GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE : A REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES

N A Lloyd*, Curtin University of Technology, Australia B V Rangan, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
35th Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE & STRUCTURES: 25 - 27 August 2010, Singapore

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35th Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE & STRUCTURES: 25 27 August 2010, Singapore

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE : A REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES

N A Lloyd*, Curtin University of Technology, Australia B V Rangan, Curtin University of Technology, Australia

Abstract

Geopolymer results from the reaction of a source material that is rich in silica and alumina with alkaline liquid. It is essentially cement free concrete. This material is being studied extensively and shows promise as a greener substitute for ordinary Portland cement concrete in some applications. Research is shifting from the chemistry domain to engineering applications and commercial production of geopolymer concrete. It has been found that geopolymer concrete has good engineering properties with a reduced global warming potential resulting from the total replacement of ordinary Portland cement. The research undertaken at Curtin University of Technology has included studies on geopolymer concrete mix design, structural behavior and durability. This paper presents the results from studies on mix design development to enhance workability and strength of geopolymer concrete. The influence of factors such as, curing temperature and rgime, aggregate shape, strengths, moisture content, preparation and grading, on workability and strength are presented. The paper also includes brief details of some recent applications of geopolymer concrete.

Keywords: alumino-silicate binder; cement replacement; geopolymer; fly-ash; mix design; precast concrete 1. Introduction 1.1. Use of concrete and environment impact Utilization of concrete as a major construction material is a worldwide phenomenon and the concrete industry is the largest user of natural resources in the world (1). This use of concrete is driving the massive global production of cement, estimated at over 2.8 billion tonnes according to recent industry data (2). Associated with this is the inevitable carbon dioxide emissions estimated to be responsible for 5 to 7% of the total global production of carbon dioxide (3). Significant increases in cement production have been observed and were anticipated to increase due to the massive increase in infrastructure and industrialization in India, China and South America (4). 1.2. Geopolymer Concrete Development Geopolymer concrete is concrete which does not utilize any Portland cement in its production. Rather, the binder is produced by the reaction of an alkaline liquid with a source material that is rich in silica and alumina. Geopolymers were developed as a result of research into heat resistant materials after a series of catastrophic fires (5). The research yielded non-flammable and non-combustible geopolymer resins and binders.

Geopolymer is being studied extensively and shows promise as a greener alternative to Portland cement concrete. Research is shifting from the chemistry domain to engineering applications and commercial production of geopolymer. It has been found that geopolymer concrete has good engineering properties (6,7). The use of fly ash has additional environment advantages. The annual production of fly ash in Australia in 2007 was approximately 14.5 million tonnes of which only 2.3 million tonnes were utilized in beneficial ways; principally for the partial replacement of Portland cement (8). Development of geopolymer technology and applications would see a further increase in the beneficial use of fly ash, similar to what has been observed in the last 14 years with the use of fly ash in concrete and other building materials. 1.3. Geopolymer Concrete Properties High-early strength gain is a characteristic of geopolymer concrete when dry-heat or steam cured, although ambient temperature curing is possible for geopolymer concrete (9). It has been used to produce precast railway sleepers and other pre-stressed concrete building components. The early-age strength gain is a characteristic that can best be exploited in the precast industry where steam curing or heated bed curing is common practice and is used to maximize the rate of production of elements. Recently geopolymer concrete has been tried in the production of precast box culverts with successful production in a commercial precast yard with steam curing. Geopolymer concrete has excellent resistance to chemical attack and shows promise in the use of aggressive environments where the durability of Portland cement concrete may be of concern. This is particularly applicable in aggressive marine environments, environments with high carbon dioxide or sulphate rich soils. Similarly in highly acidic conditions, geopolymer concrete has shown to have superior acid resistance and may be suitable for applications such as mining, some manufacturing industries and sewer systems. Commercial geopolymer sewer pipes are in use today. Current research at Curtin University of Technology is examining the durability of precast box culverts manufactured from geopolymer concrete which are exposed to a highly aggressive environment with wet-dry cycling in sulphate rich soils. The bond characteristics of reinforcing bar in geopolymer concrete have been researched and determined to be comparable or superior to Portland cement concrete (10,11). The mechanical properties offered by geopolymer suggest its use in structural applications is beneficial. 2. Geopolymer Concrete Materials 2.1. Fly Ash The fly ash used in the production of geopolymer concrete at Curtin University is Class F fly ash sourced from the coal fired power station approximately 200 km south of Perth, Western Australia. The results of X-ray fluorescence testing (XRF) are shown in Table 1 for the fly ash used in the research program. The class F fly ash is characterized by high silicon and aluminum contents and low calcium content, and a loss on ignition of 0.46. 2.2. Alkaline solutions Sodium based alkaline solutions were used to react with the fly ash to produce the binder. Sodium-silicate solution type A53 was used for the concrete production. The chemical composition is shown in Table 2. Sodium hydroxide solution was prepared by dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets in water. The pellets are commercial grade with 97% purity thus 14 molar solutions were made by dissolving 404 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets in 596 g of water. The sodium hydroxide solution was prepared one to two days prior to the concrete batching to allow the exothermically heated liquid to cool to room temperature. The sodium silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide solution were mixed just prior to the concrete batching. This is a different process to that which had been employed previously at Curtin University where the two alkaline solutions were mixed 24 hour prior to casting. 2.3. Basic mixture proportions The basic mixture proportions used for the majority of the trial mixtures was based upon previous research on the geopolymer mixture proportions and is detailed in Table 3 (6,12). These mixture proportions are characterized by an alkaline liquid to fly ash by mass of 0.35 and aggregate to total mass proportion of approximately 75% with the nominal strengths, as shown in Table 3, and elevated temperature curing in a steam room at 60oC for 24 hours. Modifications to the basic mixture proportions were used to assess the impact of different variables, especially aggregate grading and type as detailed in later sections of this paper. 2.4. Aggregates Coarse aggregates with nominal sizes of 7mm, 10mm and 20mm granite and dolerite, were sourced from two local quarries. The aggregates had a particle density of 2.6 tonnes/cubic metre for the

granite and 2.63 tonnes/cubic metre for the dolerite. The dolerite aggregate was used in one series of trial mixtures to assess the impact of aggregate type on workability and strength gain of the geopolymer concrete. Fine sand was sourced from a local supplier. The sand has a low clay content (less than 4%) and fineness modulus of 1.99. Previous geopolymer research had been performed with aggregates being prepared to surface saturated dry (SSD) condition, a state of aggregate saturation in which the aggregate will not absorb any further moisture but no surface water is present (Australian Standards AS 1141.5-2000 and AS 1141.62000). In geopolymer concrete the necessity for SSD was due to eliminate the absorption of the alkaline solution by the aggregates thus reducing the polymerization of the fly ash. Conversely the presence of excessive water may compromise the compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete. The preparation of aggregate to surface saturated dry condition is achieved by soaking the aggregate in water for 24 hours, draining, and air drying on trays to remove surface moisture. Preparation of significant quantities of aggregate is time consuming (4 to 7 days) and inconsistent with commercial production techniques. The actual moisture content of aggregates prepared to SSD condition was tested with the view to replacing SSD aggregates with aggregates sourced from stock piles with variable moisture contents. The results of moisture content determination on aggregates prepared to surface saturated dry condition. The total quantity of free water was adjusted in the mixture by the addition or reduction of added water to the mixture; in winter when the aggregate stockpiles were typically saturated, the aggregates were left to dry in the laboratory for up to three days prior to casting. This technique was used for most of the mixtures described in this paper, unless otherwise noted. 3. Geopolymer Concrete Properties Test Results 3.1. Fresh concrete tests The slump test was used to assess workability of the geopolymer mixtures as described in AS 1012.3-1988. In addition, some mixtures were assessed using the compacting factor test AS 1012.31988. 3.2. Hardened Concrete Properties Hardened properties of the geopolymer concrete that were assessed were the compressive strength using 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high cylinders consistent with AS 1012.9-1999, and indirect tensile strength using 150 mm diameter by 300 mm cylinders for the Brazilian or splitting tensile test consistent with AS 1012.10-2000. 3.3. Aggregate Tests Tests were performed on some of the aggregates. These were the aggregate crushing value AS 1141.21-1997, flakiness index AS 1141.5 1999, particle size distribution and moisture content. The results of the aggregate testing are given in Table 5. 3.4. Curing Regime Thermocouples were placed in three different sized samples during one of the geopolymer concrete trials to measure the actual temperatures reached inside the concrete samples; a small compression cylinder, a large tension cylinder and a compaction beam; a small beam 350 mm long by 85 mm square. Thermocouples to control the steam were located 200 mm above the steam room floor within the enclosed steam tent consistent with earlier research (6,7,9,12). The steam curing regime was notionally 80 oC for 24 hours. Figure 1 shows the results of the Nicolet data logger readings taken at 10 second intervals in these samples over the curing period. The ambient temperature in the concrete laboratory was recorded as a control, indicating temperatures outside the steam room were about 17 to 20C. The thermocouple readings inside the compression, tensile and compaction beam samples in the steam tent were around 50 to 70C. The variations in temperature correspond to the to the boiler system cutting in and out to achieve an approximately constant temperature in the steam tent of 80C. Athough the steam tent thermocouple was set at 80C, the average temperature in the samples was only around 60C. This is the same as the minimum steam room temperature found to be optimum for steam curing of geopolymer concrete (6,12). 3.5. Effect of Rest Period Three mixtures of geopolymer concrete using the mixture proportions shown in Table 4 were produced to examine the impact of delayed steam curing (rest period) on the strength gain of the geopolymer concrete. The trial mixtures had 75% aggregate by mass consisting of 20 mm and 7 mm coarse aggregate and fine sand, and varying quantities of added water as shown in Table 4. All mixtures were cured at 80 oC for 24 hours with or without a 24 hour delay or rest day before curing. The compressive strength data at 28 days is shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the inclusion of a 24 hour period before curing, or rest day, increased the compressive strength of all the mixtures. The compressive strength for Mixture 1 with no rest day was 37.5 MPa, while 1 rest day increased this value to 46.4MPa. Mixtures 2 and 3 achieved compressive strengths of 55.8 MP and 63.1MPa with one rest day.

3.6. Effect of Aggregate on Workability and Strength Four trial mixtures were used to assess the influence of the proportion of fines on the plastic and hardened properties of the geopolymer concrete. The mixtures used a maximum aggregate size of either 10 mm granite or 20 mm dolerite, the basic mixture was derived from the nominal 40 MPa mixture shown in Table 3; all mixtures were cured at 60 oC for 24 hours. Comparison of the three mixtures cast with granite with a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm found that the decrease in fines from 35% to 27% of the total aggregate mass resulted in an increase of slump of less than 10% and an increase in the compaction factor of less than 5% (from 0.93 to 0.97). No segregation of the mixture was evident with the low fines percentage however there was a reduction in the compressive strength. The impact of the angularity of the aggregate on workability was assessed by comparing four trial mixtures. The mixtures displayed increasing slump and compaction factor with decreased 7 mm angular aggregate content, similar to the behavior of fresh Portland cement concrete. 3.7. Density The geopolymer mixtures with different aggregate types and grading were used to assess density at 28 days for mixtures which were cured for 24 hours at 60o C. The density of the geopolymer concrete was 2360 60 kg/m3. 3.8. Strength Gain with Age For 13 geopolymer mixtures, data was obtained on compressive strength gain with age by testing compressive strength at ages of 1 day, 3 days, 7 days, 14 days and 28 days for mixtures which were cured for 24 hours at 60oC (in one instance for 36 hours). Compressive strength values at 28 days ranged from 20 MPa to 50 MPa. A variety of aggregate types and grading were used. The mixtures were based on the mixture proportions of Table 3. The ratio of compressive strength at different ages to the compressive strength at 28 days was:
f cm.1day 0.82 0.07 f cm.28 days f cm.3days 0.87 0.05 f cm.28 days f cm.7 days 0.92 0.03 f cm.28 days f cm.14 days 0.97 0.04 f cm.28 days

3.9. Tensile Compressive Strength Relationship From the data bank of compressive, tensile and elastic modulus tests from 2007-2008 a total for 41 values for compressive strength and tensile strength were obtained. Compressive strength values ranged from 19 MPa to 63 MPa. A variety of aggregate types and grading were used. The mixtures were based on the mixture proportions of Table 3, curing regimes varied with no rest day or one rest day and temperature was 60oC or 80 oC in the steam room. The relationship between the compressive strength and tensile strength was: f ct 0.6 0.1 f cm 4. Geopolymer Precast Opportunities Gourley and Johnson (13) have reported the details of geopolymer precast concrete products on a commercial scale. The products included sewer pipes, railway sleepers, and wall panels. Reinforced geopolymer concrete sewer pipes with diameters in the range from 375 mm to 1800 mm have been manufactured using the facilities currently available to make similar pipes using Portland cement concrete. Tests performed in a simulated aggressive sewer environment have shown that geopolymer concrete sewer pipes outperformed comparable Portland cement concrete pipes by many folds. Gourley and Johnson (13) also reported the good performance of reinforced geopolymer concrete railway sleepers in mainline tracks and excellent resistance of geopolymer mortar wall panels to fire. Siddiqui (14) and Cheema et al (15) demonstrated the manufacture of reinforced geopolymer concrete culverts on a commercial scale. Tests have shown that the culverts performed well and met the specification requirements of such products. In this study, reinforced geopolymer concrete box culverts of 1200 mm (length) x600 mm (depth) x1200 mm (width), and 100 mmx200 mm cylinders were manufactured in a commercial precast concrete plant located in Perth, Western Australia. The dry materials were mixed for about 3 minutes. The liquid component of the mixture was then added, and the mixing continued for another 4 minutes. The geopolymer concrete was transferred into a kibble from where it was then cast into the culvert moulds (one mould for two box culverts) and cylinder moulds. The culverts were compacted on a vibrating table and using a hand -held vibrator. The cylinders were cast in 2 layers with each layer compacted on a vibrating table for 15 seconds. The slump of every batch of fresh concrete was also measured in order to observe the consistency of the mixtures.

After casting, the cylinders were covered with plastic bags and placed under the culvert moulds. A plastic cover was placed over the culvert mould and the steam tube was inserted inside the cover. The culverts and the cylinders were steam-cured for 24 hours. The steam-curing was carried out in stages. Initially, the specimens were steam-cured for about 4 hours; three cylinders were then tested in compression to estimate the strength. It was considered that the strength at that stage was adequate for the specimens to be released from the moulds. The culverts and the remaining cylinders were however released from the moulds when further steam-curing for another 20 hours was completed. The operation of the precast plant was such that the 20 hours of steam-curing has to be split into two parts. That is, the steam-curing was shut down at 2300 and restarted at 0600 next day. In all, the total time taken for steamcuring was 24 hours. A box culvert made of geopolymer concrete Mix 4 (Table 5) was tested for load bearing strength in a load testing machine which had a capacity of 370 kN and operated to Australian Standards, AS 1597.11974. Load was applied and increased continuously so that the proof load of 125 kN was reached in 5 minutes. After the application of the proof load, the culvert was examined for cracks using a crackmeasuring gauge. The measured width of cracks did not exceed 0.08 mm. The load was then increased to 220kN and a crack of width 0.15 mm appeared underside the crown. As the load increased to about 300 kN, a crack of 0.4 mm width appeared in the leg of the culvert. The load was then released to examine to see whether all cracks had closed. No crack was observed after the removal of the load. According to Australian Standard AS 1597 (16), a reinforced concrete culvert should carry the proof load without developing a crack greater than 0.15 mm and on removal of the load, no crack should be greater than 0.08 mm. The test demonstrated that geopolymer concrete box culvert met these requirements (14,15). 5. Geopolymer Sustainability Opportunity Coal is often used in the generation of a major proportion of the power not only in Australia but also in many other parts of the world such as India, China, and the USA. The huge reserves of good quality coal available worldwide and the low cost of power produced from these resources cannot be ignored. Coal-burning power stations generate huge volumes of fly ash; most of the fly ash is not effectively used. As the need for power increases, the volume of fly ash would increase. Additionally, concrete usage around the globe is on the increase to meet infrastructure developments. An important ingredient in the conventional concrete is the Portland cement. The production of one ton of cement emits approximately one ton of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Moreover, cement production is not only highly energy-intensive, next to steel and aluminium, but also consumes significant amount of natural resources. For sustainable development, the concrete industry needs to explore alternative binders to Portland cement. Such an alternative is offered by the fly ash-based geopolymer concrete, as this concrete uses no Portland cement; instead, utilises the fly ash from coal-burning power stations to make the binder necessary to manufacture concrete. The use of fly ash-based Geopolymer Concrete contributes to the potential for reduced global warming. A recent life cycle assessment of geopolymer concretes indicates that the global warming potential (GWP) of geopolymer concretes is between 26 and 45% lower compared to ordinary Portland cement concrete (17). However, when other ecological impact factors are considered, geopolymer concrete does not rate as favourably as Portland cement concrete. This is largely ascribed to the sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide production (17). The impact of each depends upon the processing employed. The use of alkaline solutions form waste streams of other processes, such as aluminium processing, may provide potential reduction in the environmental impact of geopolymer concrete. 6. Geopolymer Economic Opportunity Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete offers several economic benefits over Portland cement concrete. The price of one ton of fly ash is only a small fraction of the price of one ton of Portland cement. Therefore, after allowing for the price of alkaline liquids needed to the make the geopolymer concrete, the price of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete is estimated to be about 10 to 30 percent cheaper than that of Portland cement concrete. In addition, the appropriate usage of one ton of fly ash earns approximately one carbon-credit that has a significant redemption value. One ton low-calcium fly ash can be utilized to manufacture approximately three cubic meters of high quality fly ash-based geopolymer concrete, and hence earn monetary benefits through carbon-credit trade. Furthermore, the very little drying shrinkage, the low creep, the excellent resistance to sulphate attack, and good acid resistance offered by the heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete may yield additional economic benefits when it is utilized in infrastructure applications.

7. Concluding remarks Basic mixture proportions characterized by 75% aggregate to total mass, alkaline liquid to fly ash of 0.35 (analogous to water to cement ratio) and elevated temperature curing results in a high strength geopolymer concrete. Ambient curing of geopolymer has been trialed and further mixture trials with ambient curing are presently being researched. Temperature specification for curing should be correlated to actual specimen temperature for high and very high strength geopolymer concretes, monitoring temperature may be warranted if strength is critical and when steam curing, placement of the steam vents or hoses and control thermocouples as well as specimens is important. The introduction of a rest day, that is ambient curing for 24 hours prior to steam curing, resulted in elevated compressive strengths of the order of 20%. As with Portland cement concrete, strength was increased and workability and ease of compaction decreased with a reduction in added water. Strength gain at one day is around 80% of the 28 day strength when cured for 24 hours. As with Portland cement concrete, the aggregate moisture content can be accommodated by adjusting the total water added to a geopolymer concrete mixture without sacrificing strength or workability. Additionally, the effect of aggregate particle shape and grading on the properties of geopolymer concrete is similar to that of Portland cement concrete. The paper presented brief details of geopolymer precast concrete products. The economic benefits and contributions of geopolymer concrete to sustainable development are also outlined.

Table 1-- Chemical Composition Class F Fly Ash Oxides SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O TiO SrO P2O5 Mn2O3 Quantity (%) 50.18 26.31 13.68 2.63 1.29 0.02 0.32 0.53 1.66 0.30 1.55 0.09

Table 2 -- Chemical Composition Sodium Silicate Solution Compound Na2O SiO2 H2O Percentage by mass (%) 14.7 29.4 55.9

Table 3 -- Mixture Proportions of Geopolymer Concrete Material Nominal 40 MPa mixture 1 Mass kg/m3 641 641 549 404 41 102 6 25.5 Nominal 60 MPa mixture 2 Mass kg/m3 641 641 549 404 41 102 6 17.0 Nominal 75 MPa mixture 3 Mass kg/m3 641 641 549 404 41 102 6 13.5

20 mm aggregate 7mm aggregate Sand Fly ash Sodium hydroxide solution 14M Sodium silicate solution Super plasticizer Added Water

Table 4 -- Mixture Proportions, Slump and Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete Trial Mixtures Constituent Aggregate 20 mm Aggregate 7 mm Aggregate sand Fly ash 14 M sodium hydroxide solution Sodium hydroxide solution Super plasticizer Added water Added water to fly ash ratio Properties Slump Rest Period Mean strength @ 28 days (MPa) Indirect Tensile @ 28 day (MPa) Mixture 1 kg/m3 570 570 485 360 305 90 7 15 0.042 130 mm No rest 37.51.3 3.50.5 Mixture 2 kg/m3 570 570 485 360 305 90 7 12 0.033 200 mm No rest 45.44.1 3.90.5 Mixture 3 kg/m3 570 570 485 360 305 90 7 9 0.025 235 mm No rest 53.97.4 4.70.9

One day 46.40.2 3.70.1

One day 55.83.4 4.90.1

One day 63.13.6 5.51.0

Table 5: Geopolymer Concrete Mixture Proportions for Box Culverts (Cheema et al 2009) Materials Mix 1 Coarse Aggregates 14mm 10mm Fine Sand Fly Ash (Low Calcium ASTM Class F) Sodium Silicate Solution (SiO2/Na2O =2) Sodium Hydroxide Solution Super Plasticizer (SP) Extra water in aggregates 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 22.5 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 22.5 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 35 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 34 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 19 554 702 591 409 102 41 6 33 Mass (kg/m3) Mix2 Mix3 Mix4 Mix5 Mix6

Figure 1 -- Specimen and Ambient Temperatures Time Relationship

Figure 2 -- Compressive Strength at 28 Days

References 1. Mehta, P. K. 2002 Greening of the Concrete Industry for Sustainable Development, ACI Concrete International, 24(7):pp.23-28 2. Cembureau Cement in Cembureau Countries Statistics 2005- 2007 available at http://www.cembureau.be/Documents/KeyFacts/STATISTICS/Cement%20in%20CEMB%20coun tries.pdf 3. Mehta, P. K. 2001 Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete, ACI Concrete International 23(10):pp. 61-66 4. Portland Cement Association 2006 World Cement Consumption Growth Expected to Continue in Portland Cement Association Executive Report, available at http://www.cement.org/exec/1023-06.htm . 5. Davidovits, J. 1991 Geopolymers: inorganic geopolymeric new materials Journal of Thermal Analysis, 37, pp. 1633-1656. 6. Rangan,B.V. 2008 Low-Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Chapter 26, Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Editor-in-Chief: E.G. Nawy, CRC Press, New York, pp. 26.1-26.20; also available as Research Report GC4, Curtin University of Technology at http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R?func=dbin-jumpfull&object_id=20465&local_base=gen01-era02 7. Sumajouw, M. D. J. and Rangan, B.V. 2006 Low-Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete: Reinforced Beams and Columns Research Report GC3, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, available at http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R/?func=dbin-jumpfull&object_id=19466&local_base=GEN01 8. Ash Development Association of Australia, Total ash production and beneficial usage available at http://www.adaa.asn.au/statistics.htm 9. Wallah, S. E. and Rangan, B.V. 2006 Low Calcium Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete: Long Term Properties. Research Report GC2, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, available at http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R/?func=dbin-jumpfull&object_id=19464&local_base=GEN01 10. Sofi, M., van Deventer, J. S. J., Mendis, P. A. and Lukey, G. C. 2007 Bond performance of Reinforcing Bars in Inorganic Polymer Concrete (IPC), Journal of Materials Science, 42(9), pp. 3107-3116. 11. Sarker, P. K., Grigg, A. and Chang, E.H. 2007 Bond Strength of Geopolymer Concrete with Reinforcing Steel in: Zingoni, A. (ed) Proceedings of Recent Development in Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation, The Netherlands, pp. 1315-1320 12. Hardjito, D. and Rangan, B. V. 2005 Development and Properties of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete, Research Report GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, available at http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R?func=dbin-jumpfull&object_id=19327&local_base=gen01-era02 13. Gourley, J.T. and Johnson, G.B. 2005 Developments in Geopolymer Precast Concrete, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Geopolymers and Geopolymer Concrete, Perth, Australia. 14. Siddiqui KS 2007, Strength and durability of low calcium fly-ash based geopolymer concrete, Final year Honours dissertation, The University of Western Australia, Perth. 15. Cheema, D.S., Lloyd, N.A., Rangan, B.V. 2009 Durability of Geopolymer Concrete Box CulvertsA Green Alternative, Proceedings of the 34th Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structures, Singapore. 16. Australian Standards 1974, Pre-cast Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts, AS 1597.1-1974, Standards Australia, Australia. 17. Stengel, T, Reger, J and Heinz, D (2009) Life Cycle Assessment of Geopolymer Concrete What is the Environmental Benefit? Concrete Solutions 09 Proceedings of 24th Biennial Conference of the Concrete Institute of Australia, Sydney, 2009