Transmission System Modeling: Transformers

Transmission System Modeling
Transformers:
Single phase:
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering E&CE 664: Power System Computer Applications
Detailed model. Phasor models.
Three phase:
Phase shifts. Models.
Transmission Lines:
Single phase:
Distributed parameter model. Phasor lumped model.
Saturation
Three phase:
Underground cables
Distributed parameter model. Reduced models.
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Single-phase Transformers
The basic characteristics of this device are:

Flux leakage around the transformer windings is represented by a leakage inductance Ll. The core is made of magnetic material and is represented by a magnetization inductance (Lm>>Ll), but saturates. Losses in the windings (Cu wires) and core (hysteresis and induced currents) are represented with lumped resistances (r and Gm). Steps up or down the voltage/current depending on the turn ratio a = N1/N2 = V1/V2
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The equivalent circuit is:
Single-phase Transformers (cont.)
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The phasor equivalent circuit is:

This can also be readily transformed into an ABCD input-output form based on the following approximation, since Zm >> Zl1 (Zl1 a2Zl2):
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Or form:

Neglecting Zm (Ym is small given the core magnetic properties):
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Certain transformer have built-in Under-Load Tap Changers (ULTC). This are either operated manually (locally or remote controlled) or automatically with a voltage regulator; the voltage control range is limited (approximately 10%) and on discrete steps (about 1%). The time response is in the order of minutes, with 1-2 min. delays), due to ULTCs being implemented using electromechanical systems. These are typically used to control the load voltage side, and hence are used at subtransmission substations. Nowadays, power electronic switches are used, leading to Thyristor Controller Voltage Regulators (TCVR), which are faster voltage controllers and are considered Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS). These types of transformers are modeled using the same transformer models, but a may be assumed to be a discrete controlled variable through a voltage regulator with a dead-band.
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Transformers with special connections and under-load tap changers can also be used for phase shift control and are known as Phase Shifters . These control the phase shift difference between the two terminal voltages within approximately 30, thus increasing the power capacity of a transmission line (e.g. interconnection between Ontario and Michigan). Phase shifters are modeled using a similar model but the tap is a phasor as opposed to a scalar: a=a
A equivalent circuit cannot be used in this case.

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Example: Single phase 8/80 kV, 30MVA transformer with Xl = 10% and Xm 10 Xl
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Three-phase Transformers
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Three-phase Transformers (cont.)

The 3 single-phase transformers form a 3-phase bank that induces a phase shift, depending on the connection:
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In balanced, normal systems, the net phase shift between the generation and load sides is zero, and hence is neglected during system analyses:
In these systems, the p.u. per-phase models of the transformers are identical to the equivalent single-phase transformer models.
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For smaller transformers (e.g. load transformers), integral designs are preferred to transformer banks:
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Saturation
The magnetization inductance Lm changes with the magnetization current due to saturation of the magnetic core. Saturation occurs due to a reduction on the number of free magnetic dipoles in the enriched core. This results in the core behaving more like air than a magnet, i.e. magnetic conductivity decreases. Its typically represented using a piece-wise linear model.
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Saturation (cont.)
The magnetization inductance Lm changes with the magnetization current due to saturation of the magnetic core.
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Single-phase Transmission Line

A lossless line can be represented using a series of lumped elements:
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Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

The equations for this line are:
These are DAlambert equations with solution:
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where
Distributed parameter equivalent circuit:
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Example:
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Phasor model from the distributed line model:
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The solution to this set of linear dynamical equations is:
where
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This can be converted into the equivalent circuit:
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Three-phase Transmission Line
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Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Typically the phase wires are bundled (e.g. 4 wires/phase) and the guard wires are grounded at every tower, i.e. correspond to the neutral. For a total of N wires, the per unit length equations are:
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In phasor form, these equations are:
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The line parameters zij and yij can be computed using Carsons formulas:
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The [z] parameters depend on the line frequency , i.e. this is a frequency dependent model. These number of conductors, and hence equations, can be reduced based on the following observations:
The voltage of all Nb conductors in a phase bundled are at the same voltage (e.g. v1 = v2 = L = vNb = va). The current in each phase is shared approximately equally by each conductor in the bundle (e.g. i1 = i2 = L = iNb = ia/Nb). The voltage in the guard wires is zero (e.g. vg = 0).
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This reduces the matrices to:
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A line is transposed to balance the phases. The length of the barrel B must be much less than the wavelength (s/f 5,000 km @ 60 Hz B 50 km):
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The phasor equations can be diagonalized using eigenvalue (modal) analysis techniques:
There are N modes of propagation, one for each eigenvalue.

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Diagonalization of a 3-phase transposed line:
Sequence transformation: Vopn = Ts-1 Vabc Iopn = Ts-1 Iabc
Similar for [yopn] = Ts-1 [yabc] Ts.

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o transformation:
Vo = T-1 Vabc Io = T-1 Iabc
Similar for [yo] = TT [yabc] T.

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These simplifications lead to the following per-phase (positive sequence), per-unit length formulas:
where:
Dm is the GMD of the 3 phases:
Rb' is the GMR of the bundled and wires:
Rb is the GMR of the bundled:
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Example 1
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 1 (cont.)
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Example 2
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Example 2 (cont.)
Line data:

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4 Drake wires per phase Nb = 4 927 kcmil = 469.8 mm2 ACSR, 24 Al/13 steel, 3 layers R = 0.554 in = 1.407 cm R' = 0.425 in = 1.080 cm rdc = 0.1032 /mile = 0.0645 /km rac@25C = 0.1061 /mile = 0.0663 /km rac@100C = 0.1361 /mile = 0.0851 /km d = 200 km f = 60 Hz = 377 rad/s
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Example 2 (cont.)
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Example 2 (cont.)
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Example 2 (cont.)
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Example 2 (cont.)
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Cables
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Cables (cont.)
Single phase and three-phase cables:
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Model for a single-phase cable:
Cables (cont.)
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Loop equations:
Cables (cont.)
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Cables (cont.)
These impedances are calculated using the formulas:
Cables (cont.)
For asymmetric cables a finite element method is needed to compute these impedances.
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Cables (cont.)
From the relations between loop voltages/currents and node voltages/currents, the node equations are:
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Cables (cont.)
For a three-phase cable made of 3 single-phase cables:
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Transmission System Modeling: Transformers

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Transmission System Modeling: Transformers

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Transmission System Modeling

Detailed model. Phasor models.

Distributed parameter model. Reduced models.

The basic characteristics of this device are:

The equivalent circuit is:

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

The phasor equivalent circuit is:

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

A equivalent circuit cannot be used in this case.

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transformers (cont.)

Three-phase Transformers (cont.)

Three-phase Transformers (cont.)

Three-phase Transformers (cont.)

Three-phase Transformers (cont.)

Single-phase Transmission Line

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

These are DAlambert equations with solution:

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Distributed parameter equivalent circuit:

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Single-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

There are N modes of propagation, one for each eigenvalue.

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Sequence transformation: Vopn = Ts-1 Vabc Iopn = Ts-1 Iabc

Similar for [yopn] = Ts-1 [yabc] Ts.

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Vo = T-1 Vabc Io = T-1 Iabc

Similar for [yo] = TT [yabc] T.

Three-phase Transmission Line (cont.)

Rb' is the GMR of the bundled and wires:

Rb is the GMR of the bundled:

Single phase and three-phase cables:

Model for a single-phase cable:

These impedances are calculated using the formulas:

For a three-phase cable made of 3 single-phase cables:

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