is about to occur Treatment Focus on changing personal construct system Improve predictions through better constructs Some constructs replaced, some added, some dropped Goal: help client create more efficient construct system Personality sketch New person for client to try out Aid in expansion of construct system Client becomes new person o Behaviors o Thoughts o Communication with others New person different from client o Catalyst for changes in construct system o Safe way to try out new personality Goal: client reconstructs self o Experimentation with constructs o Changes in constructs

o Construct system that makes more accurate predictions Culture o Symbols US- eagle, flag Baruch- bearcat NYC- taxi, empire state, MTA, statue of liberty o Rituals US- pledge of allegiance o Beliefs/assumptions TEST #3 11/20/13 Focus of Social-Cognitive theory 1. Cognitive processes as main focus 2. Influence of social environment on cognitive development Critique of previous theories Psychoanalysis o Too much emphasis on unconscious Conscious processes more important o Too much focus on early childhood Individuals can continue to develop Trait theory o Average personality tendencies not personality Variability also informative Evolutionary psychology o Cannot explain changes over time E.g. Current presence of women in the workplace Behaviorism o Too much emphasis on external rewards/ punishments Individuals have some control Importance of thinking capabilities Human agency US- freedom

Learned behavior without reward/ punishments

Albert Bandura Learning theory Rigorous experimental testing Familial influences on aggression in children Focus on self processes o Goal o Self- evaluation o Beliefs about ones own abilities Influence on personal agency o Includes social factors E.g. SES Walter Mischel 1965 Peace Corps project o Global trait measures: poor predictor of performance o Skepticism regarding trait theory, psychoanalysis 1968 Personality and Assessment o Challenged psychoanalysis, trait theory o Person- situation controversy- which is more important? View of the person Three essential qualities of people o 1. Reason using language o 2. Thoughts about present, past and future o 3. Self-reflection Fundamental aspects of personality Focus on: o Individuals ability to overcome environmental influences o Control over animalistic impulses Humans as: o Active, aware, problem solving, benefit from experiences, mental capabilities Not just about habits, traits, environment, genes

View of science of personality

Reliance on advances in o Developmental, social, cognitive psychology o Neuroscience o Other areas of science Emphasis on individuals Focus on practical applications o Need tools to benefit humankind

Personality Structure Components (Cognitive Affective Units) o 1. Competencies and skills Individual differences based on differing abilities to perform certain types of behaviors E.g. extraverts E.g. conscientious people Problem solving Different ways to analyze problems Behavioral skills to execute solutions Two types of knowledge Declarative- facts that individual knows and is aware of Procedural- performance, unable to describe precisely Implications Context specificity Different situations call upon different competencies, skills Contrast to trait theories

Psychological change Competency acquisition possible o 2. Beliefs and expectancies Beliefs regarding what world is like + expectations about what may happen in the future Expectations about Other people Potential rewards/ punishments

Self Contrast to behaviorism Behavior caused by reinforcements, punishments from environment Social cognitive theory Peoples expectations about potential rewards, punishments Focus on expectations Explanations for why different people behave differently in same environment Perceived self efficacy Beliefs regarding abilities to perform certain actions (in the present and future) Self efficacy is Not Self esteem o Overall, global evaluation of worth Outcome expectations o Can know likely outcome of behaviors but not feel capable of performing them E.g. chemical engineering major Greater influence of self efficacy on behaviors Self efficacy and behaviors High self efficacy o Try difficult tasks o Maintain effort o Calm during performance o Organize thoughts analytically, coherently Low self efficacy o Not attempt activities o Give up easily o Exhibit anxiety during performance o Rattled in thoughts Potential negative impact Self efficacy and self doubt

o Less motivation Vancouver and Kendall o Measures Self-efficacy (anticipated grade) Planned and actual resource allocation (study time) Performance (grades) o Results Within persons: higher self efficacy associated with: Less planned and actual study time Lower performance o Discrepancies from goals and resource allocation o Implications for self efficacy training

o 3. Goals Aim of behaviors Individuals Imagine future Set goals Direct behaviors to help achieve goals Goals Guide priorities Help individuals decide between situations Guide organization of behaviors Organized hierarchically Flexible

Proximal vs. Distal goals Proximate goal- closer in time o E.g. good grades on quizzes o E.g. losing 1 lb. this week Distal goals- far in the future o E.g. getting into good grad school o E.g. losing 50 lbs. in 6 months o 4. Evaluative standards

Standard Criteria for judging whether person, thing, or event is good vs. bad Evaluative standards about self Internalized personal standards used to rate behaviors E.g. term paper Judgments regarding moral vs. immoral behaviors Moral disengagement Temporarily disengaging from moral

standards in certain situations Nature of personality structures o Not things in peoples minds o Ways of thinking that interact to form personality o Personality too complex to be described by scores Individuals have many different goals, beliefs, standards, skills Change across time

11/25/13 Personality Process Addressed in 2 ways o 1. General theoretical principles Reciprocal determinism Bandura Cause and effect 3 factors involved in behavior Individual Behavior Environment Mutual influence between 3 forces (reciprocal determinants) Conversation with person you find attractive Behaviors Influence of environment

Influence of personality structure Too simplistic to say behavior stems from solely internal (psychodynamic, trait theories) or external (behaviorism) forces Reciprocal interactions of behaviors, environment and personality characteristics Cognitive- affective personality system (CAPS) Personality as system 3 features 1. Cognitive and emotional variables and complex interactions between them o Goals, competencies and skills, expectancies, evaluative standards and reactions 2. Situational features specific aspects of personality system activated 3. Therefore, peoples behavior will differ from one situation to another Personality system as a whole system If... then... Profile Analysis Individuals behavior observed in various situations o Measure systematic differences If... then... Children observed at summer camp o Responses to various situations Teasing by peer Praise from adult Punishment from adult o Results Evidence of distinctive, stable personality profiles Different reactions to different situations o Different profiles based on individuals behaviors in specific situations

 Behavioral signatures o Captures more info regarding unique patterns than global measures 2 people with identical global anxiety score o 2. Key psychological functions 1. Attainment of new knowledge, skills Observational learning Learning from observing model o Bandura, Internal mental representations Basic skills Acceptable vs. unacceptable o More complex than just imitation or mimicry o Influence of reality tv Issues- gossiping as normal part of relationships between girls 78% of viewers agreed, vs/ 54% Difficulty of trusting other girls 63% of viewers vs. 50% of nonviewers Respect though meanness 37% of viewers vs. 25% Acquisitions vs. Performance o Acquisition Learning (with or without reinforcers) Does not necessarily lead to behavior o Performance More dependent on reinforcement, punishment

o Bandura- three groups of children watched model aggress against Bobo doll Group 1 Models aggressive behavior was rewarded with candy, praise Group 2 Models aggressive behavior was punished with reproach Group 3 Models aggressive behavior had no consequence Children taken to room full of toys Stage 1- No incentive condition (children left alone in room with toys, including Bobo doll) Stage 2- Incentive Vicarious learning

Learning responses by observing models Rewards, punishments, reactions (phobias) o Use of acquired knowledge and skills o Focus on thinking processes Personal expectations Goals o Self-regulation Guidance od behavior toward goals o Involvement of personality structures Setting goals Evaluating behavior against standards Self-efficacy Emphasis on foresight

Anticipation of satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction when goal is met vs. not met Individuals as proactive Set own standards, goals 2. Controlling action, emotion Self control and delay of gratification Need to do/ complete something o Importance of Goals Standards for performance Self-efficacy o Need to step or prevent behavior for some future outcome Delay of gratification Cognitive processes used to control impulses Mischel o Marshmallow test o Factors influencing task performance Cognitive strategies to distract from rewards Think of marshmallows as non-food object Mental image of reward as photos o Focus on cognitive representations, NOT actual rewards Contrast to behaviorism o Capacity for self-control o Same rewards, with different cognitive representations Delay of gratification- implications o Preschoolers delay of gratification scores compared to cognitive skills and social competence in adolescence

 12/2/13 Benefit of goals

Parental ratings of cognitive, self control skills SAT scores o Positive correlation between measures of delay and cognitive, social abilities Motivations and self-regulation

Performance generally higher with goal (vs. no goals) o Children and sit-ups o Sales o Archery o Weight loss Importance of types of goals o Difficulty Increases effort and persistence o Specificity Increases attention and planning Person works with focus and energy

Types of goals Mastery vs. performance goals o Group project Desire to learn about Research designs Data analysis techniques Implications of research Desire to Demonstrate intelligence, competence Avoid embarrassment Make good impression o Mastery goal orientation Develop competence, mastery Find better ways to perform tasks

o Performance goal orientation Concerned about competence compared to others Performance approach vs. avoid Performance-approach: demonstrate competence Performance-avoid: avoid demonstration of incompetence o Causes Implicit theories regarding human attributes Theories regarding changeable nature of attributes Entity theory Abilities seen as fixed, so activities= chance to demonstrate ability More likely to set performance goals Helpless motivational pattern Incremental theory Abilities as changeable, so activities= chance to increase ability More likely to set mastery goals Mastery motivational pattern

o Implications/Outcomes Goal orientation and outcome Mastery goal orientation I want to learn as much as possible from this class Higher levels of intrinsic motivation o I think this class is interesting o Im enjoying this class very much No association with graded performance Performance goal orientation Performance-approach o It is important to me to do better than the other students o No association with intrinsic motivation o Positive relationship with graded performance

Performance-avoid o I often think to myself, What if I do badly in this class? o Lower intrinsic motivation o Lower graded performance

Goals: feedback and standards Goal setting increased performance ONLY with feedback o Information regarding progress Need for goals+ feedback Emotional meaningfulness of goals+ feedback o Goal attainment, positive feedback Satisfaction Sense of competence More difficult goals o Goal failure, negative feedback Dissatisfaction Awareness of discrepancy Greater effort Standards of evaluation o Desire A in class, but think B- is best you can get How do you feel? Anxious and tense? Depressed and disappointed? o Same goals evaluated with different standards Getting A as either ideal or responsibility Different standards different emotions o Self-discrepancy Negative emotions from discrepancy between actual self vs. personal standard Discrepancy between actual vs. ideal self (related to promotion focus) Sad, dejected, disappointed Discrepancy between actual vs. ought self (related to prevention focus) Anxious, agitated, worried

Goal pursuit- regulatory focus Achieving A for class A as ideal o Approach ideal through Going to library to study Reading, learning more about material A as responsibility o Avoid failing at responsibility by: Attending every class Not doing other things that may distract from this responsibility Regulatory focus- ways in which individuals pursue goals o Promotion focus- sensitive to presence/absence of positive outcomes Rewards, accomplishments Approach as strategic means Move toward ideals Higher motivation, performance when potential benefits/ rewards highlighted o Prevention focus- sensitive to presence/absence of negative outcomes Punishment, failure Avoidance as strategic means Avoid at failing at responsibility Higher motivation, performance when potential losses highlighted Measuring regulatory focus o Promotion focus I often think about the person I would ideally like to be in the future I often imagine myself experiencing good things that I hope will happen to me I frequently imagine how I will achieve my hopes and aspirations I often think about the person I would ideally like to be in the future

o Prevention focus In general, I am focused on preventing negative events in my life I am anxious that I will fall short of my responsibilities and obligations I frequently think about how I can prevent failures in my life My major goal in school right now is to avoid becoming an academic failure Goal pursuit: getting started o Goals Problems form lack of planning Role of implementation intentions Plans to overcome possible problems Getting started, persisting, finishing Protection from failure Implementation intentions Plan for goal striving When where and for how long Connection between behavior and situation Can lead to automatic performance Advance planning of when and where Self-examinations Eating healthy Taking vitamins Persisting Problematic circumstances Distractions Interruptions Solutions Goal shielding o Forgetting other goals Self-regulatory muscle o Exercise o Rest and replenishment Implementation intentions

o Plan for ignoring/dealing with distractions o Re-engagement after interruption Letter writing o Importance of goal+ implementation intentions 12/4/13 Cognitive Personality variables Variables o Competencies and skills o Individuals beliefs and expectancies regarding self, environment o Aims and goal o Evaluative standards Important characteristics o Socially acquired o Enduring How do we interpret and make sense of everything? o Incoming information from environment o Aspects of self Schemas Problem: too much information o Content on slides o My voice o Noises from outside the classroom o What people around you are doing o What you did last night o What you have to do after class o What youre missing on TV Knowledge structures to help organize information o Make sense of incoming stimuli o Guide, organize information processing o Information about Person

Object Event (scripts)

Scripts o Participants asked to assemble first date scripts Man arrives Woman greets man at door Woman introduces him to parents or roommate Discuss plans and make small task They go to a movie They get something to eat or drink Man takes woman home In interested, he remarks about a future date They kiss o People with more dating experience arranged them faster

Schemas Aid our memory Provide clarity in ambiguous situations Helps us make predictions about the world Office Stuff Schema o Good memory for: Items consistent with schema Desk Chair o Poor memory for: Infrequent items consistent with schema Bulletin board o False memory for things: Frequent items consistent with schema but absent Books Memory errors o Typical offices o Typical restaurant visits o Typical kitchens o Kind friend Self-schemas o Generalized informational structure about self

Guide, organize information processing in new situations Different content for different people Desire for consistency Self-confirming biases Schemas consistent information receives biased: Attention Memory Judgment regarding veracity o Multiple self-schemas Different views based on different situations o o o o o Self-enhancement bias Tendency to see self positively E.g. bad grade on exam Desire to keep positive self-image Preference for positive feedback Overestimation of skills, abilities Comparison to lesser others o Self-verification Desire to see self as consistent Seek information to confirm self-concept E.g. extravert Applies to negative self-schemas E.g. depressed individuals

Clinical applications Common assumptions across different approaches o Cognitions feelings, behaviors o Cognitions specific to situations o Psychopathology from distorted cognitions about self, others, environment o Maladaptive cognitions problematic feeling, behaviors maladaptive cognitions o Therapy involves determining and fixing maladaptive cognitions o Unconscious less important Maladaptive cognitions

o Arbitrary inference- negative inferences without proper evidence Bob walked past me in the hallway without saying hi so he must hate me o Overgeneralization- drawing conclusion about self from one negative event I didnt do well in my stat class so Im a bad student Magnification and minimization- overemphasize important of negatives, underemphasize important of positive Self-efficacy o Perceived inefficacy Threatening situations anxiety Rewarding situations depression o Depressed individuals Excessively high standards Failure to live up to standards Low self-efficacy Self blame Even lower self-efficacy o Health Influence of self-efficacy beliefs on health Impact on health-related behaviors Impact on physiological functioning Protection against stress Strengthening of immune system Stress and coping Stress dependent on cognitions about self, environment Occurs when individual views circumstances as: Taxing Beyond resources Problematic to well-being Two-staged appraisal Primary appraisal: whether or not threat exists Secondary appraisal: whether or not threat can be overcome

o Evaluation of resources Coping mechanisms Problem-focused coping o Change features of situation Emotion-focused coping o Change reactions, emotions E.g. social support, meditation o Academic self-efficacy and outcomes Measures of: Academic self-efficacy Optimism Challenge-threat Level of demand pressure Level of coping ability, available resources Challenge= resources are more than demands Threat= demands are more than resources Academic performance Stress Health Adjustment self-efficacy associated with Seeing academic demands as more of a challenge than threat Because demands seen as more of a challenge (rather than a threat) o Lower levels of stress Fewer health problems and

High

better adjustment o High academic expectations Better academic performance High optimism associated with: Self-efficacy academic demands seen as more of a challenge higher academic expectations better academic performance

 o Increasing Four 12/9/13

Challenge threat evaluations less stress fewer health problems and better adjustment self-efficacy factors affecting self-efficacy Direct mastery Modeled mastery Verbal encouragement Reactions to physiological experiences

Outcomes: expectancies and beliefs Perceived control o Judgment regarding perceived control over Achieving desirable outcomes Preventing negative outcomes o Strong personal control beliefs link between behaviors and outcomes o Weak control beliefs behaviors unrelated to outcomes Learned helplessness o Outcomes Controllable vs. uncontrollable o Helplessness from expectation that behaviors Will not increase positive outcomes Will not decrease negative outcomes o Animals Dogs Phase 1 Group 1 o Randomly received shock and inescapable Group 2 o Randomly received escapable shock Group 3 o No shocks (control group) Phase 2

Inescapable shock in phase 1, received escapable shocked failed to escape from shock Escapable shock in phase 1 quickly learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier Control quickly learned to escape shock o Situation in which organism feels it has no control over environment, future Learned helplessness Apathy Give up o Humans Parallel findings in humans Presentation of irritating noise Inescapable noise Escapable noise No noise Social cognitive theory applications Beck o o o and depression Former psychoanalyst Best known for treatment of depression Difficulties from Automatic thought Dysfunctional assumptions Negative self-statements o Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) 0 I do not feel sad 1 I feel sad 2 I am sad all the time and cant snap out of it o Depression Cognitive triad Negative views about Self World Future

o Explanatory style Relatively stable trait Manner in which bad (and good) events are explained Optimistic vs. pessimistic explanatory style Optimistic Bad events seen as o External o Unstable o Limited in certain areas o More likely to be controllable in the future Credit for successes Delusional to an extent, but beneficial Pessimistic Bad events as o Internal o Stable o Pervasive More likely to be uncontrollable in the future

Give up in the face of failure Negative outcomes Psychotherapy: therapeutic change o Identify, correct distorted cognitions E.g. arbitrary inference, magnification and minimization Teach patient to Pay attention to automatic thoughts Recognize the impact of these thoughts on feelings and behaviors Try to find evidence for and against these cognitions Try to replace maladaptive cognitions with more realistic interpretations Also used for other issues E.g. anxiety, marital problems o Change process Acquire new ways of thinking, behaving

Generalizing new patterns Acquisition through Modeling Watching models demonstrating behaviors Guided mastery Performs behaviors with guidance from therapist o Other psychopathology Subjects with snake phobia 1st group- Watch therapist model behaviors, then perform behaviors themselves 2nd group- Watch therapist model behaviors 3rd group- control, no snake Behavioral avoidance test Results Highest degree of change, increases in selfefficacy when subjects perform behavior Higher self-efficacy associated with greater likelihood of performing task

Social cognitive Evaluation 1. Basis in Scientific observation o Strong database of scientific evidence Lab studies Correlational studies Longitudinal studies Clinical studies Diverse range of participants Various research methods Self-reports Parental, peer ratings Observations 2. Systematic nature o Not as systematic as other theories No overarching structure to tie together all elements o Does not provide simple, comprehensive description of whole person

Contrast to trait theories 3. Testability o Highly testable o Clearly defined constructs o Measurement tools o Experimental methods 4. Comprehensiveness o Extremely comprehensive o Address issues such as Motivation Development Self-concept Self-control Behavioral change Skills and competences o Limitations Not enough focus on Biological forces Interaction between temperament and social experience Other concepts such as alienation, existential concerns about death

5. Applications o Applied to various social problems o 2 reasons No separation between basic and clinical research Books written to guide other psychologists who used knowledge to advance applications

12/11/13 Flip side of biological basis Focus on influence of Interpersonal relationships o Strength of influence o Two-way nature of relationships Reciprocal influence

Variables to consider Personality characteristics lead to harmful vs. helpful behaviors Personality characteristics that lead to positive vs. negative interpretations of behaviors Impact on relationship outcomes Satisfaction Happiness o Rejection sensitivity Manner of thinking about relationships Expectation of rejection Rumination, anxiety Influence on behaviors During conflict After conflict Self-fulfilling prophecy Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire Participants presented with potential requests Ask boyfriend to move in with you Ask someone out on a date Ask a friend to do you a big favor Rate Likelihood of rejection Anxiety if rejected High rejection sensitivity High likelihood of rejection High anxiety Impact of reject sensitivity Time 1: Participants given Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire Time 2: Participants who had started relationship after Time 1 o Asked to interpret ambiguous situations E.g. boyfriend spends less time with you

Results o Higher rejection sensitivity related to greater likelihood of inferring hostile intent Rejection Sensitivity Long term influence on relationships Women high in rejection sensitivity Lower perceived accepting behaviors (after conflict) o My partner made me feel wanted Higher perceived partner withdrawal (after conflict) o My partner was inattentive and unresponsive toward me More negative behaviors (during conflict) o Put downs o Hostile voice tone o Denying responsibility for problem HRS womens partners Higher dissatisfaction (after conflict) More thoughts of ending relationship (after conflict) More angry (after conflict) HRS women: anxiously expecting rejection behave in negative ways during conflict rejecting response from partner (elicited and perceived) HRS and breakup o Higher for both HRS men and HRS women Potential explanation for HRS womens behaviors o Self-verification bias: motivation to maintain consistency

Behave in ways to elicit responses in line with expectations o Overreaction to threat of rejection Hostility from anger, pain, hopelessness o Analysis of cognitive processes when recalling events Attention and outcomes Rejection situation Hot focus: think about emotions Cool focus: think about more neutral aspects Results: Hot focus: anger, hostility Cool focus: less angry Different attentional focus different psychological experiences Perhaps decreased overreaction Transference Based in psychoanalytic theory o Transference in therapy Current social-cognitive approach Two facts about individuals interpretations of people and events o 1. Thoughts and expectations about a person guided by o Meet o o preexisting knowledge 2. Stored knowledge used to interpret event when knowledge overlaps with information in the situation being interpreted someone new who is similar to someone you know E.g. looks, mannerisms, hobbies Informational overlap knowledge about an individual in your past activated

o Activated knowledge can influence thoughts and feelings toward new individual E.g. assumption that new individual has other persons qualities Influence on: o Memory o Emotional reactions o Desires for relationships Contextual considerations o Influence of general personality characteristics not as

important as context-specific cognitions, reactions Problems o E.g. job interview o Other examples? Personality development Causes and effects o Lower class neighborhoods and psychological distress E.g. anxiety, depression o Difficult to interpret Psychological distress Lower SES Lower SES psychological distress Dunedin Study o Data from 1000 people livng in Dunedin, NZ o Followed them for 30 years o Key findings SES anxiety Children from low SES anxious adolescents Adolescents with lower education anxious adults Antisocial behaviors lower SES Influence of academic failure

Persons in cultures Two strategies o Personality..... and culture Personality psychologist begins with ideas about human nature Based in Western cultural norms

Supported by research findings in Western participants Asks whether idea is supported by research in other cultures Focus on generalizability Limitations Lack of information in variables not prevalent in Western cultures E.g. karma Culture as secondary

Initial culture-free notion from psychologist o Assumption that this is possible o Adapted to account for cultural differences Culture seen as supplementary o Culture and personality Culture and personality both central to study of human nature Individuals develop through interactions with culture Implications Cultures created by people People created cultures No culture0free personality, no person-free culture Cultural psychology Are there universal traits? Does it matter?

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