Flux:

MoO3 [28,29] Li2O-MoO3 [2,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36] K2O-MoO3 [37,38] MoO3-B2O3 [39] PbO-MoO3 [4,40] Li2O-WO3 [4,30] PbO-WO3 [4,40] PbO-PbF2 [29] V2O5 [30,31,40,41,42,43,44] Li2O-V2O5 [2,33] PbO-V2O5 [31,45,46,47] B2O3 [6,29] Main constituents: BeO, Al2O3, SiO2, Cr2O3, MoO3, Li2CO3, K2CO3, and B2O3

Mineral: Emerald is a variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium.

Three-phase system: XO . 0.893 moles M2O3 . 0.083 moles ZO2 . 1.100 moles where X is divalent ions such as Ca, Be, Mg or Ba; M is a trivalent ion such as Al, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, and mixture thereof. ZO2 is metallic oxides of tetravalent compounds such as Si, Ti, and Ge. The synthetic gems are made by: 1. Combining the above materials in the mentioned ratios. 2. Heating the mixture to above its flux point of about 1100C to 1200C. 3. Cooling the flux to obtain the desired crystals. Example I: Al2O3 (0.825 grams) + CaCO3 (8.93 grams) + SiO2.H2O (8.3 grams) Example II: the materials in Example I were placed in a silica crucible and melted with oxygen rock gas torch, and then cooled down in a fire-brick furnace. Cooling rate: less than 100C per hour.

An opal is a gemstone that comes in a variety of shapes and sizes, reds against blacks being the most valuable. In 1975, Len Cram of Australia became the first scientist to grow opals in a laboratory. Years later, others are still trying to perfect his methods. Opal is primarily made of silica, which is most commonly found in nature as sand or quartz. After the initial formation, in a matter of weeks, the opal has beautiful color patterns, but it is not fully formed. It takes months for this to happen.

Instructions
Things You'll Need

2 quarts water 1 teaspoon baking soda 1 teaspoon salt 7 tablespoons sugar 1 tablespoon Fresh Step Crystals cat litter Small piece of aluminum Bench grinder Fireproof cookware Fire pit 1 tablespoon Bon Ami powdered household cleaner Jar with airtight lid 1.
o

Create an electrolyte solution. Mix two quarts of water, one teaspoon of baking soda, one teaspoon of salt and seven tablespoons of sugar in your jar.
o

Grind your piece of aluminum into powder with the bench grinder. Put the powder in your fireproof cookware. Place the cookware in your lit fire pit. Leave in fire for one hour.
o

Mix one tablespoon of Fresh Step Crystals cat litter, remnants of aluminum and one tablespoon of Bon Ami into your electrolyte solution.
o

Replace lid on jar and set in a safe place away from children. Do not disturb. Check after five months.

Opal is made of hydrated silica, or silicon dioxide. Its water content varies. Natural opals come in two varieties. Common opals are a single color, and they can be transparent, white, red or black. The other variety, gem-quality opal, is called precious opal. Precious opals are known for their play of color, the rainbow that shimmers as it is turned in the light. Researchers who work on creating opals in the lab try to capture this elusive quality and recreate the beauty of natural precious opals. Three categories of opals are created in the lab: imitation, synthetic and artificially grown.

Imitation Opals

The only requirement for a material to be a successful imitation opal is to look like natural opal. John Slocum invented an imitation opal known as Slocum Stone, or opal essence, in 1974. The stone is made of glass with bits of metallic foil that create the fire that is characteristic of opal. Opalite is another imitation that is made of plastic. It is softer than natural opal and exhibits lizard-skin iridescence, a scale-like pattern that is close to the appearance of natural opal but is still noticeably different.

Synthetic Opals

The basic process of opal synthesis consists of three stages. First, scientists create tiny silica spheres. Next, they arrange the spheres in a lattice pattern to imitate the structure of precious opal. Finally, they fill the pores of the structure with silica gel and harden it. The process can take more than a year. The result is a hydrated silica product that exhibits iridescence and has a similar appearance to that of natural opal. The most difficult part of opal synthesis is recreating the rainbow fire of natural precious opal. Pierre Gilson created the first synthetic opal in 1974, and the early attempts had bands of iridescence rather than sparkles. Researchers adjusted the process and created lizard-skin iridescence.

Len Cram's Opal Growing Method

In the 1980s, the opal photographer and historian Len Cram began experimenting with new ways to grow opals. After hearing stories of opalized skeletons and fence posts around opal mines, Cram doubted the traditional explanation of opal formation. Others hypothesized that silica filled in pockets in the ground and hardened into opal over hundreds of years. Cram believed that opals grew more quickly. He thought that opals formed from chemical reactions involving compounds in the dirt. Cram has created his own process for creating opals based on this theory. He mixes opal dirt with liquid electrolytes, and within months he grows opals that are visually indistinguishable from natural opals.

Instructions
Things You'll Need

cup sodium silicate (water glass) cup household vinegar Disposable clear-plastic container Disposable spoon Black sheet of paper 1.
o

Purchase sodium silicate, which is also known as water glass, from your local hardware store. You will also need household vinegar, a disposable spoon and a disposable clear-plastic container.
o

Combine cup of sodium silicate and cup of vinegar in a disposable clearplastic container. Mix using a disposable spoon. Sodium silicate is a gel, so be sure to thoroughly mix the sodium silicate and the vinegar.
o

Place the plastic container with the sodium silicate and the vinegar in a stable, secure location at room temperature. Do not move or disturb the container for several hours, or leave it overnight to ensure that the mixture has enough time to dry completely. The mixture is dry when it has become a hardened gel that is semi-clear to clear. This hardened gel is one large opal.
o

Put the container with the hardened opal gel on top of a black sheet of paper. This will allow you to see the cracks and small details that represent how opal begins to form in nature. These details also point up the differences between common, cracked opals and smooth, precious opals sold in jewelry stores.
FLUX MATERIALS

Amblygonite Barium carbonate Barium sulphate Calcite

Li.AlF.PO4 BaCO3 BaSO4 CaCO3

Chalk Colemanite Cornish stone* Dolomite Feldspar (Potash)* Feldspar (Soda)* Frits* Gerstley Borate Lepidolite* Limestone Lithium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Magnesium carbonate (light) Manganese carbonate Manganese dioxide Nepheline syenite* Petalite* Potassium carbonate (Pearl Ash) Rock powder A large range of rocks make excellent flux materials, e.g. basalt, granite.* Sodium carbonate (Soda Ash) Spodumene* Strontium carbonate Talc

CaCO3 2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O (variable) variable CaCO3.MgCO3 K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 various Similar to Colemanite with some Na Li2F2.Al2O3.3SiO2 CaCO3 Li2CO3 MgCO3 3MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O MnCO3 MnO2 (K)NaO.Al2O3.4SiO2 (Approx) Li2O.Al2O3.8SiO2 K2CO3

Na2CO3 Li2O.Al2O3.4SiO2 SrCO3 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O

Whiting Wollastonite Wood Ash* (May contain solubles)

CaCO3 CaO.SiO2

Variable, (often high in lime)

Glass Pigments Compounds iron oxides manganese oxides cobalt oxide gold chloride selenium compounds carbon oxides mix of mangnese, cobalt, iron antimony oxides uranium oxides sulfur compounds copper compounds tin compounds lead with antimony Colors greens, browns deep amber, amethyst, decolorizer deep blue ruby red reds amber/brown black white yellow green (glows!) amber/brown light blue, red white yellow ZnO

Under specific conditions, silica precursors (tetraethyl orthosilicate [TEOS] in this case) are used to produce a matrix of silica, which is similar to the structure of natural fire opal. As in natural fire opal (Fritsch et al., 1999, 2006), the orange colour is caused by traces of iron.

3. Beryllium
By Paul Gaines, Ph.D. Edited by Brian Brolin

The Metal
Beryllium (Be) is the only stable light metal of high melting point. Be metal is not affected by water or cold nitric acid. It's readily soluble in NaOH, HCl, hot nitric acid and in dilute sulfuric acid.

BeO
Beryllium oxide finds useful applications in refractory crucibles because of its high melting point (2570 C) and good resistance to thermal shock. BeO is insoluble in dilute HCl, but can be put into solution by boiling with nitric, HF or sulfuric acids, or by fusion with potassium bisulfate and dissolution of the fuseate in acidified water.

Minerals
Beryl (3BeO-Al2O3-6SiO2) is the only mineral of more than thirty known that is of any commercial importance. Powdered beryl ores are commonly fused with sodium carbonate with the proportion by weight of sodium carbonate to ore at two parts to one. A sodium carbonate fusion is performed in Pt at 1000 C and the ore requires the full temperature for 30-45 minutes. The fuseate is brought into solution with dilute HCl, nitric or combinations with HF depending upon the dilution ratio of sample and length of time standing before analysis (keep the concentration of Si below or at ~10 ppm for long term solution stability without HF present; otherwise add HF to maintain long term stability of the Si). Beryl is also soluble in HF/sulfuric acid mixtures.

Alloys
Be-Cu alloys are famous for their excellent properties. These include master alloy (4.00 4.25% Be with Fe, Al and Si as impurities) and the ternary alloys, employing Ni or Co hardener, made from master alloy. Alloys of Be with Cu or nickel are typically dissolved with nitric acid while alloys with Fe, Al or Mg are dissolved with HCl.

Organic Matrices

This includes a wide variety of materials including greases, petroleum matrices, coal, organic plant material, biological material, synthetic organics, etc. Samples can be digested with sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, or sulfuric/nitric/perchloric. See the following article for more detailed information: Acid Digestions of Organic Samples. The sulfuric peroxide procedure is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Add a 0.1 gram sample to a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 5 milliliters of 98% sulfuric acid. Heat until dense white fumes form. Sample will be dark in color. Add 30% hydrogen peroxide drop-wise until solution clears. Continue heating until solution remains clear with dense white fumes and does not revert back to a dark color. 6. Remove from heat. Cool and dilute to desired volume with 18 megohm water.

It is also very acceptable to dry ash organic samples for Be analysis in a Pt crucible and then bring the resulting BeO into solution with one of the acids or fusion suggested above. It is important to keep the ashing temperature at 450 C. The high temperature-ignited BeO is very difficult to dissolve with acids. For more information, see the portion of our Reliable Measurements Guide that discusses Ashing.

Hydrolytic Stability and Preferred Matrices

Be has a tendency to hydrolyze in water at a pH of 4.2. When diluting Be standards they should only be added to pre-acidified water. Be(OH)2 is one of the least soluble Be compounds. It is precipitated as the hydroxide by NH4OH or the fixed alkalis. In addition, beryllium hydroxide has a tendency to form colloidal suspensions that are difficult to detect visually. There are three forms of the hydroxide, namely, the freshly precipitated amorphous form (readily soluble in dilute acid), the a-form produced on standing and the -form produced after prolonged heating. Stability constants for the a-form are most readily available. The following table shows the improvements in hydrolytic stability of Be with different complexing agents. The pH where precipitation begins is shown for 0.1 M solutions of each complexing agent: Complexing Agent Acetylacetonate Citrate EDTA Fluoride Oxalate pH where precipitation begins 9.8 7.0 4.8 8.2 6.0

Be can be mixed with any of the elements, at moderate to high concentrations (< 1 to 1000 g/mL) but care must be taken to maintain a pH < 2 when nitric acid is used. One of the above complexing agents is needed for solutions with a pH > 2. Be has a relatively simple emission spectrum. A popular Be emission line is the 234.861 nm line with a DL of ~0.0003 g/mL (axial view) because of its relative freedom from spectral interference combined with high sensitivity.