Wood, Bailey: Elementary Calculus

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
BY
FREDERICK
AND
S.
WOODS
BAILEY
FREDERICK
PIlOlfMSSOUS
H.
0V MATHEMATICS IN THK MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GINN AND COMPANY

ItORVOK
NI3W
YORK
ATLANTA
AM.A8
LONDON OHtCAGO SAN PBANOISOO COLUMBUS
COPYRIGHT,
1922,
BY FREDERICK
WOODS
AND FREDERICK H BAILEY

ALL BIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THB UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I
82611
153
GINN AND COMPANY PROPRIETORS BOSTON V.S.A.

.
>
PKEFACB
This book
is
adapted to the use of students in the
first
year
in technical school or college, and is based upon the experience of the authors teaching calculus to students in the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology immediately upon entrance. It is accordingly assumed that the student has had college-
entrance algebra, including graphs, and an elementary course in trigonometry, but that he has not studied analytic geometry. The first three chapters form an introductory course in
which the fundamental ideas of the calculus are introduced, including derivative, differential, and the definite integral, but the formal work is restricted to that involving only the polynomial. These chapters alone are well fitted for a short course of about a term.
The definition of the derivative is obtained through the concept of speed, using familiar illustrations, and the idea of a derivative as measuring the rate of change of related
quantities is emphasized. The slope of a curve is introduced This is designed to prevent the student from acquiring the notion that the derivative is fundamentally a geometric
later.
concept. For the same reason, problems from mechanics are prominent throughout the book. With Chapter IV a more formal development of the subject begins, and certain portions of analytic geometry are introduced as needed. These include, among other things, the straight line, the conic sections, the cycloid, and polar coordinates.
The book
tions,
the student.
work,
and is found
contains a large number of well-graded exercises for Drill exercises are placed at the end of most seca miscellaneous 'Set of exercises, for review or further
at the end of each chapter except the first.
ui
iv
PREFACE
Throughout the book, the authors believe, the matter is presented in a manner which is well within the capacity of a firstyear student to understand. They have endeavored to teach the calculus from a common-sense standpoint as a very useful tool. They have used as much mathematical rigor as the student is able to understand, but have refrained from raising the more difficult questions which the student in his first
course
is
able neither to appreciate nor to master.
Students who have completed this text and wish to continue their study of mathematics may next take a brief course in differential equations and then a course in advanced calculus, or they may take a course m advanced calculus which includes differential equations. It would also be desirable for such students to have a brief course in analytic geometry, which may
either follow this text directly or come later. This arrangement of work the authors consider preferable to for a long time common in American colleges the one by
in higher algebra and analytic geometry precede the calculus. However, the teacher who prefers to follow the older arrangement will find this text adapted to such a program.
which courses
F. S.
WOODS H BAILEY
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
SECTION
1
I.
EATES
PAGE
.
Limits
1 3
2
3.
Average speed True speed

Algebiaic method Acceleiation
....
4.
5 G
Rate of change
....... ........
.
....
...
.
5 8
.11
.15
18
20
CHAPTER
7
8.
II.
DIFFERENTIATION
. .
The
derivative
Differentiation of a polynomial Sign of the derivative
...
.
.
...
.... ....
Velocity and acceleration (continued) 11 Rate of change (continued) 12 Graphs 13 Real roots of an equation 14 Slope of a straight line
10
....
.
...
... ... ....

... ...
21 24
27
30
....
.
.31
36
15 16
17.
Slope of a curve
...
The second derivative Maxima and minima

Integration
.39
. .
41 44
18
19
...
.
Area
Differentials
47
50
.
20
21.
...*...
...
Appioximations
General exercises
....
III.
. .
.
...
. . . .
53
.
.55
CHAPTER
22.
SUMMATION
Area by summation
23. 24.
general summation problem 25. Pressure
The The
definite integral
....
...
.
00
62
.66
68
26
Yolume
71
General exercises
...
T
76
vi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV. ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
PAGE
SECTION
27 Distance between two points

28. Circle 29.
...
...
79 79
Parabola
...
...
.
. .
....
...
.
81
83
30 Parabolic segment
81. Ellipse
85
Hyperbola Other curves 34 Theorems on limits 35. Theorems on derivatives

33.
32
87 91
.
....
...
.
.93
94
36.
Formulas
37 Differentiation 38 Tangent line

39.
...
of implicit functions
101 102 104

106
The
differentials dx, dy, ds
40.
Motion in a curve
...
...
.
107 Ill
113
41. Related velocities
and rates
General exercises
CHAPTER
42. Circular
V.
.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
measure
....
.
.
.
43
45.
Graphs of trigonometric functions

Simple harmonic motion
... ...
119 121 124
44. Differentiation of trigonometric functions
....
. .
127
130 131 185
46
Graphs 47 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions 48. Angular velocity

.
.
of inverse trigonometric functions
49.
The
cycloid
....
...
... ...
.
137
189
50. Curvature
51 Polar coSrdinates
53.
142
.
The
differentials dr, dO, ds, in polar coordinates . General exercises

.
146 149
CHAPTER
53.
VI.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

function
.
54.
The exponential The logarithm
....
154
154
159 163
55. Certain empirical equations 56. Differentiation 57.

.
.
The compound-interest law

General exercises
166
168
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
SECTION
58.
vii
VII.
SERIES
PAGE!
.
Power
series
series
172
173
.
59.
Maclaurm's
60. Taylor's
seuos
.
177
179
General exercises
...
CHAPTER
61
62.
VIII.
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
. .
.
Partial differentiation
181
184
Higher
partial denvatives
63. Total differential of
a function of two variables
185 191
64
Rate of change General exercises
...
.
.189
. .
CHAPTER
65. Introduction
. .
IX.
INTEGRATION
.
194
195
199
66. Integral of
un
67-68
69
Other algebraic integrands Integrals of trigonometric functions

.
...
.
205
.
70. Integrals of exponential functions
...
. . . .
71-72. Substitutions
207 208
212
216
73-74 Integration by parts

75
76.
Integration of rational fractions
...
Table of integrals General exercises
...
X.
.
....
APPLICATIONS
217 220
CHAPTER
77.
Review problems
...
. .
225
78. Infinite limits, or integrand 79. 80. 81. 82.
229
Area in polar cobrdmates
Mean
value of a function
of
....
.
230
233
Length
a plane curve
235
Work
General exercises
237
...
XI.
...
239
CHAPTER
83.
REPEATED INTEGRATION
84.
85.
Double integrals Area as a double integral

Center of gravity
.
...
.
244
246 249
yiii
CONTENTS
PAGE
. . .
SECTION
86
Center of gravity of a composite area
255
. .
.
87 Theoiems
88.
257
260
266 269 271
89
Moment of inertia Moments of inertia about

.
parallel axes
90
Space cooidinates 91. Certain sui faces

92.
Volume
.... ....
. . .
.
.
.277
282
283
.
93
94
Center of gravity of a solid Moment of inertia of a solid
General exeicises
286
291
ANSWERS
INDEX
315
ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
*
CHAPTER
RATES
1.
Limits.
is
Since the calculus
is
based upon the idea of a
limit it
Two
necessary to have a clear understanding of the word. examples already familiar to the student will be sufficient.
circle
In finding the aiea of a
plane geometry
it is
usual
to begin by inscribing a regular polygon in the circle. The area of the polygon differs from that of the circle by a certain
amount.
small
As
the
number
of sides of the
this difference
becomes
0,
less
and
less.
polygon Moreover, if
is
increased,
we
take any
can find an inscribed polygon whose area differs from that of the circle by less than e\ and if one such of polygon has been found, any polygon with a larger number area from the circle by less than e. The sides will still differ
number
we
area of the circle

inscribed polygon.
is
said to be the limit of the area of the
As
sion with
another example of a limit consider the geometric progresan unlimited number -of terms
The sum
1-J,
of the first
two terms
of this series
is
1,
the
sum
of the first three terms is If, the sum of the first four terms and so on. It may be found by trial and is proved in is
the algebras that the sum of the terms becomes more nearly are taken becomes equal to 2 as the number of terms which
greater.
e is
Moreover,
it is
it
may
be shown that
if
any small number
assumed,
the
of
sum n has thus been
of terms n so that possible to take a number of these terms differs from 2 by less than e. If a value
found, then the

1
sum
of a
number
of
terms
2
greater than
RATES
n
will
still
differ
from 2 by
less
than
number 2
is
said to be the limit of the
sum
of the first
e. The n terms
of the series.
In each of these two examples there is a certain variable namely, the area of the inscribed polygon of n sides in one case and the sum of the first n terms of the series in the other case
and a
certain constant, the area of the circle
and the number 2
respectively. In each case the difference between the constant and the variable may be made less than any small number e by
to be less than
taking n sufficiently large, and this difference then continues e for any larger value of n.
This
is
the essential property of a limit, which
may be
defined
as follows:
constant
A is
said
to be the limit
of a variable Xif, as
the vari-
able changes its value according to some law, the difference between the variable and the constant becomes and remains less than any
small quantity which
may
be assigned.
The
limit.
definition does not say that the variable never reaches its In most cases in this book, however, the variable fails to
do
so, as in
the
two examples already given. For the polygon

circle,
is
never exactly a
exactly
2.
nor
is
the sum. of the terms of the series

of
Examples may be given, however,
a variable's
becoming equal to its limit, as in the case of a swinging pendulum finally coming to rest. But the fact that a variable may never reach its limit does not make the limit inexact. There is nothing inexact about the area of a circle or about the number 2.
The student should

"
notice
remains" in the
definition.
the significance of the word If a railroad train approaches a
the difference between the position of the train and a point on the track opposite the station becomes less than any number which may be named but if the train keeps on by the
station,
;
station, that difference
does not remain small.
Hence there
is
no
limit
If
approached in this case. is a variable and A a constant which
X approaches as a
write
limit, it follows
from the
definition that
we may
X**A + e,
(1)
SPEED
a quantity (not necessarily positive) which made, and then will remain, as small as we please.
e is
where
may
be
Conversely, if as the result of any reasoning we arrive at a is a variable and A a constant, formula of the form (1) where and if we see that we can make e as small as we please and that it will then remain just as small or smaller as varies,
can say that A is the limit of X. It is in this way that we shall determine limits in the following pages. 2. Average speed. Let us suppose a body (for example, an automobile) moving from a point A to a point B (Fig. 1), a
we
distance of 100 mi
If the automobile takes 5 hr. for the trip,
we
are accustomed to say that it has traveled at the rate of 20 mi. an hour. Everybody knows B p Q
A
'
that this does not
mean
that the
'
'
automobile went exactly 20 mi. in each hour of the trip, exactly 10 mi. in each half hour, exactly 5 mi in each quarter hour, and so on. Probably no automobile
ever ran in such a
way
as that.
The
"
expression
20 mi. an
may be understood as meaning that a fictitious automobile would actually traveling in the steady manner* just described cover the 100 mi. in just 5 hr. but for the actual automobile " " 20 mi. an hour gives only a certain which made the trip,
hour
;
"
average speed. So if a man walks 9 mi. in 3
hr.,
3 mi. an hour. If a stone falls 144
ft.
he has an average speed of in 3 sec., it has an average
speed of 48 ft. per second. In neither of these cases, however, does the average speed give us any information as to the actual of its motion. speed of the moving object at a given instant
The point we are making is so important, and it is so often overlooked, that we repeat it in the following statement:
If a
"body traverses
a distance in a certain time, the average speed

is
of the body in that time
given ly the formula,

,
average speed
but this
= distance
time
at any formula does not in general give the true speed
given time.
KATES
EXERCISES
1.
A man
average speed
2.
runs a half mile feet per second ?
mm
and 3
sec.
What
is
his
A man walks
A
train
a mile
m 25 min.
What
is his
average speed in
yards per second ?

3.
What
4.
is its
600 ft. long takes 10 sec. to pass a given milepost. ? average speed in miles per hour
is
A
ft.
stone
thrown directly downward from the edge of a

seconds afterwards
it
vertical cliff
Two
the side of the
cliff,
and 4
sec
after
it is
296
down
the side of the
cliff
What
passes a point 84 ft down thrown it passes a point is the average speed of the
stone in falling between the two mentioned points ?

5.
A railroad train runs
on the following schedule
Find the average speed between each two consecutive

for the entire trip.
6.
stations
and
A body moves
What
is its
1 min.
four times around a circle of diameter 6 average speed in feet per second ?
ft in
block slides from the top to the bottom of an inclined 7. plane which makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal. If the top is 50 ft. higher than the bottom and it requires f mm. for the block
to slide down,
8.
what
is its
average speed in feet per second
Two roads toward C from a
intersect at a point
point 5 mi. distant from C starts along the speed of 3 mi an hour. Twenty minutes later other road toward C from a point 2 mi. away from G At what walk if he is to reach C at the same instant average speed must
starts along one road and walks at an average
that
9.
arrives ?
man rows
down
mi. farther
straight lines
across a river $ mi. wide and lands at a point the river. If the banks of the river are parallel
hr. to cross,
is
and he takes ^
what
is
his average speed
in feet per minute if his course
a straight line ?
SPEED
10.
running along a straight street at an average speed of 12 mi. per hour. A house is 50 yd. back from the car track and 100 yd. up the street from a car station. A man comes out of the house when a car is 200 yd away from the station What must be the average speed of the man m yards per minute if he goes in
a straight line to the station and arrives at the same instant as
the car ?
3. True speed. How then shall we determine the speed at which a moving body passes any given fixed point P in its motion (Fig. 1) ? In answering this question the mathema-
A trolley car is
tician begins exactly as does the
speeding. distance
He
PQ
policeman in setting a trap for and determines the takes a point Q near to and the time it takes to pass over that distance.
Suppose, for example, that the distance PQ is ^ mi. and the time is 1 min. Then, by 2, the average speed with which
the distance
is
traversed
is
mi.
= 30
hr
mi. per hour.
This is merely the average speed, however, and can no more than could the 20 mi. be taken for the true speed at the point an hour which we obtained by considering the entire distance A3. It is true that the 30 mi. an hour obtained from the
interval
PQ
is
was the 20
ini.
B than likely to be nearer the true speed at an hour obtained from AS, because the interval
PQ
is shorter.
last statement suggests a method for obtaining a still better measure of the speed at ; namely, by taking the interval is taken as still smaller. Suppose, for example, that
The
PQ
PQ
calculation shows that the the time is 6J sec. fa mi. and that was 36 mi. average speed at which this distance was traversed an hour. This is a better value for the speed at P. seen that we get a better value for the speed at Now,
having each time that we decrease the size of the interval PQ, we can find no end to the process except by means of the idea of a 1. We say, in fact, that the speed of a moving limit denned in
body at any point of its path
the limit
approached ly the average
RATES
at that point, the speed computed for a small distance beginning limit to be determined by taking this distance smaller and smaller. This definition may seem to the student a little intricate, and
shall proceed to explain it further. In the case of the automobile, which we have been using for an illustration, there are practical difficulties in taking a very small distance, because neither the measurement of the distance nor that of the time can be exact. This does not alter
we
the fact, however, that theoretically to determine the speed of the car we ought to find the time it takes to go an extremely minute distance, and the more minute the dis-
tance the better the result.
For example,
if it
were
possi-
ble to discover that an automobile ran
we
should be pretty safe in saying
^ that
in. in
-^^-g- sec.,
it
was moving
at
p
_p
a speed of 30 mi. an hour. Such fineness of measurement is, of course, impossible but if an algebraic formula connecting the distance and
;
is known, the calculation can be made as fine as and finer. We will therefore take a familiar case in which such a formula is known namely, that of a falling body. Let us take the formula from physics that if s is the distance through which a body falls from rest, and t is the time it takes
the time
this
to
fall
the distance
st
then
s
= 16* 3
(1)
and let us ask what is the speed of the body at the instant be the point from which the body when t SB 2. In Fig. 2 let falls, % its position when t 2, and 7 its position a short time later. The average speed with which the body falls through the
distance
PP
is,
by
it.
2,
that distance divided

shall proceed to
takes to traverse
We
by the time
it
make
several succes-
sive calculations of this average speed, assuming corresponding time smaller and smaller.
7^
and the
follows
it will be convenient to introduce a notation as Let ^ represent the time at which the body reaches 2?, and ta the time at which it reaches J%. Also let ^ equal the distance OP^ and a the distance OP Then s^-s^P^ and a
In so doing
:
SPEED
tf
is
the time
it
takes to traverse the distance
P^. Then the
average speed at which the body traverses Ufa

So
Si
is
(2)
Now, by the statement

Therefore, from (1),
of our particular problem,
1= 16 (2)
= 64.
assume a value of ta a little larger than 2, compute s from (1), and the average speed from (2). That having been a done, we shall take tz a little nearer to 2 than it was at first, and again compute the average speed This we shall do repeatedly,
shall
We
each time taking ta nearer to 2. Our results can best be exhibited in the form of a table, as
follows
:
ta
-L
656
.6416
2.1
70.56
.1
656
64.16
201
2 001
2.0001
646416
64.064016
64 00640016
01
.001
064016
.00640016
64 016 64 0016
.0001
It
is
fairly evident
i?
the time
smaller,
from the above arithmetical work that as ^ and the corresponding distance ss s become the more nearly is the average speed equal to 64.
3
x
Therefore we are led to infer, in accordance with 1, that the speed at which the body passes the point J$ is 64 ft. per second. In the same manner the speed of the body may be computed at any point of its path by a purely arithmetical calculation. In
the next section
we
shall
go farther with the same problem and
employ algebra.
EXERCISES
Estimate the speed of a falling body at the end of the third = 16 t z exhibiting the work in a table. second, given that s
1.
,
2.
Estimate the speed of the body in Ex. 1 at the end of the
fourth, second, exhibiting the
work in a
table.
8
3.
RATES
The
distance of a falling body from a fixed point, at, any th 100 16 t*. Estimate the speed of t is given by the equation s body at the end of the fourth second, exhibiting the work in a tab
4.
is
body
is
falling so that the distance traversed in the tiuu
10 1 Estimate tho speed of 16 1 2 given by the equation s 2 sec , exhibiting the work in a table. body when t
1,1
6.
its
body
is
thrown upward with such a speed that

is
a
.
at.
any
tin
distance from the surface of the earth
= 100 1
16
Estimate
its
given by tho equsitu speed at the end o a sexumd, exhibi
ing the work in a table.

6. The distance of a falling body from a fixed point a,t any tiin 50 -f- 20 1 16 1*. Estimate its spee given by the equation s at the end of the first second, exhibiting tho work in a table.
is
4. Algebraic
method.
possible to derive
In this section we shall show how it an algebraic formula for the speed, still con
i
fining ourselves to the special equation of motion is

s
example of the
falling
body whos<
= i.o
.,
2
.
^
(1
f
t
Instead of taking a definite numerical value for keep the algebraic symbol tr Then
wo
dial
get
Also, instead of adding successive small qimntit,ie,s to 2 , we shall represent the amount added by the al
is,
to
symbol^. That
and, from (1),
.
,
z== 16
2
Hence
This
is
*2
- ^ = 16^+ A) - 10 tf. 82
t
a general expression for the distance / V* in Ffj. Ti, and therefore the average speed with body traverses S is represented by tho expression
Now tz -t =
:
%P
It is obvious that
if
Ji
is
taken smaller and

limit,
age speed approaches 32 ^ as a
smidH
Iho nver-
In
i'aufc,
tho quantity
83^
ACCELEKATION
satisfies
is
9
1.
exactly the definition of limit given in

small,
For
if e
any number, no matter how

Ti
we have simply
to take
10
in order that the average speed should differ from 32 ^ by less than e ; and after that, for still smaller values of h, this
<e
d iff 01 once remains
less than
e.
have, then, the result that if the space traversed by a 1 ailing body is given by the formula
We
the speed of the body at any time
is
given by the formula
It
may
be well to emphasize that this

s
is
not the result which
would be obtained by dividing
by
t.
EXERCISE
Find the speed in each of the problems in
explained in this section.
5.
3 by the method
Acceleration.
supposed to move so that time in seconds,
Let us consider the case of a body which is if s is the distance in feet and t is the
s
=t
we
(V)
if
Then, by
the
method
of
4,
find that
2
is
the speed in
feet per second,
=3i
t
We
v
see that
;
when
on.
= 1, v = 3
That
is,
when
= 2,
12
when
= 3,
find
= 27
and so
the body
is
gaming speed with each
second.
We wish
to find
how
fast it is gaining speed.
To
this out, let
us take a
specific time
(,-4.
The speed
at this time
we
2
call v lt so that,
by
(2),
i=
3 (4)
= 48 ft.
*
2
per second.
Take
then
v
=5;
ft.
= 3 (5) 2 ~ 75
per second.
10
RATES
48 = 27 units of speed in Therefore the body has gained 75 1 sec. This number, then, represents the average rate at which the body is gaining speed during the particular second considered. It does not give exactly the rate at which the speed
is is
increasing at the beginning of the second, because the rate
constantly changing. To find how fast the body
is
must proceed exactly as we did in That is, we must compute the gain
interval of time
gaining speed when ^ = 4, we finding the speed itself.

of speed in a very small time.
and compare that with the

t.= a
2
Let us take
4.1.
Then
and
= 50.43
of
^^=2.43.
the
Then
is
body has gained 2.43 units 2 43
speed hi
.1 sec.,
which
at the rate of
-~-
24.3 units per second.

2
Again, take
=4.01.
Then
and
v2
= 48.2403
at the rate of
^^=.2403,
gain of ,2403 units of speed in .01 sec.
is
A
'
.
=24.03
units per second.

in the
We
exhibit these results,

in a table:
and
one other obtained
same way,
4,1
60.43
.1
2.48
.2403
24.3
4.01
48.2403
.01
24,08
4.001
48.024003
001
.024003
24.003
is gaining speed is called its discussion suggests that in. the example before us the acceleration is 24 units of speed per second. But the
The
rate at
which a body
acceleration.
Our
unit of speed is expressed in feet per second, and so that the acceleration is 24 ft. per second per second.
we
say
KATE OF OHANG-E
By
the
11
method used
general formula take
in determining speed, we may get a to determine the acceleration from equation (2).
,
,
We
Then
and
va = vz ~Vi=
rate at
The average
which the speed
is
gamed
is
then
h,
and the
limit of this, as
.
h becomes smaller and smaller,
is
obviously 6tt
This is, of course, a result which is valid only for the example that we are considering. general statement meaning of acceleration is as follows:
special of the
Acceleration
,.
= limit
,.
.,
of
in speed change . 5 change in time
EXERCISES
1.
If s
2. 3.
= 4 find the speed and the acceleration when t = #r If s = + find the speed and the acceleration when t = 2. If s = 3 t + 2 1 + 5, how far has the body moved at the end
1*,
8
rf
1*,
of the fifth second ?
With what speed does

3
it
reach that point, and
how
fast is the speed increasing ?

8
speed when
= 4 i + 2 1 + 1 + 4, find the distance traveled and the t = 2. 5. If s = $ t + 1 10, find the speed and the acceleration when t=z>2 and when t = 3. Compare the average speed and the average
4. If s
6 -t-
acceleration during this second with the speed at the beginning and the end of the second.
6.
and the acceleration
If s
7.
If
8.
If
= at + show that the speed is constant. show that' the acceleration is constant. at + to + s = at* + bt* + ct +/, find the formulas for the speed
&,
2 G,
and
the acceleration.
6.
Rate
may be
of change. Let us consider another example which solved by processes similar to those used for determining
speed and acceleration.
L2
KATES
stone
is
still water, forming ripples which from the center of disturbance in the form of circles Tig. 3). Let r be the radius of a circle and A its area. Then
thrown into
,ravel
A=irr.
"J
/-I
(1)
We wish to
adius.
If
a
compare changes
take r t
in the area
we
?*,
= 3,
is,
with changes
if
the
,hen
)f
i
^t
= 167T.
That
then A^ a change
3,
9 TT;
and
we
take
1 unit in
when
causes
change of 7 TT units in A. We are êmpted to say that A is increas-
ng
s
TTT
jefore
times as fast as r. But making such a statement it
well to see whether this law holds
'or all
'rom r1 =
changes
8,
r.
made
in
r,
starting
and especially for small

^ IQ
3
jhanges in
will again exhibit the calcuation in the form of a table. Here
We
^=3, A^Qnr, and

nuch
different
rz
3.
is
a variously assumed value
of r not
from
A,,- A!
1
ra
- rx
ITT
TT
9.61
TT TT
.1
.01 TT
01
.001
9.0601
.01
.0001
7T
6.01
IT
9,006001
001
000001
6 001
TT
column changes with the number to measure the rate at which A is 3hanging as compared with r at the instant when r = 3, we must bake the limit of the numbers in the last column. That limit is
in the last
if
a
The number
r^ Therefore,
we wish
abviously 6 TT. say that at the instant
changing 6
Is
is
when r 8, the area of the circle is times as fast as the radius. Hence, if the radius changing at the rate of 2 ft. per second, for example, the area changing at the rate of 12 TT sq. ft. per second. Another way
TT
We
of expressing the saine idea is to say that
when, r
ts 3, the rate
RATE OF CHANGE
of A
13
with respect to r is 6 TT. Whichever form of expresof change sion is used, we mean that the change in the area divided by the change in the radius approaches a limit 6 TT.
The number
r
TT
= 3,
with which
we
was, of course, dependent upon the value started. Another value of ^ assumed at
the start would produce another result. For example, we may compute that when rx = 4, the rate of change of A with respect to r is 8-rr; and when r^= 5, the rate is 10 ?r. Better still, we may derive a general formula which will give us the required
rate for
any value
this take
of
r^.
To
do
Then
and
SO that
A = TT (r* + 2 rji + A ) A - A = TT (2 r h + )
2
2 3
7i
A2
T 'z
A
V
= 2 TH* +
Ti
7i7T.
'l
is
The
limit of this quantity, as
taken smaller and smaller,
is
Hence we
see that from formula (1)
we may
is
derive the fact

2
TIT.
that the rate of change of
with respect to r
EXERCISES
In the example of the text, if the circumference of the circle winch bounds the disturbed area is 10 ft and the circumference is increasing at the rate of 3 ft. per second, how fast is the area
1.
increasing ?
2.
In the example of the text find a general expression for the
rate of change of the area with respect to the circumference.

3.
soap bubble
is
the radius of the bubble
expanding, always remaining spherical. If is increasing at the rate of 2 in. per second,
how
4.
fast is the
volume increasing ?
3 find the general expression for the rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius.
In
Ex
5.
area of
If a soap bubble is expanding as in Ex. 3, its surface increasing 9
how
fast is the
14
6.
BATES
In Ex. 5 find the general expression for the
rate of change
of the surface with respect to the radius

7.
cube of metal
is
expanding under the influence of
heat.
Assuming that the metal retains the form of a cube, find the rate of change at which the volume is increasing with respect to an edge. 8. The altitude of a right circular cylinder is always equal to the diameter of the base. If the cylinder is assumed to expand, always retaining its form and proportions, what is the rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius of the base ?
9. Find the rate of change of the area of a sector of a circle of radms 6 ft with respect to the angle at the center of the circle.
10. Find the rate of change of the area of a sector of a circle with respect to the radius of the circle if the angle at the center
7T
of the circle is always j.
What
is
the value of the rate
when
the
radius
is
in. ?
CHAPTER
II
DIFFERENTIATION
7. The derivative. The examples we have been considering in the foregoing sections of the book are alike in the methods used to solve them. shall proceed now to examine this
We
method so
In the
as to bring out its general character.
first place,
we
notice that
we have
to
do with two
quantities so related that the value of one depends upon the value of the other. Thus the distance traveled by a moving
body depends upon the time, and the area of a circle depends upon the radius. In such a case one quantity is said to be a function of the other. That is, a quantity y is said to be a
function of another quantity, x, if the value of y is determined ly the value of x. The fact that y is a function of x is expressed by the equation
y=/<v>,
and the particular value
value a
is
of the function
when x has
if
a definite
then expressed as /(a).
Thus,
f(x)
= x*- 3 aM-42j + l,
3
/(2)=2-3(2) +4(2) + l = 5, /(0)=0-3(0) + 4(0) + 1 = 1.

It is in general true that a change in x causes a change in the function y, and that if the change in x is sufficiently small, the change in y is small also. Some exceptions to this may be
noticed later, but this is the general rule. change in a; is called an increment of x and is denoted by the symbol Ao? (read " delta x "). Similarly, a change in y is called an increment of
y and
is
denoted by Ay.
For example, consider

15
16
DIFFERENTIATION
When
in
= 2,
# = 12.
When
a?
x is
.1,
and the change
is .71,
=2.1, y = 12.71. The change and we write
Aa = .l,
So, in general, of #, then
if
Ay = .71.
a;,
a^ is
xs,i
one value of
and xz a second value

(1)
Ax =
xl1
or
#2=0^4- Are;
of y, then
and
if
yx and y 2 are the corresponding values
ty=yz -Vv
The word
<*
y2 =ya 4Ay.
(2)
increment really means "increase," but as we are dealing with algebraic quantities, the increment may be negative when it means a decrease. For example, if a man invests
$1000 and
wealth
is
at the
end
$200.
is
If he has
increment
$200.
of a year has $1200, the increment of his $800 at the end of the year, the So, if a thermometer registers 65 in the
is
morning and 57
at night, the increment
,8.
The
incre-
ment
the
is
always the second value of the quantity considered minus

value.
first
Now, having determined increments of x and of y, the next step is to compare them by dividing the increment of y by the increment of x. This is what we did in each of the three 3-6. In finding speed we began problems we have worked in
by dividing an increment of distance by an increment of time, in finding acceleration we began by dividing an increment of speed by an increment of time, and in discussing the ripples in
the water
we began by
dividing an increment of area by an

.
increment of radius. The quotient thus obtained
is -
Ax
That
is,
Ay _ increment
AJC
of
increment of
y _ change x change
in
y
x
3, 5,
An
examination of the tables of numerical values in
shows that the quotient
^ depends upon
it
the magnitude of
Asc,
and that
in each
problem
was necessary
to determine its limit
DEEIVATIVE
as
17
A#
approached
to x,
zero.
is
This limit
is
called the derivative of

-~-
with respect
and
denoted by the symbol
We
x
have then
fy = v ~ ax
limit oi
-j.
Ay = v limit Ax
,
of
change
.
in a v
.
change
in
At
present the student
is
to take the
symbol
-^ not as a
dx
fraction, but as one undivided symbol to represent the derivaLater we shall consider what meaning may be given to tive.
dx and dy
separately.
A
At
this stage the
form
-^ suggests simply
(%>*Xs
the fraction
^, which has approached a definite limiting value,
The
and
we
process of finding the derivative is called differentiation, are said to differentiate y with respect to x. From the
the process
1. 2.
8.
definition and from the examples with which we began the book, is seen to involve the following four steps :
The The
assumption at pleasure of Ax. determination of the corresponding Ay.

division of
The
The
3
Ay by
Aa: to
form -*-
Aw Ax
4.
determination of the limit approached by the quotient

as the increment assumed in step 1 approaches zero.
this
in step
Let us apply
method
x,
to finding
-J*-
when y
Let x t
be a definite value of
1.
and y,-
xi
7i.
the corresponding value of y.
Take
(1),
Ax =
Then, by
2.
x^x^h.
Then
(2),
^l^-J.;
Ay-
whence, by
11
T^ = Ax
.
.
3.
By J
division,
asf+AiS
18
4.
DIEFEBENTIATION
By
is
inspection
5
it is is
evident that the
limit, as
h approaches
zero,
which
the value of the derivative

of
when
x-=x*.
xl
But x^ may be any value
x ; so we
may drop the subscript
1 and
write as a general formula
dx
3?
EXERCISES
Pind from the definition the derivatives of the following
pressions
:
ex-
6.
y-rf + i.
2
2.
= *+2a*+i.
=
4
a:
-y=2+*
y
y
3.
y
i y
~a
8
.
7.
"+ \x*+ x - 5.
3a;2
=i ~~ x
=
~~
+1
a polynomial. We shall now obtain forwhich the derivative of a polynomial may be written down quickly. In the first place we have the theorem
8.
Differentiation of
of
mulas by means
The derivative of a polynomial

its
is the
sum of
the derivatives of
separate terms.
This follows from the definition of a derivative if we reflect that the change in a polynomial is the sum of the changes in its
terms.
We
more formal proof will be given later. have then to consider the terms of a polynomial, which
have in general the form #af. Since we wish to have general formulas, we shall omit the subscript 1 in denoting the first values of x and y. We have then the theorem:
If y =s
ax*)
where
is
a positive
integer
and a
is
a constant, then
(1) ^ '
dx
To prove
1.
this,
apply the method of
Take
Aa?=A;
jc
whence
= x + h.
POLYNOMIAL
2.
19
Then
y3
=ax2 = a(z + A)";
whence
Ay == a (x + A)"
are"
.4
3.
By
division,
= a(nx^- + n ^n ZA3/
l
.
~ 1^
j
tf-'h
>
+
as
+ A""
)-
By inspection, the limit approached by n ~l zero, is seen to be anx

4.
>
Ji
approaches
Therefore
~ = anx ~\ dx
n
as
was to be proved.
have a term of the form
ax.
The polynomial may

is
also
This
only a special case of (1) with w
= l,
but for clearness
we
say explicitly:
If y = ax, where a
is
a constant, then
dx
Finally, a polynomial
(2)
c.
may
have a constant term.
For
this
we have
If y
the theorem:
G,
where c
is
a constant, then
fÔ. ax
The proof of this is that as c no matter what the value of A
is
is.
(3)
constant, A<? is
always zero,
Hence
and therefore
=
ax
0.
As an example
of the use of the theorems, consider
We
write at once
^ ax
20
DIFFERENTIATION
EXERCISES
Find the derivative of each of the following polynomials s 1. 3.2 + a- 3. 6. x + 7 x 21 8
1
:
2.
3.
4.
5.
+2a; + l. 4 2 8 o: + 4a5 +6a; +4a; + x6 + |a:4 +2a;2 +3. 2 6 4 a; -4a: + a: -4a;

8
o;
7.
l.
x*3
x*
- 14 + 4a - 1
as
8.
9.
aa
10. a
+ bx +
z
,
ca;
+ ex
.
6
.
9.
Sign of the derivative.
If ~ dx
i
is positive,
value of
x causes an increase in the value of y.
an increase in the dy is negative, If dx
an increase in the value of x causes a decrease in the value of
y.
To prove
this theorem,
is
let
us consider that
-jj-
is
positive.
Then, since ~dx
the limit of
->
it
follows that
is
positive
for sufficiently small

positive,
ky
is
values of Aa;; that is, if A# is assumed also positive, and therefore an increase of x
y.
causes an increase of
Similarly,
if
Aw
that
if
-j-
is
negative,
it
follows
that
of
is,
is
negative for sufficiently small values of Aa:
Arc is positive, A?/
must be negative, so that an increase
causes a decrease of y.
In applying this theorem it is necessary to determine the In case the derivative is a polynomial, this may be conveniently done by breaking it up into factors and
sign of a derivative.
considering the sign of each factor. It of the form x a is positive when x
is
obvious that a factor

greater than
a,
is
and
negative
than a. Suppose, then, we wish to determine the sign of

is
when x
less
There are three factors to consider, and three numbers are imnamely, those which make one of the factors equal to zero. These numbers 3, 1, and 6. arranged in order of size are
portant
;
We have the four cases 1. x< 3. All factors

:
are
negative
and the product
is
Dative.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

2.
21
< x < 1,
6.
The
first
factor is positive
and the others

and the
is
are negative. 3. 1 x
is
Therefore the product
< < > 6.
The
first
two
is positive. factors are positive
last
negative.
4.
Therefore the product is negative. All factors are positive and the product
of the use of the theorem, suppose
s
positive.
As an example
and ask
for
we have
#=X what values
- 3;y*-Q x + 27,
increase in y.
We
of x an increase in y will cause an form the derivative and factor it. Thus,
a
^==3a //*
-6a3-9==3(a: + r)(a;-3).
Proceeding as above, we have the three cases:

1.
x<
1
1.
-^
dx
3.
is
_
positive,
and an increase in x therefore
increases y.
2.
,
<x<
_
-^
dx
is
negative,
and therefore an increase in x

in
decreases y.
3.
a;
> 3.
-^
is
positive,
and therefore an increase
in-
creases y.
These results
the derivative.
may
be checked by substituting values of x in
EXERCISES
Pind for what values of x each of the following expressions will increase if x is increased, and for what values of x they will decrease if x is increased
:
1.
a!
2. 3.
-4aj + 6. 3aa +10a; +

>
6.
7.
7.
8. 9.
xa - x*- 5x
1
+ Ssc-a:
8
je
2
.
4.
5.
7_3a._3a;2
2
+3a;
- 12 + 17.
10.
+5 + 6x +12a: + 8oj -3 6 + 60; + 6a - 2 12 - 12a - 6a; + 4a; +

2
8
.
The method by 10. Velocity and acceleration (continued). which the speed of a body was determined in 4 was in reality a method of differentiation, and the speed was the derivative of the distance with respect to the time. In that discussion, howwas positive ever, we SQ arranged each problem that the result
22
DIFFERENTIATION
and gave a numerical measure (feet per second, miles per hour, etc.) for the rate at which the body was moving. Since we may now expect, on occasion, negative signs, we will replace the word speed by the word velocity, which we denote by the letter v.
In accordance with the previous work, we have
da
*
The
words,
ical
a)
velocity, as
-,
distinction
is
between speed and
we
use the
simply one of algebraic sign.
The speed
is
the numer-
velocity
measure of the velocity and is always positive, but the may be either positive or negative.
9 the velocity is positive when the body so moves that with the time. This happens when the body moves in
is
From
s increases
the direction in which s

velocity is negative with the time. This
measured.
On
the other hand, the

decreases
when the body so moves that s happens when the body moves in
the direc-
which s is measured. For example, suppose a body moves from A to B (Fig. 1), a distance of 100 mi., and let P be the position of the body at a time t, and let us assume that we know that AP = 4 1. If we measure s from A, we have
tion opposite to that in
- = 4. = ds
whence
dt
On
the other hand,
if
we measure
from
J5,
we have
whence
"We will
4.
dt
now
define acceleration
by
the formula
dv
*=w
in full accord
with
or, since
is
found by
differentiating
s,
we may
write
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

where the symbol on the right
entiated
indicates that *
is
23
to be differ-
twice in succession.
The
result
is
called a second
derivative,
acceleration means that the velocity is increasing, must be remembered that the word increase is used in the algebraic sense. Thus, if a number changes from 8 to
A positive
it
but
5, it
algebraically increases, although numerically

if
it
decreases.
Hence,
a negative velocity
is
is
increased, the speed is less.
Simi-
larly, if
the acceleration
but if the velocity is There are four cases of combinations of signs which
occur
1.
:
negative, the velocity is decreasing, negative, that means an increasing speed.
may
in which s
The body is moving in the direction measured and with increasing speed. 2. v positive, a negative. The body is moving in the direction in which s is measured and with decreasing speed.
v positive, a positive.
is 8. v negative, a positive. The body is moving in the direction opposite to that in which s is measured and with decreasing
speed. 4. v negative, a negative. The body is moving in the direction opposite to that in which 8 is measured and with increasing
As an example, suppose a body thrown vertically into the air with a velocity of 96 ft. per second. From physics, if s is measured up from the earth, we have
From
this equation
we compute
v
= 96 - 32
t,
When t<
3,
is
positive
up with decreasing speed. When t > 3, v negative. The body is coming down with
and a is negative. The body is going is negative and a is
increasing speed. the other hand, suppose a body is thrown down from a if 8 is measured height with a velocity of 96 ft. per second. Then,
On
24
DIFFERENTIATION
the point from which the body
8
is
down from
from
thrown,
we
have,
physics,
= Wt+lQt*, = 96 + 32 = 32.
1,
from which we compute

v
Here v is always positive and a is always positive. Therefore the hody is always going down (until it strikes) with an
increasing speed.
EXERCISES
In the following examples and determine when the body s is measured and when in the
1. s
find the expression for the velocity is moving in the direction in which
opposite direction
3. s
2.
= t* 3t + 6. s = 10* - tf
5. s
4
25
4.
's
= t* Qt* + 24* + 3. = 8 + 12* - 6i + <

2
8
.
= expressions for the velocity periods of time during which

it is
2
In the following examples find the and the acceleration, and determine the
the velocity
6. s
is
increasing and those during which

8. s 9.
decreasing
7.
= 3z5-4i + 4 s = 1 + 5t - #.
10. s
= %t* 2 s = t* - 5t* + St + 1.
t
8
.
= 1 + 4 + 2t*
11. Rate of change (continued). In 6 .we have solved a problem in which we are finally led to find the rate of increase of the area of a circle with respect to its radius. This problem
is
typical of a good
many
others.
Let x be an independent variable and y a function of x. change Aa; made in x causes a change Ay in y. The fraction
compares the change in y with the change in
x.
For exam-
ple,
if Aa;
= .001,
y
is at
and
Ay = .009061,
then
'
we may
say that the
change
in
the average rate of
= 9.061
per unit
This does not mean that a unit change change in a? would actually make a change of 9.061 units in y, any more than the
in x.
RATE OF CHANGE
statement that an automobile
is
25 40
mi.
moving
at the rate of
an
hour means that
The
it actually goes 40 mi. in an hour's time. fraction then gives a measure for the average rate at
which y is changing compared with the change in x. But this measure depends upon the value of A#, as has been shown in the numerical calculations of 6. To obtain a measure of the
instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x which shall not depend upon the magnitude of A#, we must take the limit
of
~ Ax
as
we
did in
G.
We
have, therefore, the following definition
Tlie derivative
measures the rate of change ofy with respect to a\ -jax
Another way of putting the same thing is to say that if -^ has the value m, then y is changing m times as fast as x. Still another way of expressing the same idea is to say that the rate of change of y with respect to x is defined as
meaning
the limit of the ratio of a small change in y to a small change in x.
We
how
it
discussion,
will illustrate the above general and at the same time show
may be
practically applied,
by the
following example, which we will first solve arithmetically and then by calculus.
Suppose we have a vessel in the shape of a cone (Fig 4) of radius 3 in. and altitude 9 in. into which water is being poured at
the rate of 100 cu.
in. per second. Required the rate at which the depth of the water is increasing when the depth is 6 in.
FlG. 4
From
of water,
similar triangles in the figure,

its
,
if
h
-.
is
the depth of the
water and r the radius of
surface, r
.
If
Fis the volume
,^
We
are asked to find the rate at which the depth is increasing when h is C in. Let us call that depth so that 7^= 6. Then
26
DIFFERENTIATION
TT.
y=8
and
Now we
how
will increase
by successive small amounts

is
see
change
in
great an increase in V^ that is, how much water
must be poured
necessary to cause that in to raise
the depth by that amount. follows

.
The
calculation
may
be tabulated as
Ah
.1
AF
.407 IT
AT
A
4 07
/i
ir
01
.001
04007
TT
TT
4.007 v
0040007
4.0007 TT
numbers in the last column is evidently 4 TT. Therefore the volume is increasing 4 IT times as fast as the depth. But, by hypothesis, the volume is increasing at the rate of 100 cu. in. per second, so that the depth is increasing at the
limit of the
The
rate of 47T
= 7.96 in.
per second.
We
have solved the problem by arithmetic to exhibit again
the meaning of the derivative.

quicker.
The
1
solution
We
by calculus
is
much
begin by finding
dV
This
is
,3
aTe**'
with respect to
the general expression for the rate of change of A, or, in other words, it tells us that V is instanA.
taneously increasing \ rf times as fast as li for any given Therefore, when A = 6, V is increasing 4 TT times as fast as and as V is increasing at the rate of 100 cu. m. per second, A
A,
is
increasing at the rate of
= 7.96 in.
7T
per second.
EXERCISES
1.
An
of
icicle,
circular cone of
change
2.
which is melting, is always in the form of a right which the vertical angle is 60 Find the rate of the volume of the icicle with respect to its length.
is
which
series of right sections the vertical angle is 90
made
How
in a right circular cone of fast will the areas of the sec-
tions be increasing if the cutting plane recedes from the vertex at the rate of 3 ft. per second ?
GRAPHS
3.
27
being poured into a conical filter at the rate of 5 cc per second and is running out at the rate of 1 ce. per second The radius of the top of the filter is 10 cm. and the depth of the filter is 30 cm Find the rate at which the level of the solution is
solution
is
rising in the filter

4.
tical
when
it is
one fourth of the way* to the top.
peg in the form of a right circular cone of which the verangle is 60 is being driven into the sand at the rate of 1 m.
per second, the axis of the cone being perpendicular to the surface of the sand, which is a plane. How fast is the lateral surface of the
peg disappearing in the sand when the vertex of the peg below the surface of the sand?
5.
is
in.
trough
is in
the form of a right prism with its ends equi-
lateral triangles placed vertically The length of the trough is 10 ft It contains water which leaks out at the rate of cu ft per minute.
Find the
is
rate, in inches per
sinking in the trough
when
minute, at which the level of the water the depth is 2 ft.
6. A trough is 10 ft. long, and its cross section, which is vertical, a regular trapezoid with its top side 4ft. in length, its bottom side 2 ft and its altitude 5 ft. It contains water to the depth of
is
,
ft
and water
2
ft.
is
rate of
7.
per second.
is
A balloon
running in so that the depth is increasing at the How fast is the water running in ? in the form of a right circular cone with a hemi-
spherical top. The radius of the largest cross section is equal to the altitude of the cone. The shape and proportions of the balloon
are
rate of increase of the
assumed to be unaltered as the balloon is inflated. Find the volume with respect to the total height of
the balloon.
8. tric
A spherical shell
it.
with
The
radius of the iron ball
of ice surrounds a spherical iron ball concenis 6 in. As the ice melts,
how fast is the mass of the ice decreasing with respect to its
12. Graphs.
thickness ?
between a variable x and a function y may be pictured to the eye by a graph. It is expected that students will have acquired some knowledge of the graph in the study of algebra, and the following brief discussion is given for a review.
relation
The
Take two lines and 07 (Fig. 5), intersecting at right angles at 0, which is called the origin of codrdinates. The line called the axis of as, and the line 0rthe axis of y ; together
OX
28
DIFFERENTIATION
they are called the coordinate axes, or axes of reference. equal to any given value of x, measurlay off a distance
On OX
we
OM
ing
to the right if
From
value
M we
x is positive and to the left if x is negative. erect a perpendicular MP, equal in length to the
if
of y,
measured up
y is
The
point
P
is
thus determmed
positive and down if y is negative. is said to have the coordinates

It follows that the numerical
x and y and
denoted by
(x, y).
value of x measures the distance of the point P from OY, and the numerical value of y measures the distance of P from OX. The coordinate x is called the abscissa, and
the
coordinate
y the
ordinate.
It is
evident that any pair of coordinates

(x, y)
fix
point coordinates.
any
a single point P, and that has a single pair of
M
_,
-^
be
111
plotted
this
The point P is when its position
said to
is
fixed
is
way, and the plotting
conveniently carried out on

at pleasure pair of
paper ruled for that purpose into squares. If y is a function of x, values of x may be assumed
and
the corresponding values of
y computed. Then each
values (x, y) may be plotted and a series of points found. The locus of these points is a curve called the graph of the function. It may happen that the locus consists of distinct portions not connected in the graph. In this case it is still customary to say that these portions together form a single curve.
For example, r
let
y~bz
... _
ar.
(1)
y.
We assume
values of x and compute values of are exhibited in the following table

:
The
results
-i
'
2
6
4
4
2/-60
0-0
giving the result shown in
These points are plotted and connected by -a Smooth curve* F-ig. 6. This -curve should have the
GEAPHS
29
property that the coordinates of any point on it satisfy equation (1) and that any point whose coordinates satisfy (1) lies on the curve. It is called the graph both of the function y and
of the equation (1),
the curve.
and equation (1)
is
called the equation of
Of course we
coordinates
desired,
are absolutely sure of only those points
whose
is
we have
actually computed.
If greater accuracy
more points must be found
y
7
.
by assuming fractional values of x. For instance, there is doubt as to the

shape of the curve between the points
(2, 6)
/ \
'
and
(3, C).
#=2^- and
find
We take, therefore, = 6|. This gives

by use
of the
-1
>
4
(
us another point to aid us in drawing the graph.

calculus,
2
1
Later,
we can show
that this last
0^1
"
point is really the highest point of the curve.

gives us a graphical representation of the way in which y varies with x. see, for
(Fig. 6)
-2
-s
~4
The curve
"^
We
example, that
to
2,
when x varies from
increasing; that when x varies from 3 to 6, y is decreasing; and that at some point between (2, 6) and (3, 6), not yet exactly determined, y has its
is
largest value. It is also evident that the steepness of the curve indicates in some way the rate at which y is increasing with respect to x. For when # 1, an increase of 1 unit in x causes an
example,
increase of 6 units in
in x causes
while
when a =1, an
increase of 1 unit
y.
is
an increase
of only 2 units
m
-
therefore steeper
when x =
1 than
it
is
The curve when x = 1.
Now we
have seen that the derivative
measures the rate
ax
of change of y with respect to x. Hence we expect the derivative to be connected in some way with the steepness of the curve. *Hr. gs \%. and" 15. ^ QTL shaft tihmwfnro /iianr.. B'lore Lib USc
We
515N22 in IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIII
Q 13838 ~
30
1
DIFFERENTIATION
EXERCISES
:
Plot the graphs of the following equations

1.
2. 3.
= 2x -|-3. 2x + 4. y=
y y
5.
is
4.
5.
6.
= y=
?/
2
a;
-5a;
2
a;
+4
a;
+ 6. +8
a; 2
.
7.
8.
3 a;
9.
= 8 = x* y = 8
y
zc
j/
4aj
a:
1.
10.
What
values are assigned to
the effect on the graph of y mx 3 if different ? How are the graphs related ? What
does
this indicate as to the
meaning of
is
m?
y
11.
What
is
the effect on the graph of
= 2x + J
is
if
different
values are assigned to b ?

12.
What
the meaning of & ?
Show by
similar triangles that
= mx
always a straight
line passing through 0.

13.
By the use
of Exs. 11
and 12 show that y
= mx + b is
always
straight line
13. Real roots of an equation. It is evident that the real roots of the equation f(x) determine points on the axis of x at which the curve y=f(x) crosses or touches that axis. More-
and/(
are two values of x such that f(x^) 2( t 2) ) are of opposite algebraic sign, the graph is on one side of the axis when x x and on the other side when ic a; .
over,
if
x1 and
<* =
i,
must have crossed the axis an odd number of times between the points x = zl and x = xz Of course it may have touched the axis at any number of intermediate points. Now, if
Therefore
it
.
1 f(x) has a factor of the form (x a) the curve y =/(#) crosses the axis of x at the point x = a when k is odd, and touches the axis of x when k is even. In each case the equation /(#) is said to have Jc equal roots, x a. Since, then, a point of crossing corresponds to an odd number of equal roots of an equation, and a
,
point of touching corresponds to an even number of equal roots, it follows that the equation f(x) = has an odd number of real
roots between x^ and xz if /(#,) and / (:c2) have opposite signs. The above gives a ready means of locating the real roots of
an equation in the form /(z) = 0, for we have only to find two values of x, as xl and a? for which f(x) has different signs. 2 then know that the equation has an odd number of real roots
,
We
STEAIGHT LINE
,
31
between these values, and the nearer together xl and #2 the more nearly do we know the values of the intermediate roots. In locating the roots in this manner it is not necessary to construct the corresponding graph, though
it
may
be helpful.
Ex. Find a real root of the equation Xs + 2 x 17 = 0, accurate to two decimal places. 3 Denoting x + 2 x 17 by f(x) and assigning successive integial values
to x,
we find/(2) = 5 and/(3) = 16 Hence there is a leal root of the equation between 2 and 3. We now assign values to x between 2 and 3, at intervals of one tenth,
as 2
1, 2 2, 2.3, etc., and we begin with the values nearei 2; since /(2) is nearer zeio than is/(3). Proceeding in this way we find jf (2.3) = 233 and/(2 4) = 1.624 hence the root is between 2.3 and 2.4.
,
diedth,
Now, assigning values to a? between 2 3 and 2.4 at intervals of one hunwe find /(2.31) = - .054 and /(2.32) = 127, hence the root as
between 2 31 and 2.32. To determine the last decimal place accurately, we let x = 2.315 and = .037. Hence the root is between 2 31 and 2 315 and is 2.31, accurate to two decimal places If /(2 315) had been negative, we should have known the root to be between 2 315 and 2.32 and to be 2 32, accurate to two decimal places.
find /(2.315)
EXERCISES
Find the
a8
real roots, accurate to
:
two decimal
places, of the follow-
ing equations
1.
+2a;-6 = 0.
4.
5. 6.
j*- 4a8 + 4
8
a:
= 0.
2.
3.
a8 + o;+ll
- 3ic2 + 60: - 11 = 0.
*-lla:
+ 6 = 0.
Let
14. Slope of a straight line. straight line not parallel to
LK (Figs.
OY, and
7 and 8) be any
OX GS
let J? (a^,
y^ and
P (#
2
2,
move
points on it. If we imagine a point to on the line from 1 to P^ the increment of x is #2 x and
y3 ) be any two
the increment of y is ratio of the increment ofy
P y^y^ We
to the
shall define the slope as the

it
increment ofx and denote
by m.
We
have then, by
definition,
82
DIFFERENTIATION
A
if
geometric interpretation of the slope

JFJ
we draw through
xl =
line
line parallel to
then xz
PE
1
OF, and
For is easily given. a line parallel to OJf, and through J^ a and call R the intersection of these lines,
y^y^RP^
:
Also,
if
is
the angle
which the
makes with
OX measured
tan 0.
as in the figure, then

C )
from the figures as well as from formula (2) that the value of m is independent of the two points chosen to define it, provided only that these are on the given line. We may thereIt is clear
fore always choose the
two
points so that
y^y^
is
positive.
EIG. 7
FIG. 8
7, up 2 a^ is positive and the slope is positive. If the line runs down to the is is negative. Therenegative and right, as in Fig. 8, xz o^ determines the general direction in fore the algebraic sign of
if
Then
the line runs
to the right, as in Fig.
which the
line runs, while the magnitude of determines the steepness of the line. Formula (1) may be used to obtain the equation of the line.
be given a fixed value and the point I^(x^ y^) be held but let Ji^ be allowed to wander over the line, taking on, therefore, variable coordinates (a?, y). Equation (1) may then be written (3) ^).
Let
fixed,
y-y^m(x-
the equation of a line through a fixed point (a^, y^ with a fixed slope m, since it is satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the line and by those of no other point.
This
is
STRAIGHT LINE
P^ (x^ y^) may dinates (0, i) in which the line cuts OY.
33
In particular,
be taken as the point with coor-
Then equation (3)

(4)
becomes
y = mx +
l.
or to OY intersects Since any straight line not parallel to somewhere and has a definite slope, the equation of any such line may be written in the form (4).
OX
OY
It remains to
examine
to
lines parallel either to
OX or to
the line
is parallel
OX, we have no triangle as
in Figs. 7
OF. and
If
8,
but the numerator of the fraction

fore say such a line has the slope
m
,
(1)
is
zero,
and we
there-
0.
Its equation is of the
form
(5)
y
since
it
consists of all points for which this equation is true. If the line is parallel to OY, again we have no triangle as in
Figs. 7
and
8,
but the denominator of the fraction in (1)

or that
is
zero,
and
m accordance with established usage we say that the slope of

is infinite,
the line
m=oo. This means
that as the position
of the line approaches parallelism with OY the value of the fraction
(1) increases without limit. equation of such a line is
The
(6)
x=
Finally
tion of the
a.
we
notice that any equa-
^ + 5y + (7=0
line
form
(7)
from the fact that always represents a straight line. This follows the equation may be written either as (4), (5), or (6). Tbe line (7) may be plotted by locating two points and
drawing a straight
through them.
Its slope
may
be found
The by writing the equation in the form (4) when possible. coefficient of x is then the slope. If two lines are parallel they make equal angles with OX.
Therefore,
if
and
are the slopes of the lines,
we
have,
from
If
(2),
m
it is
=m,.
<
(8)
^> s
two
lines are perpendicular
respectively with OX,
and make angles <^ and evident from Fig. 9 that a = 90+
34
DIFFERENTIATION
tan $ == ~
cot
whence
slopes of the lines,
$ = we have
Hence,
if
m^ and
are th
if equation (8) is satis they are parallel, and that if equation (9) i satisfied, they are perpendicular. Therefore equations (8) am (9) are the conditions for parallelism and perpendiculant
It is
easy to show, conversely, that

lines,
fied
by two
respectively.
Ex.
(1, 2)
1.
and
and
(2,
- 3)
is
Find the equation of a straight line passing through the pom parallel to the straight line determined by the two points (4, 2
by the two points
(4, 2)
By
(2,
(1) the slope of the line determined g 2 5
am
_ _
3)
=-
line is
Therefore, by (3), the equation of the requiiei n i\ 2 = R /
i (a;
- 1),
which i educes to
2y
0.
Ex. 2. Find the equation of a straight and perpendicular to the line 2 a: 3 ?/ + 7
line
through the point
=
.
(2,
The equation of the given straight line may be written in the forn which is form (4). Therefore m = y = 3x + Accordingly, by (0) the slope of the required line is By (3) the equation of the requim
,
line is
which reduces to
3x
2y
= -|(a;-2), - 0.
Ex. 3. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the poinl 3 = anr 3, 3) and the point of intersection of the two lines 2 a? y
The coordinates
of the point of intersection, of the
two given
lines
musl
satisfy the equation of each line. Therefore the codrdinates of the poinl of intersection are found by solving the two equations
The
result is (1,
- 1)
simultaneously,
We now
(- 3,
3)
have the problem to pass a straight line through the points

(1,
and
Therefore,
by
1). By (1) the slope of the required line is (3), the equation of the line is
J*
+ 1 = - 1.
which reduces to
+ y = 0.
STRAIGHT LINE
EXERCISES
1.
(2,
35
- 3)
2.
3, 1)
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through with the slope 3
3.
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through with the slope $ Find the equation of the straight line passing through the
(1,
points
4.
4)
and
(f ,
).
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the - 3). points (2, 3) and (- 3, 5. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (2, 2) and making an angle of 60 with OX.
point Q,
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the of 135 with OX. |) and making an angle ^7. Find the equation of the straight hue passing through the = 0. point ( 2, 3) and parallel to the line x + 2 y + 1
6.
8.
point
9.
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the 12 =0. 2, 3) and perpendicular to the line 3 a; + 4 ?/ Find the equation of the straight line passing through the and parallel to the straight line determined by the two )
(f,
point (,
points
10.
|)
and
(J,
(i
~
11.
Find the equation of the straight

(2,
line
i) an(^ perpendicular to the straight line 1)

/? is
(<j!>
passing through determined by the
points
and (-
3, 5).
If
<
the angle between two straight lines which make angles

<
#j and
to Fig 9
with OX, prove from a diagram similar 2 > <j) respectively = m^ and tan = w prove by that /3 = 2 r If tan
<f>
tj> z
a,
trigonometry that
tan
12.
ft
l
.
+ m Wj
f 2
Find the
angle between the
lines
2?/-fl=;0 and
Find the angle between the lines 2x 4^ + 5 = and 6= 0. y 14. Find the angle between the lines y = Sas + 4 and a?H-3y-f-7=0. 15. The vertex of a right angle is at (2, 4) and one of its sides passes through the point (- 2, 2). Find the equation of the other side. 16. Find the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line
13.
36
DIFFERENTIATION
15. Slope of a curve.
Let (Fig. 10) be any curve serving as the graphical representation of a function of a\ Let 1\ be any point on the curve with coordinates y; l OM^ //,= yl/j/J. TU\o
An
l^xM^ and
M in QÔQ LiiixajUco
*T*
draw the perpendicular J/a /j, fixing the point

coor1\/T
/a
'
on the curve with the

^jj""""
(iT(/T '-'' 2*
Q/
,yjj
"""
"
T*
-*'*j*j"
jr
^r>
Draw
Then
^J? parallel to OX.

W.M"..
/R
PR
7jj J5
= ArK.
M, 11
Jlf.,Pa
= A?/,
/
\a
r>t>
^V" /
/
is
-K
and
Ax
Draw
j,
straight line prolonging it to form a

J?
the
^
JT IU .
^
to
secant
Then, by
14,
-^
the slope of the secant J>8, and
be called the average slope of tho curve between the points JJ and P v To obtain a number which may be used for tho actual slope of the curve at the point / it is necessary to uso tho limit process (with which the student should now bo familiar), by which we allow kx to become smaller and smaller and the point Tho result is tho derivative z to approach P l along the curve.
may
of
The
with respect to #, and we have tho following result slope of a curve at any point u yiven, ly the value of tfo
:
derivative
-^
dx
at that point. f
process place, tho point / approaching t!u point Py it appears from the ligure thai, the secant 7A' approaches a limiting position 1{T. The line 1\T is called a tanymt to 1,lu> curve, a tangent Iriny then by deflnitwn the Una approached an tt
limit by a secant throuc/h two point* of the curve a tht* two point* coincidence. It follows that tho slope* of tho tangent is the limit of the slope of the secant, Therefore,
As
this limit
takes
approach
slope of a curve at
any point
in the
mme
an the dope of
tfta
*angent at that point,
SLOPE OF A CUEVE
From
If If
this
37
:
and
9 AVO
is
may
at once
the
deduce the theorem
the derivative
positive,
curve runs
up
to
the right.
the derivative is negative, the curve runs
down
to the right.
Jf
the derivative is zero, the tangent to the curve is parallel to OX. If the derivative is infinite, the tangent to the curve is perpendic-
ular
to
OX.
of x which
dif make ~~
The values
dx
ticular interest
zero or infinite are of par-
the plotting of a curve. If the derivative changes its sign at such a point, the curve will change its cliiection from down to up or from up to down. Such a point will
be called a turning-point. If y is an algebraic polynomial, its derivative cannot be infinite; so we shall be concerned in this
chapter only with turning-points for which
^ = Ax
They
Ex.
1.
0.
are illustrated
m
=
the two following examples:

12,
a;
Consider equation (1) of

y
5x
8
.
Plere
=5-2 ^ dx
a:
2^\2
=as a possible turningis
Equating
point
~ to zero
and solving, we have x
It is evident that
when x<\
negative Therefoie x = which the lattei changes

a high point of the
2 dx corresponds to a turning-point of the curve at

2
dx
positive,
and when
#>-
is
its direction
from up to down
It
may be
called
cmve
Ex.
2.
Consider
Here
-~- to
f
^ = |(* o
(IX
- 2* - 3) = |(a: - 3) (a + 1). o
Equating
zero
turning-points
From
and solving, we have x = 1 and x = 3 as possible dv the factored form of -^, and reasoning as in 9,
1,
we
see that
when y <
is positive
when
1< c < 8,
^r
is
negative
38
DIFFERENTIATION
3, is positive.
when x >
points,
1 and x = 3 give turmngTherefore both x dx the former giving a high point, and the latter a low pointSubstituting these values of x in the equa-
tion of the curve, we find the high point to be lj 4f ) and the low point to be (3, |).
(
The graph
It
is
is
shown
in Fig 11
to be noticed that the solu-
tions of the equation ^
do not
dx
always give turning-points as illustrated in the next example.

Ex.
3.
Consider
Here
Solving
= xz dx
= (x
3)
= 0, we have x = 3 but since the derivative is a perfect dx never negative Therefore x = 3 does not give a turning-point, although when x = 3 the tangent to the curve is parallel to OX. The curve is shown in Fig. 12.
;
square, it
is
The
at
a point
let
(
equation of the tangent to a curve is easily written down (a^, yx )
We
-^
represent the value of

,,
.
-^
dx
at
VaaJ/!
the point (a^, yx ).
Then
m = f-^j,
and,
I,
from (3),
14, the equation of the tangent is
Ex.
4.
Find the equation of the tangent at
(1,
1) to the curve
We have
dx
and
Therefore the equation of the tangent
is
wljich reduces to
0.
SECOND DERIVATIVE
also follows that if $ is the angle which (2), the tangent at any point of a curve makes with OX, then
14,
it
From
EXERCISES
Locate the turning-points, and then plot the following curves
1.
2/
:
2.
3.
'
2/
= 3a -f-4a: + 4. ?/=3 + 3a!-2a; = -3a: -j-4.

a a 8
4.
5. 6.
2/
2/
ce
?/
= - 6 # + 9 + 3. = (2o; + 3a: -12a;- 20) = 2 + 9ce -f 3a;a x*

a-
a;
7.
at the point for

8.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y which x = 2
2x
2
as
-f-
a2
8
at the point for
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 2/=l+3a: which x = 1.
3a;
a8 9. Find the points on the curve y the tangents to the curve have the slope 6
10.
+ 3a:
3a;
+1
at
which
Find the equations of the tangents

s
to the curve
= x + 2x* - x + 2
OX
2x
which make an angle 135 with

11.
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y =a58 -f-a;a which are perpendicular to the line 3: + 2y + 4 =
12.
Find the angle

2
-}- as
8
oj
2 at the points for which x

derivative.
of intersection of the tangents to the curve 1 and x 1 respectively.
16.
is
The second
The
and
derivative of the derivative

is
called the second derivative
indicated
by the symbol
-=-(]
ax \dx/
or
We -, ax*
means
is
have met an illustration of this in the
case of the acceleration.

derivative
We
wish to see
now what
the second
for the graph.
Since
~
dx
equal to the slope of the graph, -we have

d*y
dor
(slope). j& ^ -=dx
,
,
40
DIFFERENTIATION
From
this
and
we have
the following theorem
If the second derivative is positive, increases and if the second derivative creasing as x increases.
;
the slope is increasing as x is negative, the slope is de-
We
may
accordingly use the second derivative to distinguish
between the high turning-points and the low turning-points of

a curve,
If,
as follows:
a,
-
when x
=
d
-jCu3s
and
-r
is positive, it is
evident that
-^
dx
/7
is
increasing through zero
hence,
when x <
a,
du -~
<lr
is
nega-
tive,
is
and when x
> a,
is
positive.
The
9.
point for which x
=a
therefore a low turning-point,

Similarly,
if,
by
when x =
is
d'ii
a,
-^-
and
J
d^y -~
;
is
negative,
it
is
evident that
j
du -&
CbX
decreasing through zero
hence,
when x
<
a,
and when x > a, -?- is negative. The point for dx dx which x = a is therefore a high turning-point of the curve, by 9. These conclusions may be stated as follows:
-Z- is positive,
If
is
-j^
and
-=-*
"^
is positive at "
rlai
a point of a curve, that point
a low point of
the curve.
If
is
-JCliK
and
-~
ClX
fjîtl
is
negative at
point of a curve, that point
a high point of
the curve.
In addition to the second derivative, we may also have

fourth, and higher derivatives indicated
etc.
third,
d^ti
by the symbols
d?u
-,'{>
'^
These have no simple geometric meaning.
EXERCISES
Plot the following curves after determining
points by the use of -^ and
-r
:
tlieir
high and low-
dx
dor
3.
= 3a;
=7
18x
3a- H- 4,r8
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

17.
is
41
Maxima and minima.
If
f(a)
is
a value of
/()
which
greater than the values obtained either by increasing or by decreasing x by a small amount, /(ff) is called a maximum value
of f(p). If /() is a value of /(#) which is smaller than the values of f(j) found either by increasing or by decreasing x by
a small amount, /(a) is called a It is evident that if we place
minimum value
of /(a?).
of this equation, a maximum value of /(of) occurs at a high point of the curve and a minimum value at a low point. From the previous sections we have, accordingly,
and make the graph
the following rule for finding
maxima and minima:
To find
the values of
x which give
maximum
or
minimum
lvalues
of y, solve the equation
^=
dx
0.
If x
=a
it
:
is
whether
gives a
a root of this equation, it must bo tested to see maximum or minimum, and which. have
We
two
tests
TEST
through
-~(K&
I.
If the
then
sign of
-^
Cv*&
changes from
to
as
increases
a,
&=a
to
(jives
maximum
value of y.
If
the sign of
changes
from
as
increases through a, tJien
x=a
gives
a minimum value of y.
TEST
gives a
II.
H'U If x = a makes -^ = dx
dîi and -~~
netHttive.
y -~ =
ty^fj
then
#=#
,
do*
maximum
x
, /y
value of y,
Jf x
ff *aj
a mal(e
y.
and
-~~.
cfj
positive, then
a gives a minimum value of
Either of these tests

It
may
applied according to convenience, be noticed that Test I always works, while Test II fails
d\i
if
---^
CtJs
may be
to give information
possible
when x
a.
It
is
also frequently
by the application of common sense to a problem to determine whether the result is a maximum or minimum, and
neither of the formal tests need then be applied.
42
Ex.
1.
DIFFERENTIATION
a square from rectangular box is to be formed by cutting the resulting each, corner of a rectangular piece of cardboard and bending 20 in by 30 m., of cardboard The dimensions of the piece being figure.
required the largest box which can be made. Let x be the side of the square cut out. Then,
if the cardboard is bent of the box are 30 - 2 x, along the dotted lines of Fig 13, the dimensions 2 x, x. Let V be the volume of the box. 20
Then
p=
7V
dx
(20
-2
a:)
(30
- 2 *)
a;
8Q&3D
"j
-.
= 600
- 200 x + 12
2.
------1
Equating
fiy ___ to zero,
we have
13
whence
= 25
= 3.9
3.9
or 12
7.
The
result 12.7 is impossible, since that
fiom the side of 20 in The result and the tests are to be applied.
amount cannot be cut twice corresponds to a possible maximum,

form
To apply Test
we
write
dV
dx
in the factored
when
it
appears that
dV ax
changes from
to
as x increases through 3.9
Hence x
= 3.9
gives a
II
maximum
we
find
value of V.
To apply Test
The
x
dsV
dyr
= - 200 +
24 x and substitute x
= 3.9.
result is negative.
The maximum
=s 3.9
Therefore x = 3.9 gives a maximum value of V. value of V is 1056 + cu. in., found by substituting
in the equation for V.
altitude
is
A piece of wood is in the form of a right circular cone, the and the radius of the base of which are each equal to 12 in. What the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that can be cut from
Ex. 2.
wood, the axis
of the cylinder to coincide
this piece of the cone ?
with the axis of
Let x be the radius of the base and V its volume. Then
of
the required cylinder, y
its altitude,
V= vx*y.
(1)
We
it
cannot, however, apply our method directly to this value of V, since involves two variables x and y. It is necessary to find a connection
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
43
between x and y and eliminate one of them. To do so, consider Fig. 14, which is a cross section of cone and cylinder. From smiilai triangles we have
FE _AD EC DC'
t
that18'
whence
12
x.
Substituting in (1),
we have
whence
dV
dx
24 vx
irx*.
dV
Equating dx
x
to zero
and
solving,
we
find
evidently not a solution of the problem, but x = 8 is a possible
or
8.
The value x =
is
solution.
Applying Test
dx
(IX
I,
we
find that as
x increases through the value

Applying Test
II,
8,
changes
its
sign from
to
we
find that
24 ir
6 irx is negative
when
= 8.
Either test shows that x
corresponds to a
expression for V.
maximum
We
value of V. To find have V = 256 ir cu. in.
V substitute
=8
in the
EXERCISES
1.
A A
piece of wire of length 20 in.
is
bent into a rectangle one
side of
which
is
a:.
Find the maximum,
area.
2. gardener has a certain length of wire fencing with which to fence three sides of a rectangular plot of land, the fourth side being made by a wall already constructed. Required the dimensions of the plot which contains the maximum area. 3.
gardener
of a circle.
is to lay out a flower bed in the form of a sector If he has 20 ft. of wire with which to inclose it, what
radius will he take for the circle to have his garden as large as
possible ?
20 and altitude 10 a recFind the rectangle of maximum area. 6. A right circular cylinder with altitude 2 as is inscribed in a sphere of radius a. Find the cylinder of maximum, volume,
4.
In a given
isosceles triangle of base
tangle of base
is inscribed.
44
6.
DIFFEEENTIATION
A rectangular
to
be made out of
box with a square base and open at the top a given amount of mateiial. If no allowance
is
is
made
what
for the thickness of the material or for waste in construction, are the dimensions of the largest box that can be made ?
7. piece of wire 12 ft. in length is cut into six portions, two of one length and four of another Each of the two former portions is bent into the form of a square, and the corners of the two squares
are fastened together by the remaining portions of wire, so that the. completed figure is a rectangular parallelepiped Find the lengths
into which the wire
must be divided
so as to produce a figure of
maximum volume
8. The strength of a rectangular beam, varies as the product oE breadth and the squaie of its depth Find the dimensions of the strongest rectangular beam that can be cut from a circular cylindrical log of radius a inches
its
9. An isosceles triangle of constant perimeter is revolved about base to form a solid of revolution. What are the altitude and the base of the triangle when the volume of the solid generated is
its
maximum ?
10 The combined length and girth of a postal parcel is 60m. Find the maximum volume (1) when the parcel is rectangular with square cross section (2) when it is cylindrical
,
11.
A piece
of galvanized iron 5 feet long

I feet long.
and a
If
feet
wide
is to
be
bent into a U-shaped water drain
we assume
that the
cross section of the drain is exactly represented by a rectangle on top of a semicircle, what must be the dimensions of the rectangle and the semicircle in order that the drain may have the greatest
capacity (1) on top ?

12.
when
the drain
is
closed on top 9
(2)
when
is
it is
open
circular filter paper
10m.
in diameter
folded into a
it
right circular cone.

greatest volume
Find the height of the cone when
has the
differentiation.
18. Integration. It is often desirable to reverse the process of For example, if the velocity or the acceleration
of a
moving body
;
traversed
or
if
is given, we jftay wish to find the distance the slope of a curve is given, we may wish to
find the curve.
INTEGKATION
The
45
inverse operation to differentiation is called integration, and the result of the operation is called an integral. In the case of a polynomial it may be performed by simply working the
formulas of differentiation backwards.

integer and
,
Thus,
if
is
a positive
then
The
is
first
term
of this
formula
is
is
justified
by the fact that
if it
differentiated, the result
justified
by
exactly aa?. The second term is the fact that the derivative of a constant is zero.
may have any value whatever and cannot be determined by the process of integration. It is called the constant of integration and can only be determined in a given problem by
The
constant
show how
Again,
special information given in the problem. this is to be done.

if
The examples
will
^=
dx
;/
then
= ax + C.
n=
0.
(2)
This
is
only a special case of (1) with

if
Finally,
ax
= a r + a^" +
n
l
+ an ^x + an
C8)
Ex.
line
1.
The
velocity v with
which a body
is
moving along a straight
AB (Fig. 15) is given

far will the
*
by the equation
15
How
If
time from
=2
to
= 4?
body move in the
J'IG.
when
=2
.
the body
is
at
(IV
Pv
and
1
if
when
=4
it is
at
PB we
,
are
to find
P,PS
By
hypothesis,
-j
s
= 10 + 5.
Therefore
- B i* +
C.
(1)
46
have
first to
DIFFERENTIATION
determine C. If
t
s la
measured from
s
P v it follows that
when
2>
o.
Therefore, substituting in (1),
we have
C;
whence
and (1) becomes
= 8(2) 2 + 5 (2) + C=-42, 3 s = 8 + 5 - 42.

i
(2)
This is the distance of the body from P l at any time /. Accordingly, il> remains for us to substitute t = 4 (2) to find the loquiied distance 1\I\, _ 2 Thei e results _ 42 _ 106>
If the velocity
is
in feet per second, the required distance
is
in foot.
Ex. 2. Required the curve the slope of which at any point is twice the abscissa of the point.
By
hypothesis,
=
-jCIX
2x
(1)
Therefore
= JB* + C
curve whose equation can be derived fiom (1) by giving C a definite value satisfies the condition of the problem (Fig. 16) If it
Any
is required that the curve should pass through the point (2, 3), we have, from (1),
whence
3 = 4 + <?; C = 1,
of the curve is
and therefore the equation
PICK 10
But
whence
if
it is
required that the curve should pass through

(1),
8, 10),
we have, from
10
and the equation
is
= 9 + C; C = 1, 2 +1 y=
EXERCISES
In the following problems v a moving body at any time t
l.
is
the velocity, in feet per second, of
If v
= 32 1 + 30,
how
far will the
body move
in the time
from
AEEA
2.
47
from
3.
= 3 1* + 4 1 + 2, how far will the body move in the time = 1 to = 3 f If v = 20 + 25, how far will the body move in the fourth
If v
t
second
4.
If v
21
?
+ 4,
1,
how
far will the
body move in the

v
fifth
and sixth seconds

5.
6.
If v
192
32
how
far will the
body move before
curve passes through the point (1, 1), and its slope at any point (x,y) is 3 more than twice the abscissa of the point. What is its equation ? 2 7. The slope of a curve at any point (aj, 4, and y) is Go; + 2x the curve passes through the point (0, 6) What is its equation ?
8. The slope of a curve at any point (x, 3# jc2, and y) is 4 the curve passes through the point ( 6, 1). What is its equation ? 9. curve passes through the point (5, 2), and its slope at any
point
10.
(05,
y) is one half the abscissa of the point

(x, y) is
2
a;
What is its equation ?

its
A curve passes
any point
through the point ( 2, 4), and 1. What is its x equation ?
slope at
19. Area. An important application of integration occurs in the problem of finding an area bounded as follows Let US (Fig. 17) be any curve with the equation y =/(&), and
:
leitkED
and
BC
be any two ordinates.
It is required to find the
area bounded by the curve RS,
the two ordinates J3D and J3C, and the axis of x.

dinate between
Take -MP, any variable orMD and J3<7,

let
and
area
us denote by
the
EMPD
MP.
bounded by the
Q
jj
curve, the axis of #, the fixed ordinate J8I>, and the variable
jf
jUlG J7
jy"
-^
ordinate
It is evident that as values
are assigned to ing values of
a;
=OJf,
different positions of
MP and corresponda function of x for
are determined.
-r
Hence
is
which we will find
dA
ax
48
DIFFERENTIATION
corresponding ordinate NQ.
is
Take MN=Ax and draw the Then the area MNQP=&A. If L
the length of the longest and NQ, and s is the length ordinate of the curve between of the shortest orduiate in the same region, it is evident that
MP
A#
< Au4 < LAa;,
for
L&x
is
the area of a rectangle entirely surrounding AJ, and the area of a rectangle entirely included A^t.
is
Dividing by A&, we have

s
. <
A.1
Aa;
r < i.
JVQ approaches coincidence with MP, which are always between NQ and MP, approach coincidence with MP. Hence at the limit we have
Aa; approaches zero,
*
As
and hence
and
L,
~ = MP^ y =/(*).
Therefore, by integrating,
(1)
A=F(x) + C,
where F(x)
derivative
is
(2)
is
used simply as a symbol for any function whose

find C.
/(#)
is
We
must now
ED, the area
zero.
Let OE = a. That is, when
When MP
coincides with
x=
a,
A=
0.
we have C=
whence
F(a),
and therefore (2) becomes
^=^(00-^(0).
Finally, let us obtain the required area JSBCD. If
will
(8)
OB
we
ft,
thin
be obtained by placing x
=b
in (3).
Therefore
have,
finally>
JFta).
(4)
AEEA
49
In solving problems the student is advised to begin with formula (1) and follow the method of the text, as shown in the following example:
Ex. Find the area bounded by tho axis of ordmates x = 1 and x = 3.
In Fig 18,
x,
the curve y
z ^x , and the
BE is
=
the line x
= l, CD
is
the line x
= 3, and the required
area is the a.re&J3CDE Then, by (1),
~dx
X*'
8
whence
'
A ~ \x + C
a;
When = 1, A = 0, and therefore
whence
C=
-J,
and
Finally,
A=
when
x
a:
^
EXERCISES
s=3,
x,
Find the area bounded by the curve y and the lines x = 1 and a: = 3.
1.
= 4a
a;
2
,
the axis of
2.
axis of x,
3.
Find the area bounded by the curve y and the lines x = 2. 6 and x =
= s* + 8 + 18,
a;
,
the
axis of x,
4.
Find the area bounded by the curve y and the lines x = 1 and a; = 2 Find the area bounded by the curve y
.
= 1C + 12 x
xs the
a;
and the
axis of x.
5.
= 2x
6.
Find the area bounded by the axis of x and the curve

a;
2
.
Find the smaller of the two areas bounded by the curve x a the axis of x, and the line x = 1. 5 x*
,
7.
Find the area bounded by the axis of
x,
the axis of y,
and the
curve
8.
Ayx
605
+ 9.
= x*~ 2
3
Find the area bounded by the curve y

axis of x.
<taj
+8
and the
50
9.
DIFFERENTIATION
If
denotes the area bounded by the axis of y, the curve to OX, a; =/(y), a fixed line y b, and any variable line parallel prove that 7
10. If A denotes an area bounded above by the curve //=/(*")> below by the curve y (t, F(x), at the left by the fixed line x and at the right by a variable ordinate, prove that
20. Differentials.
of
Aa?
is
The
derivative has been denned as the limit
and has been denoted by the symbol
~.
clx
This symbol
the limit of a
it
in the fractional
form
to suggest that it
is
fraction,
but thus far
we have made no
attempt to treat
as
a fraction.
It
as
is, however, desirable in many cases to treat the derivative a fraction and to consider dx and dy as separate quantities.
To do
this it is necessary to define
dx and dy
in such a
shall
manner
that their quotient shall be the derivative.
begin by defining dx, when x is the independent variable; that is, the variable whose values can be assumed independently of any oilier
quantity.
shall call dxth& differential of x and define it as a change x which may have any magnitude, but which is generally regarded as small and may be made to approach aero as a
in
limit.
We
We
is identical
In other words, the differential of the independent variable with the increment of x ; that is,
dx
sss
A*.
(1)
After dx has been defined, it is necessary to define dy so that its quotient by dx is the derivative. Therefore, if y =/(V)
and
-j-
we have dx =/'(;),
t
dy
That
the differential of the function y is equal to the derivative times the differential of the independent variable x.
is,
DIFFERENTIALS
51
In equation (2) the derivative appears as the coefficient of dx. For this reason it is sometimes called the diff&renticd coefficient.
It
is
The
diff erential
important to notice the distinction between dy and Ay. dy is not the limit of the increment A#, since both
limit, zero.
dy and ky have the same
Neither
is
Ay equal
to a very
small increment A#, since it generally differs in value from Ay. It is true, however, that when dy and Ay both become small, they
by a quantity which is small compared with each of them. These statements may best be understood from the following examples
differ
:
Ex.
1.
Let
A be the area of
a square with
the side x so that
If
a;
is
increased by Ao;
= dx, A
is
increased
by A.4, where
A4 =
(a?
dxf
Now, by
so that A.I
(2),
- x* = 2 x dx + dA = 2zdx,
differ
2
(dx)
a.
&
FNJ. ig
by (dx)' Referring to Fig 19,. we see that dA is represented by the rectangles (1) (2), while A.4 is represented by the rectangles (1) and (2) together with the square (3) and it is obvious from the figuie that the square (8)
and dA
and
very small compared with the rectangles (1) and (2), provided djc is taken small. For example, if x = 5 and dx = .001, the rectangles (1) and (2) have together the area 2 z die = .01 and the square (3) has the
is
area .000001.
Ex.
2.
$ is
Let
- 16
s
,
where
If
t
the distance traversed by a moving body in the time
is
increased by Al
and, from
so that
= dt, we have As = 10 (t + dt)* - 1C & - 32 tdi + 16 (dt}\ ds = 32 dt (2),

1
;
As and
ds differ
pared with the term dt - .001, then 32 tdt = ,128, while 16

da is the distance
The terra 16 (rf/) is very small (dt) 4 BZtdt, if dt is small. For example, if f
by 16
z
com-
and
(eft)
.000016
throughout the time ning of the time dt.
In this problem As is the actual distance traversed in the time dt, and which would have been traversed if the body had moved dt with the same velocity which it had at the begin-
52
In general,
tion,
if
DIFFERENTIATION
y=f(%) and we make a graphical representawe may have two cases as shown in Figs. 20 and 21. &v = dx and RQ=ky, since HQ In each figure, WN = PR
the total change in y caused by a change of dx = M.N in x. PT is the tangent to the curve at P, then, by 15,
is
If
so that, by (2),
dy
= (tan HPT) (P7?) = R T.
M
FIG. 20
N
PIG 21
This shows that RQ = Ay is the change in y as the point JP is dy is supposed to move along the curve /=/(^') while RT is supposed to move the change in the value of y as the point along the tangent to that curve. Now, as a very small arc docs
In Fig. 20, dy < A#, and in Fig. 21 dy >&y; but in each case the difference between dy and Ay is represented magnitude by the length of QT.
not deviate
cally that
if
RQ
much from its tangent, it is not hard to see graphiQ is taken close to P, the difference between and RT, namely, QT, is very small compared with RT.
the point
more rigorous examination of the difference between the

lies
increment and the differential
outside the range of this
book.
EXERCISES
1.
If y
2. If
3.
= x - 3ic + ix + 1, = x + 4 - x* +
6
2
find dy.
6.-B,
find dy.
If
is
the volume of a cube of edge x, find both
AF and dV
and interpret geometrically.
APPROXIMATIONS
4.
53
find both Avl
If
is
the area of a circle of radius

1
r,
and dA.
Show
is
that A.4 is the exact area of a ring of width dr, and that dA the product of the inner circumference of the ring by its width. 5. If V is the volume of a sphere of radius r, find and dV.
AF
Show
dr,
that
A V is
dV
its
and that
6.
the exact volume of a spherical shell of thickness is the product of the area of the inner surface of
the shell by
If
thickness.
19,
is
the area described in
show that dA
= ydx
Show
geometrically
7.
how
this differs
from A/i
If
s is
and v the
8.
velocity,
the distance traversed by a moving body, t the time, vdt. How does ds differ from A& 9 show that ds
the numerical difference between .001, and 01, dx, dy and A?/, with successive assumptions of dx dx = .0001.
If y
5, find
=x
and x
9. If y x8 and x = 3, find the numerical difference between dy and Ay for dx = .001 and for dx = 0001 10. For a circle of radius 4 in. compute the numerical difference between dA and AJ. corresponding to an increase of r by .001 in.
11.
between
Eor a sphere of radius 3 ft. find the numerical difference dV and A V when r is increased by 1 in.
21. Approximations.
The previous
y
differs
section brings out the fact
from the increment of y by a very small amount, which becomes less the smaller the increment of x is taken. The differential may be used, therefore, to
that the differential of
make
tion
is
certain approximate calculations, especially when the questo determine the effect upon a function caused by small
changes in the independent variable.

following examples:
Ex.
1.
This
is
illustrated in the
Find approximately the change
in the area of a square of side
2 in. caused
by an
increase of .002 in.

of the square,
in.
the side.
Let x be the side
its area.
Then
A = x2
Placing x
2 and dx
=* .002,
and
dA =
2 xdx.
is
we
find
dA = .008, which
approximately
the required change in the area. If we wish to know how nearly correct the approximation is, we may com8 2= .008004, which is the exact change in A. Our pute A4 = (2.002) (2) approximate change is therefore in error by .OOOQOAj a very email amount.
54
Ex.
2.
DIFFERENTIATION
Find approximately the volume of a sphere of radius 1.9 in. The volume of a sphere of radius 2 in. is -^ TT, and the volume of the the change in the volume of required sphere may be found by computing
a sphere of radius 2 caused by decreasing its radius by .1. If r is the radius of the sphere and V its volume, we have
F=
Placing
r = 2
Tjr
and
d V = 4 vr*dr.
and dr
.1,
we
find
dV=
1.6
TT.
Hence the volume
of the required sphere is approximately
To
find
how much
this is in error
of the required sphere
we may compute exactly the volume by the formula
V=
The approximate volume
^7r(1.9)
is
9.1453
ir.
therefore in error by .0786
TT,
which
is less
than 1 per cent of the true volume.
EXERCISES
side of a square is measured as 3 ft. long. If this length is in error by 1 in , find approximately the resulting error in the area
1.
The
of the square.
2. The diameter of a spherical ball is measured as 2 in., and the in. has boon volume and the surface are computed. If an error of made in measuring the diameter, what is the approximate error in the volume and the surface ?
3. The radius and the altitude of a right circular cone are measured as 3 in. and 5 in. respectively. What is the approximate error in the volume if an error of in. is made in the radius ? What is in. is made in the altitude ? the error in the volume if an error of
4.
Find approximately the volume of a cube with 3.0002
in.
on
each edge.
5. The altitude of a certain right circular cone is the same as the radius of the base. Find approximately the volume of the cono if the altitude is 3.00002 in.
path, at any time
moving body from a fixed point of its 16 t a -f- 100 1 50. given by the equation $ the Find approximately distance when t s= 4.0004. 7. Find the approximate value of v? x 2 when x =s 1,0003.
6.
The
distance * of a
t,
is
8.
Find approximately the value of
as*
+ * + 4 when = .99989.
a
GENERAL EXERCISES
9.
55
that the volume of a thin cylindrical shell is approximately equal to the area of its inner surface times its thickness.
10. If
Show
is
the volume and

its
cone with radius of
base r and
1
V s=
7n ctn a and S
<s
= irr
its
the curved area of a right circular its vertical angle 2 a, show that
a thin conical shell
is
esc a Thence show that the volume of approximately equal to the area of its inner
surface multiplied by
thickness.
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the derivatives of the following functions from the definition
3
+ 2x
!
1
'
6.
'
VJB>
*
2.
4.
x
-
8.
Prove from the definition that the derivative of

C
is
C
9.
By
expanding and differentiating, prove that the derivative

8
of (2 x
10.
2
+ 5)
8
is
6(2a;
2
+ 5)
2
.
2
.
By expanding and
differentiating,
prove that the derivative
of (a of
+ 1)
is
6 a; (a
+ 1)
prove that the derivative a positive integer. 12. By expanding and differentiating, prove that the derivative 2 of (a; as) n is 2 nx(xi + a2)"- 1 , where n is a positive integer.
11.
(a;
By expanding and
differentiating,
+ a) n is n(x + a)"" +
where %
is
13.
when
14.
decreasing, as
Find when x*+ 8 a; 8 4- 24 a8 x increases.
+ 32 + 16
a-
is
increasing
and
when
is
decreasing, as
24 of 8 x* -f- 32 x Find when 9 x* x increases.
+ 11
is
increasing and
2
15. Find a general rule for the values of x for increasing or decreasing, as x increases.
16. Find a general rule for the values of x for increasing or decreasing, as x increases.
which
ace
+ bx + e
a?x
which x*
+1
is
17. right circular cone of altitude x is inscribed in a sphere of radius a. Find when an increase in the altitude of the cone will cause
an increase in
its
volume and when

make use
it will
cause a decrease,
* HINT, In these examples
of the relation
vA'vIt =
A-B
56
18.
its
is
DIFFERENTIATION
A particle
is
moving
distance x from a fixed point s t given by the equation x
in a straight line in such a manner that A of the straight line, at any time t,
&+
15
+ 100.
When
will the
particle
19.
t
be approaching A 71
-f-
moving body is given by the equation During what time will it be moving in a direction opposite to that in which s is measured, and how far will it move ? 20. If a stone is thrown up from the surface of the earth with a velocity of 200 ft. per second, the distance traversed in t seconds is 16 a Find when the stone moves given by the equation s = 200 1
v
The
velocity of a certain
10.
z5
up and when down

21. The velocity of a certain moving body, at any time t, is given 2 Find when thu velocity of the 8 1 + 12 by the equation v = t body is increasing and when decreasing.
moving body from a = 16 24 1 -f 9 2 f. and when velocity increasing decreasing ? When is its speed increasing and when decreasing ? 23. At any time t, the distance of a certain moving body from a
t,
22.
At any
time
the distance s of a certain
fixed point in
its
path
is
given by the equation s
tf
When
is its
fixed point in its path
When
is its
is given by the equation s t speed increasing and when decreasing ?
1* -j-
+1
24. A sphere of ice is melting at such a rate that its volume is decreasing at the rate of 10 cu in. per minute. At what rate is the radius of the sphere decreasing when the sphere is 2 ft. in diameter ?
25. Water is running at the rate of 1 cu. ft. per second into a basin in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone, the radii of the upper and the lower base being 10 in and 6 in. and
the depth being 6

it is
<.
in.
How fast
respectively,
is
the water rising in the basin
wluw
at the depth of 3 in. ?
26. vessel is in the form of an inverted right circular cone the vertical angle of which is 60. The vessel is originally filled with liquid which flows out at the bottom at the rate of 3 cu. in. per minutw.
At what
27.
the liquid
the point
28.
(2,
rate is the inner surface of the vessel being exposed is at a depth of 1 ft. in the vessel ?
of the straight line 6) with the slope
.
when
Find the equation

(4,
which passes through
- 3)
Find the equation and (- 3, 4).
of the straight line through the points
GENERAL EXERCISES
29.
(2,
57
Find the equation of the straight -4) and (2, 4).

3)
lino
determined by the points
30.
(1,
31.
(2, 7)
Find the equation of the straight line through the point, 2 y -f- 7 = and parallel to the line a? Find the equation of the straight lino tli rough the point and perpendicular to the lino 2 -f 4 // + 9 =
.
Find the angle between the straight and y + 3 x -f- 1 = 0.

32.
lines 2,r
-|-
3//
+H=
Find the turning-points of the following curves and draw the

graphs
33.
34.
35. 36.
y=3 as-ai" = 16c -40a- + 25

a
2/
2
}
(x
-4
as*
- 2).
5.
a:
37.
= a* - 6 a* - 15 x + 14. 9 +3 y=
y
3
3-
38.
=x+2
39.
Find the point of intersection of the tangents to the curve 2 a; x s at the points for which y = 1 and a? = 2
that the equation of the tangent to the curve y
point (x 1} y^)
is
respectively
Show Show
fi
o"
+ 2bx + G at the
40.
y y
= 2 (ca^-f
a
a
/;),
a,r,
0.
a
that the equation of the tangent to the curve y
a*
+ ax +
41.
at the point (a^,
ya )
is
(3
)*"
-|_ />.
Find the area of the
axes and the tangent to the curve

42.
-f-
triangle included between the coordintitc 8 at the point (2, 8). a; y
Find the angle between the tangents
a;
at the points the abscissas
of which arc
to the curve //=-2./'" 1 and 1
respectively.
43.
-+
4.x
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y 12 which has the slope 1.
;//
=s
xn
3 a;9
44. Find the points on the curve tangents are parallel to the lino x y
=3 = 0.
B
.r,
2
a*,
at which the
46. A length I of wire is to be cut into two portions which be bent into the forms of a circle and a square respectively.
1
aw
to
Show
that the
is
sum
of the areas of those figures will bo least

IT
:
when
the wire
cut in the ratio
4.
58
46.
DIFFERENTIATION
of a -frustum of a cone is 10 ft. long, the diameters of the bases being 4 ft. and 2 ft. A beam with a square cross section is cut from it so that the axis of the beam eoiuuidos with the axis of the log. Find the beam of greatest volume that can be so cut
A log in the
form
47. Required the right circular cone of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a given sphere.
48.
its
The total surface of a regular triangular prism is to be Jt. Find altitude and the side of its base when its volume is a maximum.
49.
A piece of wire 9
and
in.
long
is
length
three of another
into an equilateral triangle, connected by the remaining three
Each and the
cut into five pieces, two of ouo of the two equal pieces is bent vertices of the two triangles are
pieces so as to
triangular prism. volume ?

50.
How is the wire cut when the prism has the largest
form a regular
If
t is
feet per second, and v
time in seconds, v the velocity of a moving body in = 200 32 1, how far will the body move in
the
first
sec. ?
move
32 1, where v is the velocity of a moving If v = 200 body in feet per second and t is time in seconds, how far will the body
51.
in the fifth second ?
62.
A
A
any point is equal to 3 more than Find the equation of the curve.
53.
curve passes through the point (2, 8), and its slope at twice the abscissa of the point.
curve passes through the point

a
point
54.
is oj
2x
+ 7.
(0, 0),
and
a
s
its
slope at
any
llio
Find
its
equation.
Find
ao,
the area bounded by the curve
16 =
a
and
axis of
55.
15 a? 4. 3G the ordinates through the turning-points of the curve, and OX. a 56. Find the area between the curve y x and the straight
Find the area bounded by the curve y = 2 as8
+1
lint?
-f-
6.
a
the area between the curves y =* jc and 18 a8 y curve y ax* is known to pass through the point (h, Jc), Prove that the area bounded by the curve, the axis of a-, and the line x h is hk.
.
57.
Find
58.
The
59.
Compute
the difference between

5,
a circle of radius
&A and dA for the area 4 of corresponding to an increase of .01 in the radius.
GENERAL EXERCISES
60.
59
Compute
the difference between
of a sphere of radius 5,
AF and dV for the volume V corresponding to an increase of 01 in the
radius
61. If a cubical shell is formed by increasing each edge of a cube by dx, show that the volume of the shell is approximately equal to its inside surface multiplied by its thickness. 62. If the diameter of a sphere is measured and found to be 2 ft and the volume is calculated, what is the approximate error in the in has been made in obtaining calculated volume if an error of
,
the radius ?
63. A box in the form of a right circular cylinder is 6 in deep and 6 in. across the bottom. Find the approximate capacity of the box when it is lined so as to be 5 9 in deep and 5 9 in across the
bottom.
64.
rough wooden model

in. tall
is
gular pyramid 3
and 3
in.
form of a regular quadranon each side of the base. After it

in the
is smoothed down, its dimensions are all decreased the approximate volume of the material removed ?
by
.01.
What
is
65.
By
circle of radius 1.99.
use of the differential find approximately the area of a What is the error made in this approximation ?
C
8
6 66. Find approximately the value of a; + 4 and when x = 2.9998.
+ a when x = 3.0002
67.
68.
s
The edge of a cube is 2.0001 in. Find approximately its surface. The motion of a certain body is defined by the equation
+3 +9
i*
27.
in the interval of time
Find approximately the distance traversed from t = 3 to t = 3.0087.
CHAPTER
III
SUMMATION
Area by summation. Let us consider the problem to find 2 the area bounded by the curve y ^ # the axis of r, and the 3 (Fig. 22). This may be solved by the ordmates x = 2 and x method of 19 but we wish to show that it may also be considered
22.
, ;
as a
problem in summation, since the area is approximately equal
to the
sum
of a
number
We
first
divide the axis of
of rectangles constructed as follows : 3 into 10 parts, x between x 2 and x
each of which
we
call
A#, so that
Ax =
3
r
=.1.
If
xl
is
the
xa the second point, and so on, and point rectangles are constructed as shown in the figure, then the
of division,
altitude of the first rectangle is
(2)
that of the second rec-
tangle
first
2
is
z 2 =|(2. 1) 2 =.882, and so on.

is
2
The
area of tho
is
Aa; = |(2.1) A=.0882,
rectangle
2 ^(2) Ao;=.08, that of the second rectangle and so on.
Accordingly,
we make
s=
2,
the following calculation:
0^=2.1, #2 =2.2, z8 =2.3, z4 =2.4, aj =2.5, a a; =2.6, 6 z7 =2.7, z8 =2.8, tf=2.9,

.
%(xy&x= (z2 ) Az = l(xy&x= %(xy&x= O6) Aa= %(x^&x= |(r ) A^=

2 2
3 -|(2) Aa;= .08 .0882
.0968
.1058
.1152
.1250
.1352
.1458 .1508 -1G82
(z8 ) Aa;=
f
Ar=
approximation to the area. For a better approximation the axis of x between #= 2 and 05= 3 may be divided into 20 parts with Aa;= .05. The result is 1.241 8.
60
his is a first
ABJEA
If the base of the required figure is divided into Az .01, the sum of the areas of the 100
61
100 parts with
rectangles constructed
as
above
is
1.26167.
The larger the number of parts into which the base of the figure is
,
more nearly the required area obtained. In fact, the redivided, the
is
quired area
is
the limit
"~
approached as the number

of parts is indefinitely increased and the size of
Q
FIG. 22
A
Let
We
approaches zero. shall now proceed to generalize the
OEa
LK
(Fig. 23) be a curve with equation b. and OB It is re-
problem just handled. y =/(), and let
quired to find the area bounded
by the curve LK, the axis of #, and the ordmates at E and B. For convenience we assume
in the first place
that a
<b EB
E
MI
and that f(x) is positive for all values of x between a and b.
We
into
will divide the line
n equal
parts by placing
off the
Jf J/
Mj
M B
t
n
Let
and laying
FIG. 28
lengths EM^-
_ 1 J5=Aa: (in Fig.
23,n=9).
alsc
_ 1), and
.
.,
JfÂ*
parallel to
OX.
Then
/(a)Aa;=:the area of the rectangle

/(#].) AOJ
= the
/(*2) As? = the
area of the rectangle area of the rectangle
the area of the rectangle
62
SUMMATION
The sum
/(a) A* +/(aOA* +/(aA* +
.
.
.
+/(^_
)Aa;
(1)
is then the sum of the areas of these rectangles and equal to the area of the polygon EDR^R^ R^^^li^B. It is evident that the limit of this sum as n is indefinitely increased is the area bounded by ED, EB, BC, and the arc DC.
.
The sum (1)
is
expressed concisely by the notation
where
word
is
in
(sigma), the Greek form of the letter S, stands for the sum," and the whole expression indicates that the sum to be taken of all terms obtained from/(,)Aa; by giving to i succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ., n 1, where x ~a.
"
limit of this
The
sum
is
expressed by the symbol
C
Ja
where /is a modified form
of S.
Hence
/
i/a
/(#)<fa;
= Lim^/(a; )A:c=:
f
area
isO
It is evident that the result
is
not vitiated
if
ED
or J3C is of
length zero.
23.
The
definite integral.
We
have seen
in
19 that
if
is
the area
EBCD
of
22,
this
where F(x) is any function whose derivative is/(). Comparing with the result of 22, we have the important formula
r
Ja
The
is
limit of the
sum
(1),
22,
which
is
denoted by
Jn
C /(*) dx,
called a definite integral, and the numbers a and b are called
DEFINITE INTEG-KAL
68
the lower limit and the upper limit*, respectively, of the definite
integral.
On the
integral fined in
other hand, the symbol
f(x)dx
is
called an indefinite
and indicates the process of integration as already de18.
Thus, from that section, we have
+
G,
0,
and, in general,
f(x)dx=F(x)+
C,
where F(x)
We
x=
any function whose derivative is /(#) may therefore express formula (1) in the following rule
is
To find
b
the value of
x:
f(x)dx, evaluate \f(x)dx,
substitute
and
=a
successively,
and
subtract the latter result
from
the former. It is to
be noticed that in evaluating
f(x)dx the constant

is
of integration is to be omitted, because appears in the subtraction, since
if it
added,
it
dis-
In practice
it is
convenient to express
F^
Fâ) by the
symbol [^ ()]> so that
Ex.
area is
1.
The example
of
22
may now be
27
completely solved.
8
The required
10
The
quite different a limit (1).
student should notice that the word "limit" is here used In a from that in which it is used when a variable is said to approach
64
SUMMATION
The expression /(a;) dx which appears in formula (1) is called In the element of integration. It is obviously equal to dF(x). from 19 that fact, it follows at once
dA=ydx = f(x) dx.

In the discussion
positive,
of
is
22 we have assumed that y and dr are

positive.
so that
Fig. 23
dA
is
If
is
negative
that
if
is, if
the
curve
the product ydx is area found by formula (1) has a negative sign. Finally, if the area required
is
below the axis of x negative and the
and
dx
is
positive,
axis of x and partly above the is necessary to find partly below, it each part separately, as in the follow-
ing example: Ex.

2.
o
a;
curve y
Fmd =x
3
the aiea bounded by the 6 x and the axis of a-
it
Plotting the curve (Fig 24), we see that crosses the axis of x at the points
B (-2, 0), 0(0, 0), and C(3, 0). Hence axis of x and part of the area is above the shall find it part below. Accoidingly, we necessary to solve the pioblem in two parts,
first
and then finding that below

first
finding the aiea above the axis of x To find the
area
we
proceed as in
22, dividing
fox-
the area
each of
up into elementary rectangles which 8
FIG. 24
,
whence
- 6 *) dx A- C\x*- x*-Qx)dx = [I* - 3?

dA = ydx =
(a.
a;
jj
Similarly, for the area below the axis of x
we
find, as before,
dA
But in
for
tlx
z
=
G
xs
xs
negative and hence
this case y
= xs
jc
is
dA
is
negative,
we are making x vary fiom to 8, and therefore dx is positive, Tlioiofoie we expect to find the result of the summation negative. In faot,
we have
A-
-s
I J o
(X
- x* -
x^dx
[|
a:
as*
-^(3)-3(3)]-0 = -15i
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
aie asked to compute the total aiea bounded by the ciuve the axis of x, we discard the negative sign in the last summation aud
65
aud add
As we
5J and 15 f, thus obtaining 21 ^ s as the required result. If we had computed the definite integral
i
8
xz
a.)
dx,
is
we should have obtained the icsult 10 fy, which the two portions of area computed separately.
Ex.
3.
the algebraic
sum
of
Find the area bounded by the two curves y

(Fig 25)
f\
a; ,
"\
.r
and y
=8
a;
2.
We diaw the curves

?/ y
and
=x ra =8-
(.*-}
(2)
.8
and by solving their equations we

find that they mtcisect at the points
(2,
4)aud>3 (-2,4)
The reqiuiod area OP^JIPÔ is evidently twice the area OJ\liO, since both ciuves aie symmetiical with lespect to OY. find the area
Accoidmgly, wo shall
OP^BO and multiply it by 2. This lattei area may be found by subtracting the aic>a ON^PÔ from
the area ON^P-^BO, each of these areas being found as in the pievious example ;
or
we may proceed
as follows
Divide ON^ into n parts dx, and through the points of division draw
stiaight lines paiallol to
OY,
intersect-
ing both curves. Let one of those lines be M^ Q l Q 2 Through the ] 101 nts Q: and
(2 2
draw
straight linos parallel to
OX
to the right, thcnoby forming
%
until they
meet the next
vortical line
the rectangle
dA and may
of a point
Q^ = A/^
Thcicfore
aroa of such a rectangle may be takon as be computed as follows: its base is ih and ids altitude IH 8 u 2 .ca for M^Q^ is tho ordinato j j" M^Q,! = (8 )
Q^SQy, The
=8
on the curve
(2)
and J/j^ the ordinate of a point ou

,
,
(1).
A=
C \R
- 2 ra)
rl,r
=[83--
?,
3*]
Finally, tho required area is
2(10) = 21 }
66
SUMMATION
EXERCISES
1.
2
of x,
Find the area bounded by the curve 4 y 2 and x = 2. and the lines x Find the area bounded by the curve y = 1 and as = 3 x, and the lines x
a.
as
0, the axis
2.
= a?
7 X*
8a
+ 16
and
the axis of
3.
= 25 x
10 a;2
8 -f- oi
the axis of
4.
= 25 - a
5.
Find the area bounded by the axis of x and the curve

2
.
Find the area bounded by the curve

x.
y=4aj
4aj
-3 and
the axis of
6.
the curve y
7.
Find the area bounded below by the axis of x and above by = #8 4 a2 4 x + 16.
Find the area bounded by the curve y Find the area bounded by the curve 6 = 0. x-)-2y
x*
=4
as
Sec
9cc+18
and tho
and
the axis of #.
8.
+ 2y
aj
8=0
2
straight line
9.
straight line
10.
Find the area bounded by the curve 3y 2x + y 9 =
and the
two
curves y
Find the area of the crescent-shaped figure bounded by the = x* + 7 and y = 2 xz -f- 3 Find the area bounded by the curves 4y=sa3 a + 42/ 24 = 0.
o;
11.
4 a; and
a2
4o:
12.

y.
+3=
a
2/
2y and
the axis of
24.
The general summation problem. The formula
Ja
rf
F(a)
it
is
(1)
any function of x whatever, it may be graphically represented by the curve y =/(). The rectangles of Fig. 23 are then the graphical representations of the products f(z)dx, and the symbol
has been obtained by the study of an area, but a much more general application. For if f(x)
may be
given
Ja
f f(x)dx
GENERAL PROBLEM
represents the limit of the
6T
sum
of these products.
We may
accordingly say:
Any problem
formula (1).
which requires the determination of the limit of the

the type
sum of products of Let us

solved in
f(x) dx may
be solved
by the use of
illustrate this
by considering again the problem, already
from
18, of determining the distance traveled in the time t to t a body whose velocity v is known. Since t 3 by
ds
we have
which
is
"*#' ds = vdt,
approximately the distance traveled in a small interval Let the whole time from t = t^ to t = tz be divided into a number of intervals each equal to dt. Then the total distance traveled is equal to the sum of the distances traveled in
of time dt.
the several intervals
sum
of the several terms
as the size of
larger,
is
and hence is equal approximately to the vdt This approximation becomes better the intervals dt becomes smaller and their number
dt,
and we conclude that the limit of the sum of the terms vdt
the actual distance traveled
by the body. Hence we have,

I
if s
is
the total distance traveled,

a
vdt.
If,
now, we know v in terms of

If v
t,
Ex.
*
= 16 + 5,
1
find the distance traveled in the time
we may apply formula (1). from = 2 to

t
= 4.
We
have directly
s
= f *(16 + 5) dt =
1
[8
1*
*]
= 106.
EXERCISES
1.
At any time
the velocity of a moving body
is
3&
4-
1 ft.
second.
2.
3.
How far will it move in the first 6 sec.? How far will the body in Ex. 1 move during the seventh second ?
per
second,
t
At any time t the velocity of a moving body is 6 + 5 1 & ft. per Show that this velocity is positive during the interval from 1 to t f= 6, and find how far the body moves during that interval.
68
4.
SUMMATION
At any time
t
24 f +11 ft. the velocity of a moving body is 4)53 per second. During what interval of time is the velocity negative, and how far will the body move during that interval ?
6. The number of foot pounds of work done in lifting a weight in the product of the weight in pounds and the distance in feet through which the weight is lifted. A cubic foot of water weighs 021 lb. Compute the work done in emptying a cylindrical tank of depth 8 ft.
and radius 2 ft of work done in
lifting
considering it as the limit of the sum of the jnort'rt each thin layer of water to the top of the tank.
25. Pressure. It is shown m physics that the pressure on one side of a plane surface of area A, immersed in a liquid tit a, uniform depth of h units below the Kin-face of the liquid, is equal to wJul, where w is the weight of a unit volume of the liquid. This may be remembered by noticing that wliA is the weight of the column of the liquid which would be supported
"
by the area
A.
Since the pressure is the same in all directions, we can also determine the pressure on one side of a plane
surface which
is
^ IQ
2Q
perpendicular to the surface of the liquid
and
uniform depth. ABC (Fig. 26) represent such a surface and RS the line of intersection of the plane of ABC with the surface of the liquid. Divide ABC into strips by drawing straight lines parallel to Jttf. Call the area of one of these strips dA, as in 28, and the depth of
is
hence Let
not
at a
one edge h. Then, since the strip is narrow and horizontal, tho depth of every point differs only alightly from 7i, and tho pressure on the strip is then approximately wMA, Talcing P m tho
total pressure,
we
write
^p_
3*
total pressure is the sum of tho pressures on the several strips and is therefore the limit of the sum of terms of tho form whdA, the limit being approached as the number of tho
strips is indefinitely increased
The
and the width

/
I
of each indefinitely
decreased.
Therefore
P=
wlidA,
PEESSUKE
69
where the limits of integration are to be taken so as to include the whole area the pressure on which is to be determined. To evaluate the integral it is necessary to express both h and dA 111 terms of the same variable.
Ex. 1. Find the pleasure on one side of a rectangle BCDE (Fig 27), wheie the sides BC and ED aiu each 4 ft. long, the sides BE and CD are each 8 ft. long, immersed in watei so that the plane of the rectangle is
peipendiculai to the surface of the is paiallel water, and the side
BC
&
to the surface of the watei
and 2
ft.
below
at
is the line of interIn Fig. 27, section of the surface of the water
LK
and the plane
of the rectangle.
Let
M
E
^
N
D
LK
be the point of intersection of and BE produced Then, if x is
measured downward from
along
BE, x has the value 2

and
at the point x has the value 5 at the point E.
We now
divide
BE
draw straight
Therefore
Since
lines parallel
into parts dx, and through the points of division to BC, thus dividing the given rectangle
into elemental y rectangles such as
MNP.S
-
dA =
is
area of
MNR S = MN MS - 4 dx.
LK,
the pressure on the elementary
dx').
MN
at a distance x below
rectangle
MNRS is approximately wx(4:

P=
f 4 nxdx =
t/2 G
Accoidmgly, we have
and
[2
2 w(6) vxffe* ^
Ib
- 2 w(2) 2 = 42
20
For water,
w - 02 J
^ T.
Hence we have
finally
P = 2625 Ib. = 1 T% T
Ex. 2. The base CD (Fig. 28) of a triangle BCD is 7 ft., and its altitude from B to CD is 5 ft This triangle is immersed in water with its plane CD parallel to the surperpendicular to the suiface of the water and with face, and 1 ft below it, B being below CD Find the total pressure on one
side of this triangle.
of the triangle represent the line of intersection of the plane be per* Let of the water. Then B is 6 ft below distances measure will at and intersect pendicular to and denote them by x. Then, at the point B, from B in the direction
Let
LK
and the surface
LK
BX
LK
,
CD
T We
5.
BX
x has the value
and at
T, x
has the value
TO
SUMMATION F
Divide the distance BT into parts dx, and through the points of division draw straight lines parallel to CD, and on ouch of these linen n sire lower base construct a rectangle such as MNJR8, where J'l and
two consecutive points of division
onBX.
Then
L
G
\
BE = x, EF = dx,
and, by similar triangles,
CD
whence
BT
x
MN
and
Then
Since
dA = the
area of
MNRS =
it is
1
J xdx,
is C ft.
below LK, and
BE = x,
follows that
is (fl
- a;) ft.
below LK. Hence the pressure on the rectangle
approximately
war
dP = (&
/o
a"
?*)
(6
or)
w = (-V
?/JJK
rfj?,
/*"
= (105 to - iJA w) -
= JL^
- to
2010^
Ib.
Ii4 T.
EXERCISES
s/ 1.
gate in the side of a dam is in the form of a square, 4 ft. on a side, the upper side being parallel to and 1C It. bolow the surfaoo of the water in the reservoir. What is the pressure on the gate '(
2.
v*
Find the
total pressure
on one side of a triangle of base 6

the altitude
is
ft.
and altitude 6 ft., submerged in water so that and the vertex is m the surface of the water.
</
vertical
3.
Find the
altitude 6
and
the altitude surface of the water.

e base of
on one side of a triangle of base 4 ft. submerged in water so that the base is horizontal, and the vertex above the base and 4 ft, from tlio vertical,
total pressure
ft.,
uc.ijmg
an isosceles triangle is 8 ft. and the equal sidas The triangle is completely immersed in water, its baae and 6 ft. below the surface of the water, its altig perpendicular to the surface of the water, and its vertex ,uove the base. Find the total pressure on one side of the
6
ft.
allel to
triangle.
VOLUME
v
6.
71
Find the pressure on one side of an equilateral triangle, 6 It. on a side, if it is partly submerged in water so that one vortex is
one foot above the surface of the water, the corresponding altitude being perpendicular to the surface of the water.
\s. The gate in Ex. 1 is strengthened by a brace which runs diagonally from one corner to another. Find the pressure on each of the two portions of the gate one above, the other below, the
brace.
A dam is in the form of: a trapezoid, with its two horizontal 300 and 100 ft. respectively, the longer side being at the top and the height is 15 ft. What is the pressure on the dam when the water is level with the top of the dam ?
7.
sides
8. What is the pressure on tho dam of Ex. 7 reaches halfway to the top of the dam ?
when the water
9. If it had been necessary to construct the dam of Ex. 7 with the shorter side at tho top instead of the longer side, how much greater pressure would the dam have had to sustain when the
reservoir is full of water ?

10.
The
center board of a yacht
is
in the form, of a trapezoid in
which the two parallel sides are 3 ft and 6 ft., respectively, in length, and the side perpendicular to these two is 4 ft. in length. Assuming
that the last-named side is parallel to the surface of the water at a depth of 2 ft., and that the parallel sides are vertical, find the pressure on one side of the board.
11. Where shall a horizontal lino be drawn across tho gate of Ex. 1 so that tho pressure on the portion above tho lino shall equal the pressure on the portion below ?
26.
Volume. The volume of a solid

it
viding of the
into
n elements
of volume,
may be computed by didV^ and taking the limit*
sum
of these elements as
is
increased indefinitely, tho
magnitude of each element at the same time approaching aero. The question in each case is the determination of the form of the element dr. We shall discuss a comparatively simple case of a solid such as is shown in Fig, 29. In this figure let Olf be a straight line, and let tho distance of any point of it from be denoted by h. At one end tho solid is bounded Tby a plane perpendicular to OH at <7, where 00 ~ a>
72
SUMMATION
at the other
and
end
it is
5,
has parallel bases. The solid is assumed to be such that the area A of any plane section made by a plane perpendicular to Oil at a point distant can be expressed as a funch from
so that
it
OH at
B, where
OS =
bounded by a piano perpendicular
to
tion of
h.
To find the volume of such a solid we divide the distance CB into n parts
dh,
and through the points
of division
pass planes perpendicular to OH. have thus divided the solid into slices
of which the thickness
is
We
dh
slice
Since
slice,
is
is
the area of the base of a
and since the volume of the
approximately equal to the volume of a right cylinder of the same base
and thickness, we write
dV=Adli.
The volume
of the solid is then the limit of
the sum of terms
of
the above type, and therefore
F=
It is clear that the
/"'
Jo.
Adh.
is
above discussion
valid even
7t
when one
or both of the bases corresponding reduces to a point.
toh=a and
fi,
respectively,
Ex.1. Let OY (Fig. 30) be an edge of a solid such

that
all its sections
made
by planes perpendicular to
OFaie rectangles, the sides

of a rectangle in a plane distant y fiorn being rez spectively 2 y and y shall find the volume in-
We
cluded between the planes and?/ = 2 J.
j, IO
go
Dividing the distance from # = 0toy = 2& into n parts <li/, and passing planes perpendicular to OY, we form rectangles such as MffttS, wlioro, if
VOLUME MNRS = 2 y volume of the elementary cylinder standing on MNRS as a base

Hence the area
thatls'
73
s
,
OM = y, MN - y* and MS = 2 y
and the
is
Therefore
V=
sect at right angles.
Ex. 2. The axes of two equal light circular cylinders of radius o interRequired the volume common to the two cylinders.
Let
OA and OB
cylmdeis and
OY
the
(Fig. 31) be the axes of the common perpendicular to
OA and 013 at then point of intersection 0. Then OA D and OBD are quadrants of two equal chcles
cut from the two cylinders by the planes through perpendicular to the axes OB and OA, and
Then the figure represents one eighth of the requned volume. divide the distance into n parts dy, and through the points of division pass planes per-
OY OD = a
We
OD
pendicular to OY Any section, such as LMNP, is a square, of which one side is equal to
NP
V OP
as
ON* OP =
a,
being a radius of one of the cylinders, and hence,

2
NP = Va - f z z Accordingly, the area of LMNP = a y and mentary cylinder standing on LMNP as a base is
,
ON= y,
_
2
the volume of the
ele-
whence
V = f "(aa - y^ dy total
[a
//
- J y] =
t
a8
Hence the
volume
is
1 -
/ a8
This method of finding volumes

the sections of the solid
made by
particularly useful when parallel planes are bounded

is
by
circles. Such a solid may be generated by the revolution of a plane area around an axis in its
circles or
by concentric
plane,
and
is
called a solid of revolution.

:
We take the following

OX
8.
examples of solids of revolution

the area bounded by the curve
Ex. 3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about 2 = 4 *, the axis of x, and the line x = ?y
The generating area

Hence
is
shown
in Fig. 32,
where
AB
is
the line
a-
8.
OA
s= 3,
74
Divide
SUMMATION
OA
into n parts dx, and through the points of division pass straight lines parallel to OY, meeting the curve. When the area is revolved about OX, each of these lines, as MP, JVQ, etc., generates a circle, the plane
of
which
z
is
perpendicular to
OX The
z
area
of the circle generated

is
by
MP,
iry
for example,
irMP which
,
is
equal to
of
= 7r(4 x), if
Hence the area

the solid
any plane section of

perpendicular to
made by a plane
OX can be expressed in terms of its distance from 0, and we may apply the pievious method for finding the volume.
Since the base of any elementary cylinder
is
4 TTX and
its altitude is dx,
we have
Hence
Ex.
4.
V=f*4
vxdx
[2
**
= 18
Find the volume of the ring surface generated by revolving about the axis of x the area bounded by the line y = 5 and the curve y = 9 x~ The line and the curve (Fig 33) are
seen to intersect at the points P l 5) and the ring is generated z (2, 5), by the area P^BP^P^ Since this area is
and
(2,
symmetrical with respect to OY, dent that the volume of the ring the volume generated by the area
it is eviis
twice
Z
AP BA.
Accordingly, we shall find the latter volume
and multiply
it
= 2 (Mz being We divide the line Z the projection of on OX) into n parts 2 and the dx, through points of division draw
by
2.
OM
straight lines parallel to
OY and intersect-
ing the straight line and the curve One of these lines, as QP, will, when revolved
about OX, generate a circular ring, the

outer radius of which is =y and the inner radius of which is Hence the area of the ring is
MP
MQ
= Q~x* =5 *=.y
jjf
M
FIG-
'M
= TT (56 - 18 x9 + a?<).
Accordingly,
S3
dV = TT (56 - 18 w2 + a;*) dx
Accordingly, the volume of the ring is 2 (70$ w)
= 140$ TT.
VOLUME
EXERCISES
1.
75
The section of a certain solid made by any plane perpendicular
and its center to a given line Oil is a circle with one point in If the on a straight line OB intersecting Oil at an angle of 46 along Oil is 4ft., find its height of this solid measured from
volume by integration. 2. A solid is such that any cross section perpendicular to an axis is an equilateral triangle of which each side is equal to the square of the distance of the plane of the triangle from a fixed point on the axis. The total length of the axis from the fixed point is 5. Find the volume.
3.
OH
the area bounded by
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about OX and the curve y = 4 as a2
.
OX
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about OX 2 3 x* the area included between the axis of x and the curve y
5.
Find the volume of the
y= and y =
line
solid generated
by revolving about the

y, the lines
2 the area bounded by the axis of 2 2, and the curve y = 3 a:

.
=3
6. On a spherical ball of radius 5 in. two great circles are drawn intersecting at right angles at the points A and B* The material of the ball is then cut away so that the sections perpendicular to
AB
are squares with their vertices on the two great circles.
Find the
volume
7.
left.
Find the volume generated by revolving about the line x = 2 8 a?, the axis of a?, and the the area bounded by the curve if line x = 2.
plane section of a certain solid made by a plane perpenis a square of which the center lies on OY and two 4 as2 Find the volume of the opposite vertices lie on the curve y solid if the extreme distance along OYis 3. 9. Find the volume generated by revolving about OY the area 2 2. 8 x and the line x bounded by the curve y
8.
Any
dicular to
OF
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about OX 2 8 as and 6 a? + 10. the area bounded by the curves y = 6 x y s=
10.
flj
11.
The
cross section of a certain solid
made by any plane perpen-
OX is a square, the ends of one of whose sides are on the 12, Find the volume of this solid y? y? and 4 y curves 16 y between the points of intersection of the curves.
dicular to
T6
SUMMATION
GENERAL EXERCISES
1.
The
t is
time
t*
velocity in feet per second of a 41 4 Show that the body
moving body at any

is
always
far it
the direction in which
s is
measured, and find
how
moving in will move
during the
2.
t is
fifth
second
The
t*
velocity in feet per second of a moving body at 4 1. Show that after t 4 the body will always
the direction in which

in the time
3.
s is
from
6
1
=6
t
measured, and find

t
how
far it
any time move in will move
to
= 9.
At any time
is
t
z
body
4.
is t*
+ 5 How
t
the velocity in feet per second of a moving many feet will the body move in the
direction opposite to that in which s is
measured?
At any time
21
3.
the velocity in miles per hour of a moving body If the initial moment of time is 12 o'clock noon, how
body move in the time from 11.30 A M. to 2 p M. ? z 9 y = a:3 y 5 Find the area bounded by the curves 9 y = 4 x and 45 6. Find the total area bounded by the curves ?/2 =4a; and 2 = 4 a8 4 ax. T/
far will the
. .
''
7.
Find the
total area
straight line y
= 4 x.
bounded by the curve y
= x and
B
the
8. Find the total area bounded by the curve y and the straight line y = 4 (a; 1).
9.
= x (x
1)
(03
3)
BC
=2
ABCD
ft.,
is
AD
in the surface
90, ft., 4 ft. It is completely immersed in water with AB and AD and BC perpendicular to the surface. Find
J3
a quadrilateral with
= 90, AB
the pressure on one side

10. Prove that the pressure on one side of a rectangle completely submerged with its plane vertical is equal to the area of the rectangle multiplied by the depth of its center and by w (consider only the case in which one side of the rectangle is parallel to the
surface). 11. Prove that the pressure on one side of a triangle completely submerged with its plane vertical is equal to its area multiplied by the depth of its median point and by (consider only the case in which one side of the triangle is parallel to the surface).
assumed to be in the form of an equilateral triangle, with its vertex down and its plane vertical. What is the effect upon the pressure on the end if the level of the water sinks halfway to the bottom?
12.
The end of a trough,
full of water, is
GENERAL EXERCISES
13.
77
on a side is immersed in water, with one vertex in the surface of the water and with the diagonal through that
square 2
ft
is
vertex perpendicular to the surface of the water. much greater the pressure on the lower half of the square than that on the
How
upper half? 14. A board is symmetrical with respect to the line AJB, and is of such a shape that the length of any line across the board perpendicular to AB is twice the cube of the distance of the line from A. AD is 2 ft. long The board is totally submerged in water, AB being perpendicular to the suiface of the water and A one foot below the surface. Find the pressure on one side of the board.
15. Find the pressure on one side of an area the equations of whose 2 boundary hues are x = 0, y = 4, and v/ = 4 x respectively, where the axis of x is taken in the surface of the water and where the positive
y axis is downward and vertical. Find the volume generated by revolving about 2 bounded by OX and the curve 4 y = 16 a;
direction of the
16.
. I,-
OX
the area
17. Find the volume generated by revolving about OX the area bounded by the curve y = a2 + 2 and the line y = 3. 18. Find the volume generated by revolving about OX the area bounded by OX and the curve y = 3 x x8 19. Find the volume generated by revolving about the line y = 1 2 a;2 the area bounded by the curves 9 y = 2 x* and 9 y = 36
.
20.
An axman
makes a wedge-shaped cut in the trunk of a

is
tree.
a right circular cylinder of radius 8 in., that the lower surface of the cut is a horizontal plane, and that the
is a plane inclined at an angle of 45 to the horizontal and intersecting the lower surface of the cut in a diameter, find the amount of wood cut out.
Assuming that the trunk

upper surface
21.
On a system
of parallel chords of a circle of radius 2 there
are constructed equilateral triangles with their planes perpendicular to the plane of the circle and on the same side of that plane, thus
forming a
22.
solid.
solid.
Show
about
OY
that the volume of the solid generated by revolving a the area bounded by OX and the curve y Ix* is
equal to the area of the base of the solid multiplied by half

23. In a sphere of radius base and altitude /*.
its altitude.
a find the volume of a segment of one
78
24.
is
SUMMATION
A solid is
sucli that
any cross section perpendicular to an axis
with its radius equal to the square root of the distance of the section from a fixed point of the axis. The total length of the
a
circle,
axis
from the fixed point
is 4.
solid.
square moves with its plane perpendicular to the axis of y and with the ends of one of its diagonals respectively in 16 x and 4 x, which are above the parts of the curves y* the axis of x Find the volume generated by the square as its plane
25.
A variable
^=
moves a distance 8 from the

26.
origin.
to
y= 3
moves so as to be perpendicular 2 a; and OX, and the ends of a diameter are on the curves y 2 cc 8 Find the volume of the solid generated as the plane of intersection of the curves to the other. moves from one point
of a variable circle
The plane
27. All sections of a certain solid

to
OF
drawn
made by planes perpendicular are isosceles triangles. The base of each triangle is a line to its ends in the curve y 4 a:2. The OY, with perpendicular
altitude of each triangle is equal to its base Find the volume of the solid included between the planes for which y and y 6.
made by planes perpendicular to Y are right isosceles triangles One leg of each triangle coincides with the line perpendicular to OY with its ends in OY and the curve
28. All sections of a certain solid
y*
4 x. Find the volume of the and y = 8.
solid
between the sections for which
29. Find the
cylindrical tank, of height 15 ft. 20 ft. above the top of the tank. 30.
work done in pumping all the water from a full and radius 3 ft., to a height of
Find the work done in emptying of water a full conical and radius 3ft., the vertex of the cone being down.
receiver of altitude 6ft
CHAPTER IV
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
27. Distance between two points. Let 1 (a^, / x ) and z (rz , /a ) that the (Fig. 34) be any two points in the plane XOY, such
straight line
P!
Z P^P
is
not parallel either to
OX or
to
OY. Through
to
draw a straight line parallel draw a 2 OJT, and through P
straight line parallel to OY, and denote their point of intersection
by R.
JL
iPlTATl UOll
T^ 7?
JL^J.V
A-l*t/
Al
"-"
1" " -" ty

t'g
*t*j
and
In the right triangle P^RP Z
whence
If
is parallel
C1 )
to 0JT,
and the formula reduces

!
to
J?J
= JBa-
(2)
parallel to
In like manner, formula reduces to
if
^-x^ P^
is
OF, and the
Since a ciVc?e is the locus of a point which is 28. Circle. always at a constant distance from a fixed point, formula (1) of P 27, enables us to write down immediately the equation
circle.
Then,
Let C(h, 7c) (Fig. 35) be the center of a circle of radius r. 27, a? and if P(x, y) is any point of the circle, by (1),
satisfy the equation
y must
-^ =^
a
(1)
79
80
ALGEBKAIC FUNCTIONS
Moreover, any point the coordinates of which satisfy (1), must be at the distance r from C and hence be a point of the
circle.
Accordingly, (1)
is
the equation of a
circle.
If (1) is expanded, it
!
becomes
2
-2Aa;-2^ + A
+F
=0,
(2)
an equation of the second degree 2 with the coefficients of a; and / a

equal.
with no term in xy and
Conversely, any equation of the second degree with no xy term and 2 with the coefficients of a; and y*
equal (as
O
where A, G,
F,
and
are
any con-
^ 1Q
g5
stants) may be transformed into the form (1) and represents a circle, unless the number corz responding to r is negative (see Ex. 3, page 81), in which case the equation is satisfied by no real values of x and y and
accordingly has no corresponding locus.
The
circle is
most readily drawn by making such transfor-
mation, locating the center, and constructing the circle with
compasses.
Ex.1.
This equation
may be
written in the form

)
(x*-2x
and the terms
+ (y2-4y
0,
in the parentheses may be made perfect squares by adding 1 in the first parenthesis and 4 in the second parenthesis As we have
total of 5 to the left-hand side of the equation, we must add an equal amount to the right-hand side of the equation The result is
added a
Cr
- 2a: + 1) + (f - 4?/ + 4) = 5,
which may be placed in the form
(-l) + <y-a)-5,
the equation of a
circle of radius
V5
with
its
center at the point (1, 2).
CIRCLE
Ex.
2.
81
a:
+ 9f-9x +
**
- 8 = 0.
=
Placing 8 on the right-hand side of the equation and then dividing by

9,
we have
+ ,*-*+
3,
|,
which may be treated by the method used in Ex.
1.
The
result
is
the equation of a circle of ladius JV5, with
its
center at (\,
i).
Ex.3.
9a; 2
+ 9y2 -6a;-|-12y + ll =
2,
Proceeding as in Ex.
we
have, as the transformed equation,
an equation which cannot be satisfied by any real values of js and y, since the sum of two positive quantities cannot be negative Hence this equation corresponds to no real curve.
EXERCISES
Find the equation of the the radius 3
1.
circle
with the center
(4,
2)
and
2.
Find the equation of the
circle
with the center
(0,
1)
and
the radius 5.
3.
Find the center and the radius of the

9
circle
= 0.
circle
4.
Find the center and the radius of the
- 6v - 15 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the center of the circle
and perpendicular
to the line
2aj
+ 3v/
=
equations differ
6.
Prove that two
circles are concentric if their
only in the absolute term

29. Parabola. The locus of a point equally distant from a fixed The fixed point and a fixed straight line is catted a parabola. the point is called the focus and the fixed straight line is called
directrix,
82
Let
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
(Fig. 36)
parabola.
Through
be tho focus and A\V the directrix of a F draw a straight line perpendicular to
ftS, intersecting
it at JP, and let this lino be the axis of jr. Let the middle point of T>F be taken as 0, tho origin of coordinates, and draw the axis QY. Thon, if tho distance, PA* is 2 <, Urn r. coordinates of F are (0, 0) and tho equation of H$ is sr -~ Let /^(.r, y) be any point of tho parabola, and draw Uu gy straight line FP and tho straight lino NP perpendicular to US.
-
Then
and, by
27,
NP = + FP- V('
2
,?/
<0
//*
/J
whence, from tho definition
of tho parabola,
(a-*)** if- Or +<0"

which reduces
to
=4
**
6'a;.
(1 )
p x(li
,w
Conversely, if the coordinates of any point /* satisfy (1), it can be shown that the distances FP and aru equal, and is a point of the parabola. hence Solving (1) for y in terms of a-, we havo
NP
2VS,
Thon
it
(2)
is
evident that if a negative value is assigned to #, y is imaginary, and no corresponding points of the parabola can bo located. All poKitivo vahu'M
e is positive.
We
assume that
may
be assigned to
JR,
however, and hence tho parabola

sidtj
IICH
entirely
on the
positive
of tho axis
OF.
Accordingly, wo assign positive valuos to #, compute tho norresponding values of y, and draw a smooth curve through tho points thus located. It is to be noticed that to every value tWHigncd to w lhro aro two corresponding valuos of ?/, equal in magnitude and opposite in algebraic sign, to which there correspond two points of tho
parabola on opposite sides of OX and equally dintant from it. Hence the parabola is ttymmMoal with rospect to CUT, and accordingly OX is called the gunk of the parabola.
The point at which its axis intersects a parabola is called the

tew of the parabola. Accordingly,
is
the vertex of the parabola.
PARABOLA
Returning to Fig.
coordinates (
c,
83
left of
36,
if
F is
taken at the
with the
equation x
0),
and
RS is
taken at the right of
with the
c,
equation (1) becomes
f = -kcx
(3)
and represents a parabola lying on the negative side of OY. Hence we conclude that any equation in the form
f=fa,
where k
is
(4)
is
a positive or a negative constant,
a parabola, with
Z' (k
and
its directrix
the straight line
x'-^*
(5)
Similarly, the equation
x*=
Icy
and with its axis coinrepresents a parabola, with its vertex at ciding with the positive or the negative part of OY, according as & is positive or negative. The focus is always the point
0,
-^ j ^"Y
and the
directrix is the line
y=
- whether k be positive
"i
or negative.
30. Parabolic segment. important property of the parabola contained in the following theorem
:
An
is
The square of any two chords of a parabola which are perpendicular

to
its
axis are to each other as their distances
from
the
vertex of the parabola.
This theorem may be proved as follows Let %(%!, #j.) and P z (x^ 7/ 3 ) be any two points of any parab:
ola
/=
Tex
(Fig. 37).
Then
and
y*= lex^
yl
y\
,
7ca ;
whence
~ X*
**
yl
whence
84
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
From the symmetry of the parabola, 2#1 and hence But a? = OM^ and x,== Z
and 2#2 =
OM
(1)
becomes
and the theorem is proved. The figure bounded by the parabola and a chord perpendicular to the axis
of
is
the parabola,
called
is
as QÔP^ (Fig. 37), a parabolic segment. The
FIG. 37
segment, the vertex of the parabola is called the vertex of the segment, and the distance from, the vertex to the base is called the altitude of the segment.
chord
called the lase of the
EXERCISES
Plot the following
1.
!/*
cc
parabolas, determining the focus of each

3. 4.
2
2/
8x
=:6a5.
2.
=42/.
altitude of a parabolic
2
aj
= -7y.
5.
its
The
is
segment
base
16
ft.
straight line
dicular to
the
its axis is
10
ft.
long.
is 10 ft., and the length of drawn across the segment perpenHow far is it from the vertex of
segment ?
6.
An
arch in the form of a parabolic curve, the axis being
vertical, is 50 ft. across the bottom, and the highest point is 15 ft. above the horizontal. What is the length of a beam placed horizontally across the arch 6
7.
ft.
from the top ?
The
parabola.
cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the form of a The roadway, which is horizontal and 400ft. long, is
supported by vertical wires attached to the cable, the longest wire being 80 ft. and the shortest being 20 ft. Find the length o a supporting wire attached to the roadway 75 ft. from tho middle.
8. Any section of a given parabolic mirror made by a plane passing through the axis of the mirror is a parabolic segment of which the altitude is 6 in. and the length of the base 10 in. Find the circumference of the section of the mirror made by a piano perpendicular to its axis and 4 in. from, its vertex
ELLIPSE
"Find the equation of the parabola having the line x directrix and having its focus at the origin of cooidmates.
9.
85
=3
as its
10.
its
directrix
Find the equation of the parabola having the line y and having its locus at the point (2, 4).
Ellipse.
2 as
31.
The
locus of a point the
sum of whose
distances
from two fixed

Let
points is constant is called an ellipse. fixed points are called the foci.
The two
F and
2
c.
F'F be
taken as
F' (Fig. 38) be the two loci, and let the distance Let the straight line determined by F' and F be the axis of x, and the
middle point of
F'F be taken
as 0, the origin of coordinates, and draw the axis OY. Then
the coordinates of F' and

are respectively (
(*,
c,
0)
and
0).
Let P(x, y) be anj' point of the ellipse, and 2 a represent the constant
distances
n'
Ju
sum
foci.
of its
ICr
00 uO
from the
Then,
from the definition of the ellipse, the sum of the distances F'P and FP is 2 a, and from the triangle F'PF it is evident that 2 a > 2 G whence a > c.
;
By
and
27,
FP=
definition of the ellipse,
2
a
whence, from the
2 V(s-M) +# W(a-c)
+/= 2
(1)
Clearing (1) of radicals,

2
we have
2 4
O - > + ay = a - aV.
c
a
(2)
Dividing (2) by a*
aV, we have
86
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
But
since
J
3
,
><?, a*
c* is
a positive quantity which
may
be
denoted by
and (3) becomes
satisfy (4), Conversely, if the coordinates of any point ia 2 can be shown that the sum of the distances Jf'P and
it
FP
a,
and hence
P is a point of the ellipse. Solving (4) for y in terms of #, we have

y=s
>/-**
(5)
must be numerically
It is evident that the only values which can be assigned to x less than a; for if any numerically larger
values are assigned to r, the corresponding values of y are imaginary, and no corresponding points can be plotted. Hence a and x the curve lies entirely between the lines x a.
may, then, assign the possible values to #, compute the corresponding values of y, and, locating the corresponding points, draw a smooth curve through them. As in the case of the parabola, we observe that OX is an axis of symmetry of the ellipse. We may also solve (4) for x in terms of y, with the result
as
We
= 5^-^.
(0)
form of the equation we find that the ellipse lies entirely between the lines ,y = --iandy = 5 and is symmetrical with respect to OY. Hence the ellipse has two axes, A'A and B'JB (Fig. 88), which are at right angles to each other. But A 1 A = 2 a and JR'13 2 and since a > 5, it follows that A' A > B'B, Hence A' A is called the major axis of the ellipse, and fl'JJ is called the minor axis
From
this
1) ;
of the ellipse. The ends of the
major
axis,
the ellipse, and the point midway the center of the ellipse ; that is,
A' and A, are called the wrtwes of between the vertices is called
and
it
is the center of the ellipse, can be readily shown that any chord of the ellipse which
is
passes through
bisected
by that
point.
ELLIPSE
From
The
the definition of
(
/>,
87
#*,
c=*
Va a
and the coordinates
of
the foci are

ratio
V<r
-----
9
,
0).
OF
(thai
is,
the ratio of the distance of the focus
from the center

is
to the distance of either vertex
from the center)

t>.
called the eccentricity of the ellipse
and
is
denoted by
lint
M'^VtfCjS,
and hence
Vrt
c
-
(7)
(8) \ /
is
a
-
i*
-
>
whence
less
it
followa that the eccentricity of an ellipse
always
than unity.
equation in
Similarly, any an ellipse with its minor axis on CLY.
form (4), in which I'2 > a2 represents center at 0, its major axis on 6>J", and its
,
Then
(0,
the vertices are the points (0,
&),
the foci are the points
vV
*),
and
In either case the nearer the foci approach coincidence, the e becomes and the more nearly b = a. Hence a drde inat/ le considered an an ellipse with dointxdfnt fovi and equal axes.
smaller
Its eceentrieity
is,
of course, zero.
EXERCISES
Plot tho following ellipses, finding the vertices, the eceentrieity of eaoh
:
Toci,
and the
1.
9 â
9 w! 8
+1
if
144.
30.
3.
tc
2.
6.
+ 4 ?/
4. 2
a;
+ 4 ?/ 2. + 3 y s= 1.
a
Find tho equation of the ellipse winch lias its foci at tlie points 2, 0) and ((>, 0) and which has the sum of the dis lances of any ( point on it from the foci equal to 10. 6. Find the equation of the ellipse having its food at the points and having the length of its major axis equal to 7. (0, 0) and (0, )
32. Hyperbola.
,
distances
from two
The two
The locus of a point the difference of whose faced points is constant is called a hyperbola. fixed points are called the foci*
88
Let
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
F and
0.
F'F bo 2
as 0,
F' (Fig. 30) be the two foci, and lot tho distance Let the straight line determined by F' and F bo
taken as the axis of

the coordinates of
and the middle point of F'F be taken .P, the origin of coordinates, and draw the axis O Y. Then
and
<?,
F are
and
respectively (
0).
0)
(c,
Let jP (a;,
of the
?/) be any point hyperbola and 2 a
represent the constant difference of its distances from

the foci.
Then, from the

. ,
definition of the hyperbola, the difference of the dis-
'
1?ia *
tances
F'P and FP is 2 a, for the and from the triangle F'PFii is evident that 2 < 2 difference of any two sides of a triangle IH loss than the third
,
;
80
side
whence
27,
<
a.
By
and whence either
;*+;
2
(1)
(2)
or
V(* + 0'+^-V(? ::: ^+7-2a,
according as JRP or ^"/* in the groatcsr diHtance. Clearing either (1) or (2) of radicals, wo obtain tho aamo
result
:
Dividing (3) by
a*
V, we have
'
i
it
"T
_
a r
"1
fA.\
* *
cr
\*J
But since
denoted by
ft
* is a negative quantity whiuh may bo <c, a and (4) becomes

,
HYPJEEBOLA
if
89
the coordinates of any point Conversely, satisfy (5), it can be shown that the difference of the distances F'P and FP
is is a a, and hence point of the hyperbola. Solving (5) for y in terms of #, we have
y=
In this equation
-î?-d\
(6)
we may assume
for x only values that are
numerically greater than a, as any other values give imaginary values for y. Hence there are no points of the hyperbola bea and x = a. The hyperbola is symmetrical tween the lines t =
with respect to OX. As the values assigned to x increase numerically, the corresponding points of the hyperbola recede from the axis OX. We
may, however, write (6)
m the form
5?
(7)
Now
if
yx and
i/a
are the ordinates of points of (7)
and
of
the straight lines
y = -x respectively,
w
then
oa
7
whence
Lim (#a
nitely,
Hence, by prolonging the straight lines and the curve indefiwe can make them come as near together as we please. Now, when a straight line has such a position with respect
to a curve that as the
tance between
is
two are indefinitely prolonged the them approaches zero as a limit, the straight
dis-
line
called
an asymptote of the curve.

as
CL
It follows that the lines
y = -x and y =>
(t
are asymptotes of the hyperbola (Fig. 39).
If
we had
solved (5) for a in terms of y, the result would

(8)
have been
90 from which
that
it
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
appears that
all values may be assigned to #, and. an axis of symmetry of the hyperbola. The points A' and A in which one axis of the hyperbola intersects the hyperbola are called the vertices, and the portion of the
OT is
also
axis extending
from A' to
is
called the transverse axis.

is
The
is,
point
is
midway between
the vertices
called the center ; that
the center of the hyperbola, and it can readily be shown that any chord of the hyperbola which passes through O is
by that point. The other axis of the hyperbola, which perpendicular to the transverse axis, is called the conjugate axis. This axis does not intersect the curve, as is evident
bisected
is
from the
figure,
but
it is
useful in fixing the asymptotes
and
thus determining the shape of the curve for large values of x. From the definition of 5, c Va2 + 62, and the coordinates of
the foci are
(V
+5 2
0).
Therefore
If
we
>
define the
,
eccentricity of the
,
OF
we have
a
_ ^+*
hyperbola as the ratio

( 1 0)
a quantity which
is
evidently always greater than unity.

2
Similarly, the equation
is
verse axis on
the equation of a hyperbola, with its center at 0, its transOF, and its conjugate axis on OX. Then the ver5),
tices are the points (0,
the foci are the points (0,
V&2 +a2),
the asymptotes are the straight lines

If 5
y=
-#, and
Cv
7"
= a,
in either (5) or (11), the equation of the hyperbola
assumes the form
a2 -2/2 =a2
or
y-a^=:a
a
,
(12)
an equilateral "hyperbola. The equations of the asymptotes become y =* x ; and as these lines are perpendicular to each other, the hyperbola is also called a
is
and the hyperbola
called
rectangular hyperbola.
CURVES
EXERCISES
Plot the following hyperbolas, finding the vertices, the asymptotes, and the eccentricity of each
.
91
foci,
the
2.
3.
9o;
a a
4?/
=36.
5.
6.
32/
-2jca =6
7.
(0,
it
Find the equation of the hyperbola having its foci at the points 0) and (4, 0), and the difference of the distances of any point on
2) and (4, 2), from the foci
from, the foci equal to 2.

4,
it
8. The foci of a hyperbola are at the points ( and the difference of the distances of any point on is 4. Eind the equation of the hyperbola, and plot.
33. Other curves. In the discussion of the parabola, the ellipse, and the hyperbola, the axes of symmetry and the asymptotes were of considerable assistance in constructing the curves more;
knowledge that there could be no points of the curve in certain parts of the plane decreased the labor of drawing the curves. We shall now plot the loci of a few equations, noting in advance whether the curve is bounded in any direction or has any axes of symmetry or asymptotes. In this way we shall be able to anticipate to a con^ siderable extent the form of the curve.
over, the
Ex.
1.
(y
3)
(x
- 2) a
(a;
+ 1).
Solving for
y,
we have
we see that the only be assigned to x are greater than 1, and hence the curve lies entirely on the positive side of the line x = 1. FurtherIn the
first place,
values that
may
49 more, corresponding to every value of a?, there are two values of y which determine two points at equal distances from 8 is an axis of the line y = 8. Hence we conclude that the line y
<
symmetry of the curve.

Assigning values to x and locating the points determined,
curve
(JFig. 40).
we draw
the
92
Ex.
2.
ALGEBKAIO FUNCTIONS
xy
y,
= 4.
Solving foi
we have
=4.
It is evident, then, that we may assign to x any real value except xero, in which case we should be asked to divide 4 by 0, a process that cannot be carried out. Consequently, there can be no point of the curve on the
# = 0; that is, on OY. We may, however, assume values for x as near to zero as we wish, and the nearer they are to zero, the nearer the corresponding points are to OF; but as the points come nearer to they recede along the curve. Hence OF is an asymptote of the curve. If we solve for x, we have
line
OY
x^
Fm.
41
and, reasoning as above, we conclude that the line y = (that is, the axis OX) is also an asymptote of the curve. The curve is drawn in Fig. 41. It is a special case of the curve = k is a ical constant which may be either positive or negative, where k, xy and is, in fact, a i octangular hyperbola leferiod to its asymptotes as axes.
It is customaiy to say that when the denominator of a fraction is SMTO, the value of the fraction becomes infinite The curve just constructed
shows graphically what is meant by such an expiession.

Ex.
3.
sry
or
0.
Solving for
y,
we have
from which we conclude that the line a? = 1 is an asymptote of the curve.

Solving for
x,
we have
Fio. 42
2+y
from which we conclude that the line ?/= 2 is also an asymptote of the curve. We accordingly draw these two asymptotes (Fig. 42) and the curve through the points determined by assigning values to either x or y and
computing the corresponding values
of the other vai table.
The curve
and y
SB
is,
in fact, a rectangular hyperbola, with the lines x
2 as
its
asymptotes.
CUEVES
Ex.4.
Solving for
y,
aX8
we have
Vx* 2a~a;
5
'
whence
evident that the curve is symmetrical with respect to OX The lines x and x = 2 a, corresponding to tlie values of a?
it is
which make the numuiatoi and the denominator of the fraction under the ladical sign lespectively zero, divide the plane into three and 2 a stups; and only values between
can be substituted for
y,
since all other values
make y imaginaiy.
lies entirely
It follows that the curve
lines
in the strip bounded and x 2 a.
by the two
By the same reasoning that was used in Exs 2 and 3, it can be shown that the line = 2 a is an asymptote of the curve. The curve, which is called a cuboid, is drawn
FIG. 43
in Fig. 43.
EXERCISES
Plot the following curves
1.
a
2/
:
=o;8 =aja (te
7.
2. 3. 4. 6.
a
2/
+ 4).
5cc-f
6.
8.
7/
= =4
2
a?.
a
2/
=4(o;-8).
9.
xy
5.
oj//
a a y =a:
10.
3y
a)
2
(a?
4).
11. xij
2aj
6.
a
/
=aj8
obtaining more general formulas theorems on limits will be
34.
Theorems on
limits.
In.
for differentiation, the following
assumed without formal proof

1.
The limit of the sum of a
to the.
2.
sum of
finite number the limits of the variables.
of variables
is equal
egual
The limit of the product of a finite number of variables to the product of the limits of the variables.
is
94
3.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
The
limit of
a constant multiplied by a variable is equal to the constant multiplied by the limit of the variable.
4. The limit of the quotient of two variables is equal to the quotient of the limits of the variables, provided the limit of the divisor is not zero.
35.
Theorems on derivatives. In order to extend the process
of differentiation to functions other than polynomials, need the following theorems :

1.
we
shall
The derivative of a constant
is zero.
8. to the
This theorem was proved

2.
The
derivative of a constant times a function is
equal
constant times the derivative of the function.
Let u be a function of x which can be differentiated, a constant, and place _ G&6i ,. -^ U

.
let c be
Give x an increment Ax, and sponding increments of u and y.
let
AM and Ay
be the corre-
Then
cu =s c AM.
Ay =
Hence
and, by theorem
3,
(u
+ AM)
TT
Ay - = AM Ax Ax
34,
T Ay Lim -TAx
. .
<,
T -Lim Ax
AM
Therefore
~i~
ax
T~
dx
by
the definition of a derivative.

1.
Ex.
=5
3 (a;
3 xz
+ 1).
3.
The derivative of the sum of a

to the
finite
number of functions
is
egual
sum
and
let
of the derivatives of the functions.
Let
tiated,
M, v,
be three functions of x which can be differen-
and
DERIVATIVES
95
Give x an increment Aa;, and let the corresponding increments of u, t>, w, and y be AM, Av, Aw, and A#. Then
Ay = (M H- Aw + v + At) + w = Aw + Aw + Aw
;
+ Aw)
(w
+ v + w)
whence
AM Aw Aw Ay ^ = -7 + Aa; + 7 Aa; A# Aa; T~~

,
Now
let Aa;
,
approach zero.
.
By
theorem
.
1,
34,
Aw AM T A0 Ay T Lim Lini ^ = Lim +7 + Lim Ax Ax Ax Aa;

.
that
is,
by the
definition, of
a derivative,
dy
duo
__
du dx
dv
dw
dx
dx
The proof
functions.
is
evidently applicable to any finite
number
of
Ex.
2.
= x* - 3 x s + 2 xz - 7x.
is
The derivative of the product of a finite number of functions the products obtained "by multiplying the equal to the sum of derivative of each factor by all the other factors.
4.
Let u and v be two functions of x which can be andlet = uv.
differentiated,
of u,
Give x an increment Aa;, and let the corresponding increments v, and y be Aw, Av, and A#.
Then
Ay
uv (it + Aw) (v + Av) = u Av + v AM + AM Av

.
and
Ay = w Av + Au + AM T~ Aa? Ax Ax T-" Ax
*
^
A
96
If,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
now,
r
Ax
Ao;
approaches zero,
.
,
we
have, by
,
34,
Aw Aw Lim -~ = u T Lim Aa;
+ v Lim Aa; + Lim Are

-
Aw -
AM
T A Lim Aw.
.
But
and
-.
Lim Aw =
P
0,
,
theretore
,,
-^-
dy ax
= w dv 4- w du
ax
ax
Again, let
y = uvw.
obtained,
Regarding uv as one function and applying the result already we have
dy -JL
dx
= m dw + w d(uv)
,
ax
-+ at
<
.
dw \ du = uv-=--)-w\u +v
dx
\_
dx
t tu?
= UV dw + UW dv
ax
dx
-f
VW -rdx
du
The proof
Ex.
3.
is
clearly applicable to any finite
numbers
of factors.
3a:dx
= (3 x - 5) (z" + 1) (3 2) + (3 x = (18 8 - 25 2 + 12 - 15)a:2

a;
a;
5)a; (2
a;)
2
(a:
+ I)* 8 (3)
a;
a:
The derivative of a fraction is equal to t7ie denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the deriva5.
tive of the denominator, all divided

nt
ty the square of the denominator.
Let y
-> where u and v are two functions of x which can be v

Aa;,
differentiated. Give x an increment be the corresponding increments of

.
w, v,
and let Aw, Av, and and y. Then

a
A?/
_ u + Aw _ u _ v Aw
v-f-A'y
w Aw +'uAw
and
%=
Ao:
An w--A.;
uAz>
+ w Aw
A^^
DERIVATIVES
97
Now
let
A* approach A/ Aa;
zero.
.
By
34,
.
A-M T v Liin -
Lim
=
du
01
_________
A?J -- u T Lim -
Aa;
T
.
tr+vLmiAv
rilj
,,
>
_l
dv
rty
,
whence
efa/
<fcc
difo
dx
Ex.4. J y
v*
=~
T8
x*
+l
~
2
(^_(a,
dx
6.
l)(27:)-(a;
(x*
-l)2r_
J
(a,'
.1?
I)
+ I) 2
is
TJie derivative
of the nth power of a function

the
obtained ly
multiplying
times
(nT)th
power of
the function ly the
derivative of the function.
Let y
entiated
= un
I.
where u is any function of x which can be differand n is a constant. We need to distinguish four cases
,
:
CASE
When n
is
a positive integer.
let
Give x an increment Aa, and sponding increments of u and y.
AM and
un
;
A?/ be the corre-
Then
Ay = (u 4- Aw)"
whence, by the binomial theorem,
A?/
Aa;
^L = nu
_iAw l ~
Aa?
n(n
2
ft
AM 1) 2A y w wB _ 2 Au- h
,
Aa;
'
Aa;
Now
2,
let Aa;,
AM, A?/ approach zero,

limit of
and apply theorems 1 and
34.
The
^ ^ a*
is
the limit of
is
Aa;
Aa;
^*, and the

ajc
limit of all terms
except the
is zero,
first
on the right-hand
side of
the last equation
since each contains the factor AM.
Therefore
d n ~ 1 du ^. = nw T-
<
ax
dx
08
ALGEBKAIC FUNCTIONS
CASE
II.
ny
When n
where
is
a positive rational fraction.

q are positive integers,
Let n =
and
and place
By raising both sides of this equation to the gth power, we have y=u.
Here we have two
values o
x.
functions of x which are equal for
all
Taking the
have, by Case
I,
derivative of both sides of the last equation, since p and q are positive integers,
we
^-1^==*-^. yy dx P dx
Substituting the value of y and dividing,
we have
*
Hence,
fîtfdx
q
in this case also,
-^-
**.
dx
dy dx
_ ,du nun ~ l
ax
CASE
Let n
III.
When n
m, where
is
a negative rational number.

a positive
m is
number, and place
m s= ys=U~ 9
-m
u
Then
^= dx
=
**
uzm
(by 5)
mu
m~l
(by Cases I and II)
mu~ m ~^~r
Hence, ui
this case also,
dx
d_
dx
_i^w dx
DERIVATIVES
CASE IV. When n
The formula
be given.
It
is is
99
an irrational number.
true in this case also, but the proof will not
It
may
To
appears that the theorem is true for all real values of n. be restated as a working-rule in the following words:
differentiate a
as a
coefficient,
power of any quantity, bring down the exponent write the quantity with an exponent one less, and
multiply ly the derivative of the quantity.

Ex.
5.
(x
+ 4 x* 8
x + 7) s
^ = 3 (a: + 4 a2 tlJG
+ 7) 2 -f (a;3 +
U3S
3
4 xz - 5 x
3
.
+ 7)
= 3 (So;2 + Bx - 5) (.e +
Ex.
6.
4a:
- 5 x + 7)
= Vtf + -.* = ^ + xdx

3
3
*'
Ex.
7.
(a:
+ l)Va;8
= (z + 1) [ J
2
1
2
(a;
+ I)" *
ar]
(a
(a
2 a8
+ !) +x
4- 1
/Li
100
7.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
If y
is
x,
to
a function of derivative of x with respect of y with respect to x.
then x
is
a function of
y,
and
the
is
the reciprocal of the derivative
Let A# and A?/ be corresponding increments of x and y. It is immaterial whether b*.x is assumed and A?/ determined, or A# is assumed and Aa; determined. In either case
A.r
A^~"Ay'
Aa;
.
whence
_.
Lun
A,r
=
T
1
A ;
Ay '
that
is,
Lim A?/
Aas
dx --
1
-
8. If y is a function of u and u function of a*, then y is a function of x, and the derivative of y with respect to x is equal to the product of the derivative of y with respect to u and the derivative of u with respect to x.
v'
An increment Aa; determines an increment Aw, and determines an increment Ay, Then, evidently,
A?/ __ A?/
this in
turn
Aw
A:#
.
Ax
Aw
.
whence
,
Aw A?/ AM T ~=, Lim Lim - T Lim

.
.
A:B
,
,
A?t
Arc
that
is,
dy ^ dx
w
dy du .X.
du
dx
Ex.
9.
a u3 + 8 u + 1, whoro w = 1+
The same result value of u in terms
is
obtained by fmbHtituting in the expression for y the

a;
of
and then
differentiating.
DERIVATIVES
36. Formulas.
101
We
may now
:
collect our formulas of differen-
tiation in the following table
dx
rf
^=
0,
(1) C2 )
co = *, dx dv
tf
d(u4-v)
dx
_du
dx dx
dv
dx
,
d Cuv) \ dx
,
dv du -UT + V 1T'
dx
(4 )
,
/?/\
d(-)
\v/
v--- M
du dx
dv
dx
dy^y.
dx
du
d* dx
/g-) ^ ^
dy
^ = dx dx
du
Formula (9)
is
(9)
a combination of (7) and (8). may be changed to corresponding formulas for differentials by multiplying both sides of each equation
The
dx.
first six
formulas
by J
They J
are
da
=n 0,
Zw,
_<
(10)
(11)
(12)
(1 3)
d (uv)
w\
udv vdu
+ v du,
udv
102
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
EXERCISES
Find -~
in each of the following oases
2.
2
(a;
- 2 + 3)
1
3 (a:
+60:
+ 9).
14.
H-l "**
16.
>
'/
re
V<.)
17 '
18.
= (' +
8 X?/
= (4 + 3 x + I) 4 X* + 1.
fl
jr
3
-
Consider any equatwo variables a? and If one of them, EH jr, in chosen as the independent variable and a value is assigned in it, the values of y are determined, Hence tho given equation
tion containing
,?/,
37. BijEferentiatlon of implicit functions.
defines
terms of
is
not
rr. If the equation is solved for y in called an earpKoit function of x, If the equation solved for y, y is (jailed an function of #* For
as a function of
a,
is
implidt
example,
^+8aM-4y + 4^ + 2^ + 4^0,
9
.-K
which may be written 9 # + (4 aj + 2)y + (8

defines
-|-
4
a?.
4-
4)
0,
as
an implicit function of
is
If the equation
solved for y, the renult
2j
lVa^T8
#.
expresses y as an explicit function of
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
If
it is
103
required to find the derivative of an implicit function, the equation may be differentiated as given, the result being an
equation which may be solved algebraically for the derivative. This method is illustrated in the following examples
:
Ex.
If
1.
is
z2
5.
the independent variable,
that
is,
2x
= 0, ydx
whence
Or the
derivative
Jl = -. dx y be found may by taking the differential of both
sides,
as follows:
that
is,
+ /) = d(5) = 0; 2 xdx + 2 ydy = 0,
whence
^=_. dx
y
It is also possible first to solve the given
equation f or
;
y,
thus
V5-ff2
whence
rfa;
V5
a:
a result evidently equivalent to the result previously found.
The method
function
Ex.
2.
is
of finding the
second derivative of an implicit
illustrated in the following
example
Find
^f
(IJS
if
We know from Ex. 1

Therefore
that
^L dx
=_ 2
y
fSUfLft dor ax \y/

.*-*(!)
_
since
a
?y
a-
5
8
2/
'
f
^ +
2
a;
= 5,
from the given equation
104
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
EXERCISES
"Find
a*
~ from each of tho following equations

CtJC
1.
+/-3
4
*y
= 0.
9
.
3.
v/
= ~~j
//
-|- //
'
2.
2 aj // -f-
V = 8a
l
4.
V + + V^
:
,r
--
Pind
6.
6.
^ and
a
-~. from each
oJ'
tho following (wuiationa
2xa
4 a-3
9v/
=3C.
io
-
ai+jf-a.
a*
8.
= <A
Let
J^C^'j,
11.
38. Tangent line.
Ô
bo a clioHou
'/// >*
point, of
(
.
any
curve, and
/x..\
lot
(^) ^V v
V /
VWi
bo the value of
when
<M
aj=sw ^ and ;/-://,. ^
is the slopo oC tho curve at, iho point J^ and also \dx/\ the slopo of tho tan gout line ( 1H) to tho ourvo at that point,
Then f-^J
Accordingly, tho equation of the tang-out line at
J{
15)
Ex. 1. Find tho equation tho point (3, ).
(if
tho lungojit lino to tho parabola
8 ss
JJ
.r
at
By
differentiation
wo have
whence
Hence, at tho point equation is
or
(3,
JJ),
//SB.'-.,
.
ti //
tho Hlopn of tho tangont lino
is J,
and
itH
y-3-1 (*-)
ar
?/
= 0.
is tho angle betwoon angle their respective tangontu at the point of iutenwotiun. The method of finding tho anglo of intersection i illustrated in the
The
of mteraeotion of
two curves
example
on.
tho following pago*
TANGENT LINE
Ex.
2.
105
#2
Find the angle

ar
of intersection of the cncle
8 and of
the parabola
y.
The
points of intersection are
(2, 2)
and />(- 2, 2) (Fig 44), and fioiu the symnietry of the diagram it is evident, that the and z aie the angles of intersection at l
same.
Diffeientiating the equation of the circle,
we have 2
JT
2 y
'
=
(Ijc
0,
whence
ux
=
y
and differentiating the equation

labola,
of tlTb pa-
we
find
i.
Fid 44
1
the slope of the tangent to the circle is of the tangent to the parabola is 2 if Accordingly, /? denotes the angle of intersection, by
Hence at
Pi
1,
and the
slope
Ex
11, p 35,
or
= tan~
3.
EXERCISES
Find the equation of the tangent 16 y - 8 = at the point (2, 2).

1.
8 lino to the ourve x
2.
=4y
3.
Find the equation

8
of the tangent lino to the p,urve 5
2
a;
2
a- //
at the point (2,1).
Find the point
at
which the tangent to the curve 8 y
8
a;
at
(1, &)
intersects the curve again.
4.
=x
5.
Find the angle of intersection of the tangents to the curve 9 at the points for which x = 1
Show that
9T
the equation of the tangent to the ellipse ~j

is
+ ^=1
If
at the point (a^, y,)

6.
+ -M = L
equation of the tangent to the
Show
that the
hyperbola
|j
Y.
=1
at the point fo,
^)
is
^ - %& =
1
I.
Show that
the equation of the tangent to the parabola ?/
= kx
at the point (x lt
y^
is
y$ =
1:
(as
+a
,).
Draw
eacli pair of the following curves in

:
one diagram and deter-
mine the angles at which, they intersect
106
8.
9.
ALCKEBRAK! FUNCTIONS
9
a:
a
a;
fl
10.
11.
12.
13.
y x
a
aj
~4 = 2.r,
4
//
+ y = S, = 3 #, U
j
';
a-
+ if - U ^ H- 4 >/
f>
0.
a
//
8 a-.
-fi
<* 'I' //"
.<//- 18.
J
0,
a
>,
.<'
.r
- -
-1
j'
if
0.
+y
~2,
-//-
".
The differentials <?#, dy, ds. On any given <uw li-t tinfrom somo Jixod initiul point moasmvd alnnjjf the cur\i is if /' lifs in whcro to any point P bo donoiwd by posit.ivt* one direction from the initial point, and negative if /' lies in In39.
distance
apposite direction. Tho (jlit)ico of tho positive direction is purely arbitrary.
^
./
We
shall take as the positive direc-
tion of the tangent that
which shown
the positive direction of the ourvo, and shall denote the angle between
the positive direction of (L\ and the positive direction of the tangent by 0,
'
//
'/f
Now for a fixed

initial
is
curve and a fixed

/'
point the position of a point

if a is
p, (Ji
given. Hence & and y, the coordinates of J\ are functions of which in are continuous and may bo differentiated. \V Hhall now Mhuw tlmt
determined
dx
-7-
COS
ds
G>,
dy aa BUI O, . ,
</
Let
arcP0=Afl
positive.
As
is
Then 1'R
As
(Fig. 45), whenj 7* and Q are so AJJ and A*<y A^/, and
<hnm
thai
arc /'(
tiro
/%;
chord /</
"
Aa
chord PQ
00
MOTION IN A CURVE
107
We
shall
assume without proof that the

as the point
ratio of a small chord
to its arc is very nearly equal to unity,
and that the
limit of
"=1
curve.
limits,
approaches the point
along the
At the same time we have dx

ttrO
the limit of
RPQ =
<f>.
Hence, taking
(1)
^ = cos &
cos 0,
^ = sm ^
l*O
If the notation of differentials is used, equations
(1) become
dx = ds
dyds'
sin
whence, by squaring and adding,

ds
we obtain the important equation

.
= dx + dy
(2)
#, y,
This relation between the differentials of

resented
and
is it
by the triangle of Fig. 46. This figure device for memorizing formulas (1) and (2), but is not rigorously mind that
often repconvenient as a
s is
should be borne
RQ
equal to
dy ( 20), nor is ously equal to ds. In fact,

and PQ = As
;
PQ rigorRQ = Ay,
but
if
this triangle is
regarded as a plane right triangle, we recall immediately the values of
which have sin^>, cos<, and tan< been previously proved. 40. Motion ia a curve. When a
,
body moves
m
.
a curve, the discus-
.IT
o
FIG. 46
JL
sion of velocity and acceleration as the directions as well as the
becomes somewhat complicated, magnitudes of these quantities

but
need to be considered.
or the speed, is the
We
shall not discuss acceleration,
shall notice that the definition for the
magnitude
of the velocity,
same
as before (namely,
V=S 3I' dt
ds
where
s is
distance measured on the curved path)
and that the
direction of the velocity is that of the tangent to the curve.
108
ALGEBRAIC
I UNCTIONS
Moreover, as the body moves along a curved path through a distance PQ=&s (Fig. 47), x changes by an amount PII&K,
and y changes by an amount
RQ=&y. We have then = -^ = = velocity Lim at A

<y
of
the body
in its path,
Lim
Ax
At
dx = vx = component = -7,
dt
of velocity parallel to OX,
Lim
^ =^= At
dt
vJ v
component r
FIG 47
of velocity parallel to Y. Otherwise expressed, v represents the velocity of P, vr the

velocity of the projection of of the projection of P on OY.
upon
39,
0-3T,
and
vv the velocity
Now, by
(8),
36,
and by
x
_ dx _ dx
dt
ds
dt
ds
= V COS <,
and
,
(1)
ds
dt
v.
dy = -* dy
dt ds
<p.
= v sm
(2)
Squaring and adding, we have
v*=v*+ V;.
(3)
Formulas (1), (2), and (3) are of especial value when a particle moves in the plane XO F, and the coordinates x and of
any time t are each given as a function of t. The moving particle may then be determined as follows Assign any value to t and locate the point corresponding to the values of x and y thus determined. This will evidently be the position of the moving particle at that instant of time. In
its position at
path
of the
this way, by assigning successive values to other points through which the particle is
we can
locate
moving
at the corre-
sponding
instants of time.
The
locus of the points thus deterparticle.
mined
is
a curve which, is evidently the path of the
MOTION IN A CURVE
The two
1
109
equations accordingly represent the curve and are called its parametric representation, the variable t being called a 36, the slope of the curve is given by parameter.* By (9),
the formula
jal
dx
d
dt
vx
In. case t can be eliminated from the two given equations, the result is the (#, /) equation of the curve, sometimes called the Cartesian equation; but such ehmmation is not essential, and
often
is
in its path
not desirable, particularly is to be determined.
if
the velocity of the particle
Ex.
1.
A particle moves m the plane XOY so

a;
that at any time
t,
=a+
bt,
=c+
dt,
where
a, &,' c,
and d are any
real constants
Determine
its
path and
its
velocity in its path To determine the path the result
we
y
eliminate
from the given equations, with

..
df c = -(x
d),
the equation of a straight line passing through the point

i
(a, c)
with the
slope
d also
In this case the path may

equations
be determined as follows
ddt\ whence
is,
Fiom
the given
slope of
we
is
find dx
l dt,
and dy
/
=
*'
'-
As the
the path
always the same (that
rA -I, the path
must be a
straight line
the point determined when t 0. (a, c) the velocity of the particle in its path we find, by differentiating the given equations,
which passes through the point
To determine
dx
v
,
>
*=jr l
v
v
2
= di/ = d
dt
.
>
whence, by
(3),
= V&
H-
d\
Hence the particle moves along the

* It
straight line with a constant velocity.
may be noted passing that the parameter in the parametiic representation of a curve is not necessarily time, but may be any third variable in terms
of
which a and y can be expressed.
110
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
Ex. 2. If a projectile starts with an initial velocity v in an initial direction which makes an angle a with the axis of x taken as horizontal, its position at any time t is given by the parametnc equations
x
JTind
its
cos a,
=v
sin
\ gt
velocity in its path.

vx
We have
dx
at
=v
cos a,
vv
= dy ~'
t ~f
Hence
= Vi>
2 gv
sin
a + g*P.
EXERCISES
1.
The
time t are given by the equations x = 2 1, y of the particle and its speed in its path
2.
coordinates of the position of a
moving particle at any s t Determine the path.
The
time
path
of the particle
coordinates of the position of a moving particle at any 2 are given by the equations x t t 1 Determine the y and its speed in its path.
,
= +
3. The coordinates of the position of a moving particle at any time t are given by the equations x = 2 1, y == f t $ t*. Determine the path of the particle and its speed in its path. 4. At what point of its path will the particle of Ex. 3 be moving
most slowly ? 5. The coordinates
time t are given by the equations x = ? the path of the particle and its speed in
6.
of the position of a
3,
its
moving particle at any 9 t + 2. Determine y

moving
4 (1
particle at
2
path
The
time t are given by the equations x = 4 &, y the path of the particle and its speed in its
7.
8.
coordinates of the position of a
t)
any Determine
path.
Find the highest point in the path of a projectile. Find the point in its path at Trhich the speed of a projectile is a minimum. 9. Find the range (that is, the distance to the point at which the projectile will fall on OX), the velocity at that point, and the at which the angle projectile will meet OX.
10.
two
the
Show that in general the same range may be produced by different values of a, and find the value of which produces greatest range.
Find the
(a,
11.
y) equation of the path of a projectile,
and
plot.
VELOCITIES AND RATES

41. Related velocities and rates.
111
Another problem of somewhat different type arises when we know the velocity of one point iii its path, which may be straight or curved, and wish to find the velocity of another point which is in some way connected
The method,
vviUi tho first but, in general, describes a different path. in general, is to form an the
equation connecting
distances traveled by the two points and then to differentiate tho equation thus formed with respect to the time t. The result is an equation connecting the velocities of the two
points.
Ex. 1 A lump is 00 ft. above tho ground. A stone is let drop from a point on tho same lovol us the lamp and 20 ft, away from. it. Find the speed of the stone's shadow on the ground
at the end of 1
HOC., assuming that the distance traversed by a falling body in
t
the time
is 1(5 < a .
(Fig, 48) be tho surface of tho ground which is assumed to be a homontal plane, L the position of the the point from which the stone lamp,
Lot
AC
was dropped, and stone at any time

tion of the
S
t.
the position of the Then Q is the posi-
_
^ I0
4g
shadow of S on the ground, LSQ being a straight line. Let OS = x and BQ, = ?/. Then L and BS = 60 a?. In the similar triangles LOS and SBQ,
= 20, BO = 60,
whence
y
7 < ,
SB
~
1
;
We know x =16
whence
~ = 82
at
(2) ^ 3 and wish to find ?, the velocity of Q.

at
20.
Difterontiating (2) with respect to
t,
we have
x* dt
dt
When
s=
sec,,
=s
16,
and
~
at
=s
82
whence, by substitution, we find

ft.
~&
dt
ss
150
per second.
The
result is negative because y is decreasing as time goes on.
In 6 and 11, if the was known, we were able
two related quantities to find the rate of the other quantity.

rate of one of
112
This type
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
of problem
may
also
be solved by the same method
by which
We
the problem of related velocities has been solved. shall illustrate by taking the same problem that was used
in
11.
being poured at the rate of 100 cu. in. per second into of a right circulai cone of radius 3 in. and altitude 9 iu. Required the rate at which the depth of the water is increasing when
Ex.
2.
Water
is
a vessel in the shape

is
the depth
6 in.
As
in
11,
we have
V=
dV =
-^
^
1
irh
a
;
whence
*z
d1i
^
.
We have given
= 100, h = 6
dt
from which we compute
^ = 25 =796
v
EXERCISES
1.
point
ft.
is
2 moving on the curve y =
sc
The
OX is 2 per second 2. A ball is swung
What
is
the velocity along
OY when
ft
velocity along x 2?
in a circle at the
end of a cord 3
long so
as to make 40 revolutions per minute. If the cord breaks, allowing the ball to fly off at a tangent, at what rate will it be receding from the center of its previous path 2 sec after the cord breaks, if no
allowance
3.
is
made
for the action of

vessel
is in
any new force
the form of an inverted regular quadrangular pyramid, 4 ft square at the top and 2 ft deep. The vessel is originally filled with water which leaks out at the bottom at the rate of 10 cu. in. per minute. How fast is the level of the
The mside of a
water
4.
falling
when
the water
is
10
in.
deep
The top of a ladder 20 ft long slides down the side of a vertical wall at a speed of 3 ft per second. The foot of the ladder slides on horizontal land. Find the path described by the middle point of the ladder, and its speed in its path.
with the anchor fast on the bottom at a depth of 40 ft. the rate of 3 mi per hour, the cable attached to the anchor slipping over the end of the boat At what rate is the cable leaving the boat when 50 ft of cable are out, assuming it forms a straight line from the boat to the anchor ?
5.
is drifting at
A boat
GENERAL EXERCISES
6.
113
being pouied into a conical filter at the rate of 5 cc per second and is running out at the rate of 2 cc. per second. The radius of the top of the filter is 8 cm and the depth of the filter is 20 cm. Find the rate at which the level of the solution is rising in the filter when it is one third of the way to the
is
solution
top.
7.
A trough
is
in the form of a right
triangles placed vertically. It 8 in. deep It contains water
is 5 ft which leaks out at the rate of 1
prism with its ends isosceles long, 1 ft across the top, and
qt.
(57| cu. in ) per minute Find the rate at which, the level of the water is sinking in the trough when the depth is 3 in.
8. The angle between the straight lines AB and BC is 60, and AB is 40 ft. long. A particle at A begins to move along AB toward B at the rate of 5 ft per second, and at the same time a particle at B begins to move along BC toward C at the rate of 4 ft per second. At
what
rate are the

*
two
particles
approaching
each, other at the
end
of 1 sec
9. The foot of a ladder 50ft. long rests on horizontal ground, and the top of the ladder rests against the side of a pyramid which makes an angle of 120 with the ground. If the foot of the ladder is drawn directly away from the base of the pyramid at the uniform rate of 2 ft. per second, how fast will the top of the ladder slide down
the side of the pyramid ?
GENERAL EXERCISES
Plot the curves
1.
:
3 a2
+ 7 f = 21
y*=lG.
a;
9.
2
?/
(4
+ or ) =
2
2. 3.
a == 9.r. 4?/ *
10.
8
9a;
a
2/
?/-
a;
z a
a,
+
==
2
cc
(4
- a2
).
x x
4.
- 2y = 8a _ y
(7/-a )
J
+ 2 a? - 1.
n
12.
-rf+4a"'
2
IS.
2
>
6.
7, 8.
=9-a
f(y
^T4*
(*
+ yf
+ 2).
2
.
15.
xY + 36 = 16 f
and plot the curves
Find the turning-points

16.
17.
of the following curves
= (2 + oO(4 - 2). y = (x + 3)
y
a-,)
'
J=
(x
JB
(a:
- I) +1
3
'
114
ALGKEBBAIC FUNCTIONS
a at f = x ~- x
z
03
,
to the curve 20. Find the equation of the tangent
the point
/
(
3 a 6a\
-g->
~6/
to the curve x* 21. Find the equation of the tangent
+ y* =
at the point
(a;.,^,
3^).
2
?/
22. Prove that if a tangent to a parabola

its
7o
has the slope

its
?;?,
of contact point A 4
is
and 5, ^-) (jVTE tfvj

7/t'
therefore
equation
is
J&
a
JE
23. Prove that if a tangent to
an ellipse
ft
,
= 1 has the slope m, +~ U

?/
of contact is ( its point ^

its equation
is
= wcc
& m ,^ V arm + 67) +6 Va m2 + i
and therefore
Vrt 2?^ 2
2
that a tangent to a parabola makes equal angles with the axis and a line from the focus to the point of contact.
24.
Show
25.
Show that a tangent to an ellipse makes equal

drawn
to the foci
angles with the
two
lines
from the point of contact

.
Find the angles of

26.
,
~
2
intersection of the following pairs of curves
28.
29. 30.
2
a;
2
a:
!
= -4y-4=0,
=o;8
!
a?
+ 12y - 36 = 0.
8
.
2/
2/
=(2-a;)
31.
32. 33.
The coordinates
3
tf
of a
tf
tions x
y=
(1
)^.
moving particle are given by the equaFind its path and its velocity in its
its
path.
34.
A
A
particle
moves so that
.
coordinates at the time t are

its velocity
x = 2t, y =
35.
2
.
Find
its
path and
in
its
path.
its
projectile so
its
moves that x
its
= at,
= bt
^g^. Find
path and
velocity in
path.
GENERAL EXERCISES
36.
115
t.
body so moves that x

its
tf$,
= 1 -f
Find
its
path
and
its
its
velocity in
path.
37.
A particle is moving along the curve if

is
ordmate
rate is
4. 4, x; and when as increasing at the rate of 10 ft. per second. At what the abscissa then changing, and how fast is the particle moving
in the curve
38.
Where
will the abscissa be
changing ten times as fast
as the ordmate ?
A
.
speed v
39.
its
particle describes the circle o; Find the components of its velocity.
+y =a
a
with a constant
A particle describes
and
its
the parabola
is
its
= 4 ax
Find
in such a
its
way that
a-component of velocity
velocity in 40.
equal to
path.
ct
y-component of
velocity
moves
41.
2 "Vt 2 1, y & particle moves so that x to t around a semicircle in the time from t
Show that
it
= 1,
and find
its velocity in its
path during that time.
At 12
o'clock
a vessel
is
sailing
due north at the uniform rate
of 20 mi. an hour. Another vessel, 40 mi. north of the first, is sailing at the uniform rate of 15 mi an hour on a course 30 north of east.
At what
rate
is
the end of one hour ?
the distance between the two vessels diminishing at What is the shortest distance between the
two vessels
42.
The top of a ladder 32 ft. long rests against a vertical wall, is drawn along a horizontal plane at the rate of 4 ft. in a straight line from the wall. Find the path of a second per on the ladder one third of the distance "from the foot of the point
and the foot
ladder,
and
its
velocity in
its
path.
standing on a wharf 20 ft. above the water pulls in a rope, attached to a boat, at the uniform rate of 3 ft. per second Find with the velocity which the boat approaches the wharf
43. 44. The volume and the radius of a cylindrical boiler are expanding at the rate of .8 cu. ft. and .002 ft. per minute respectively. How fast is the length of the boiler changing when the boiler contains 40 cu. ft. and has a radius of 2 ft. ? 45. The inside of a cistern is in the form of a frustum of a regular quadrangular pyramid. The bottom is 40 ft. square, the top is 60 ft. square, and the depth is 10 ft, If the water leaks out at the bottom at the rate of 5 cu. ft. per minute, how fast is the level of the water falling when the water is 5 ft, deep in the cistern ?
A man
116
46.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
The
inside of a cistern
is in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone of vertical angle 90. The cistern is smallest, at the base, which is 4 ft in diameter. Water is being poured in at the rate
of 5 cu
ft.
when
it is
per minute. 2 ft deep ?
How
fast is the
water rising in tho cistern
47. The inside of a bowl is in the form of a hemispherical surface of radius 10 in If watei is running out of it at the iat,o of 2 eu in. per minute, how fast is the depth of the water decreasing when the water is 3 in deep ?
48.
How fast
The
is
the surface of the bowl in
Ex 47 being
exposed
inside of a bowl 4 in deep and 8 in. across the top is in the form of a surface of revolution formed by revolving a parabolic its axis about Water is running into the bowl at the rate segment
49.
when
of 1 cu in per second it is 2 in deep ?

50. It
is
How
fast is the water rising in the
bowl
required to fence off a rectangular piece of ground to con,
tain 200 sq ft one side to be bounded by a wall already constructed. Find the dimensions which will require the least amount of
fencing.
51.
The hypotenuse of a right

if
triangle
is
given.
Find the other
sides
52.
the area
is
maximum
rectangular beam varies as the product of the breadth and the cube of the depth. Find the dimensions of the stiffest
The
stiffness of a
beam which can be cut from a circular cylindrical log of diameter 18 in.
53. A rectangular _plot of land to contain 384 sq. ft. is to be inclosed by a fence, and is to be divided into two equal lots by a fence to one of the sides What must be the dimensions of tho parallel the that least amount of rectangle fencing may be required ? 54. An open tank with a square base and vertical sides is to havo a capacity of 500 cu ft Fiud the dimensions so that the
cost of
lining
55.
it
may be a minimum
to be
made
the
^
rectangular box with a square base and open at the top is made out of a given amount of material. If no allowance is for thickness of material or for waste in construction, what are dimensions of the largest box which can be made ?
metal vessel, open at the top, is to be cast in the form of a right circular cylinder. If rt is to hold 27 TT cu in and the thickness of the side and that of the bottom are each to be 1 in, what will be the inside dimensions when the least amount of material is used ?
,
56.
GENERAL EXERCISES
57
.
117
in the form, of a
gallon
oil
can (231 cu
in ) is io
be
made
right chcular cylinder.

costs twice as
side
What
if
is
The material used for the top and the bottom per square inch as the material used for the the radius of the most economical can that can be
much
made
no allowance
is
made
for thickness of material or waste in
construction ?
tent is to be constructed in the form of a regular quadran58. gular pyiauucl Find the ratio of its height to a side of its babe when the air space inside the tent is as great as possible for a given wall surface
59. It is required to construct from two equal circular plates of radius a a buoy composed of two equal cones having a common base. Find the radius of the base when the volume is the greatest
60. Two towns, A and I>, are situated respectively 12 mi. and 18 mi. back from a straight river from which they are to get thoir water supply by means of the same pumping-station. At what point on the bank of the river should the station be placed so that the least
amount of piping may be required, if the nearest points 011 the river from A and B respectively are 20 mi. apart and if the piping goes 9 directly from the pumping-station to each of the towns
61.
A man 011
one side of a
to be parallel straight lines the opposite side of the river
river, the banks of which are assumed mi apart, wishes to reach a point on and 5 mi. further along the bank If
he can row 3 mi. an hour and travel on land 5 mi. an hour, find the route he should take to make the trip in the least time.
62. A power house stands upon one side of a river of width I miles, and a manufacturing plant stands upon the opposite side, a miles downstream. Find the most economical way to construct the connecting cable if it costs m, dollars per mile on land and n dollars a mile through water, assuming the banks of the river to be parallel
straight lines.
63.
vessel
is
sailing
due east at the uniform rate of 8 mi.
she sights another vessel B directly ahead and 20 mi. at the uniform rate away. B is sailing in a straight course S. 30 of 6 mi per hour. When will the two vessels be nearest to each other?
per hour
when
64.
The number of
tons of coal
ship
is 0.2
+ 0.001 v*
where v
is
consumed per hour by a certain the speed in miles per hour. Find
an expression for the amount of coal consumed on a voyage of 1000 mi. and the most economical speed at which to make the voyage.
118
65.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
The
fuel
portional to
consumed by a certain steamship in an hour the cube of the velocity which would be given
is
proto the
steamship in still water. If it is required to steam a certain distance against a current flowing a miles an hour, find the most economical
speed.
66.
a 2
An
isosceles triangle is inscribed in the ellipse

its
^ 4- ~~ = 1,
Ct
()
(a
> 6),
with
vertex in the upper end of the minor axis o
the
ellipse and its base parallel to the major axis Determine the length of the base and the altitude of the triangle of greatest area whiuli can be so inscribed.
CHAPTER V
42. Circular measure. The circular measure of an angle is the quotient of the length of an arc of a circle, with its center at the vertex of the angle and included between its sides, divided
by the radius
of the arc,
of the arc.
Thus,
if
is
the angle, a the length
and r the
radius,
we have
-~
is
CD
The unit of angle in this measurement is the radian, which r in (1), and any angle may be said the angle for which a
number
of radians.
to contain a certain
But
it is
the quotient
also
in
formula (1)
is
an abstract number, and
customary to
- without speak of the angle 6 as having the magnitude using

the
word
radian.
>
Thus,
we speak
of the angle 1, the angle
-|,
the angle
etc.
In
of
all
work involving
all
calculus,
and in most
theoretical
work
angles which occur are understood to be expressed in radians. In fact, many of the calculus formulas would be false unless the angles involved were so expressed. The
any kind,
it is
student should carefully note this fact, although the reason for not yet apparent.
From
this point of
view such a trigonometric equation as
y = sin x
(2)
be considered as defining a functional relation between two 3 a; For quantities exactly as does the simpler equation y we may, in (2), assign any arbitrary value to x and determine
may
the corresponding value of y.
This
119
may be done by
a direct
120
computation (as will be shown in Chapter VII), or it may be done by means of a table of trigonometric functions, in which case we must interpret the value of x as denoting so many radians.
One
is
that
of the reasons for expressing an angle in circular measure it makes true the formula
*T
Lim
A-+0
bill
fl
fv = 1,
*4
xrtx
(3)
is
where the left-hand member

"
of the equation
to be
read
the limit of
^-y
as h approaches zero as
JB
a limit."
To prove this theorem

follows:
we proceed
as
->. ^%
Let h be the angle

radius of the arc
A OB
AB
(Fig. 49), r the described from as
x ""
Ti //
'
'
^j/
B
and t the length of the tangent drawn from B to meet OA produced in D. Revolve the figure on OA as an axis until B takes the position B'. Then the chord BGB'=2p, the arc BAB' =2 a, and the
tangent
a center, a the length of AB, p the length to OA, of the perpendicular BC from
B D=tliG
f
tangent
BD.
Evidently
BD + DB' > BAB' >BCB';

whence
Dividing through by
r,
t>a>p.
we have
r r
that
is,
tan h
> h > sin h.
Dividing by sin A, we have

'
cos h
cos h
sin
A
^
or,
by inverting,
<^
h
< 1.
GRAPHS
121
1.
Now
which
as h approaches zero, cos h approaches
Hence
;
r
ft
lies
between cos h and
1,
must
also approach 1
that
is,
A- o
n
k
This result
may
be used to find the limit of
as
l
It
approaches zero as a limit

c\
For we have
a fl
cos h
_ ~
2 sin3 2
sin
n 2 /I
_h
2
sm2
7t
'I/
I
2
sm-
Now as h approaches zero by (3). Therefore

r
as a limit,
approaches unity,
h
cos h
7i
Lira
A =0.
.
,
A-O
(4) V '
43. Graphs of trigonometric functions. may plot a trigonometric function by assigning values to x and computing, or taking from a table, the corresponding values of y. In so doing, any angle which may occur should be expressed in circular
We
measure, as explained
tion it is to be
the previous section.
In this connec-
remembered that TT is simply the number 3.1416, and that the angle w means an angle with that number of radians and is therefore the angle whose degree measure is 180. The manner of plotting can be best explained by examples.
Ex.
it is
1.
= a sin fa,
Now
convenient first to fix the values of x which make y equal to aero the sine is zero when the angle is 0, IT, 2 w, 3 IT, 2 TT, on iu TT,
general, kv,
therefore,
where k
we have
*
is any positive or negative integer. to place bx kv, whence
To make
= 0,
2w
>
IT
>
rb
TT
U,
~)
b
--
2ir
,
8w
~j
>
'.
The
if
5 TT e>'~2"' ~n~'
sine takes OTT

eifcc<
its
maximum
* s> *
value
case >
a*
n *kis
+ 1 when the angle has the values TT 5 TT TT "when x = etc. For these ~,
>
,
values of
or,
=a
122
The
that
is,
O
rr
.
sine takes its
minimum
q
value
'
1
etc
in this
case, when x =
17
when the angle
is
'-,
ii
etc.
2
r,
Foi these values of

is
These values of x
for
20 2o which the sine

is
a.
lie
halfway between the
values of x for which the sine
FIG 50
These points on the graph are enough to determine its general shape Other values of x may be used to fix the shape more exactly The graph is shown in Fig 50, with a = 3 and I = 2 The curve may be said to represent a wave.
The
distance from peak to peak,
-,
is
the height a above
OX is the
the wave length, and
amplitude
Ex
As
2. y
= a cos Ix.
1,
in
Ex
is
we
fix first
the points for which y

is
=
,
Now
;
the cosine of
is,
an angle
zero
when the angle
->
etc
that
any odd
multiple of \> At
We have, therefore, y = when

STT
26'
26'
2b
FIG. 61
in Fig 51, with a
Halfway between these points the cosine has or its minimum value - 1 alternately, and y =
its
a.
maximum
value
is
+1
= 3and& = 2
The graph
shown
GKRAPHS
Ex.
3.
128
We have
= a sin (bx + c). y = when bx + c = 0,
TT,
TT,
rr, c>tc.;
that
is,
when
2ir
]?i&.
52
its
Halfway between these values of x tho HHIQ has and its minimum value 1 alternately, and y
same
maximum
value
is
+1
tho
db a.
Tho tmvvo
as in Ex. 1, but is shifted ~ units to the loft (Fig. 52).

4.
Ex, and y
sin a;
is
4 sin
,x.
The graph
found by adding the ordinatcs of tho two curves y
sin x
^ sin 2 x, as
shown
in Fig. 58.
sin
x+i sin 8*0
3?io.
68
EXERCISES
Plot the graphs of the following equations 1. y us 2 sin 3 a:. 6. y
2.
7/
:
tan 2 SB,
= 3oos
Ssinfaj
y
y
2/
8,
3.
SOOCB.
~V
^x
9.
10.
4.
6.
^2008
y
*a
y y
vers
jr.
-j.
(as
11. 12,
sin
2),
gin
4. s i n
124
TKIGONOMETKIC FUNCTIONS
functions. The formulas 44. Differentiation of trigonometric functions are as follows, for the differentiation of trigonometric : where u represents any function of x which can be differentiated
du d sinM = cosM dx dx du d cosM = sinw dx dx

.
>
du d 2 tan u = sec u -> dx dx

.
A ctn W = -csc w^, dx

2
dx
(4)
XCN o)
d sec u dx
dx
= sec u tan u du dx du d = ctn u u u esc esc

,
,
X /J N
dx
(6)
These formulas are proved as follows: sin w, where u is any function of a; which may be 1. Let y differentiated. Give x an increment A and let AM and Ay be the corresponding increments of u and y. Then
Ly = sin (u -f- Aw)
sin
= sin w cos AM + cos u sin A% sin u = cos u sin AM (1 cos Aw) sin u
; .
whence
AV - = cos M sin AM AM Au
let
cos AM
AM
AM
,
sm M.
Now
T
Ar and
,
therefore
,
Lim
sinAit
-
AM
,A^ =^ 1, and, by (4),
42,
T Lim
.
approach zero. 1 cosAw
By
(3),
.
42,
.
Aw
m =A 0. Therefore
~ = du
<fo/
cos u.
But by
(8),
36,
= ^ dx dudx
aa:
K
dx
and therefore
-^ = cosw-^
3
2.
To
find
cos w,
wo
write
= sin
rrn
u
\
?/ )
Then
d
-7?23
cos u
d / /7T = -~ sm
tfo
\2
= coal '7T
3.
To
find
---
tan
7/,
wo
write
djc
,
tan?<
sin
?/
?/,
cos
Then
,,
tan u
a =~
dx cos u
cos u
d-
sin
sin
4
d u -~ cos ?*
eos
tt
VVH
cos w
f?.
;i
4.
To
find
~^~
j?
,
cinu.
wo
write
ctn u
rn ,
I
= -i
=
COS 7^1
sin
hen
d
d.r,
ctn
?/
sin
u d cosw .- -: ax Bin u d,
cos
cos u -=-
fiin
126
5.
TRIGONOMETBIC FUNCTIONS
To
find
ax
sec u,
we
secw
1
cos
write
, ^1 = (COSM) \
Then
sec
= - (cos
sum
<2
)~*
cos u
(by (6),
36)
j
6.
To
find
aa;
esc w,
we
esc
3
u=
sin
write
= (sin. u)~\
7
Then
esc
u=
(sin w)~
sin u
(by (6),
36)
Ex.
1.
= tan 2
a;
tan3 a;
= tan 2 x
dx^
(tan a:)
8.
^=
dx
sec 2 2 x-j- (2 a) '

a;
-2v (tana) J
tana;
dx
= 2 seo 2 2
Ex.
2.
2 tan a; sec 2 a:.

x.
y ^8
= (2 sec*ar +
sec 8
3 sec a a;) sin
= sin
a:
+ 6 sec x ~- (sec a) + (2sec*a: + 3 sec2 a:)-^(sina;) *-! (see a)

J
2
a;
= sin x (8 sec*a; tan x + Q sec = (1 coss (8 sec + 6 sec = 8 sec 3 sec

6
tan a:)
(2 sec*a;
s
a:
3 sec s a:) cos

a;)
a:)
a;
8
a;)
(2 sec
3 sec
a:
ar.
EXERCISES
nd
in each of the following cases
=2
tan|sw.*2x.
s 5aj.
a
6.
= & sin
5a!
sin5
7.
^rs
8.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

9.
2/
127
cos 8
-2cos.
11.
10.
ctn-
+
,
x o ctn * -. 2
,o 12.
= sec + ton
a* a;
as
13. 14.
y y
15.
16.
17.
18.
= sin (2 + 1) cos (2 1). = tan 3 3 tan 3 x + 9 y = see 2 tan 2 x. 5 cos 2 y = ^ (3 cos 2 8 = 0. sin 2 a + tan 3 = 0. asy + ctn xij
a?
a;
ie.
a:
os).
?/
move 45. Simple harmonic motion. Let a particle of mass in a straight line so that its distance s measured from a fixed
point in the line
is
given at any time

s
s=a
by the equation
(1)
G sin Si,
where
and b are constants.

v
We
c6 sin
2
have for the velocity v and

(2 )
Ztf.
the acceleration a
^ cbcos ^
particle is at
a sss
(3)
(Fig. 54),
o,
When
t
0, 8
and the
When
= -j^r*
2
o
s =s c
t is
and the
between
is
particle is at
A
is
where OA**
When
When
,
and
>a
v
y
positive
and a
is
negative,
so that the particle

t is
,
moving from
25
,.
to
is
,
A with
decreasing speed.
between
and
T o
v
,-,
i
]?i<*.
A
64
negative and a is negative, so that with increasing speed. the particle moves toward
71"
When
==--, the particle is at 0.
As
varies from
? b
8
to -^?? the particle
26
moves with decreasing
speed from
Finally, as
to
J?,
where OJ? =*
o.
varies
from
|^ 2o
to
-, o
the particle moves back
from
J5
to
(9
with increasing speed.
128
is
The motion
B
we
then repeated, and the particle oscillates between and A, the time required for a complete oscillation being, as
have
seen,
27T =-
The motion
of the particle is called simple
harmonic motion. The quantity

2
interval -=
7T
c is called
the amplitude, and tho

itself,
after
which the motion repeats
is
called
the period. Since force

the force
is
F acting on the F kma =

0.
proportional to the mass times the acceleration, particle is given by the formula
kmcb s sm bt=
is
Jcmb*s.
This shows that the force
from the point
The negative
proportional to the distance s sign shows that the force pro-
duces acceleration with a sign opposite to that of s, and therefore slows up the particle when it is moving away from arid increases its speed when it moves toward 0. The force is therefore always directed toward and is an attracting force. If, instead of equation (1), we write the equation
s
= c8mb(t-t ),
Q
(4)
the change amounts simply to altering the instant from which the time is measured. For the value of s which t corresponds to t in (1) corresponds to t = t +t in l (4). Hence (4) represents simple harmonic motion of amplitude But (4) may be written
s
and period
= G cos fa
sin bt
o sin bt cos
bt,
which
is
the same as
s = A sin bt + B cos bt, A = c cos bt B = c sin bt
,
where
A and B
we
may have any values in (5), for have, from the last two equations,
if
and
B are
given,
c=V^ +5
a
2
,
tanfa
= --,
which determines
and
in
(4).
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
129
Therefore equation (5) also represents simple harmonic motion 2 7T z a with amplitude VA +jB and period -7
In particular,
if
in (5)
A = and 33 = c, we 8 = G COS It.

*j
'
,
have
(6)
If in (4)
we
place
=
*
it
becomes
&
=<! cos
fi
(-*),
(7)
which
is
differs
from (6) only
in the instant
from which the time
measured.
EXERCISES
moves with constant speed v around a circle. Prove that its projection on any diameter of the circle describes harmonic motion simple
1.
particle
2. A point moves with simple harmonic motion of period 4 sec. and amplitude 3 ft Find the equation of its motion. 3. Given the equation s = 5 sin 2 1 Find the tune of a complete oscillation and the amplitude of the swing.
4. Find at what time and place the speed motion defined by the equation s = G sin It
is
Do
the greatest for the the same for the
acceleration.
5. At what point in a simple harmonic motion and at what point is the acceleration zero ?
is
the velocity zero,
6. The motion of a particle in a straight line is expressed by the 2 cos 3 *. Express the velocity and the acceleration equation s = 5 in terms of s and show that the motion is simple harmonic.
7.
ft
A particle moving with a simple harmonic motion of amplitude has a velocity of 8 ft. per second when at a distance oj! 3 ft.
its
from
8.
mean
position.
Find
its
period.
A particle moving with

ft.
of 6
per second when
simple harmonic motion has a velocity at a distance of 8 ft. from its mean position,
ft.
and a velocity of 8 ft. per second when at a distance oC 6 mean position. Find its amplitude and its period.
9.
from
its
equation
point moves with simple harmonic motion given by the *= # sin et. Describe its motion,
130
46. Graphs
of inverse trigonometric functions.
The equation
(1)
x=
sin
defines a relation between the quantities x and y which may be stated by saying either that x 'is the sine of the angle y or that
the angle y has the sine

the equation
x.
When we
we
wish to use the
latter
form
of expressing the relation,
write in place of equation (1)
y = sm -^,
.
(2)
not to be understood as a negative exponent but as 1 To avoid the possible ambiguity part of a new symbol sin" formula (2) is sometimes written
where
is
y = arc
sin x.
Equations (1) and (2) have exactly the same meaning, and the student should accustom himself to pass from one to the other without difficulty. In equation (1) y is considered the independent variable, while in (2) x is the independent variable. Equation (2) then defines a function of x which is called the anti-sine of x or the inverse sine of x. It will add to the clearness of the student's thinking, however, if he will read equation (2) " as y is the angle whose sine is x." = cos#, then y = GOS~'L x; if x ioxiy, then Similarly, if a 1 y tan" a; and so on for the other trigonometric functions. We get in this way the whole class of inverse trigonometric functions. It is to be noticed that, from equation (2), y is not completely determined when x is given, since there is an infinite number
;
of angles with the same sine.
For example,
.
if
=2
#=>
.
>
-~>
STT 18
ft
IT
>
, etc.
_..
&
1ms
causes a certain
amount
of ambiguity in
using inverse trigonometric functions, but the ambiguity is removed if the quadrant is known in which the angle y lies. We have the same sort of ambiguity when we pass from the
tion
x = y*
to the equation
y.
y=
equa-
Va;, for if
is
given, there
are two values of
To
may
obtain the graph of the function expressed in (2) wo change (2) into the equivalent form (1) and proceed as
GRAPHS
in
43.
131
evident that the graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions are the same as those of the direct functions but differently placed with reference to the coordinate
In this way
it is
axes. It is to be noticed particularly that to any value of x corresponds an infinite number of values of y.
FIG. 55
FIG 56
Ex.
= sin- 1 * From this, x = sin y,

1.
and we
may
plot the graph
by assuming values of
y and computing those of a (Fig. 55).
Ex.
2.
y
==
= tantan
y,
*.
Then
and the graph
is
as in Fig. 56.
EXERCISES
1.
:
y
y
=3
tan- 1 2
x.
3.
2.
ctn-^cc.
4.
2).
= sin" y = tany
inverse
1
(a:
1).
5.
6.
(* + 1).
=1+ cos" = ^tan" ^

1
1
:*;.
7.
?/
= cos-^jc
8.
sin-^S x
4. 1)
-The
47.
Differentiation
of
trigonometric functions.
formulas for the differentiation of the inverse trigonometric

functions are as follows:
1.
-7- sin""
1
ax
^=
-ra w u
vl x
when
,.
sin""
,,
is
,
in the first or the

,
<*x
lourth quadrant
i
i
diL
when
QiX
,t
sin-^f
i
is
in the second or
i
A/ "I x M_
QI^
the third quadrant.
132
2.
-
TKIGONOMETKIC FUNCTIONS
cos"
1
^=
^x
vlw
,
-7-
when
cos"
** is
m the first or the

the third or the
second quadrant;
=
d
O
~z
(Jtjf
VI - u2
1
when
dx
cos" 1 ^
is
f ourth
quadrant
L.
du
z
dx
A
1
.
+w
1
ax
d
dx
4.
ctn
_j
u=
?*
du
3
5.
sec"
=
u^/u2 -l dx
when
sec"
^
1
is
in the first or the
dx
=
uvu
fj
when
I
el/Mi
sec"
is
in the
second or
^ ie
-7|.j
f our tli
quadrant.
is
CSC"
M=
=
J.
.
when
ie
csc" 1 ^
in the first or
uvu
,
1
-r-
third quadrant;
csc""
1
when
is
in the
second or
The proofs
1.
of these formulas are as follows:
If
y = sin~X
sin
i
then
Hence, by
TT
A A
44,
co S2
= ,^ -;
-dx
cfc
y = u. dy du
whence
-1
cos
1
du y dx
rant,
But cos y = Vl u2 when # is m the first or the fourth quadand cosy = Vl u2 when y is m the second or the third
If
quadrant.
2.
y=
cos
cos" ^,
u-
then
Hence
whence
_ sin 9
^
eta
=^
dx
dx
*
sin
DIFFERENTIATION
But
rant,
183
y and am y
sin
Vl
M a when y is in the first or the second quadVl u2 when y is in the third or the fourth
tan' 1 it,
quadrant.
3.
It'
y
tan y
then
1
it
1
= u.
du
;
ence
2 d?t sec u ~^~

/yif>-
dv*t
/yVp Lt*v
whence
4.
dy -~
dx
=
1
du
dx
!/,
+u
1
If
yssctir
ctn
41
then
V T
?/
= w.
(
(iV
(/
V UV
whence
5.
~=
(??/
1
=
du
;
a
If
are + w" -7-
yssseo'X
sec
?/
then
1
= M.
-rft'V
;
ence
sec y tan
?y
-~ =
ti*y*
whence
d'i/ -
=
sec
1
,
<??*
-=-*
djc
;y
tan y dx
?/
But Rcoyss?/, and tan,y = V?â --l when the third quadrant, and tan ?/:=-~-vV 1 second or the fourth quadrant.
M
is
in the first or
is
when y
in
the
T$
/j/
rtiart '""'J'^f
then
_r
.
esc
y=
=s
?/,.
Hence
whence
dy esc y otn y j~ rvM/

-f?a;
y
\4iJu
du
;
=
esc
-r-
ofo&y
dx
134
1
the third quadrant, and ctn# = Vw 2 1 when y is in the second or the fourth quadrant. If the quadrant in which an angle lies is not material in a problem, it will be assumed to be in the first quadrant. This
applies particularly to formal exercises
Ex.
1.
1 y = sin" Vl
But cscy = w, and ctn^=Vw2
when y
is
in the first or
differentiation.
xz where y
,
is
an acute angle
^
a>\|
dv dx
This result
Ex.
2.
1
.
.fLn.
L-(l-a 2)
dx
Vl xz
may
also be obtained
by placing sin- 1 Vl
= cos" 1
a:.
sec" 1 V4a:a
4ar
2.
dy dx
dx
V4 x* + 4 x +
V(4
2
a,-
4x
2)
-1
2a,--
~
~2a;2 +
EXERCISES
Find
-7^ in
each of the following cases
11.
2.
= sin"
= COS~
-.
y
y
_ sin -ift
i
g
13.
4. 5.
6. 7.
= cos -1 3a; 2 y = tan~ y = tan" Vcc y = ctn1 1
= tan" Va - 1 +
1
2 x.
^-
8.
9.
y y
= sec" = csc~
,
16.
1 1
=
2\a
a;/
5 a.
2aj.
a;
10,
y-tan->
+6
18.
y ss
Vl
aj
+a5003~
Vl
wa
ANGULAR VELOCITY
48.
135
Angular velocity. If a line OP (Fig. 57) is revolving in a plane about one of its ends 0, and in a time t the line OP has moved from an initial position to the position OP, the angle MOP = 6 denotes the amount of rotation. The rate
OM
of change of with respect to called the angular velocity of OP.
t is
The
angular velocity
is
by the Greek
the formula
letter
commonly denoted so we have

< ;
JQ
In accordance with
is
42 the angle 8
so that
if t is
taken in radians
in
seconds, the angular velocity is in radians per second. By dividing by
2-Tr,
the angular velocity
may be reduced
to revolutions per second, since one revolution is equivalent to TT radians. describes point Q on the line OP at a distance r from
a circle of radius r which intersects

of the arc of the circle
OM at
A.
If s
is
the length
42,
AQ
s
measured from A, then, by
= rO.
(2)
it
Now
ds
-r- is
dt
called the linear velocity of the point $, since

s is
measures the rate at which

ds
described ; and
from (2) and
(1),
d0
showing that the farther the point Q

its linear velocity.
is
from.
the greater
is
denned by J the
Similarly, the angular acceleration, relation , ,, , a2 o aft>
which
is
denoted by
oc,
is
This formula
is
connected with the linear acceleration
-=-5
by the
136
1.
u>
Ex
to
t
If
a wheel revolves so that the angular velocity

8
1,
formula
how many
revolutions will it
make
is given by the in the time from t = 2
5?
We
take a spoke of the wheel as the line
OP Then we
have
dQ
=8
tdt
is
Hence the angle through which the wheel revolves in the given time
B
C B
1/2
tdt
[4 fif
=100 - 16 =
84.
The
2
ir.
result
is
in radians. It
is 13.4
may be reduced
to revolutions
by dividing by
The answer
revolutions
Ex. 2. A particle traverses a circle at a uniform rate of n revolutions a second Determine the motion of the projection of the particle on a diameter of the circle
Let
M the projection
x
OX
P (Fig 58) be the particle, the diameter of the circle, and

of P on OX = a cos 6,
Then
where a
is
the radius of the
circle.
hypothesis the angular velocity of OP is 2 nir radians per second
By
Therefore
o>
=
dt
= 2 mr
whence
If
FIG. 68 consider that
we
Therefore
= 0, the particle is x = a cos 8 = a cos 2 rart = a cos

when
t
/,
on OX, then
(7
0.
<at.
The point therefore describes a simple harmonic motion simple harmonic motion is often defined in this way
In
fact,
EXERCISES
flywheel 4ft in diameter makes 3 revolutions a second. Find the components of velocity in feet per second of a point on the rim when it is 6 above the level of the center of the wheel.
1.
of a flywheel of radius 5 ft which is 3 ft. above the level of the center of the wheel has a horizontal component
2.
A point
on the rim
of velocity of 100 ft per second per second of the wheel.
Find the number of revolutions
CYCLOID
3.
If the horizontal and vertical projections of a point descr simple harmonic motions given by the equations
= 5 cos 3t,
If a
= 5 sin 3
1,
show
49.
that the point moves in a circle and find
its
angular velocity
The
cycloid.
wheel
rolls
upon
a straight line, ea
point of the rim describes a curve called a cycloid. Let a wheel of radius a roll upon the axis of #, and let (Fig. 59) be its center at any time of its motion, JV its point
N
FIG. 59
the point which describes the cycloi 6L3T, and as the origin of coordinates, 0, the point found by rollu meets OX. the wheel to the left until
contact with
Take
Then
P ON= arc PN.
Draw
MP
and CN, each perpendicular to OX,
PR parallel
OX, and connect C and P. Let

angle
NGP
<j>.
Then
x=
OM = 0-ZV- JfJV
a<j>
a sin <.
a cos
$
40) of the cycloid
Hence the parametric
representation (
a&=a(<f>
sin<),
#=
(!
-cos<).
138
If
the wheel revolves with a constant angular velocity
40,
i)
to
=
-^
we
have, by
a,
C\.
cos
-*<f>")
= Q>* (1
<f>
',
cos
<p),
?;
= a sm -If- = am sw.
<j>
at
whence
=a
2 2 co
2 (2-2 cos <) = 4 a 6)
sin
= 2 aco sm ^>
its
as an expression for the velocity in run of the wheel.
path of a point on the
EXERCISES A
1.
Prove that the slope of the cycloid
at
any point
is
ctn
^-
on the rim 2. Show that the straight line drawn from any point of a rolling wheel perpendicular to the cycloid which that point is of the rolling wheel. describing goes through the lowest point
3. Show that any point on the run of the wheel has a horizontal to the vertical height of component of velocity which is proportional
the point
4.
Show
as fast as either of the
that the highest point of the rolling wheel moves twice two points whose distance from the ground as a
half the radius of the wheel

5. Show that the vertical component of velocity is when the point which describes the cycloid is on the
maximum
level of the
center of the rolling wheel.

6. Show that a point on the spoke of a rolling wheel at a distance from the center describes a curve given by the equations
a<f>
b sin <,
=a
path.
b cos
<j>,
and find the velocity of the point in

trochoid.
7.
its
The curve
is called
Find the slope of the trochoid and

is steepest.
find the point at
which the
curve
8.
Show
that
when a
point on a spoke of a wheel describes a
trochoid, the average of the velocities of the point when in its highest and lowest positions is equal to the linear velocity of the wheel
CUJftVATUKE
50. Curvature.
139
direction of its
change of motion may be measured by the change of the
If a point describes a curve, the
angle
<
15).
For example, in the curve of Fig. 60, if AJ%= s and ./J^ = As, and if fa and fa are the values of for the points P and P z l is the total respectively, then </>2 change of direction of the P and If curve between J? y Y
<j&
fafa = A<,
is
expressed in
circular measure, the ratio
As
the average change
of direction per linear unit of the arc PJ\. Regarding

as a
function of
s,
and
as
taking the limit of
As
as
a
is
As approaches zero
limit,
FIG CO called the curvature of the curve at
we have
-f->
which
as
the point P. Hence the curvature of a curve is the rate of change of the direction of the curve with respect to the length of the arc.
is constant, the curvature is constant or uniform ; otherIf ds wise the curvature is variable. Applying this definition to the
circle of
center
is
C and
A<
Fig. 61, of which the the radius is a,

P^CP^,
we have
As
and hence
-
= a Arf>.
Therefore
di Hence -to the
As
- and
-j
the circle is
as a a curve of constant curvature equal

reciprocal of
its radius.
reciprocal of the curvature is called the radius of curvature and will be denoted by p.
The
FIG. 61
we may pass
Through every point of a curve radius equal to p, which shall have the same tangent as the curve at the point and shall lie on the
a circle with
its
140
same
Since the curvature of a circle is side of the tangent. uniform and equal to the reciprocal of its radius, the curvatures
of the curve and of the circle are the same, and the circle shows the curvature of the curve in a manner similar to that in which
the tangent shows the direction of the curve. called the circle of curvature.
The
circle is
From
the definition of curvature
it
follows that
_
If the
ds
equation of the curve
is
in rectangular coordinates,
by
(9),
36,
~
dx
ds
To
transform this expression further,
we
note that
,2
,2
root,
whence, dividing by dx* and taking the square
we have
Since
<j>
= tan-
1
,
(by
15)
dx3 dx
^
< fdy\
.
\dx,
Substituting,
we have
^2y d
dx*
In the above expression "for p there is an apparent ambiguity of sign, on account of the radical sign. If only the numerical value of p is required, a negative sign may be disregarded.
CUBVATUEE
3,2
141
Ex.
1.
Find the radius of curvature

dy -f da;
of the ellipse
a
a:
= 1. *j
y2
Here
& = - -=a
ay
Therefore
P
of the cycloid (
Ex.
2.
49).
We have
-^ = a(l
a<p
d?/
cos<)
.
= 2asin2 2,
<s
^
d<p
= a sin
=s
/>
n 2 a
A i sm J cos ^
it
&
Therefore, by (9),
36,
f^
dx
= ctn^.
2
and
EXERCISES
1.
Find the radius of ourvature of the curve
y*
2.
3.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x*

of the curve
222 + =
-fa a*.
Find the radius of curvature 2 at the point for which x

4.
taa-â;
1)
Show that
a;
the circle
7T\
-r- )
y = sin
B.
at the point for curvature at that point.
which x
+ y = 1 is tangent to the curve = and has the same radius of

2
-jr,
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x

t
= cos
t,
at the point for which

6.
= 0,
a<j!
= cos 2
<
1,
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x

<]!>
= a cos
as
-{-
a<
sin A, y =s a sin
7.
cos <.
Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve

lias its greatest
= o.cos
<,
value
when
<j>
TT
142
So
far
51. Polar coordinates.
we have determined
:
the posi-
tion of a point in the plane by two distances, x and y. however, use a distance and a direction, as follows
We
may,
Let
let
OM,
(Fig. 62), called the origin, or pole, be a fixed point, and called the initial line, be a fixed line. Take any point
in the plane,
and draw OP. Denote
OP by r,
and the angle
MOP
by 6
Then
r and 6 are called the polar coor-
dinates of the point P(r, 0), will completely determine P.
and when given
For example, the point
(2,
by laying
uring
off
the angle
is
MOP =15
15)
is
plotted
and meas-
OP= 2.
r,
OP, or
called the radius vector,
and
6 the veotorial angle, of P. These quantities may be either positive or negative. negative value of 6 is laid off in the direction of the motion of the hands of a clock, a positive angle
m the opposite direction.
After the angle 6 has been constructed,

along the terminal along the backward It follows that the same point
positive values of r are measured line of 0, and negative values of r
from from
extension of the terminal line.
may have more than one dinates. Thus (2, 195),
pair of coor(2,
(-2, 15), and (- 2, the same point. In practice

ally convenient to restrict
- 345)
-165),
refer to
it is
usu-
to positive
values.
Plotting in polar coordinates is facilitated by using paper ruled as Figs. 64
"
ElG 63 the numbers at the ends of the straight hnes, and the value of r is counted off on the concentric circles, either toward or away from the number which indicates 6,
and
65.
The angle 6 is determined from
according as r
is
positive or negative.
:
between (r, 0) and (x, y) is found as follows Let the pole and the initial line of a system of polar coordinates be at the same time the origin and the axis of # of a of system rectangular coordinates. Let P (Fig, 63) be any point
relation
The
OM
POLAR COORDINATES
143
of the plane, (a;, #) its rectangular coordinates, and (r, 0) its polar coordinates. Then, by the definition of the trigonometric
functions,
XJ cos 6
=X
sm
Whence
2-.
follows, on the one hand,
y
and, on the other hand,
= r cos = r sin
(1)
i
sin0
cos
(2)
By means of (1)
coordinates
a transformation can be
made from
rectangular
to polar coordinates,
and by means
of (2)
from polai
to rectangular
When an equation is given in polar coordinates, the corresponding curve may be plotted by giving to 6 convenient values,
computing the corresponding values of r,
plotting the resulting
points,
and drawing a
r
curve through them.

Ex.
a
is 1.
a cos $
a constant which may be given any convenient value We may then find from a table of
natural cosines the value
of r
to
which corresponds any value of 9. By
aw
MS J
plotting the points corxesponding to values of 6
*
FIG 04
from
the arc
to
90, we obtain
ABCO (Fig. 64). Values of 6 from 90 to 180 give the arc ODEA. Values of 6 from 180 to 270 give again the arc ABCO, and those fiom 270 to 860 give again the arc ODEA. Values of 6 greater than 360 can clearly give no points not already found. The curve is a circle.
144
Ex.
2.
r= a sin 35.
;
As
from 30 to 60,
040
OA.
60
to a as 9 increases to 30, r increases from 6 increases from the point (r, 0) traces out the loop r decreases from a to , to the radius (Fig. 65), which is evidently symmetrical with respect As 6 increases from
to
and
;
90, r is negative to decreases from

isoj
increases from a as 90 to 120, r increases from the a to ; point (r, 0) traces out the loop OBO As & increases from 120 to 180, the point (r, 6} traces out the loop OCO.
values of & give points already found, since sin 3 (180 + 5) = - sm 3 6.
Larger
The
three loops are congiu-
ent, because sm,3 (60
+ 0) =
sin30 This curve is called a rose of three leaves.
Ex.
3.
r2
=
r,
Solving for
we have
= i a V2 cos 2 0.
Hence, corresponding to any values of 9 which make cos 2 9 positive, there will be two values of r numerically equal and opposite in sign, and two corresponding points of the curve symmetrically situated with respect
to the pole
If values are
assigned to 9 which
make
cos 2 9 negative, the
corresponding values of r will be imaginary and there will be no

points
on the
to
curve.
Accordingly,
as
increases
from
ically
45, r decreases numerfrom aV2 to 0, and the
^
FIG 06
to
$f
portions of the curve in the first and the third quadrant are constructed (Fig 66) as 9 increases from 45 there is no portion of the curve between finally, as 9 increases from 135 to 180, r aV2, and the portions of the curve in the
;
135, cos 2 9 is negative, and the lines 9 = 45 and 9 = 135

,
increases numerically from to second and the fourth quadiant

it is
are constructed
lemniscate.
curve already found
The curve is now complete, as we should if we assigned further values to 0,
only repeat the called the
GRAPHS
Ex. 4.
145
The
spiral
of Archimedes,
= a8.
,
In plotting, 6 is usually considered in cncular measuie When &= 0, r =
and as 6 mci eases, the cuive winds an
inci eases, so that
infinite uiuubei of
times around the ongin while leceding from it (Fig 67) In the flgme the
heavy line represents the poitiou
of
0,
the spiral coriespondmg to positive values of portion coriespondmg to negative values of 6
and the dotted
line the
EXERCISES
Plot the graphs of the following curves
1.
2.
3. 4.
= a sm 6 r = asm 20 r = a cos 30
r
9.
r
2
?'
= a sin
2
a
8
10.
11. ?*
= a sin-'
12.
,,
13. r
56.
r=acos
7-
= a sin = = a (l _ cos 2 0). = a(l+2cos20)

=atan0
14. r
15.
7.
8.
?'
= 3 cos + 5 = 3 cos + 3.* r = 3 cos +2

17. r 18. 19.
= a tan 2
16
'
=
1
+ cos
0.
Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of curves
20.
= 2 sm r = a cos r = 1 + sin r =a sin0,

0,
2
? 2
;-
0,
0,
r
'
= 2-x/S cos = a sin 2 = 2 sin =a2 sm30

2
Transform the following equations

21
.
to polar coordinates
23.
.r?/
22
2
.
a;
= 4. +f- 4
ft
xz +
y*-2ay =
2 2
2/ )
0.
</a?
- 4 ay =
24. (a*
=a
2
Z/
Transform the following equations

25.
to rectangular coordinates
26. r
r= sec 6 = 2 n cos
* The curve
t
is is
27. r 28. r
called a cardioid
= atan0. = a cos 2
The curve
a parabola with the ongui at the focus.
146
52.
The
differentials
<?r,
d9, ds, in polar coordinates.
We have
seen, in
39, that the differential of arc in rectangular coordinates is given by the equation
(1)
If
we
wish to change this to polar coordinates, we have to
place
x = r cos dx
0,
r sin 6
whence
= cos 6dr r sin 6 d6, = dy sin Qdr + r cos 6d6.

we have
ds*
= dr + r*d6
z
z
.
(2)
of
:
This formula
" tary triangle
may
be remembered by means
an
"
elemen-
Let
being
P
(r,
(Fig. 68), constructed as follows be a point on a curve r =/(0), the coordinates of P = r and = 6. Let Q be increased 0), where OP
MOP
by an amount d0 thus determining another as a center point Q on the curve. From and with a radius equal to r, describe an
t
Then, by 42, PR, = rdd. Now EQ is equal to Ar, and PQ is equal to As. -^ 6g We shall mark them, however, as dr and da respectively, and the formula (2) is then correctly obtained by treating the triangle PQJR as a right triangle with straight-line sides. The fact is that the smaller the triangle becomes as Q approaches P, the more nearly does it behave as a straight-line triangle ; and in the limit, formula (2) is exactly true. Other formulas may be read out of the triangle PQR. Let us denote by i/r the angle PQJR, which is the angle made by the curve with any radius vector. Then, if we treat the PQR
O.E
r.
arc of a circle intersecting
= OP =
OQ
in
so that
as a straight-line right-angle triangle,
we have
triangle the formulas
dr
(3) J k
DIFFERENTIALS
The above is not a proof proof we need to go through
of the formulas.
147
To supply
the
We
connect the points
a limit process, as follows: and Q by a straight line (Fig. 69)
perstraight line from pendicular to OQ meeting OQ at S.
and draw a
Then the triangle line right-angle triangle,

chord
,
PQS
is
a straight-
and therefore
PQ
'
SP
arc
arcPg
FIG. 69
PQ chord PQ' Now angle POQ = A0, arc PQ = As,

and, from the right triangle OSP,
SP = OP
sin
POQ =
sm
A0.
Therefore
rsuiA * Ag
arcP
chord P<2
A0
As
chord
PQ
Now let A0 approach zero as a limit, so that Q approaches P along the curve. The angle SQP approaches the angle OPT,
where
PT
1,
''
is
the tangent at P.
At
the same time

rlfi
ap;
proaches
aic
T>/~)
by
42
A/9 ;
approaches
39.
by
definition
and
CllOlXl
approaches
JL
1,
by
In this figure we denote the

(4),
ty
>/r
angle
OPT by
and have, from

. .
smf = r
dB
,
,CN
(5)
which is the first of formulas (3). It is true that in Fig. 69 we have denoted OPT by -^ and that in Fig. 68 ^ denotes OQP. But if we remember that the angle OQP approaches OPT as a limit when Q approaches P, and that in using Fig. 68 to read off
the formulas (3)
we are really anticipating this limit process, the difference appears unessential. be obtained by a limit process The other formulas
(3)
may
similar to the one just used, or they
may be
obtained more
148
TEIGONOMETEIC FUNCTIONS
For, from (2) and (5),
quickly by combining (5) and (2).
we have
whence
cos
-\lr
=
ds
(6)
By
dividing (5) by (6)
we have
rdd
dr
/7N CO
In using (7)
it
may be convenient
tan
i/r
to write
it
in the
form
(8)
=
dr
d0
since the equation of tho curve
t?rt
is
usually given in the form

differentiation.
r =/(#), and
is
cLu
found by direct
1
Ex. Find the angle which the cmve

vector 6
= a sin 4 =
makes with the radius

" sin 4
80
0.
Here
= 4 a cos 4 ^ do
6
j/r
tan ^ Therefore, fiom (8), ^ T
cos 4 6
i tan ^=4
'I
Substituting
= 30,
35'.
we
have
tan
Therefore
= 156
^=
tan 120
= - | V3 = - 4 MO
EXERCISES
1.
Find the angle -which the curve
= a cos 3
makes with the

makes with the
radius vector 6
2.
= 45
Find the angle which the curve
radius vector 6
3.
= 2 + 3 cos
A
90
Find the angle which the curve r
= a2 sin
i/r
makes with the
initial line.
4.
Show Show
that for the curve r
a,
9 sin 8 5 j
6 =-
5.
any and the
that the angle between the cardioid r cos 0) and a(l radius vector is always half the angle between the radius vector
initial line.
GENEHAL EXERCISES
6.
149
Show
2 that the angle between the lemniscate r
=2
2
.
cos 2 9
TT
and any ladms vector
is
always
plus twice the angle between the
radius vector and the initial line

7.
Show
a that the curves r
=a
sin 2 6
and
2
?-
=a
cos 2 6 inter-
sect at right angles
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the graphs of the following equations
1.
?/
:
= 4sm a
1 4-
5.
o / L ^ y = Ssmlas +
TT
)
2.
y = cos (2 x y
3)
6.
3.
4.
= tan-
7-
= tan x. - 2) = y 2cos2(o!
a
vy ?/
ys= Jsin2aj
-f^ in
CtttXj
+ ^8in8a5.
:
8.
= 3cos3h +
Find
the following cases

9.
10.
= 2x = tan (3 K + 2) +
,J
tan8 (3 x
+ 2).
12. tan (x
13.
14.
?/)
+ tan (x
y)
= 0. =
y=3ctn
?/
fi
+ 5ctn
|.
21. y 22.
= csc
4x
+ 2 ctn 4 x
a;
?/
=
cos
16. 17. 18.
?/
= sm 4 x cos*2
a
23>
~
a.a_|_
>
4
2x.
?/
= - cos
8
2 cos ~
24. 25.
v
2/
= ctn" = csc"
Vsc
1
t
2
SC "y" 1
?y=atan
2a!
^tan2C+03.
19.
y
?/
= sin
20.
= cos"
28.
particle
moves in a straight
is
line so that s
=6
Show
that the motion
which, the particle
about simple harmonits and find the center oscillates and the- amplitude of the motion.
150
29.
tion
particle
moves on the
ellipse
i+^=1
?/
20
so that its projeq-
upon OX describes simple harmonic motion given by x = a cos kt. Show that its projection upon OF also describes simple harmonic
motion and find the velocity of the particle in its path. 30. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion of period
has a velocity of 9 ft per second when at a distance of 2 mean position. Find the amplitude of the motion.
31.
ft.
7T -r
from
its
A
t.
particle
moves according
to the equation s
= 4 sin
\t
that the motion is simple harmonic and find the amplitude of the swing and the time at which the particle passes
5 cos
Show
through
32.
its
mean
position.
of the curve
= x sin-
point for which x

33.
2
7T
at the
Find the radius of curvature of the curve ?/ = = TT point for which x a sin' 1 34. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y
at the point for
at the
7!!
'
V,
.r*
which x
CL
r
I sin
<{>,
35.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x => a cos <, y =

which
<j>
at the point for
IT = -r-
Plot the graphs of the following curves

36.
=a
=a
sm|sin40
41. r
42. ra
..
=1-20. =
37. ra
38. r
43.
r*=
39. r 40. r
v =a(l-sin0). ' =a(l+cos20).
44. r
=l + sm s
.
= a(l + 2 sin 0).

46.
45. r =* 1
+ sin -7p
;
30
Find the points of
intersection of the following pairs of curves

s
?-
r*=3cos20,
0,
0,
= 2cos
a2
B*
0.
47. r BS a cos
48. r 49. r
r2 BB
7-'
sin 2
0.
2 sin
4 sin 2
0.
0.
~a(l + sin 20),
2 r =? 4 a'siii 2
GENERAL EXERCISES
Transform the following curves to polar coordinates
50.
:
151
"
to ^-coordinates
53. r
a
Transform the following curves

52
54.
circle r
2
?'
=2a
3
sm20.
at
Find the angle
which the curve r
= a(l =3+
cos0)
sin 2 6 meets the
Find the angle of intersection of the two curves r and r2 = 4 sin 2

55.
= 2 sin 6
and
v
56.
= a sin 2
Find the angle of intersection of the curves r

B.
= a cos
as?
'
57. If a ball is fired
from a gun with the

is
i/ J
initial velocity
it
of which the equation describes a path i r
= x tan a
OX
is is
where a
What
is
is the angle of elevation of the gun and the value of a when the horizontal range
horizontal
greatest ?
58. In measuring an electric current by means of a tangent galvanometer, the percentage of error due to a small error in reading is ctn x. For what value of x will this percentproportional to tan x
? age of error be least
59.
A tablet
is
ft
the tablet
29
ft.
high is placed on a wall so that the bottom of from the ground. How far from the wall should
a person stand in order that he may see the tablet to best advantage the lines from his eye to the top and (that is, that the angle between
to the
his eye
60.
bottom of the tablet should be the is 5 ft. from the ground ?

side of a triangle is 12 ft. of the triangle
greatest),
assuming that
One
Find the other angles
when
and the opposite angle is 36 its area is a maximum
61. Above the center of a round table of radius 2 ft is a hanging the table in order that lamp. Plow far should the lamp be above the edge of the table may be most brilliantly lighted, given that the illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance and
of incidence ? directly as the cosine of the angle
a force F. If 62. weight P is dragged along the ground by the coefficient of friction is k, in what direction should the force be
applied to produce the best result ?
L52
63.
An
open gutter is to be constructed of boards in such a way ,hat the bottom and sides, measuied on the inside, are to be each 3 in wide and both sides are to have the same slope How wide
should the gutter be across the top in oider that je as great as possible ?
its
capacity
may
64. A steel girdei 27 ft long is to be moved on rollers along a Dassageway and into a corridor 8 ft. in width at right angles to the Dassageway. If the horizontal width of the girder is neglected, how vide must the passageway be in order that the girder may go around
-he corner 9
65.
Two
iheir distances
e'
particles are moving in the same straight line so that a cos kt and from a fixed point are respectively x
& and a being constants qOj hstance between them

66.
Liid
= acosud -f
Find the greatest
the
Show that for any curve in polar coordinates the maximum minimum values of r occui in general when the radius vector
perpendicular to the curve. 67. Two men aie at one end of the diameter of a circle of 40 yd adius. One goes directly toward the center of the circle at the
miform
rate of 6 ft. pei second, and the other goes around the .ircumference at the rate of 2 TT ft per second How fast are they eparatmg at the end of 10 sec. 'f
>
Given that two sides and the included angle of a triangle are 10 ft and 30 respectively, and are changing at the rates of 3 ft and 12 per second respectively, what is the area of the ? riangle and how fast is it changing
68.
,
ft
ft
mi offshore makes one revolving light in a lighthouse evolution a minute If the line of the shore is a straight line, how ast is the ray of light moving along the shore when it passes a
69.
ioint
70.
t
B
71.
one mile from the point nearest to- the lighthouse ? BC is a rod a feet long, connected with a piston rod at C, and with a crank AB, b feet long, revolving about A. Find C's
elocity in terms of All's angular velocity.
re
,s
=2
.
At any time
3 cos
t,
the coordinates of a point moving in the ajy-plane 3 2 sin t Find its path and its velocity in
= +
it have a maximum speed? 72 At any time t the coordinates of a moving point are x = 2 sec 3 1, 4 tan 3 1. Find the equation of its path and its velocity in its path.
path.
At what
points will
GENERAL EXERCISES
73.
O3
153
The parametric equations of the. path of a moving particle are 2cos 8 <, 2/=2sin 8 If the angle increases at the rate of
<
<
2 radians per second, find the velocity of the particle in its path 74. particle moves along the curve y = smo3 so that the a-component of its velocity has always the constant value a Find
the velocity of the particle along the curve and determine the points of the curve at which the particle is moving fastest arid those at
which
75.
it is
= cos x
76.
moving most slowly Find the angle of intersection

Find the angle
,
of the curves
= smx = sma;
since
and
of intersection of the curves
2/
/ = sm(a: +^
and
77.
y y
Find the angle of intersection of the curves y and ce = 2 TT. cos 2 x between the lines x =
Find the points
of intersection of the curves
and
78.
= sin 3 x between the lines x =

79.
and x =
TT
since and T/ Determine the angles
at the points of intersection.
cos x and and x = 2 TT, and between the lines x = determine the angles of intersection at each of the points found.
Find
all
= sin 2 x
the points of intersection of the curves y

lie
which,
CHAPTER VI
53.
The exponential
is
function.
/
The equation
*,
where a
If
any constant, defines y

an integer, y
is
as a function of
x called the
a,
exponential function.
= n,
determined by raising
to the nth
power by
If
multiplication.
#=*-
a positive fraction, y
is
the jth root of the plli
power of a. If x is a positive
If
irrational number, the approximate value of y may be obtained by expressing oc approximately as a fraction.
x=
0,
= a=l.
gi
If
=- m, y = a~ m =
is
The graph
of the function
readily found.
5y. By giving convenient values to x we obtain the curve shown in Fig 70 To determine the shape of the curve at the extreme left, we place a equal to a large negative number,
Ex. Find the
aph of y
= (1
say x
= - 100 Then
is
(1.5)-
^J
which
It is obvious that the very small larger numencally the negative value of x the smaller y becomes, so that the becomes,
curve appi caches asymptotically the negative portion of the a:-axis. On the other hand, if # is a large positive
_.
O
FIG. 70
number, y
is also large.
54. The logarithm. If a number may be obtained by placing an exponent L on another number a and computing the result, then L is said to be the logarithm of .2V to the base a. That is, if
N=
then
d>,
(1) (2)
L = loga JV.
154
LOGARITHMS
155
Formulas (1) and (2) are simply two different ways of expressing the same fact as to the relation of ,JV" and L, and the student should accustom himself to pass from one to the other as convenience may demand. From these formulas follow easily the fundamental properties
of logarithms; namely,
M = log
=loga N,
loga l=0, (3)
loga
- = -log
JV.
or 1, may be used as Theoretically any number, except the base of a system of logarithms. Practically there are only two numbers so used. The first is the number 10, the use of
which
as a base gives the common system of logarithms, which are the most convenient for calculations and are used almost
exclusively in trigonometry. Another number, however,

discussions, since
it
is
more convenient
in theoretical
is
gives simpler formulas.
This number
denoted by the
letter e
and
is
expressed by the infinite series
where
21=1x2, 31=1x2x8, 41=1x2x3x4,

series to
e
etc.
Computing the above
seven decimal places,
we have
= 2,7182818....
is
An important property of this number, which finding the derivative of a logarithm, is that
necessary in
156

this arithmetically
To check
we may
10
take successive small

:
values of h and
make
the following computation
When &=.!,
When
h =.01,
When
When
h = .001, h =.0001,
= 2.59374. (1+ A)*=(1.01) = 2.70481. = 2.71692. (1 + hy= (1.001) = 2.71815. (1+ hy= (1.0001)
(1+ A)*= (1.1)
100
1000
10000
algebraically, we ... theorem, obtaining
Working
expand (1+A)
.
by the binomial
2
_._.
...
11
if
i~1 V -
A*
2!
8!
where
JS represents the
sum
of all terms involving

as
8
,
A,
7i
7i
etc.
Now it may be shown
by advanced methods that

;
h approaches
zero, B, also approaches zero
so that
When the number e is used as the base of a system of logarithms, the logarithms are called natural logarithms, or Napierian shall denote a natural logarithm by the symbol logarithms.
We
In*; thus,
N ~*>
then
L = In N.
(4)
possible.
Tables of natural logarithms exist, and should be used if In case such a table is not available, the student
* This notation is generally used by engineers. The student should fenow that the abbreviation "log" is used by many authors to denote the natural
logarithm.
In
this
book " log "
is
used for the logarithm to the base 10.
LOGAEITHMS
find the natural logarithm logarithms, as follows-
157
of a table of
may
by use
common
Let
If
it
be required to find In 213.
then,
by
(4),
whence, by
or
= In 213, = ev (3), log 213 = log

x
213
a?
e,
log 213
2.3284
0.4343
Iog2.7183
Certain graphs involving the number

e
y
o
are important
and
are
shown
in the
examples.
Ex.
1.
= In
or.
Giving x positive values and finding obtain Fig 71.
y,
we
Ex.
2.
= e-*?
72)
a;
FIG. 71
The curve (Fig above OX. When

approaching zero.
is
= 0,
symmetrical with respect to OY and is always y = 1 As a: increases numerically, y decreases,
Hence
OX
is
an asymptote
FIG. 72
FIG. 73
Ex.3. y
This is the curve (Fig. 73) made by a cord or a chain held at the ends and allowed to hang freely. It is called the catenary.
Ex.
4.
~ *" sin Ix.
values of y may be computed by multiplying the ordmates of the curve y = <s~ oa! by the values of sin bx for the corresponding abscissas. Since the value of sinZw oscillates between 1 and -1, the values of e-
The
158

lies
cannot exceed those of e-** Hence the graph = e~ ax plane between the curves y y = e ~ ax When a: is a mul-
in the portion of the
and y
tiple of -, y is zero.
The graph
an
Fig. 74
therefore crosses the axis of x

infinite
number
of times
shows the graph when a = 1, b = 2 TT

Ex.
5.
?a*
ex
When
positive, y increases
x approaches zeio, being without limit
-1
''
74
When x approaches zero, being negative, y
x
11 J
= =
approaches zeio for example, when = e1000 ' and when x ~ ~~ Ttnjff' y The function is therefore e 1000 =
,
"W
glOOO
discontinuous for x The line y - 1 is an asymptote (Fig. 75),

for as x increases without limit, being positive or
X
75
negative,
1.
approaches
0,
and y
appioaches
Ex.
6.
= ea
of r
The use
and 6 indicates that we are
using polar coordinates. When 6 = 0, r 1. As increases, r increases, and the curve winds around the origin
at increasing distances from it (Fig 76).
When
ically
is
without
negative and increasing numerlimit, r approaches zero.

infinite
Hence the curve winds an

of times
number
aiound the
proaching it The corresponds to negative values of 6 The curve is called the logarithmic spiral
origin, continually apdotted line in the figure
FIG. 76
EXERCISES
!
= ()*
5-
y y
= x&x
9.
10.
7.
3.
y= B
8.
= log2o:.
11. 12.
1
'a:
y y y y
= log sin x. = log tan = e~ sin4ai. = e~ x cos 3

ar.
2ar
a;.
4.
13.
r=e-* e
EMPIKICAL EQUATIONS
55.
159
Certain empirical equations. If x and y are two related quantities which are connected by a given equation, we may plot the corresponding curve on a system of ^-coordinates, and
every point of this curve determines corresponding values of
x and
y.
Conversely, let x and y be two related quantities of which some corresponding pairs of values have been determined, and let it be desired to find by means of these data an equation connecting x and y in general. On this basis alone the problem cannot be solved exactly. The best we can do is to assume that
the desired equation is of a certain form and then endeavor to adjust the constants in the equation in such a way that it fits the data as nearly as possible. may proceed as follows
We
Plot the points corresponding to the
known values
of
x and
y.
The
lie
simplest case is that in which the plotted points appear to on a straight line or nearly so. In that case it is assumed
that the required relation
may be put y = mx + *,
in the
form
(1)
fit
where m and I The next step
are constants to be determined to
the data.
is to draw a straight line so that the plotted points either lie on it or are close to it and about evenly distributed on both sides of it. The equation of this line may be found by means of two points on it, which may be either two
points determined by the original data or any other two points on the line.
The
resulting equation
is
called
an empirical equation and
expresses approximately the general relation between x and y. In fact, more than one such equation may be derived from the same data, and the choice of the best equation depends on the
judgment and experience

Ex.
1.
of the worker.
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are given

table
:
by the following
ai
2
2.2
4
2.9
6
3.9
10
6.1
1.8
Find the empiucal equation connecting them.
160

plot the points
We
Fig. 77.
(2, 2).
The
Its
and draw the straight line, as shown, in (a;, y) straight line is seen to pass through the points (0, 1) and is therefore equation
?/
T7"
+ 1,
however,
which
111
is
the required equation

cases,
many
the plotted points will not appear to lie on or near a

straight line. sider here only
cases,
We
shall con-
two of these
closely con-
~o
which are
FIG
?7
nected with the case just
be anticipated from previous experience that the required relation is either of the form
considered.
They are the
cases in
which
it
may
y=db*,
(2)
where a and
b are constants, or of the
form
(3)
y=atf,
where a and
are constants.
Both
case
of these cases
by taking
may be brought directly under the first the logarithm of the equation as written. Equalog y
tion (2) then
becomes
= log + x log
a,
6.
(4)
log a and log I are constants, if we denote log y by y', (4) assumes the form (1) in x and y\ and we have only to plot the points (#, y'~) on an o^'-system of axes and determine a straight line by means of them. The transformation from. (4) back to (2) is easy, as shown in Ex. 2. Taking the logarithm of (3), we have
As
log y
If
= log a + n log x.
(5)
denote logy by y' and logo; by x\ (5) assumes the form (1) in. a/ and /, since log a and n are constants. Accordingly we plot the points (V, y r~) on an a/?/-system of axes, determine the correspond ing straight line, and then transform back to (8),
as
we
shown
in
Ex.
3.
EMPIKICAL EQUATIONS
Ex.
2.
161
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are given

.
by the following table

a;
8
3.2
10
12
14
16
18
20
40
73
98
152
240
364
Find an empirical equation of the form y = dbf* Taking the logarithm of the equation y = ob*, and denoting log y by we have
'
y',
if
log a
x log i.
Determining the loganthm of each

table of corresponding values of x and
of the given values of y, y', as follows :
we form
x
if
10
12
14
16
18
20
= logy
5051
6028
8633
9912
1.1818
1.3909
15611
We
choose a large-scale plotting-paper, assume on the

*
y'-axis
a scale
the tnat on tne four times as laige as that tour or-axis, plot the points (x, /), and draw the straight line (Fig 78) H-iivM-in-li +.Vo -fifaf. o.nrl tliA HTvKh through the first and the sixth
point.
Its equation
'
is
20 i e 15 10
5
= .08858 x - .20354.
log a
Therefore 9 7965 - 10, whence a

log & equation,
20354
;
10 12 14 16 18 20
m
?g
J,
>
= .626 and = .08858, whence & = 1 22. Substituting

we have
FlG
these values in the assumed
as the required empirical equation The result may be tested by substitxitThe computed values of y will ing the given values of x in the equation. Le found to agree fairly well with the given, values.
Ex. 3. Corresponding values of pressure and indicator card of an air -compressor are as follows:
volume taken from an
p
v
18
.035
21
.656
205
.476
33.5
.897
44
.321
62
.243
Find the relation between them in the tormpv"
~ c,
162

=
cv~ n and taking the
Writing the assumed relation, in. the form p logarithms of both sides of the equation, we have
log p
or
=n
log v
+
6
log
c,
where
= log
jtjj
= log v,
and
= log c.
The corresponding values

x = logu
1972
1
of x
and y are
2549
3222
- .3233
1
4012
-.4935
1 6435
6144
7994
y = logp
2553
4232
1 5250
For convenience we assume on the ar-axis a scale twice as large as that on the y-axis, plot the points (x, ?y), and diaw the straight line as shown in
The construction should made on large-scale plottingThe line is seen to pass paper. through the points (- 05, 1 075)
Fig 79
be
and
.46, 1.6)
Its equation is
therefore
y=- 128 x +101

Hence n 1 28, log c = 1 01, c = 10 2, and the required relation between p and v is
pv
i
-.55-50- lt5-W-SS-SO~25-0-15 10- OS
as
= 10 2
EXERCISES
FIG. 79
1.
Show
that the following points lie approximately on a straight

its
line,
and find
4
equation
13
20
12
22
12 9
25
14,5
30
18.2
21
46
2. For a galvanometer the deflection D, measured in millimeters on a proper scale, and the current /, measured in microamperes, are determined in a series of readings as follows
:
D
I
291
0.0493
48.2
72.7
92.0
118.0
140.0
165.0
109.0
0.0821
0123
0.154
0197
0234
/.
0.274
0328
Find an empirical law connecting
D and
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
3.
'
163
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are given in the following table
x
01
3316
03
4050
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1
1
1.5
4046
0.6041
0.7379
9013
1008
1.3445
Find an empirical equation connecting x and y in the form y = ab*. In a certain chemical reaction the concentration c of sodmm acetate produced at the end of the stated number of minutes t is
4.
as follows
*
00837
00700
00586
00492
00410
Find an empirical equation connecting c and t in the form c = atf The deflection a of a loaded beam with a constant load is found for various lengths I as follows
5.
Z
1000
7.14
900
5.22
800
3.64
700
600
1.50
242
is
Find an empirical equation connecting a and I in the form a = nlf 6. The relation between the pressure j and the volume v of a gas found experimentally as follows
1
:
p
v
20
23.5
31
0.442
42
59
78
0019
0.540
0358
0277
0219
Find an empirical equation connecting p and v in the form pvn

56. Differentiation.
c.
The formulas
for the differentiation of
the exponential and the logarithmic functions are as follows, where, as usual, u represents any function which can be differentiated with respect to #, In means the Napierian logarithm, and
is
any constant:
d
das
-r-log a tt
a e du = loga-r
fi
,1
da
(1)
^ o^ (2)
--aa?
In
1 du u = - 3-, u ax
164
EXPONENTIAL AND LOaAEITHMIC FUNCTIONS

dx" d
dx
u
~-
~dx
dx'
(3)
B du
-'
The
proofs of these formulas are as follows:
.j
To
find
loga M place y
= log
M.
Then, if u Ay, where
is
given an increment AM, y receives an increment
Ay = loga (M + AM) - log M
Aw,
the transformations being
A
(3),
AM\ A
'
u
made by
54.
Then
Now,
as A of
AM
as
AM
approaches zero the fraction

u
54.
be u may
taken
Hence
Lim fl 4M A-0\
Y"=
/
e.
and
2.
If
since log
y = hi u, the base a e=l, we have
of the previous formula
is
and
dy _ 1 du u dx dx
DIFFERENTIATION
3. If
165
we have
#= u In y = In a = u In a.
",
Hence, by formula (2),

1 dy -= lna du
,
y ax
.
ax
whence
4. If
dy = a ~ ax
ul
du In a ax
= ew the
previous formula becomes
^ = dx
Ex.
1.
^.
dx
2x
= In (a; -4 a + 5).
2
dy
da;
_
a;
4 a;
Ex.2. y
Ex.
dx
3.
'-
= e-
^ = cos bx dx (e~
EXERCISES
Find
:
dx
-2.
3. 4.
I~sin2aj
y*=
JJ^-.
y= a
/
sln
""X
.
12. y
= e" -
a>e
sin 3
cc.
5.
6.
7.
8.
-3 In w 5 x+3 = ln(flj + Vaj + 4).

==
,
= lnV2a;a +6a; + 9.
-J
-_
a;
y^ln *
14. y
16.
68a (9
e*
a2
a:
6ai
+ 2).
cos
).
(2 sin
a:
9.
3/
=
17.
y v
= sec x tan + In (sec

03
a? -f-
tan *).
18.
VaTTl-1 In
.
166
57.
EXPONENTIAL AND 'LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
The compound-interest law. An important use of the exponential function occurs in. the problem to determine a, function whose rate of change is proportional to the value of the function.
If
is
such a function of
#, it
must
satisfy the equation
where
~k
is
We
may
a constant called the proportionality write equation (1) in the form
factor.
ld rV-7f
/fc
ydx
whence, by a very obvious reversal of formula (2),
In
56,
we have
y = kx 454,
(7,
where C
is
the constant of integration
(18).
From
this,
by (1) and
(2),
is
c Finally we place e =A, where A may be any constant, since any constant, and have as a final result
(2)
The constants The law

of
and
tions of a particular
interest law,
must be determined by other 18. problem, as was done in

Jc
condi-
change here discussed

its
because of
is often called the compoundoccurrence in the following problem :
Ex. Let a sum of money P be put at interest at the rate of r% per annum.
A
The
interest gained in a time
Ai
is
-Pr^
Ai,
where A*
is
expressed in
years.
But the
interest is
an increment
of the principal P, so that
we have
In ordinary compound interest the interest
is
computed
for a certain
interval (usually one-half year), the principal lemaming constant during that interval The interest at the end of the half year is then added to the
principal to
make a new
principal on
which
interest is
computed
for th.9
COMPOUND-INTEREST
LAW
167
next half year. The principal P therefore changes abruptly at the end of each half year. Let us now suppose that the principal changes continuously that is, that any amount of interest theoretically eained, in no matter how small a time, is immediately added to the puncipal. The average rate of change of the principal in the peuod Ai is, fiorn 11,
;
*
Ai
= lL
100
let
, ?
m
(
To obtain
(1),
the rate of change
we must
A< approach zero in equation
and have
dp
the text,
From
this, as in
we have
r
P=Ae
lo
(2)
To make the problem conci ete, suppose the original principal were $100 and the rate 4%, and we ask what would be the principal at the end of 14 yr. We know that when = 0, P = 100. Substituting these values in (2), we
t
have
A = 100,
so that (2) becomes
P = 100e 100 =100e20

Placing
JL,
now
= 14, we
have to compute
P = 100 ei
The
value of
may be taken from a table if the student has access to tables of powers of e In case a table of common logarithms is alone available, P may be found
by
first
taking the logarithm of both sides of the last equation. Thus
logP
whence
= loglQO +
it loge
= 24053;
P = $254, approximately
EXERCISES
1.
\
y,
The rate, of change and when x = 0, y =

10, y
of y with respect to x is always equal to

5.
The rate and when x =

2.
of change of
= 50.
Find the law connecting y and x, y with lespect to x is always 0.01 times Find the law connecting y and x.
with respect to
?/,
3.
The
= 7, and when x = 2, 0, y ing y and x. 4. The sum of $100 is put at interest

When x =
instant of time.
rate of change of y
x is proportional to y, y = 14 Find the law connectat the rate of
5%
per
annum
at each
under the condition that the interest shall be compounded
How much will
it
amount
to in
40 yr.?
168
6.

At a
it is
years later
is
certain date the population of a town is 10,000. Forty 25,000. If the population increases at a rate which
always proportional to the population at the time, find a general expression for the population at any time t.
6. In a chemical reaction the rate of change of concentration of a substance is proportional to the concentration at any time. If the
concentration
is when t 0, and is T T connecting the concentration and the time.
y^
when
= 6,
find the law
7. rotating wheel is slowing down in such a manner that the angular acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity. If the angular velocity at the beginning of the slowing down is 100 revolutions per second, and in 1 min. it is cut down to 50 revolutions per
second, how long will per second ?
it
take to reduce the velocity to 25 revolutions
GENERAL EXERCISES
1
-
2.
= ($)"* y = e -*.
y
1
i
-
4 y
-
el
~x
y y
e?.
5.
y=
J
(e*
-*).
8.
= aser*.
3.
y=e
GOSX.
6.
y= e'+e"*
9.
y=*y?&-*. J
For a copper-nickel thermocouple the relation between the temperature t in degrees and the thermoelectric power p in microvolts is given by the following table
10.
:
50
100
160
26.9
200
27.5
24
25
26
Find an empirical law connecting

11.
and p.
pounds for beams of the same cross section but of various lengths in feet are found as follows
:
The
safe loads in thousands of
Length
10
123.6
11
12 111.8
18
107.2
14
16
90.4
Load
121.5
1018
data.
Find an empirical equation connecting the
GENERAL EXERCISES
12.
169
In the following table s denotes the distance of a moving body from a fixed point in its path at time t
t
2 4
4678
0.1024
10
6400
0410
t
0164
Find an empirical equation connecting s and

In the following table a substance at the time t
13.
.
in the
form s
= ab*.
denotes the chemical concentration of
6
0.0033
10
00060
00048
0.0023
00016
the form
c
Find an empirical equation connecting

14.
and
t in
= ah*.
time
relation between the length I (in millimeters) and the (in seconds) of a swinging pendulum is found as follows :
I
The
634
0.806
805
0892
90.4
1013
107.3
1406
1.198
0.960
1010
I
1038
t in
Find an empirical equation connecting

15.
and
the form
Tdn.
8,
For a dynamometer the relation "between the deflection

6
when the unit

as follows 6
:
2ir = -r-rri
and the current
I,
measured in amperes,
is
40
0.147
86
120
0.252
160
201
0.329
240
280
0.390
320
0.417
362
0215
0293
0360
0442
k$"
Find an empirical equation connecting J and 6 in the form I

16.
In a chemical experiment the relation between the concentration y of undissociated hydrochloric acid and the concentration x
of hydrogen ions
is
shown
784
in the table
426
074
0.092
1.68
1
1.22
047
0.00815
0096
0.00036
0.0049
82
676
216
0085
00014
Find an empirical equation connecting the two quantities form y = kxn

.
the
170
c, determine Assuming Boyle's law, pv the following pairs of observed values
17.
graphically from
39.92
42.17 38.32
45.80
85.32
48 62
33.29
51 80
(J0.47
CMS 1)7
40.37
31.22
2080
Tind
-JCCSs

18. 19.
y
?/
20.
21.
= = In sin _ = tan" e e
.
Bx-2
a-.
&
= In (2as + V4
=xe
z
a
aj
l) +
2a osc"^
a;.
_a
22. y
23.
x
.
=
y
24.
25
26.
= I tan oas + In cos ax. y = x tan- ^ $ In (1 +

2
1
2
a;
).
amount x is being decomposed is proportional to a;. If x = 3 12 when t = 0, and = t 40 min., find the value of x when t = 1 hr.
of
27.
is
A substance
at a rate
cc
which
== 1.30
whun
A substance
is
being transformed into another at a rate whiith
proportional to the amount of the substance still imtranafovnuid, If the amount is 50 when t 4 hr., lind how 0, arid 15.6 when t
long
it
will be before
y^
of the original substance will rumain.
28. According to Newton's
law the rate
at
which tho temperature
of a body cools in air is proportional to the difference botwoou tho temperature of the body and that of the air. If the tempwraturo of
the air
is
kept at 60, and the body cools from 130 to 120" in 300
sue.,
when
29.
at
will its temperature be
100
Assuming that the rate of change of atmospheric prnssuro p a distance h above the surface of the earth is proportional to tho pressure, and that the pressure at sea level is 14.7 Ib. per square inch and at a distance of 1COO ft. above soa level is 18.8 Ib. per square
inch, find the
law connecting^ and
h.
GENERAL EXERCISES
30.
171
Prove that the curve y = e~ Zx sm Sec is tangent to the curve 2* y = e- at any point common to the two curves. 31. At any time t the coordinates of a point moving in a plane 2t are x = a~'2t cos 2 1, y o~' sin 2 1. Find the velocity of the point at any time t Find the rate at which the distance of the point from the origin is decreasing. Prove that the path of the point is a logarithmic spiral.
32.
Show that
tho logarithmic spiral r
e"
cuts all radius vectors
at a constant angle 33.
Find the radius
of curvature of the curve

7T
= e~ Za sin 2x at
the point for which x

34.
Show
-fi
=a
35
.
n that tho catenary y ) and the parabola ^ 1 3 - a; have tho same slope and the same curvature at their
Q>
ft
n^+e
( 5
common
36.
point.
e sin t,
t
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x =s
y=
1 8
.
e*
cos t.
Show
X
"
that the product of the radii of curvature of the curve
=s
ae
at the two points for which
is
a?(e
?/
37.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve
+ e" ) = In
a;
and
its
least value.
38.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve y

which x
7T = -=
= er cosaj
at the
point for
CHAPTER
SERIES
58.
VII
Power
series.
The
:
expression
,
a
fl
+ a x + ajK? + a$+ ajf-\----
(1)
where aQl a^ az , are constants, is called a power series in x. The terms of the series may be unlimited in number, in which case we have an infinite series, or the series may terminate after a finite number of terms, in which case it reduces to a polynomial. If the series (1) is an infinite series, it is said to converge for a definite value of x when the sum of the first n terms
approaches a limit as n increases indefinitely. Infinite series may arise through the use of elementary operations. Thus, if we divide 1 by 1 a; in the ordinary manner, we obtain the quotient
and we may write
LX
if
(2) ^ '
we extract the square root of 1 + x by the rule Similarly, taught in elementary algebra, arranging the work as follows;
l+x
2
172
POWER SERIES
the operation
173
may
be continued indefinitely.
We
may
write
The results (2) and (3) are useful only for values of x for which the series in each case converges. When that happens the more terms we take of the series, the more nearly is their sum equal to the function on the left of the equation, and in that sense the function is equal to the series. For example, the series (2) is a geometric progression which is known to converge when x is a positive or negative number numerically less than 1. If we place x = % in (2), we have
"which is true in the sense that the limit of the sum of the terms on the right is f If, however, we place x 3 in (2), we have
.
which
is
false.
reason for this difference
may be
seen
by
considering the remainder in the division which produced (2) but which is neglected in writing the series. This remainder is
l-x
x
is
after
n terms n
of the quotient have

1,
been obtained ; and
if
numerically less than
the remainder becomes smaller and
if x is numerically greater than 1, the remainder becomes larger. Hence in the former case it may be neglected, but not in the latter case. The calculus offers a general method for finding such series
smaller as
increases, while
as those obtained
usually
expressed by of the function may propriate values of x, and that the derivative be found by differentiating the series term by term. The proof of these assumptions lies outside the scope of this book. Let us begin by proceed to find the expansion of sin x into a series.
by the special methods which led to (2) and in the following section. (3). This method will be given shall assume that a function can 59. Maclatirin's series. a power series which is valid for apbe
We
We
-,
writing
$oLv s*A+Bx +
(7,
Cx*+Dx*+Ex*+Fx*+
(1)
where
-4, J?,
etc.
are coefficients to be determined.
174
SERIES
differentiating (1) successively,
By
we have
5
.
cosa;=3.2.
+ 4.3 2.Je + 5. sin z = 4- 3- 2- J+5. 4- 3 2 Jfc

J>
.
.
-3
By
.4
substituting x
=
get
in equation (1)
and each
of the fol-
lowing equations,
we
whence
= 0, 5=1, C=0, 3.2.D = -1, J?=0, 5.4.3.2.^ = 1; 5 = 1, tf= 0, -O = -^T #=<>, ^=^JL = 0, o
o
I
Suhstitutuig these values in (1),

8
we have
6
sma;
a;
X __ + __...,
,
(2)
SQ^
and the law of the following terms is evident. The above method may obviously be used for any function which may be expanded into a series. We may also obtain a for a general general formula by repeating the above operations
I
auction /(a;).
We
and,
place f(x)
= A + Bz + C3?+J)x*+lSz +
l
(3)
by
differentiation, obtain in succession
f"(x)
=3
Z>
+4
Ex+
.,
third,
where ff (x), /"()/'"(); and/ v (a;) represent the first, second, and fourth derivatives of /(#).
We now
place
a;
of that substitution
on the
in these equations, indicating the results left of the equations by the symbols
MACLAUKIN'S SERIES
>
175
etc.,
f" ()>
etc
We
thus determine A, B, C, D, E,
and, substituting in (8), have
A*) =AOHAO>+ÂoX+^/"(OX+ ^<oy+This

Ex.
1.
- (4)
is
called Madaurin's scries.

of sin 10
to foui decimal places.
(
Find the value
Wo
tuny use sones (8), but have? to remembei
42) that x must be in
eiivuhii measure.
Hence wo
i>lace
= -~~
loO
17458, where
wo
take five
significant figmes in ordei iigiU'O of the result.*
to insure accuracy in the
fomth
significant
Subntibutmg in
(2),
.
we have
TT
sin
,_,_ f.17458) v ' .17451}O
ia
+,
.17458
00089
.17804.
Ilonco to four decimal places
am 10=
.1736.
We have u.scd only two terms of the series, since a rough calculation, which may bo made with a = 2, shows that the third term of the series
will not affect the fourth decimal place.
Ex. 2. Find the value of sin 61 to four decimal places.

In radians the angle 01
is
luO
~-.TT=
1.0647.
If this
nuxnbei were subto be taken to

shall therefore
Htituted in the sonos (2), a great
many terms would have

decimal places.
o:
include
find
all
which
affect the first four
We
=
series for
8in(~+oA
and afterwards place

it is
j~(=l).
for
We
"
chow know
the angle ~^(~ (10) because the nine and cosine.
an angle near 61
b(5
which we
obtained by the method by may which (2) was obtained, For variety we shall use the general formula (4). i _. Wo have then \
The
series
/(O)
tnn|
|V;
This
JH
two or
men
not a general rule. In other cases the student may need to cany three more significant figures in the calculation than are needed
in the result.
176
SERIES
we have
Therefore, substituting in (4),
In this we place x
tion.
= -^- = .01745 and perform the arithmetical loO We have sin 61= sin(^ + ~}= 8746.
.
.
calcula-
\o
180/
Ex. 3. Expand In (1 + a) The function In x is an example of a function which cannot be expanded into a Maclaurm's series, since if we place /(a;) = In a;, we find /(0),/'(0), etc to be infinite, and the series (4) cannot be written We can, however, expand ln(l + a;) by series (4) or by using the method employed in obtaining (2). The latter method is more instructive because of an interesting
abbreviation of the work
We place
ln(l
a;)
= A + Bx + Cxz + Dx3 +
=B+ +
Eat
Then, by differentiating,
1
2 CJB
3 Dx*
+ 4 Ex s +
But we know, by elementary algebra, that

-
+x
=1
+ xz
xs
+
we have
Hence, by comparing the last two
series,
JB=1,
By placing x have, therefore,
C = -k Z>=, E=-%, etc. in the first series, we find In 1 = A, whence .4 = 0. We

+
a;)
In (1
^ + _-_+.... ^ = x -_
8
EXERCISES
Expand
1.
d*.
each, of
the following functions into a Maclaurin's series

2. cossc.
6.
3.
tan a;.
7.
4.
sin" 1 ^.
aj).
5.
tan" 1 ^
sinf-j
+
a5
a?).
ln(2
+
an
8.
t
Prove the binomial theorem

... n =a' l
(a
+
.
o;)
+wan -
i 1
aj4-
n(n v
i\
1) /
an
~2
+ n(n
.
'IVw yv
O\
O
.
2) /
-8
a5*4---
decimal places Compute 10. Compute cos 62* to four decimal places.
9.
sin 5
to four
TAYLOR'S SERIES
60. Taylor's series.
177
In the use of Maclaurin's
in the previous section, it is selves to small values of x.

first place,
series, as given usually necessary to restrict ourThis is for two reasons. In the
the series
may
not converge for large values of x\
converges, the number of necessary to take to obtain a required degree of accuracy may be inconveniently large. This difficulty may be overcome by an ingenious use of Maclaurin's
place,
and in the second
even
if it
terms of the series which
it is
series as illustrated in Ex. 2 of the previous section. may, however, obtain another form of series which may be used when Maclaurin's series is inconvenient. Let f(x) be a given function, and let a be a fixed value of x for which the values of /(#) and its derivatives are known.
We
Let * be a variable, or general, value of x which does not differ a that is, let x a be a small number, positive or negative. We shall then assume that/(a;) can be expanded in a that is, we write powers of the binomial x
much from
f(&=A+(x-a) + C(x-a)*+I)(x-a)
and the problem
is
8
-\
,
(1)
.
to determine the coefficients
-4,
B,
C,
We
differentiate equation (1) successively, obtaining
In each of these equations place x
= a. We
(7,
have
etc.;
f(a)~A, /<
whence
/"(a) =2,1
f" (ch
4=/(a),
B =/'(),
C^^f
we have
2'
#= f"8(a\
,
'
et<>-
Substituting in equation (1),
as the final result
a)^
is
- ..
(2)
is
as Taylor's series. Since, as has been said, it This a a small quantity, the valid for values of x which make x
known
SERIES
function /(a?) is said to be expanded in the neighborhood of x a. It is to be noticed that Taylor's series reduces to Maclaurin's series when a = 0. Maclaunn's series is therefore
an expansion in the neighborhood of x
0.
Ex. Expand In a; in the neighborhood of x = 3. Here we have to place a = 3 in the general formula. The calculation of
the coefficients
is
as follows
/():= In a,
/(3)
= ln3,
and therefore
BT (
1
f~
QNfl -3 )
This enables us to calculate the natural logarithm of a number near 3, provided we know the logarithm of 3. For example, let us have given In 3 = 1 0986 and desire In 3. Then x - 3 = and the series gives
,
= 1.0986 + = 1 2527.
The
last figure cannot
1667 - .0139
0015
- .0002 +
. .
be depended upon, since
we have used
only
four decimal places in the calculation.
EXERCISES
of the following functions into a Taylor's series, using the value of a given in each case
:
Expand each
1.
In*, a
j
= 5.
4. cos
2.
.
a;,
TT
-
3.
sin x,
a = 2. TT a=
to four decimal places
8.
9.
Compute sin 46 Compute

Compute
cos 32 e
1 -1
by Taylor's by Taylor's
series.
series.
10.
by Taylor's
series.
GENERAL EXEECISES
GENERAL EXERCISES
Expand each of the following functions
1.
179
into series in powers of a;

6.
ln(l
seco;.
a?). '
4.
,1+as ln=
1
-a?
2.
+ sm(v \b
/z 3'
fir
3.
,~
6. cos(-7r
).
7.
8.
Verify the expansion of tan a? (Ex
3,
59) by dividing the
series for sin

9.
x by that for cos
x.
Verify the expansion of sec x (Ex. 2) by dividing 1 by the

1
series for cos x.
10.
Expand
Expand
JL ~T~ tC
by Maclaurin's x
series
and verify by dividing
the numerator by the denominator

11.
e* cos
into a Maclaurin's
series,
and verify by
and verify by
multiplying the series for &

12.
by that for
cosaj.
Expand e^sime Expand

Compute
Compute
e T
into a Maclaurin's
tf*
series,
multiplying the series for

13.
by that
for sin a;.

series,
ln(l+aj) into a Maclaurin's

e
00
and verify by
multiplying the series for

14.
15. 16.
by that
for ln(l-|- K).
cos 15 to four decimal places

sin 31
e*
Compute
59.
by the
series
found in
Ex.
1,
17.
Using the
series for
ln(l+
x~),
compute Inf to
five decimal
places.
18.
places,
Using the series found in Ex. 4, compute In 2 to five decimal and thence, by aid of the result of Ex. 17, find In 3 to four
decimal places. 19. Using the series found in Ex. 4, compute In | to five decimal 6 to places, and thonce, by aid of the first result of Ex. 18, find In
four decimal places. 20. Using the series found in Ex.
places,
4,
and thence, by aid
of the result of
compute ln$ to four decimal Ex. 18, find In 7 to three
decimal places.
21.
Compute the value

4,
of TT to four decimal places,
from the
-g
ex-
1 pansion of sin- a5 (Ex.
59)
and the
relation sin-
= IT
180
22.
SEEIES
Compute
1
;*;
the value of IT to four decimal places, from the ex-
pansion of tan23.
(Ex. 5,
59)
and the relation tan- 1 - + 2 tan" 1 - =

decimal places by the binomial theorem
Compute
Compute
-v/17 to four
(Ex.
8,
59), placing
= 16,
= 1.
24.
"\/26 to four
(Ex. 8,
59), placing
= 27, x =- 1.
/"*
decimal places by the binomial theorem

X o-\r\
/*
25. Obtain
the integral
pansion.
26. Obtain
J
I
dx in the form of a
series
the
integral
e'^dx
C&C
in
the form
of
expansion pansion.
27. Obtain the integral
/
^
*
series
f*x
Uo
28. Obtain the integral
/
~T"
in the form of a series expansion.
i/o
x5
in the form of a series expansion.
CHAPTER
VIII
variables
A quantity is a function of two x and y when the values of x and y determine the quantity. Such a function is represented by the symbol /(#, #). For example, the volume V of a right circular cylinder is a function of its radius r and its altitude h, and in this case
61. Partial differentiation.
Similarly,
we may have
a function of three or more variables
represented by the symbols /(a;, #, z),f(x, y, 2, w), etc. Consider now /(*, jr), where x and y are independent variables so that the value of x depends in no way upon the value
of
y nor does the value
of
may change x
a change in /.
derivative of
without changing
y depend upon that of x. Then we y, and the change in x causes

is
The
limit of the ratio of these changes

is
the
with respect to x when y

/
JTJ?\
)
constant,
and may
be represented by the symbol

Similarly, the derivative of
\ dxJv
v^
is
with respect to y when x
represented by the symbol i-j- Y These derivatives \dy/x with respect to x and y reare called partial derivatives of used indicates The by the letter outside symbol spectively,
constant,
is
the parenthesis the variable held constant in the differentiation. When no ambiguity can arise as to this variable, the partial deftf
flf
rivatives are represented
by the symbols
and
thus:
^-,
dx
\dx
A*-*!)
Aa;
+ A^>
Ay
181
182
if
So, in general,
we have
a function of any
number
of variables
., 2), we may have a partial derivative with respect to f(x, y, each of the variables. These derivatives are expressed by the symA rvj*
QJ?
'
'
'
'
*'
orsometimesby/*C*>
y>
To compute
these derivatives
we
have to apply the formulas
for the derivative of a function of one variable, regarding as constant all the variables except the one with respect to which
we
differentiate.
Ex.
1.
Consider a perfect gas obeying the law v
=
P
We may change
AJ>
the temperature while keeping the pressure unchanged. If A* and corresponding increments of t and v, then
are
P
and
,
8v
dt
c =-
Or we may change the pressure while keeping the temperature unchanged If Ap and Ai? are corresponding increments of p and v, then
A
and
Ex. 2.
*L dp
-.
p*
/=
a;
- 3 x*y + y,
2
Ex.
3.
/= sin
%-
2
(re
+ y2),
+
wy ), ^
2
?L = 3
a;
- 6 xy,
= 2--
a;
cos (x* v
Ex. 4. In differentiating in this
way
care
must be taken
to
have the
functions expressed in terms of the independent variables.
Let
r cos 9t
,
y
or
= r sin 6
Then
or
fa
-
c9
r sin 6,
fy = A ~ r cos
dd
6,
where r and 6 are the independent variables.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Moreover, since r
8r
183
Sx
= sin0,
(2)
where x and y are the independent

fix
variables.
is
It is to
T
.
be emphasized that
/-IN
in (1)
/ON
not the reciprocal of

ftr
in (2).
In fact, in (1), ^ '
=
dr
and,in(2),
=
(
and because the variable held constant is different in the two cases, there is no reason that
one should be the leciprocal of the other. It happens in this case that the two are eqiial, but this is not a general rule. Graphically (Fig. 80),
if
OP = r
=
fdx\
(
is
constant, then
9j,
)
PQ = Ar, while 6 is PR = Aa: is determined Then PR n T Lim. - - = cos 0.

increased by
Sr
if OM = x is increased by MN-PQ, = Aa;, while y is constant, then R Q= Ar dr T m, = /dr\ = Lim Then is determined
.
\drja PQ, Moreover (Fig. 81),
-,
8x
\dx/v ST
or
cos0.
It
happens here that

,
f^y
fix
But
ox
-5?
co
in (1),
and
in (2),
are neither equal nor
reciprocal.
EXERCISES
and
Jx
~ in each of the following cases

6. ,
=
C
y
2ajv Ji
-
6.
sm
3-1
t
J35
ZS.M
9,
If *
= ln<X - 2xy + = Va; +

2
a
2/
+ 3aj 2
a;
prove
*.
K
2
10. If
r
,
2/ e-
prove
+y
184
62.
PAETIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Higher partial derivatives.
The
partial
derivatives of
/(#, y) are themselves functions of x and y which
may have
y~).
partial derivatives, called the second partial derivatives of /(a-, d /3A rrn, /2A 2 /9A 2 /9A T> 4. -4.
They
17
are
)'
TT-
TT-(
)'
vi ^ ut ^ mav J b shown
dx\dxj
8y\dx/
8x\dy/
dy\dy/
that the order of differentiation with respect to x and y is immaterial when the functions and their derivative fulfill the ordinary conditions as to continuity, so that the second partial derivatives
are three in number, expressed
by the symbols
a/8/\
dx\Zy)
3/3A
dy\dx]
dxcy
Similarly, the third partial derivatives of /(#,
/)
are four in
number; namely,
""
j /gA "
So, in general,
T;
signifies
the result of difEerentiating
y) p times with respect to a?, and g times with respect to the order of differentiating being immaterial.
In like manner,
9r
signifies the result of differentiating
/(#, y, g) jp times with respect to #, q times with respect to y, and r times with respect to 2, in any order.
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
EXERCISES
1.
185
If
= (x +
z
2
2/
tan- 1
^ find
&
3V
2.
If
e"sm(x
y), find ^-3
3.
If
=
^-^] = -^-[^- m
&e\<ty/
Verify 17
4. *
each of the following cases

6.
By\faJ
i
1
.
a:?/
K O.
g w
+ 2 ye+y
2
= sm,
x 1
-. y
2
j/
*
Vflj 42
7
I
is>
te
y
,
8.
If^
If
= tan-
82
&*
9.
In (a;2
a2/), prove a2 ji
O2 /
-r/\
= 0.
g-g
^
10. If
V=
cos w<, prove n*r
^^
+ w (w + ^)ii = ^two
variables.
63. Total differential of
a function
of
In
20
is
the differential of a function of a single variable, defined by the equation
y =/(),
ay=f'(x)dx,
(1)
where /* (#)
is
the derivative of y.
But
/(aO=Lim;
definition of a limit (
e,
(2)
1),
and hence, according to the
|2=/0) +
limit f (x) and approaches zero as a Multiplying (3) by As, we have
(8)
where e denotes the difference between the variable

limit as
and
its
> 0.
Ay=/(a;)Aa? + Ac.
(4)
so that (4)
But Az = dx and Ay =/(

written in the form
+ Aas) -/(),
may
be
-/(SB)
=/ () * + e <n
(5)
186
if
In the case of a function of two variables, /(, y),

is
x alone
changed,
we
have, by (5),
f(x + Az, y) -/(a, y) = ^dfc +

the theory being the same
variable, since
OJJ
e^
(6)
as in the case of a function of one
by the symbol
Similarly,
if
y is held dxf.
x
is
constant.
The term
dx may be denoted
is
held constant and
alone
changed,
we have
(7)
/(a, y
+ Ay) -/(*,
y) =
^ dy
Then.
4- e cZy, 2
and
df
dy may
dy
be denoted by the symbol d
f.
Finally, let x
and y both change.
A/=/CB+AZ, y+Ay)-/(a;, y) ==/(+ Aas, y+ Ay)-/(z+ As, y)4-/(z+ Az,y) -/(,y>

Then, by (6),
(8)
/(a + As, y) -/O, y) = |

and
similarly,
<fc
+ ^db;
+ e/rfy, ^dy * + Aa;, y).
(a?
(9)
by
(7),
/(as
OJ?
+ As,
+ Ay) -/<> + As,

we
y)
(10)
where
of
is
is to
be computed for the value

shall
But
if
a continuous function, as
assume
it is, its
value
oy
+ A#, y) differs from its value for (x, y) by an amount which approaches zero as dx approaches zero. Hence we may write, from (8), (9), and (10),
for (x
A/=
cj?
dx +
+ ^rfg + e3 rfy,
(x, ^
(11)
where both
and ^- are ^ dx dy
write
ay?
computed for
y\ aj
(1 2)
We now
so that
df = j dx + ox
%
dy
dy,
A/= 4f+ e^ + e dy,

t
(13)
and
?f is called the total differential of the function, the expres-
sions dfc/
and
being called the partial differentials.
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
It is evident,
187
by analogy with the case of a function of a single variable, that a partial differential expresses approximately the change in the function caused by a change in one of the independent variables, and that the total differential expresses
approximately the change in the function caused by changes in both the independent variables. It is evident from the definition that
,
,.
,,
,.
._,
v f.
(14)
is
,.
Ex. The period of a simple pendulum with small oscillations
whence
Let
I
= 100 cm
T = 2 sec.
with a possible error of ^ in measuring, with a possible error of ^ $ y sec. in measuring. Then <ll =
dg
mm
and -^
Moreover,
=-
dl
=j- dT,
and we obtain the

site signs,
say dl
= ^, dT =
dg
largest possible error in
g by taking
dl
and dT
of
oppo-
-j^.
*ra
Then
^+
= 1.05 v* as 10.36.
The
ratio of error is
<!l
=^_2
I
~ = T
?/
.0005
.01
- .0105 = 1.05%.
EXERCISES
1.
s=s
Calculate the numerical difference between
4 icy
a8
angle
a y a
,
<
= 2, =
3, Aas
cZaj
s=
01,
A and dz wlien aud Ay = dy =.001

<
2.
An
is
determined from the formula
= tan"
^
x
Toy
measuring the sides x and y of a right triangle. If x and, y are found to be 6 ft. and 8 ft. respectively, with a possible error of one
tenth of an inch, in measuring each, iind approximately the greatest possible error in <.
3.
If
is
motive force
the strength of an electric current due to an electroalong a circuit of resistance R, by Ohm's law
188
If errors
of 1 per cent are
made in measuring E and R, find approximately the greatest possible percentage of error in computing C 4. If F denotes the focal length of a combination of two lenses in contact, their thickness being neglected, and /x and / denote the 2 respective focal lengths of the lenses, then
I= l * A
/
i
/.'
If x and/ are said to be 6 in and 10 in respectively, find approx2 imately the greatest possible error in the computation of F from the above formula if errors of .01 in. in /t and 0.1 in. in fz are made
5.
The
eccentricity e of
an
ellipse of axes
.
2 a and 2b (a
>
I) is
given
by the formula
The axes of an ellipse are said to be 10 ft. and 6 ft. respectively. Find approximately the greatest possible error in the determination of e if there are possible eriors of .1 ft. a and .01 ft. in 5.
one side of a right triangle are respectively 13 in and 5 in. If the hypotenuse is increased by .01 in., and the given side is decreased by 01 in , find approximately the change in the other side, the triangle being kept a right triangle
6.
The hypotenuse and
7.
The
fired at
horizontal range R of a bullet having an initial velocity of an elevation a, is given by the formula
Ji
=
9
Find approximately the greatest possible error in the computation of R if v = 10,000 ft per second with a possible error of 10 ft per 60 with a possible error of 1' (take g = 32). second, and a
8.
The
density
of a body
is
determined by the formula
*
w
where
If
w'
is
w=
the weight of the body in air and

gr.
244,000
and
w'=
largest possible error in error of 10 gr. in w',
w the weight in water. 220,400 gr., find approximately the caused by an error of 5 gr. in w and an
1
HATE OF CHANGE
QJ7
189
-
64.
Rate
of change.
The
of change of
ox with respect to x when x alone varies, and the
partial derivative
gives the rate
partial derivative -j- gives the rate of
change of / with respect
to y when y alone varies. It is sometimes desirable to find the rate of change of/ with respect to some other variable, t. Obviously, if this rate is to have any meaning, x and y must be
functions of
t,
thus
making/
also a function of
t is
t.
Now, by
11,
.
the rate of change of
with respect to
the derivative
at
To
obtain this derivative

63,
by (12),
by
dt,
we have simply to obtaining m this way

dt
divide df, as given
8x dt
By dt
The same
(11),
be obtained by dividing A/, as given by 63, by At and taking the limit as At approaches zero as
result
may
limit.
Ex. 1 If the radius of a right circular cylinder is increasing at the rate of 2 in per second, and the altitude is increasing at the late of 3 in per second, how fast is the volume increasing when the altitude is 15 in. and the radius 5 in
?
Let
V be the
volume, r the radius, and h the altitude.
Then
_ ~
'
dt
dr dt
dh dt
dr
dt
+ 7ira -~.
dt
nd7i
per second.
= By hypothesis, ~ dt
T
2,
~=
dt
3,
= 5, = 15.
7t
Therefore
~ = 375
dt
IT
cu. in.
may be obtained without partial differentiation by ex = 5 + 2 1, 7i =15 + 3 1 pressing V directly in terms of t. Foi, by hypothesis, r when r = 5 and 7i = 15. Therefore if we choose t =
The same
result
7= (8 75 + 375 + 120 a +12

t
i
)7r;
whence
~=
0,
(375
240
+ 36
) *-.
When
*- = 375 TT cu. in.

dt
per second, as before.
190
Ex. 2.
The temperature
of a point in a plane is given
1
by the formula
The
rate of
change of the temperature in a direction parallel to
OX
is,
accordingly,
&*__ ~"~
to
2
(a:
2*
2 2
jr
'
which
gives the limit of the change in the temperature change in x when x alone varies
compared with a
Similarly, the rate of change of u in a direction parallel to

Jw
OF is
?/
Suppose
now we wish
to find the rate of
change
of the tempei ature in a
makes an angle a with OX a fixed point, and P (x, y) a moving point on the line through Px making an angle a with OX, and s is the distance P^P, we have
direction which
From
Pig. 82,
if
P^(xv
y^)
is
p
jo "
P! R
=x
x1
whence
,
x y
= xt + s cos a, = y^ + s sin a,
and
dx = cos a,
t
^.
PIGI 82
^ = sma.
(1),
dy
Replacing
by s in formula
~ which we
dii
and substituting the values of -- and

ds
as
lust found,
we have
du
as
du
cos dx
du
dy
sin a
_ _ 2 x cos ex + 2 y sin ex
Formula (1) has been written on the hypothesis that x and y t only. If x and y are functions of two variables, t and s, and (1) is derived on the assumption that t alone varies, we have simply to use the notation of 61 to write
are functions of
at once
a
which may
also
be written
as
dt
dx dt
%y dt
GENERAL EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1.
191
If 2
=e
tan
x}
t
x
-f-
= sin
x
)
tf,
y=
cos
t,
find the rate of change of
with respect to
2.
If
= tan"
V=
* (a
1 1
-:
= sin
t
t,
cos
t,
find the rate of change
of
3.
with respect to
If
when
jL
6""*) cos ay, prove that

all
V and
( 0,
its
deiivatives
)
any direction are

4.
equal to zero at the point

)
If
F=
Va;2 + yz
find the rate of change of
at the point
(1, 1) in a direction
making an angle of 45 with OX.
5.
the formula
any
B.
If the electric potential F-at a,ny point of a plane is given by a 2 In Vcc y find the rate of change of potential at point (1) in a direction toward the origin ; (2) in a direction at
V=
right angles to the direction toward the origin

If the electric potential
at
2
any point of the plane

2
?
is
given
by the formula
F= In
-\/(g>
,
ff*)
+W
find the rate of change b of
V(o;H-a) -|-y potential at the point (0, a) in the direction of the axis of y, the point (a, a) in the direction toward the point ( a, 0).
and
at
GENERAL EXERCISES
,
1.
TJ!
If
= sin xy
xy
+1
,
>
prove i
x -z-- ^ y 5ox
80 fa
A = 0.
/i
oy
/?/
'
If
If If
=
at
"i
3.
= f + ye*
prove
(7c
oj
-f
y
r\2
4.
# = e-y cos a
cc),
prove that
jr-j
4-
^=
O2
0.
B.
If 3
If
P
= e-c-wx s n
i
/CCj
prove that
2
f
t
= <*.- 1
prove that
*
6.
= e-**sin (TO?/ + x Vft

v
'
2
,
2 7c ). x
a2
7. If
W' rtrr /IN F= <?**cos (a In r),

fc
'
*T. * prove that -5-5or
^^
!
,
Sfr
4-
-~
0>'
H-
== 0. 1 -5-75 ir 0*
192
8.
PAETIAL DIFFEKENTIATION
an altitude 8 ft. and a radius Find approximately the change in the volume caused by decreasing the altitude by .1 ft. and the radius by .01 ft. 9. The velocity v, with which vibrations travel along a flexible
right circular cylinder has
ft.
string, is
given by the formula
t is the tension of the string and the mass of a unit length. Find approximately the greatest possible error in the computation of v if t is found to be 6,000,000 dynes and m to bo .005 gr. per centimeter, the measurement of t being subject to a possible error of 1000 dynes and that of m to a possible error of .0005 gr.
where
of
it
10. The base AB of a triangle is 12 in. long, the side AC is 10 in., and the angle A is 60. Calculate the change in the area caused by increasing A C by 01 in and the angle A by 1. Calculate also the differential of area corresponding to the same increments. 11.
The
distance between
is
,
two points
A and B on
opposite sides
C and measuring 60. Find approximately the greatest possible error in the computed length of AB caused by possible errors of 4 in. in the measurement of both AC and BC.
of a
AC = 90 ft BC = 110 ft
pond
determined by taking a third point

,
and
BCA =
12. The distance of an inaccessible object A from a point B is found by measuring a base line B C 100 ft the angle CBA =s<x= 45, and the angle BCA = 60. Find the greatest possible error in
,
0=
the computed length of
AB
a and
caused by errors of 1' in measuring both
13. The equal sides of an isosceles triangle are increasing at the uniform rate of .01 in. per second, and the vertical angle is increasing at the uniform rate of .01 radians per second. How fast is the
area of the triangle increasing

14.
when
is
the equal sides are each 2

?
ft.
long and the angle at the vertex
45
a Prove that the rate of change of * = In (a; -J-Vjc + f) in the direction of the line drawn from the origin of coordinates to
equal to the reciprocal of the length of OP. The altitude of a right circular cone increases at the uniform rate of .1 in per second, and its radius increases at the uniform rate of .01 in. per second How fast is the lateral surface of the cone
point P(x, y)
15.
is
any
increasing
when
its altitude is
2 ft. and
its
radius 1 ft.?
GENERAL EXERCISES
16.
193
Given
= tan"
*t
ffi
~\
JL* >
1
1;
tan"
Find the general expres-
along the line drawn from the origin of coordinates to any point. Find also the value of this derivative at the point (1, 1).
sion for the derivative of
17.
In what direction from the point

tt
(3, 4) is
of the function
kzy a maximum, and what

for the rate of
at the point
(
is
the rate of change the value of that
maximum
18.
rate ?
Find a general expression

s= &-v sin x
change of the func)
tion
e-*v sin 3 +3
cc
\3
-77
).
Find
also the
maximum
value of the rate of change.
CHAPTER IX
INTEGRATION
18 and 23 the process of integration defined as the determination of a function when its derivadenoted the process of tive or its differential is known.
65. Introduction.
In
was
We
integration
by
the symbol
/;
that
is,
if
then
Cf(x) dx
is
= F(x) +
C,
the constant of integration (18). The expression f(x) dx is said to be under the sign of integration, and/(a;) is called the integrand. The expression J<\J'} + ('
is
where C
integral defined in
called the indefinite integral to distinguish 23.
it
from the
definite
it
Since integration appears as the converse of differentiation, is evident that some formulas of integration may bo found
direct reversal of the corresponding formulas of differentia-
by
of
with some modifications, and that the correctness any formula may be verified by differentiation. In all the formulas which will be derived, the constant C will be omitted, since it is independent of the form of the integrand; but it must be added in all the indefinite integrals found by means of the formulas. However, if the indefinite integral is found in the course of the evaluation of a definite integral, the
tion, possibly
constant may be omitted, as it will simply cancel out previously been written in ( 23). The two formulas / *
I
if it
has
cdu =
du
(1)
ft
and
](du /
i
>,
+ dv + dw-\
-
.^ )
= Cdu +
194
Cdv + Cdw
(2)
INTEGEAL OF
are of fundamental importance. follows
:
w*
195
Stated in words they are as
(1)
(2)
the
constant factor
to the other.
may
be
changed from one side of the sign
of integration
The
sum of
integral of tJie sum of a finite number of functions is the integrals of the separate functions.
To prove
(1),
we
I
note that since
c du
d(cu),
I
it
follows that
cdu
d (cu)
cu
=c
du.
In
like
manner, to prove (2), since
du -H dv + dw
we have
/
= d(u + v + w +...),
(du + dv
+ dw H-
d (u + v
+ + +
u+v
I
+ w+
-H
I
du
dv
dw +
The
application of these formulas is illustrated in the followu".
ing articles. 66. Integral of
Since for
all
values of
except
m=
or
it
d
follows that
/wm\
\m/
)=wm
Cum ~ l du =
J
Placing
m == n +1,
we have
1. /or aZZ values of n except n s= In the case 1, the expression under the sign of inte-
%=
gration in (1) becomes
which
is
recognized as
Therefore
= lnw.
(2)
196
INTEGRATION
In applying these formulas the problem is to choose for u some function of x which will bring the given integral, if posformulas. The form of the integrand sible, under one of the the function of x which should be chosen for u.
suggests
Ex.
1.
Find the value

(2),
of
JY aa; +
2
Ix
+-+
J
dx
Applying
fft J \
65,
and then
(1),
05,
we have
= afx z (lx +
The fiist, the
by formula
respectively
(1)
bj'xflx
+ cf
( ~-
JV
- ax9 - bx*,
,
11
o
and the fourth of these integrals may be evaluak'tl and the thud by foirnula (2), wheie u = x, the icsults beiny
second,
& --
and
c In
a..
&
Therefore C lax*
lx
-^} dx
a,*/
= ~ ax* + J lxz +
3
2
c In i
--+ C x
Ex.
2.
Find the value
of
J*(z
2)ar<fo.
If the factors of the integrand are multiplied together,
we have
f (a;2 + 2) xdx
which
s f(x +
a;)
dx,
may be
evaluated by the same
method
as that used in
Ex
1,
the
result being
z4 + xz + C.
let x
2
Or we may
+2=
whence 2xdx = du, so that xdx =
% du. Hence
22
Comparing the two values of the integral found by the two methods of we see that they differ only by the constant unity, which may
integration,
be
made a
3.
GKC
2
part of the constant of integration.
Ex.
Let
Find the value of C(oxz

2 bx
2 bz) a (ox
&) dx.
Hence
= u Then (2 ax + 2 fydx = du, so + 2 8 = C %u*du (oa; + 2 fcc) (aa: + l)dx J"

=s
that (ox
&)
dx
J rfw.
/
/
2J
7 M B du
=1
u4
.
24
+C
,
INTEGRAL OF
Ex. 4. Find the value of C J
4
<
M"
197
ax 2
+ dx *] fa; +2
Then
(2 ax
As
in Ex.
3,
let
axz
+ 2bx =
u.
2 b) dx
=* du,
so
that
Ilence
=
s=
2 In w
2 In (az2
+C +
2 to)
Ex. 5. Find the value of C
(e
Let
e *
&
u.
Then
eax adx
tfu.
Hence
J(e
+ 6)cdiB
J^
jf
If the integrand is a trigonometric expression it is often possible to carry
out the integration by either formula (1) or (2). terms the integrand can be expressed of one of the elementary trigonometric functions, the whole
This
may happen when
of that function. expression being multiplied by the diffeiential For instance, the expression to be integrated may consist of a function of smo; multiplied by cosEefe, or a function of cos a;
multiplied
Ex.
6.
by
smaâ;),
of
etc.
Find the value
s [ Vsm x coa xdx.
Since d(smx) oosxrfx, we will separate out the factor cosrcrfar and of sin a:. express the rest of the integrand in terms
Thus
-Vsinxcos s xdx
sin x
= Vsirue (1
sms ;c) (cosxdx).
Now place
= M,
and we have
198
Ex.
7.
INTEGRATION
Find the value of
6
82 2 sec Since d(tan 2 a:) separate out the factor sec a of tan 2 a: expiess the rest of the integrand in terra
2
Jsec 2 xdx, we
2xdz.
rdc and
Thus
sec 2
x dx
= sec* 2 x (sec 3 2 = (1 + tan8 2 a:) 2 (sec 3 2 a:r/ = (1 + 2 tan2 2 +*tan*2 a;) (se
ar
Now place tan 2z=su,
and we have
6 fsec 2 xdx
= Jtan2a:
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following integrals
.
+ C.
C
-j=\dx.
*6
M 4-
sec3 ace
-/:
12.
tan ax
dx.
&r.
C(
[x-vx
\
x~vx/
1 \^ j=]dx.
sin
13
ax
rfa;.
1 + cos aa Jfif
I
r?**C "J^T
tffa
i.
14.
cos 8 2
as
sin 2 OJ$B.
16.
3 sin 3
a;
cos 3 xdx.
C(x*
+ l)*xdx.
4
16.
/ sin (x
+ 2) cos (a
-|-
2) Ja;.
Vo + 4x
e
8
t7a;.
17.
cos^3 x sin 3 *c?a;.
*^
18.
G
I
/.e* x + & c -1 + COS 29.

_
,
J
,
sec 3icâ5.
J
in f !.
I
2 a; -f sin 2 a;'
ote.
19.
rctn2 (2a;-|-l)cso
!1
(2aj
1-cosa;
.
.
.,dx. 4
(aj
sinaj)
"*/'
ALG-EBKAIC INTEGRANDS
67. Other algebraic integrands.
199
From
the formulas for the
differentiation of
versal, the
sm~ 1 M, tan" 1 ^, and

du
sec-'w,
we
derive,
:
by
re-
corresponding formulas of integration

== sin" 1 ?/,
du and
These formulas are much more serviceable, however,
replaced
if
is
by - (a
fit
> 0).
Making
du
a
<J
this substitution
and evident
reductions,
we have
as oar required formulas
L
and
Referring to
first
==
sin"
,u 1 /y a
<J
(1) NX
-
.^
+a
wV /du
wa
1,
_, = -tan->
1
ON
a
1
(2) s y
sQ~
du
1 *u ^-sec" -a*
a-
(3)
in the
47,
we
see that sin" 1

if,
- must be taken
Uf
or the fourth quadrant;

1
however,
it
is
necessary to
have sin"
u -
in the second or the third quadrant, the minus sign

like
1 manner, in (3), sec" - must be taken in
must be prefixed. In
the
first
or the third quadrant or else its sign
must be changed.
;
whence dx
=^
du,
and
__ /fix
Vj)
4 a: 2
_.
Letting 2 x
= u, we have du = 2 dx
fa
-y/9
358
\&u V9 ~ M3
200
Ex.2 Find the value
du
INTEGRATION
of
f
jt
dx *
,
V;}
j,
-4
Jf
we
let
V:JW~
M,
UH-J
= V3
rfj;
whence
<ir =
Va
x x2
-= f/,
and
r
<lu
_ __ /^j V3 -4 ^ vV~-~4
w
rfr
/.
Ex. 3. Find the value of

Since
17
V4
a;
js
= Vd
C J
(r
2)
we may lot w =s a
C
t
2 whttiusH
;
^/.r
*/,
and
_~^* "^
-i
6
+
-~
C'
x
S1J1,
Ex. 4. Find the value of C J 2
<lx
.r
u,
We may first write the integrand in the form

1
aJ+x+
Then du
2'*
and
let
=x+
= dj.,
+
J 2
=
5
<>J
(.r
3 x
^)
+"Y
= ~f
2J
1
X
s
ton-'JL
4
-~r~
-
au
4tt
v"5f
f
+r
Vai
ALGEBBAIC INTEGRANDS
5z-2
,
201
/
Separating the integrand into two fractions
5z
2o; a
2
2a; 2
4-3
+3'
r
and using
(2),
65,
we have
2
__
/
5xdx
2dx
J
If
we
let
rz
a;
3,
then du
5
= 4 artfo
5,
5
5a;c?a;
/vM
and
and
,
if
we
r
I
let
V2 x,
then
I
rfu
= V2 dx
.
it 2dx = AT / du - = /= -1 V2 V2 tan- 1 ^ J2a;2 +3 Ju*+$ V3

.
i4
= Vo.tan- ,a;Vo
1
and tan~ 1 ( 1) have There is here a certain ambiguity, since tan- 1 each an infinite number of values. If, however, we remember that the graph of tan~ 1 a; is composed of an infinite number of distinct parts, or Iranches 1 (Fig 56, 46), the ambiguity is removed by taking the values of tan- Vs and tan- 1 ( 1) from the same branch of the graph For if we consider
- 1^ tan- x o and select any value of tan~ 1 a, then if & = a, | Ja a X + 1 tan~ l 6 must be taken equal to tan- 1 ^, since the value of the integral is then zero. As & varies from equality with a to its final value, tan- x & will a -1 vaiy from tan a to the nearest value of tau- &. The simplest way to choose the proper values of tan- 1 ?* and tan~ 1 is
to take
/
them both between

/'Va
./-i
and
dx
Then we have
TT\
a2
+1
_ ~ v __ /
3
_ 7 TT 1 i/~ 12*
to take both values of sin- 1
The same ambiguity

by
(1),
7T
occurs in the determination of a definite integi al

it is
but the simplest way to obviate

-^
between
B
and
7T
The
proof is left to the student.
202
EXERCISES
:
r
l'
dx
'
r
9 a?
-
dx
J Vl6 dx
J V5 x C /,
C J 3-e I
3 a/
-
/dx
a:V4a;2
dx B
12.
/dx -9
(?SK
13
'
4 a;
+ 2*
ra.r
x
+ 11
1^
16 '
J
7
'
/ Jr VGas-a*
19
'
r
J_
10 '
T J V6*-4a*
m the form
68. Closely resembling
formulas (1) and (2) of the last section of the integrand are the following formulas ;
+o.
(1)
/du> ^r^^
-.
(u+ û --^
/
/
(2)
and
These formulas can be easily verified by differentiation and should be made the
'
this verification
by
student
ALGEBRAIC INTEGRANDS
/f/1"
Letting
.
203
V2 =
a;
u,
we have du = "v2dx
,;= du
whence dx
du,
and
= _JL
rfu
= -i- In [M + Vu*-8] + C Va
= 4= ln C' ^2 + Va xa 3]
/(/ Vy
~
~
aB
rfe
As
in Ex. 4,
07,
we may write tho integrand

a?
in the
form
Va Vx a
and
lot
-f-
Va
rfx,
V(j;
^)
=x+
whence
rfw
_JL T
^-
/__.4!L V3 a:a + 1 x
VJJ ^ V(,^
a
*j)
-J
V8^ Vu a
"
vl
n w
"vl
~ -Lin (3 +
Vi)
+ VO
a;
12 *)
+K>
where
C = -Va
In 8
A".
/o z
1
a;"
+*
i
IK JLO
Writing the integrand in the form

I
^j ,..^ "S
rf
we
let
* x Hh
whence
ss
rfa?.
204
r
dx
a:
INTEGRATION
J 2s* +
-15
_ ~
1 2
f*
<lf
(*
i)
W"
2(-V)
+ V
+C
llnljli a+ 3 11
It
11
+
I
>1
'
i)
where
C=
-j^
In 2
K.
EXERCISES
1
j.i
:
r J V^T2
.
*"
11
J.J..
J 3^ + 6
,
r~
i
/*
c dx J V9rf-l'
12
^ r Jo*-3(B +
'
3'
*
'
r J V3 2 -4 C dx J Vaâ" f J V3jc +2a3 + 3

a
*"
13
'
r J <fa C J 4if-2* rf
*+fV5-""4'
dx
rfa!
5. '
IB '
J
'
f*
r*
C
r
dx
J***-M
dx
-i'
J VOSTT'
1
'
oa ^- 1 ^ 2a
I
'-a- 8'
69. Integrals of trigonometric functions.
205
for-
Of the following
mulas for the integration of the trigonometric functions, each of the first six is the direct converse of the corresponding formula of differentiation ( 44), and the last four can readily be verified by differentiation, which is left to the student.
/ sin
udu
cos M,
(1)
cos
I
udu =
(,
sin w,
(2)
seu"ud
= tan u,
=
ctn w,
sec it,
(8)
/Qscfudu
sec
(4) v J
u tan u du =
u ctn udu =
(5)
esc
esc u,
(6)
(7)
tan udu = hi sec u,

ctn udu
= In sin
it,
(8}
sec
|
udu =
In (sec
-h
tan it),
ctn u)
(9^
esc
udu = In (esc it
7a.v7a;.
Ex.
If
1.
Find the value

let
of Tsui
we
11=7,1:,
then
du7dr;
dx
whence
and
= =
=3
\ du,
Cs\n7x dx
T sin
^
I
(|
f/u)
sin
udu
cos
J-cos7a?
+ C* + C,
206
Ex.
If
2.
INTEGRATION
Find the value
let
of
f sec (2 x +
1) tan (2
+ 1) dx
we
=2
a;
-f 1,
then du
2 dx,
and Tsec (2 x
+ 1) tan (2 x + 1) cfo =
f sec M tan du
= ^secu + C = sec (2 + 1) +
a;
(7.
Often a trigonometric transformation of the integrand facilitates the carrying out of the integration, as shown in the
following examples:
Ex.
3.
Find the value
of
f coa z axdx
Since
cos s ax
(1
cos 2 ax),
aar)
Ccos*ax dx
= =
f ( J + J cos 2
Tdk
J
dx
+
i
^ Tcos 2 aacfo
/
= o x + T~ sin 2 aa: + C A T
CZ
the second integral being evaluated by formula (2) with M
= 2 ax.
Ex.
4.
Find the value of f Vl

cos x
cos
arcfo.
Since
= 2 cos2 ii /
1,
Vl + cosa;=v 2cos|,
-
ib
and
f Vl +
cos xdx
~ C V^ cos -
</j;

Since
Aan2 3 xdx,
sec a 3
tan2 3a;
2
- 1,
2
Jtan
arcfa:
=
J*(sec
a:
- 1) da:
Cdx
a;,
=
=
bhe
first
Csec*3xdx
J-tan3a;
integral being evaluated
by formula
(3)
with v*=
EXERCISES
:
207
22.
v'10.
Jose (3
/*cos2o;
I
:
2 a:) da a;.
,
.yll. *
,,
23.
rr
I
(
dx.
12.
J smaj r sin* 7rdaj. 2 J

.
J~i
24.
ir
r*i
Jis
70. Integrals of exponential functions.

/
It
The formulas
XI \
and
av du*=-.
In a
a*
(2)
are derived immediately differentiation.
from the corresponding formulas of
208
Ex.
If
1.
INTEGRATION
Find the value of C$ x djc
let 3
we
= u, we
have
Ce8x dx
JLrrfa;. /*/B xz
If
we
place
V5 =
5""
and
i
let
= u, we have . _/*.
EXERCISES
!Fmd the values of the following integrals
1.
:
ie^^dx.
eâjtfo;.
6.
f(a
/
//g2x
6.
8.
+ -)<&. _ a-2as
_a
,
9.
f
/
/
10* dx.
rf.
10.
2 00
11.
C\**-*dx.
*"'rfaj. f ^+0"*
4.
e^f+txfa
Qt
+e"dx.
all
12
V~
Jo
71. Substitutions.
In
the
made m the previous sections -we have substituted a new variable M for some function of x, thereby making the given integral
identical with one of the formulas.
integrations
that have been
which the choice
of the
new
variable
There are other cases in u is not so evident, but
in which, nevertheless, it is possible to reduce the given integral to one of the known integrals by an appropriate choice and wh> stitution of a new variable. shall suggest in this section a few of the more common substitutions which it is desirable to try,
We
I.
some power
Integrand involving powers of a U. The substitution of of 2 for a -f- bx is usually desirable.
SUBSTITUTIONS
Ex. 1. Find the Value of f J
209
^^
,
(1+2*)*
Here we let 1 + 2 x = s?
Therefore
;
then x
^(
- 1)
2
*
and dx
% z*dz.
C
17
x* dx
(1+2 a?)*
= - f(z< 8J
+ z)
tls
Eeplacing a by
its
value (1
2 #)* and simplifying,
we have
'
=
II.
(1 +
2 B) * (
" 12 * + 2
^+c
The
Integrand involving powers of a

71
?;#".
substitution
some power of for a + frr is desirable if the expression ~ under the integral sign contains xn l d& as a factor, since
of
= bnxn ~
cfo.
J.
2
rfa;.
/x/j.2a;
We may write the integral in the

=
form
and place aa + o2
a.
Then xdx
= sdz,
and the integral becomes
Replacing s by
its
value in terms of
x,
we have
x
Ex.
3.
2
of
Vaa +
a2
+a
Find the value
fjs (l
2 spfidx.
We may
write the integral in the form
and place 1
a;
=
fr
Thou
a
xhlx
ifisdz,
and tho now integral in
z ia
J(*<
- * ) ds =
~
2 n^ s (3 *
5) + C.
Replacing z by
its
value,
we have
Cx 6 (1
2 a)icfa
^ (1 + 2 3 )8 (3 a
8
- 1) + C.
210
III.
INTEGRATION
2
2
ar If a Integrand involving Va constructed with one leg equal to x and

.
right
triangle
is
with the hypotenuse equal to a (Fig. 83), is suggested. the substitution x = a sin
Ex.
4.
Find the value of
fVa8
a:
da;.
_,
gg
Let a; = a sin <. a cos <.

Therefore
Then dx = a cos <f>
d<f>
and, from the triangle,
a;
C^/a?x*dx =
a f cos 2
But
and
for,
from the
triangle, sin d>
=a
and cos
<&
=
a
Finally,
by substitution, we have
a/
3 IV. Integrand involving If a constructed with the two legs equal to x and a respectively (Fig. 84), the substitution x = a tan <f> is suggested.
.
V^+a
right
triangle
is
Ex.
5.
Find the value of f i/

<
dx
/*
ô\ $
Let i
= a tan
Then dx = a
sec 8 <tf<
= a sec
V#a +
aa
<f>.
Therefore f
But, from the triangle, sin
<f>
*
Va;8
a
flr
so that,
by substitution,
SUBSTITUTIONS
V. Integrand involving V# a If a constructed with the hypotenuse equal to x and with one leg equal to a (Fig. 85),
a 2
.
211
right
triangle
is
the substitution x
Ex.
Let
6.
as
= a sec
of
/
<#>
is
suggested.
2
-*f
Find the value

a sec <. a tan
a Vo:
a?dx
<
"
^^
<
ge
= Va;2 - a2 =
Then dx
= a sec
=
tan
d<
Therefore
fa8 Vj;2 - a2 dx
a
2
= aG
J"(tan
</>
+ tan4 <) sec2
Exit,
from the triangle, tan <j> =
.J.
j
,
so that,
by substitution, we have
2
J>
solved
V*2 a2
rf.c
= TV (2 aa +
a;
V(a;
2
fl
a2) 8
+C
We might have written this integral in the form

by
If
a letting z
fa;
Va;
cPfxdx) and
a;
72.
the value of the indefinite integral
is
found by substitu-
f(x)dx X6
may
be
performed in two ways, differing in the manner in which the limits are substituted. These two ways are shown in the solutions
of the following
example:
Ex. Find f Va"--.ida;. Jo
By Ex. 4,
71,
Va
"
x*dx
= i/a Va - x* +
Therefore
212
Or we may proceed
and when x
INTEGRATION
as follows
,
Let x
varies
v
a sin
to
<
When
-
= 0,
= a,
<
=
"
so that
<
from
as x vanes fiom
to a.
Accordingly,
4 the evidently the better method, as it obviates its value in tenna of necessity of replacing z in the indefinite integral by x before the limits of integration can be substituted.
The second method
is
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following integrals X *
1.
\
.
6.
~~
**<
11
'/(*-*
7.
r
& /,
\J
J (3-
*
9.
Jf (V 5
10.
aV2a;
$dx.
15
73. Integration "by parts. Another method of importance in the reduction of a given integral to a known type is that of
integration by parts, the formula for which formula for the differential of a product,
is
derived from the
d (uv) = udv
+ v du.
From
this
formula
we
derive
uv
udv +
vdUy
which
is
usually written in the form

I
udv
= uv
vdu.
INTEGEATION BY PAETS
In the use of
this
213
formula the aim
original integration
integral.
depend upon
evidently to make the the evaluation of a simpler

is
Ex.
If
1.
Find the value

let
of Cxe*dx,
we
=u
and cPdx
= dv, we
have du
= dx and u = e*.
Substituting in our formula,
we have
j x&dx
= are1
e x dx
It is evident that in selecting the expression for dv it is desirable, if

possible, to
choose an expression that

of
is easily integrated.
Ex.
2.
Find the value
Csm
rx
"^
Here we
may let sin- 1 x = u and dx = do, -whence du =

we have
sin-i-xdx
and
= x.
Substituting in our formula,
1 ~~ x*
= x sin-1
xdx
a:
J{ Vl-o;2
l
a;
= x sin- 1 ^ +
the last integral being evaluated by
(1),
+ C,
66
inte-
Sometimes an integral may be evaluated by successive

gration
by
parts.
Ex. 3. Find the value of Cx*e*dx.
Here we
let
xz
= u and eFdx = do.

C
Then du
^xdx and
=e
31
.
Therefore
The integral so that finally

Ja;V=
Ex.
4.
xeF dx
may be evaluated by integration by parts (see Ex. 1),

2
(a;
dx
= x*<*> - 2 (ar - 1) e* + C = eP
of
- 2 x + 2) +
(7.
Find the value

"
je"
sin&zda:.
sin bx
=u
and' c** rfz
= dv, we liave = - *<"* sin &K

fc av
8*
cos Ba; ?.
214
INTEGRATION
In the integral Ce01 cos bxdx we let cos bx

e"* cos
/I
bxdx
a
* sin bxdx
=u
+
and
b
/*
e ax dx
dv,
and
havi
- e"* cos fa
a
/ aw
e** sin Sards.
Substituting this value above,

sin
we have
(
/e"*
bxdx
= - e 01 sin &e -- - eP* cos &r + a\a
aJfc
* sin bx dx\ )
Now bringing to the left-hand containing the integral, we have

(1
\
t. whence
member
of the equation all the terms
a?/
fe J
= - e"* sin bx ---e

a
a?
031
cos bx,
r __ , I e"* sin bxdx J

,
fi**
sin bx (a v
b cos bx) '
az
+b*
Ex. 5. Find the value of fVa;2

3 Placing Va;
a?dx.
c2
=w
and
<?a;
fo,
whence
rf
g
Va; B
and w
we have
oa
= a,
Since
a;
= (a^ +
a2)
a2, the second integral of (1)
may be
written as
/a;
a2
which equals
s /*
Evaluating this last integral and substituting in (1),
we hare
whence
JVa;
a?dx
=s
2 a $ [a Var + a
aa In (x
74. If the
value of the indefinite integral

parts, the value of
f/O) ** is found
definite
f(z)dv may be found by substituting the va

I
by integration by r*
the
integral
limits
a,
and I
in
the usual manner, in the indefinite integral.
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
IT
215
Ex. Find the value of C*x*sinxdx.

Jo
To
find the value of the indefinite integral, let

a;
a;
and
sin a; da;
= dv.
Then
In
/
a;
sm xdx =
a;
a?
cos x
x coaxdx.
cos a, dx, lot
u and cos xdx x sin x
= do.
Then
\x
cos x dx
sin x dx
=
Finally, \ve have
I
x sin a;
cos x.
x*ainxdx
=
P
ar
cosa,
2 a? sin a:
2 cos a;
C.
IT
""
Hence
C*j?
sinarda;
a;
cos x
2 x sin x
Ha
2 cos a;
= The
-2.
is
better method, however,

is
stb
as follows:
\
l$.f(x)dx
denoted by udv, the definite integral

I
f(x)dx
b
Jo.
it is
may be
denoted by
udv, where
understood that a and
t/a
are the values of the independent variable.

/&
I
.
Then
s*b
udv=z\uv~\ n
ib
vdu.
Jo,
va
To
prove
,
this,
/^6
note that
/>fc
follows at once from the equation

/*!
/&
/ vo
**
i/a
/ yo
/ /o
Applying this method

v
r'5'a;
to the
problem just solved, we have

IT
r
a
-13
a;
ir
sina?afa;=
cosa;
+
j
2 C^xciOBxdx
/* *
Jo
W
["|J
2a;sina:
I
2 C*&inxdx w
STT-f 2 cos a: Jo L
216
INTEGRATION
EXERCISES
Find the values of tho following

.
intftfra
9.
CynP'tlr.
5.
I .rscc" 1 !}^//^.
./
*-V.r.
L
.
stP<i*
(?x-
6.
(In
Hindoos ;'(/.r.
.r
/.i'.
10,
,i"'lu.i'f/>.
COOB- I X<?JK.
1 tair~ 3a:</J3
7.
I/' 9 "Von
il.
Mr
"J,
!/,!.
4.
|
8.
,r
uos 3
'^
<Ar.
18,
VPOH
JJuv/.i".
75.
Integration of rational fractions,
A
it
rtttwixtt fwrfiHit
i.s
it
fraction
whose numerator and denominator ur
can often be integrated by expressing

fractions
polynomials. UH tho twin of

of th
Il
whoso denominators are
faot-oi'H
of the original fraction.
Wo
.shall
which the degree of the numerator denoiuinator and in which the ftu'torH of tho tlmitmunutur m* all of the first degree and all different,
Ex. Find tho value of
illustrate only tin* inw in is lews thun tho th'gm* of tin*
f-~^ f^}'\"
+
</''
The
factors of tho denominator arc x
tt,
2,
a<l x
a
2,
Wo ftHwtmo
(x
+ 8)(j- 4) ""a +
a-B^ +
(ja
whojo J,
/?,
and
^7aro constants to bo (lotonniucd.
Clearing (1) of fmclions by uiuUiplyuig by
+ n)(x9
4),
or
l, /J,
and
(7 firo
to bo datidrmmnd so thai Iho
righWrnml
memhr
of (3) .shall bo identical with th k'ft-hand nuwnbcr, lhn <'<*iHj5iHtu( wf powers of a: on the two sides of tho equation muni Iw tujual.
Therefore, equating the ooeffieimitH of liku powors of / in
(Jl),
theequatzons
whence we find
^t
-1A + = ~ 2, Ji 2,
<t
7i
~
=
G ~ li,
Y r,
1,
RATIONAL FRACTIONS
Substituting these values in (1),
a?
217
we have
2
+ 11 x +14 _
=-
2 In (x
3)
2 In (a;
- 2) +
In
(a,
2)
+C
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following
i *'
integrals
J ?-"o7+8
Bas+l
r a;+i
'^
7
A 4
'
2)
(*-
'
2 T__ -5a! + 5
T
rfa; -
6>
iC
-.l)(a
~2)(a! -3)
J
of integration
76. Table of integrals.
The formulas
used in
this chapter are sufficient for the solution of
most
of the prob-
lems which occur in practice. To these formulas we have added a few others. In some cases they represent an integral which has already been evaluated, and in other cases they are the
parts. In all cases they can be differentiating both sides of the equation. These collected formulas form a brief table of integrals which will aid in the solution of the problems in this book. It will be
result of
verified
an integration by
by
noticed that
some
of the formulas express the
given integral only
in terms of a simpler integral.

I.
FUNDAMENTAL
1.
|
cdu=sc
I
du.
2.
(du + Av
+ dw
I
=
I
du +
dv
|
dw
8.
udv sauv
vdu.
213
INTEGRATION
II.
ALGEBRAIC
1)
4.
5.
n +l J C du = ln mu.
un du =
(n
p^
I I
A
_ '
r du
'
J
r du _ 1 u a ~o 5 o ^ za u-\-a J u a
,
\
!
'
8.
J
9.
vfls
u du =
2
~\a?
2V
JWa
-w
dM = -i.Oa _t
10.
juâ*-u*du=>-
+2
/du Va 2
sm~-
12.
13.
I
__
fl
/
t>.
n
_
s* /
/*
14.
15.
I
u^/uz
az du
= % (w
16.
19.
TABLE
_. 20.
219
du
I
.
,M =-seo- 1 1
/,
.
V2 au
""*
t
u*du
=1
(w
a) V2
au
w2 + a2 sin" 1
22.
V2 aw - w /.
= sm2
III.
TRIGONOMETRIC
23.
smudu=x
, == sm , waw
.
cosw.
24.
ft
/*
I
/I
J
smn udu =
cos
24 sm
-r
2 w.
w,
sin""^ cos w H
/*
I
w J
sin"" wcZM.
(n ^ 3= 0) J
26.
|
/w /I
cos
2
udu SB sin w.
wdw == -
+T 4
sill
w.
coa*udu BBS -
cosn 1 w sin w H
7i
_i
/
I
n J
cos"
~a
w^.
(w
0)
29.
I
tan
udu
w
In sec w.
n-1 /tan'*"''^
rf
tan
w?w s=
C tanw
""
udu.
(n
l^* 0)
/\\
81.
ctnw rfw sss In

ctnn
sin w.
" ***
i/
w^ - n-1 /r*i"n
r
/**
ctn
11
-3
wc?w.
(n
-1+
0)
88.
I
sec wrfti a= In (sec

=s
t*
+ tan w).
34.
Jseo'wtfw
tan
M,
85,
Jcso
cso
I
WC^M
a
wc?'M!
In (cso
w-
ctn
).
86,
ctaa w.
220
37.
INTM! RATION
38.
/" /
I I
I I
1
sec
u tau u du
?
HUC
w.
oso
ctn w tft*
<IBO
?f.
/Hin
Hill
WCt)S
mfl ?M'0,s"
H
/
?/,(Zjts=S"
m+w
j.,
'-'-.-,}
1
r,sh'"M riLS*
. (
"'/0/,
it
><</
i
i
a
J/ */Jjf *i**
* || v
U |'ll"*1/ I"*/ VU*' O/ //')/ " niix c* ^v'Ci (v vvCv "*-"*^

-
U4_
I i
Ji
Wtll * i
// 4*1 i ~ F**'
1
I !*
41
n
.
I I
Hill"' si ,
C50S"
j U dlt,*x
M111
42.
WCOH" H M
<
Tsii
H- 1
m+1
IV. EXPONENTIAL
43.
{/
>
r<'"?MM".
44. 4.
Ca*du**-~aH In a J
45.
46.
A*
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the vaJuos of tho following mtgralH
I.
8
t
J
.
aj
(3
a
4-
^3
~
,
flfaj.
4,
f(j f
f2aj
GENERAL EXERCISES
7.
221
f(2-
9.
IS.
13.
11.
// /C
* f J (3x + xrf
i+ *
w- r
J J
r^-. -1
as
27.
n-(8.-l)orf(8.-l)*,
"
GSG^4; C l/C
30
dx
*
i/
"\/ 1\ ti 'V* a/
"
11
t*/
'>*
fsec8 V (-2Han8 (:-2)daJ. '

ctn
1) sec
4
31.
J V34-2aj-o;
J
|
dx
,
15.
J
1C.
(a;
(a;
1) dx.
32 .
dx
.
f oso 2ajctu 2a;^sB.
dx
33.
J
17.
J
tan'Saj-yseoSa-rZa-.
34
T-
&
/H
(itn
-U-Jlu-.iniLJ.UI
2 IB V(!HO '2xdx.
-.-.IIU.J.
35.
rt
19
/-..
**"
CMC* fiaJ"V(!t,u 5 "/?.
3g
_
.
J
o*y
"
.<!()
'
20.
*?
*""
$$,
/*siu*4aj
4
J
C
4.
v tan /CHC
M.J-
^ *. v
5
8
38t
/*
Sir
J
39
>!'
'/9> +1
222
INTEGRATION
58.
53.
--'*,&,
70t
/
I
54.
/^fal +
V3a:2
a
'
"71 /J
"J
^
55,
V2a; /<a;
/^
/
a
3aj'
72
'
J
'
seo(a!- |)<fa.
56.
*
dx
v4.'r * _L yv T*a:-f-<
a;
/Lo _l_7
_ d<
^8^43;^ <W5>
cos 2
?T~
^y
.
/OnK voa+4a;-l
/w "V n
.
SI t
. w / ^ 4
*
<T^ _I_
/Lrw'i
I I
sin 2 a/ /-,
_^ ***"'
j_ "
'
cos
COSJB
\ Sinas
GENERAL EXEECISES
75.
223
Cam*~dx
91.
Cx5*+*dx.
89.
106.
224
INTEGEATION
ofo:
107.
J
108.
ptan(asQ \
Bx
,
115 -
na
Bx
116.
JV
t/Q
109. 118. 110.
111
112
114.
|
*
i/S
a;
. 123.
acHarr^cfaj.
8
a;
4-
Jo
CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS
77. Review problems. The methods in Chapter III for determining areas, volumes, and pressures are entirely general, and with our new for-
now
mulas of integration we can apply these methods

to a
cases.
still
wider range of
Ex.
1.
Find the area
of the
x* ellipse -^
+ ~ = 1.
i/"
It is evident
from the sym-
metry
of the curve (Fig. 86)
that one fourth of the required aiea is bounded by the axis of

y,
pIG<
gg
the axis of
x,
and the
curve.
Constructing the rectangle
MNQ,P
as the element of area dA,
we have
dA**ydx = --VtP-aPdx.
a
Hence
Ex.2. Find the area bounded by the

axis of x, the parabola y9 =a kx, and the straight line y + Sff-frssO (Fig. 87),
5ST
The
straight line and the parabola intersect at the point

/,
\
c
(
\4
and s ) -i/
>
the straight line intersects

If
OX at B
( -
Draw
1,
CD perpendicular to 0Z.
they will be of different
we
construct the elements of area as in Ex,
226
APPLICATIONS
left or to the right of
form according as they aie to the on the left of CD we shall have
the line
CD]
fc
dAydx
and on the right of
k*x*dx,
CD we
shall
have
(k
2
a:)
dA = ydx =
dx
It will, accordingly, be necessary to and take their sum. and
compute sepaiately the areas ODi
DBC
Area
Area DBC
=
J* 1
3
(X:
- 2 x) dx =
\kx
a;
!
4
&
k*.
Hence the required area is S k It is to be noted that the area since it is that of a right triangle,
could have been found by the formulas of plane geometry for the altitude
;
DBC
D C = | and the base DB = l~^-~, 2 4 4

2
and hence the area
16
Or we may construct the element shown in Fig 88 Then, if x1 and z2 are the abscissas respectively of Pa and Pt
of area as
,
3k
48
Ex. 3, Let the
ellipse of
Ex
1 be represented by the equations

<f>,
= a cos
.
= l sin <.
of
Using the same element of area, and expressing y and dx in terms .... we have , ,, = (b dA sin </>) ( a sin
,
As x vanes from
hence
to a,
</
varies
from
A
to
=4
t/O
=- 4
EEVIEW PROBLEMS
It is evident
is
227
a definite integral
from foimula
changed by interchanging
23, that the sign of (1), the limits. Hence
A=
irab
Ex. 4. Find the volume of the ring solid generated by revolving a ciicle of radius a about an axis in its plane b units fiorn its center (b > a)
Take the
as
axis of
evolution
and the line through the center as OX. Then

(Fig. 89)
OY
the equation of the ciicle

2 (r-&) ' +
is
K
M"--
=a
2
.
A straight line
meets the
a,
parallel to circle in two points

2
i
OX
.
P v where = x b Va y*, and P2 where x = xz = b + Va2 ij\ A section of the requned solid made by a plane through P P2 perpendicular to OY is bounded
,
PIG. 89
respectively.
by two concentric circles with = x v and Pz = xz radii l
MP
Hence,
if
dV
denotes the
element of volume,
dy=
The summation extends from the point L, wheie y = a, to the point If, where y = a. On account of symmetry, however, we may take twice the to y = a. Hence integral from y =
V- 2
C
Jo
Ex. 5. Find the pressure on a parabolic segment, with base 2 b and

altitude
a,
submerged
so
that its
base
is
in the surface of the liquid

axis is vertical
PIG. 90
and
its
Let RQ.C (Fig. 90) be the parabolic segment, and let CB be drawn an the surface of through the vertex C of the segment perpendicular to RQ, parallel the liquid. According to the data, RQ = 2 ft, CB-a. Draw as a base construct an element of area, dA. Let to Tti, and on
LN
LN
CM=x.
228 Then
But, from
r>
APPLICATIONS
dA
30,
*=(LN)ilje.
, *
whence and therefore
dA =
2/;
*
I <to.
The depth
hence,
if 10 is
of Zi^V below the surface of the liquid is CH the weight of a unit volume of tho liquid,
tip sz
,r
1 $* (a
x) wdxt
x - .r)
a*
and
P-
..
{ Jo
1 r a 2biii j?i,
of.c
EXERCISES
1.
Find the area of an arch of tho curve y
Find the area bounded by tho catenary y = /*. axis of a?, and the lines
2.
r
= sin *. / * _ \ =w A v'"Hh " %

>
fcliw
asymptote. 4. Find the area of one of the closed figurus boundtul by 8 sc curves if 16 a? and ?/2
its
Find ....
3.
the area included between tho curve
?/ 7 *
*
..
.,
and
Uit*
-1
rt^
6.

3?/
a
2/
Iine2a;
6.
sss2(ce
1)
and
tilio
Find the area between the axis of

a;
SB
and ono arch of
tht
cycloid
7.
= a(j!>
sin ^),
= a(l
OY and
COH 0).
Find the volume of tho
solid generated
the plane surface bounded by

8.
by revolving about s the curve* a$ -j3,
OY
Any section
an
of a certain solid
OX
is
isosceles triangle
made by a piano pM'pwulinulnr to with tho ends of its busa r8tint? on Ihw
ellipse
1 4- '4 = 1 an d its
altitude equal to tho distance of tho plane
from the center

9,
of the ellipse.
Find the
total
volume o tho
Bulid,
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about tho line 2 y + a the area bounded by 0110 arch of tho curve y m sin as
and the
axis of x.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
10.
.
229
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the line y + a = the area bounded by the circle a8 + t/2 = a2 11. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the 3 2 line x a the area bounded by that line and the curve ay = x
.
12.
A right circular cone with vertical angle 60

A trough 2
If
it is full
ft.
the center of a sphere of radius a of the sphere included in the cone.

13.
vertex at Find the volume of the portion

its
has
ends
14.
deep and 2 ft. broad at the top has semielliptical of water, find the pressure on one end.
6
is
A parabolic segment with base 18 and altitude

is
submerged
so that its base
horizontal, its axis vertical, surface of the liquid Find the total pressure.
and
its
vertex
the
15.
sides.
A pond of A culvert,
15
ft.
depth
is
whose
cross section is in the
crossed by a roadway with vertical form of a parabolic
segment with horizontal base on a level with the bottom of the pond, runs under the road. Assuming that the base of the parabolic segment is 4 ft. and its altitude is 3 ft., find the total pressure on the bulkhead which temporarily closes the culvert.
1. Find
the pressure on a board whose boundary consists of a
straight line and one arch of a sine curve, submerged so that the board is vertical and the straight line is in the surface of the water.
may seem
78. Infinite limits or integrand. There are cases which it to be necessary to use infinity for one or both, of the
limits of a definite integral, or in which the integrand becomes shall restrict the discussion of these cases to the infinite.
We
solution of the following illustrative examples
Ex.
x,
1.
and the ordinate x

It
is
= 1.
= -^
the axis of x (Fig. 91),
seen that the curve has the axis of x as an asymptote ; and hence,
its
strictly speaking, the required area is
bounded, since the curve and

intersect.
not completely asymptote do not
0JV
ft
Accordingly, in Fig. 91, let (& > 1) and draw the ordinates
OM=l
MP
and and
'
If the value of b is increased, the
boundary line NQ, moves to the right;
and the greater
becomes, the nearer the area approaches unity.
230
APPLICATIONS
It
may, accordingly, define, the area boundt'd by the eune, Ihe u\i* of r, and the oidinate .r = 1 as tlw hunt of the area Mj\Ql*\w tm'tcnst's indeti nitely, and denoto it by the symbol
ft
We
-'f
Lim f
'(''
.-
1.
Ex.
&
axis of X)
Find the, area bounded by the and u' and the oidinatoH JK
u
eurvt'
-.
//
v ""
(KU?.
"
tiiJ),
tlw
'"
Sinco the line
<t
is
fmthtiimoH
a;
ilic
area
in
not,
an jwyinptntc' of Ihc eum*, //~~- * when ntneUy speukiuj-, hounded. We IIH \, lun
i
(
find the area
Ji,
bounded on thci ri^hl by the tirdinuto is a Htuall quantity, with the lesult where
ft
'
-A
(I
If
l M), Hin~
7T
required,
Hence wo may regard J as and express it by tlw
tlui
vahu of th> area

"*~~* M
if
*
**(/"
""jj"
ii
Ftu.
UiJ
'
Ex.
3.
Find the valuo
of
"f,
Proceeding as in Ex,
1,
w( plaoo
/
-
f(JG
*
-a
h
î
V/
-7-
Lim
/*
/
w J*
,
**<' i
Vj
But
an expression which increases no finite value,
Indeflnifcely
Voo
hrnô th* givt*n

limit,
integral has
accoidmgly conclude that in ranli aawt w rntiut dftermiuo n and that the problem has no solution if wt* cannot find a
79.
We
OH the
and
Area in polar coordinates, Let

initial line of
two fixed radius vectors respectively, and P& any curve
0%
(Fig, 98) he thn po! mid a system of polar noSniinatai (r, &}< nf>
for for
which 0*0 and Bmi which the aquation Ift
Requirod the area JJOE
AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES

To
construct the differential of area, dA,
231
divide the angle into parts, dd. Let OP and OQ be any two consecutive radius vectors ; then the angle POQ d0. With as a center and OP as a radius, we draw the arc of a circle, intersecting OQ
we
at R.
The
is
area of the sector
It
obvious that the
re-
quired area is the limit of the sum of the sectors as their
number
is indefinitely increased. Therefore we have
and
This result
if
is
coincides with 0, but in that case OP must be tangent to the curve. l

l
unchanged
FIG. 93
So
also
P may
z
coincide with 0.
Ex.
1.
Find the area of one loop
of the curve r
= a sin 3
(Fig 65,
51)
,
the loop is contained between the two tangents required area is given by the equation
As
0=0
and 6 =
8
the
= f Jo
12
Ex.
r
2.
Find the area bounded by the
lines
= 2 a cos 0,
and the loop
of the curve r
~ the curve 0= ~ and 0=~t = a cos 2 6 which is bisected by

is
44
the initial line.
Since the loop of the curve r

(Fig. 94), for
= a cos 2 Q
tangent to the line

f
OL
which
=-
~, and the line ON, for which 6
it is evi-
dent that the required area can be found by obtaining the area OLMNO, 2 a cos 6, and subtractbounded by the lines OL and ON and the curve r ing from it the area of the loop. The area may also be found as follows Let OPjPg be any radius vector cutting the loop r = a cos 2 Q at P t and rv Draw the radius the curve r = 2 a cos 6 at Pa Let OPl = rt and 0P2
:
.
232
vector OQ^jj,
radii
APPLICATIONS
making an angle dd with OP^P^ With
OP
and
OP S
as-
and
and
J2 2
a center, constiuct arcs of circles niti'iaoetouft O(^l^ at A\ IH ^ rfilQ and tho respectively. Then the area ot the sector J\01fi
as
area of the sector
PZ OR
area
is ^
r| dd.
We
may now take the

and have
P 1 />3 JB a /'
^y
Then ^ =
/ __
7T
,_
the required area is symmetrical with respect to the line OM, wo may place
01, since
(>2-*i)0.
FIG, 04
From the curve

r = a cos 2 0, we
= 2 a cos0, we have rf = 4 a 8 coss 0, and have r a = a2 cos2 2 0; so that finally

r
from the curve
a a cos 2 2 ^) <W
e-?-'22
2
8
EXERCISES
1.
Find the
total area of the lemniscato
a
?'
=2
=s
cos 2
0,
2.
3.
Find the area of one loop of the curve r Find the total area of the cardioid r =
Find the
total area
a sin n
0,
a(l-f- COB 0).

?
4.
5.
bounded by the curve
a 6 + 3 <uw
t
0.
which
6.
7. 8.
Find the area of the loop of the curve r* a" cos 2 non 3 is bisected by the initial line. Find the area bounded by the curves r = a cos 8 and r == Find the total area bounded by the curve r = 3 + 2 COB 4 0.
.,
Find the area bounded by the curve ?cos a ^=sl and the
lines
9.
and
7T = 75
.
Find the area bounded by the curves r
r s= 4 cos
10.
^ 6 + 4 cos
and
Findtheareaboundedbythecurvesr=acos0andra =:a8 cos2^
MEAN VALUE
80.
233
Mean value
y
and
to
let
OM=a
=/()
and
Let f(x) be any function of x be represented by the curve AB (Fig. 95), where
of
a function.
ON=b. Take
divide
distance
MN
the points
to
M^
z,
M_
n
so as
into
n equal parts, each equal dx, and at the points M, M^

'
-,
M_
n
z,
erect the ordinates

'
2/0'
y>
&.-!
Tlien the
average, or mean, value of these n ordinates is
M
This fraction
is
equal to
,
dx-\
ndx
If
is
indefinitely increased, this expression approaches as
limit the
value
" " This is evidently the mean value of an infinite number of values of the function / (x) taken at equal distances between 6. It is called the mean vafote of the a and x the values x
function for that interval.
with the Graphically this value is the altitude of a rectangle which equals base which has the same area as
MN
MNBA
/
/a
from the above discussion that the average of the function y depends upon the variable x of which the equal intervals dx were taken, and we say that the function was
see
also be averaged averaged with respect to x. If the function can with respect to some other variable which is divided into equal
We
parts the result
may
be different.
This
is
illustrated in
the
examples which follow.
234
Ex. tune ti
1.
if
APPLICATIONS
Find the mean
the velocity
is
velocity of a
body
falling
from
rest
duimg
the
averaged with respect to the tune.
to ^ divided into equal intervals dt Here we imagine the time from and the velocities at the beginning of each interval averaged. Proceeding
as in the text,
we
find, since v
gt,
that the
mean
velocity equals
Since the velocity
is gt^
when
it
appears that in this case the
mean
velocity is half the final velocity.
Ex. 2
Find the mean velocity

if
of a
body
falling
from
rest
through a
distance s1
the velocity
is
averaged with respect to the distance.
to s 1 divided into equal intervals Here we imagine the distance from ds and the velocities at the beginning of each interval aveiaged Proceeding as in the text, we find, since v = V2 y$, that the mean velocity is
Since the velocity
mean
velocity is
is v^2 gs v when s = s v we see that in this case the two thirds the final velocity.
EXERCISES
Find the mean value of the lengths of the perpendiculars from a diameter of a semicircle to the circumference, assuming the perpendiculars to be drawn at equal distances on the diameter.
1.
2. Find the mean length of the perpendiculars drawn from the circumference of a semicircle to its diameter, assuming the perpendiculars to be drawn at equal distances on the circumference 3.
Find the mean value of the ordmates of the curve y
= sm x
between x
and x
7T
-5,
assuming that the points at which the

on the axis of
x.
ordmates are drawn are

4.
at equal distances
The range
is
of
projectile fired
with an
initial velocity V Q
and
an elevation a
TT
v^
sin 2 a.
ff
Find the mean range as a varies from
to
6.
7p averaging with
respect to a.
'
Find the mean area of the plane sections of a right circular cone of altitude h and radius a made by planes perpendicular to the
axis at equal distances apart.
LENGTH OF PLANE CURVE

6.
235
In a sphere of radius a a series of right circular cones is inscribed, the bases of which are perpendicular to a given diameter at equidistant points. Find the mean volume of the cones
7. The angular velocity of a certain revolving wheel varies with the time until at the end of 5 mm. it becomes constant and equal to
mean angular
200 revolutions per minute If the wheel starts from rest, what is its velocity with respect to the time during the interval in which the angular velocity is variable ?
8. The formula connecting the pressure p in pounds per square inch and the volume v in cubic inches of a certain gas is pv 20.
Find the average pressure as the gas expands from 2^- cu in. to 5 cu. in. 9. Show that if y is a linear function of aj, the mean value of y with respect to x is equal to one half the sum of the first and the last value of y in the interval over which the average is taken.
81. Length,
of
a plane curve.
To
find
the length of any

,
AB (Fig. 96), assume n 1 points, J?, J?, -_ r between A and B and connect each pair of consecutive points by
curve
a straight line.
of the
The length
of
AB
is
then defined as the limit of the

lengths of the -, X^.iB as ]%PV
sum
%%,
n chords AQ, n is increased
without limit and the length of each chord approaches zero as a limit. By
means of this definition we have already 39 and 52) that shown (
"
FIG. 96
d8**^dy?+df
in Cartesian coordinates,
<2
(1)
and
= V,fra 4-rW
(2) (3)
in polar coordinates.
Hence we have
and
^dx*+ dy*
s =>
C-Vdr*
+ r*d6\
(4)
To
third*
evaluate either (3)
or,
variables involved in terms
of.
(4) we must express one of the the cither, or both in terms of a
The
limits of integration
may
then be determined.
236
Ex.
point
I.
APPLICATIONS
Find the length of the parabola y2
of the parabola
= kx
ydy
from the vertex to the
(a, 6).
From the equation

(3)
we
find 2
= kdx Hence
formula
becomes either
Either integral leads to the result
Ex. 2. Find the length of one arch of the cycloid
a(<jf>
sm<),
cos <)
dtp,
y
dy
<j>d<j>
= a (1
a sin
cos <).
<j>
We have
whence, from
Therefore
dx
(1),
a (1
ds
s
d$
= a V2
/* 27r
2 cos
<i
= 2a sin 2
rf<ji>.
2a
/o
sin
d<&
= 8 a.
EXERCISES
v
1.
Find the length
of the curve
3y*(x
3").
I)
a
from
--^
")
its
point of
intersection with
OX to
the point
(4,
w
to
2.
ai
= h.
Find the length Find the
of the catenary
-~\e
af
+e
8
from x
=
<.
3.
total length of the curve

total length of the
4.
5.
Find the
curve x
= a cos
<
^>,
= a sin
Find the length of the curve x = a cos -}- a<l> sin <, y
<f>
<
= a sin
e~*cos
a<
cos <,
from
6.
to
j!
=4
TT.
Find the length of the curve x

t
t,
y= e-*sin#, between
j from the point on
the points for which
and
7T = -^
7. Find the length of the curve r to the pole the curve for which 6
= a cos
8. 9.
Find the
total length of the curve r
= a (1-|- cos 5).
any
a that the length of the logarithmic spiral between two points is proportional to the difference of the radius vectors.
Show
re
of the- points,
WORK
82.
237
in
Work.
By
definition the
work done
moving a body
against a constant force is equal to the force multiplied by the distance through which the body is moved. If the foot is taken as the unit of distance and the
force, the unit of
pound
is
is
taken as the unit of
measure of work
called & foot-pound.
Thus
the
work done
ft. is
in lifting a weight of
ft-lb.
25
Ib.
through a distance
of 50
1250
A (x = a)
is
Suppose
now
that a
b")
to
B (x =
body
is
moved along 0JT(Fig. 97) from

is not constant but Let the line AB be
against a force which
expressed by /(). divided into intervals each equal A i to dx, and let one of these intera;,
a function of
j/W
J>
vals be
MN, where
OM
x.
Then
the force at the point

stantly equal to
done
in
is /(a?), and if the force were conf(x) throughout the interval MN, the work would be/ (x) dx. This moving the body through
MN
expression therefore represents approximately the work actually done, and the approximation becomes more and more nearly is taken smaller and smaller. The work done in exact as is the limit of the sum of the terms f(x) dx moving from A to
MN
computed
for all the intervals
between
and B. Hence we have
/>
and
Ex. The force which
tional to the
resists
Jit
amount the spring has been already
tain spring this force is stretched & in. Find the

its
a spring is proporsti etched. Foi a cerbe 10 Ib. when the spring has been work done in stretching the spring 1 in. from
the stretching of
known
to
natural (unstretched) length.

If
F is
we
have,
the force reqmied from the statement
to stretch the spring

of the problem,
through a distance
x,
and since
~ 10 when x = %, we have k Reasoning as in the text, we have
= 20.
Therefore
F = 20 x.
w~C\ Jo
238
APPLICATIONS
EXERCISES
1.
A positive charge m of
electricity is fixed at 0,
is -3
33
The
repulsion
on a unit charge at a distance x from
Find tho work done

0.
m bringing a unit charge from infinity to a distance a from

2.
Assuming that the force required

is
to strotdi
*t*
a wiro from the
length a to the length a + x
proportional to
in
-'j
if*
and that a
foixio
a length .0,'i in. in, to 40 in. greater, find the work done in stretching that wiro from O 3. A block slides along a straight line from against a resistance
of 1 Ib stretches a certain wire 36
in lungth to
ka?
equal to
(K
.
j" Cb
where
at
7c
and a are constants and
or,
is
the distance
any time. Find the work done in moving the block from a distance a to a distance a from 0.
of the block from
Find the foot-pounds of work done in lifting to a height of 20 ft above the top of a tank all the water contained in a full cylindrical tank of radius 2 ft. and altitude 10 ft.
4.
containing originally 80 Ib. of sand is liftod through a ft. If the sand leaks out, at such a rato that while the bag is being lifted, the number of pounds) of sand lost is wjual to a constant times the square of the number of foot through which the bag has been lifted, and a total of 20 Ib. of sand i& lost the
5.
A bag
vertical distance of 8
during
find the
6.
number of foot-pounds of work done in lifting tho bag, body moves in a straight line according to the formula c
is
lifting,
t. If tho resistance of the square of tho velocity, find tho work done the resistance of the air as the body moves from != to ft* a. against
where x
ef,
the distance traversed in a time
air is proportional to the
7.
Assuming that above the surface
of the earth the form* of the
inversely as tho square of the diBtanca from the earth's center, find the work done in moving a weight of w pounds from the surface of the earth to a distance a miles above the surfaca.
earth's attraction varies
wire carrying an electric current of magnitude C is bent into a circle of radius a. The force exerted by the current upon a unit magnetic pole at a distance a from the center of the circle in a straight line perpendicular to the plane of the circle is known to
8.
27rCas
be
(a?+
'
done in brin g in 8 a ttnit magnetic pole from

the line just mentioned,
infinity to the center of the circle along
GENERAL EXEKClSES
9.
239
a cylinder of cross section S The force acting on the piston is pS, where p is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, and is 7.7 Ib. per square inch when the volume v is 2 5 cu in. Find the work done as the volume changes from 2 cu. in. to 6 cu. in., according as the law connecting p and v is (1) pv k or
free to slide in
A piston is
(2)X* = *
1.
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the area of the sector of the
cut out of the first quadrant
2.
3
the circle
3.
a; + if = 36 is divided by the curve y = a; Find the area bounded by the hyperbola xy 8 = 0. straight line x + y 2 4. Find the area bounded by the parabola a; 8 a8
by the axis of x and the line 2 y = x. Find the area of each of the two parts into which the area of
2 8
.
ellipse 4oj
+9y =36
2
= 12
and the and the
=4 ay
Find the area of the loop of the curve ay2 = (x 2 a) z a) (x Find the area of the two parts into which the loop of the is divided by the line x curve y* = cc 2 (4 y = 0. a;)
5.
6.
.
7.

ary*
2
2/ (aj
+a6 =a
2 2
2
2/
and
its
asymptotes.
8.
a
+ & ) = <&& and its

2
8
asymptotes.
Find the area bounded by the curve a? = a cos 6, y = b sin Find the area inclosed by the curve x = a cos 8 0, y = a sin 8 0. 11. Two parabolas have a common vertex and a common axis, but lie in perpendicular planes. An ellipse moves with its plane perpendicular to the axis and with the ends of its axes on the parabolas. Find the volume generated when the ellipse has moved a distance h from the common vertex of the parabolas.
9.
10.
12.
a;
= 4 the figure bounded by the parabola y*= 4 x and the line x = 1. is intersected by two 13. A right circular cylinder of radius
a,
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the line
planes, the first of
which is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and the second of which makes an angle with the first. Find the volume of the portion of the cylinder included between these two
planes if their line of intersection the cylinder by the first plane.
is
tangent to the circle cut from
240
.,
APPLICATIONS
w.
u^
U.UU.UJLU
w*.^c* Uw ~~
~
with
its
fn +
=
y*
a? as a base,
an
isosceles triangle is constructed
ordinate
and
the volume generated 15. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about 8 a8 and the the line OF the figure bounded by the curve y 2
.
altitude equal to the its plane perpendicular to the plane of the curve. Find a. a to x as the triangle moves from x
line y
16.
o,.
line
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the z 2 the plane area bounded by that line, the parabola y = 3x, 3. and the lines y = 17. Find the volume formed by revolving about the line x = 2 3 and the axis of y. the plane figure bounded by the curve y = 4 (2 a;)
x=
18. The sections of a solid made by planes perpendicular to OF 4 a; to aie circles with one diameter extending from the curve 2 4 x. Find the volume of the solid between the 4 the curve y
points of intersection of the curves. 19. The area bounded by the circle x*
+$
2 ax
is
revolved
about OX, forming a solid sphere Find the volume of the two parts into which the sphere is divided by the surface formed by revolving
the curve y2
20.
about OA' x Find the volume of the two solids formed by revolving about Y the areas bounded by the curves ar -f #2 = 5 and g/2 = 4 ai.
3.8
2a
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about OX and x == a, and the curve the area bounded by OX, the lines x =
21.
z
= x + aea
22.
straight lines OA, OB, and OC determine two planes which intersect at right angles in OA. The angle A OB is 45 and the angle AOC is 60. The section of a certain solid made by any plane perpendicular to OA is a quadrant of an ellipse, the center of the in OB, and ellipse being in OA, an end of an axis of the ellipse being OC. Find the volume an end of the other axis of the ellipse being and a plane perpendicular to OA at of this solid between the point a distance of two units from 0.
The three
23. The section of a solid made by any plane perpendicular to OX a rectangle of dimensions a? and sm x, x being the distance of the plane from O. Find the volume of this solid included between the
is
planes for which
and x =
IT.
GENERAL EXEECISES
24.
241
in the form of a horizontal cylinder the ends of which are circles 4 ft. in diameter. The tank is full of oil, which
oil
An
tank
is
weighs 50 the tank.
Ib.
per cubic foot
Calculate the pressure on one end of
25. The gasoline tank of an automobile is in the form of a honzontal cylinder the ends of which are plane ellipses 20 in high and 10 in broad. Assuming as the weight of a cubic inch of gasoline,
find the pressure
on one end
is
of the
tank when the gasoline
is
15 in
deep.
26.
horizontal gutter
U-shaped, a semicircle of radius 3 in
surmounted by a rectangle 6 in wide by 4 in. deep If the gutter is full of water and a board is placed across the end, how much pressure is exerted on the board ?
of a horizontal gutter is in the form of a semicircle radius, the diameter of the semicircle being at the top and horizontal. The gutter receives water from a roof 50 ft above the
27.
The end
of 3
in.
full,
top of the gutter. If the pipe leading from the roof to the gutter is what is the pressure on a board closing the end of the gutter ?
28.
A circular water main has a diameter of 5 ft.

total pressure
One end
is
closed
by a bulkhead, and the other is connected with a reservoir in which the surface of the water is 20 ft above the center of the bulkhead
Find the
29.
30.
on the bulkhead.
?*
Find the area of a loop of the curve a = a? sin n6. Find the area swept over by a radius vector of the curve 4 Find the area inclosed by J the curve r
.
a tan
31.
as $ changes from
IT
to
4
H
..
and the
cos $
curve r
32.
+ cos 6
,
Find the area bounded by the circles r=a cos 6 and r= a, sin 6. 2 2 33. Find the area cut off from one loop of the curve r = 2 a sin 2 6 a by the circle r
Find the area of the segment of the cardioid r = a (1+ cos 0) by a straight line perpendicular to the initial line at a distance | a from the origin 0.
34.
cut off
35.
.
Find the area cut

,
off
from a loop of the curve r
= a sm 3 6 by
the
circle r s=
242
36.
APPLICATIONS
Find the area cut
off
from the lemniscate

'
r2
= 2a
cos
by
the straight line r cos

37.
_/*>
75
and r
38.
lines
= a (1 + sin 0).
x
Find each of the three areas bounded by the curves r

8 2
.
=a
Find the mean height of the curve y = 2a and aj = 2 a.
between the
39.
A particle describes
a simple harmonic motion defined by the

\
(792i?/
~9~)
iL
during a complete vibration is half the maximum kinetic energy the average is taken with respect to the time.
40.
In the motion defined in
Ex 39 what
will be the ratio of
the
mean
mum
kinetic energy during a complete vibration to the maxikinetic energy, if the average is taken with respect to the
space traversed?
41. quantity of steam expands according to the Iawj0v =; 2000, being the pressure in pounds absolute per square foot Find the average pressure as the volume v increases from 1 cu. ft. to 5 cu. ft.
08
to
Find the length of the curve y a the point for which x = ~

42. 43.
= a In
Li'
a2 ^2
.
from the origin
for
Find the length of the curve y = which x =sl and x = 2 respectively.

Find the
total length of
x ~~
between the points

8
44.
45. 46.
= a cos <, y = b sin*<. a Find the total length of the curve r = a sin ^ Find the length of the spiral r = aO from the pole to the end
the curve x
8
JA
of the first revolution.

47. If
a center of force attracts with a magnitude equal to
r>
SC#
where x is the distance of the body from the center, how much work will be done in moving the body in a straight line away from the center, from a distance a to a distance 8 a from the center ?
force
is
in
A body is moved along a straight line toward a center of which repels with a magnitude equal to 7ccc when the body at a distance x from the center. How much work will be done moving the body from a distance 2 a to a distance a from the
48.
ter?
GENERAL EXERCISES
49.
243
A central
7c
force attracts a body at a distance x from the center
by an amount
-j
Find the work done in moving the body
directly
away from the center from a distance a to the distance 2 a. 50. How much work is done against hydrostatic pressure in raising a plate 2 ft. square from a depth of 20 ft. to the surface of the
water,
51.
if it is
kept at
all
times parallel to the surface of the water ?
spherical bag of radius 5 in. contains gas at a pressure equal to 15 Ib. per square inch. Assuming that the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by the gas, find the
work required
to compress the
bag into a sphere of radius 4
in.
CHAPTER XI
83.
Double integrals.
The symbol
t
nv
_ 4
f(x, y) dxdy,
(1)
in
which a and
b are constants
x,
and
y^
stants or functions of
indicates that
and y^ are either contwo integrations are to

be evaluated
is
be carried out in succession. The
first integral to
tion of
;)
where x and dx are to be held constant. The result is a funcx only, multiplied by dx; let us say, for convenience,
dx.
The second
integral to be evaluated
is,
then,
F(x) dx,
which
is
of the familiar type.
Similarly, the
symbol
6
/*xs
f(x, y) dydx,
(2)
where a and
b are constants and and #g are either constants or functions of #, indicates first the integration
in
integration with respect to
which y and dy are handled as constants, and afterwards y between the limits a and b.
244
DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Ex.
1.
245
Evaluate
integral is
j
ft
/
s /.a n2
I
xythdy.
The
first
scydxily
is
The
second integration
"'
Ex.
2.
Evaluate
integration
is
Jo Ji-x
ni*st
f f
O2 +
^
y*)<lr.dii '
The
The second
integration
is
Ex.3. Evaluate
f^"
Jo
is
v
3
i/o
f**jpdyt?jc.
The
first
integration
1/0
u y*<lytlx =
is
r
2
?/
a
j/
^/y
/-.//.
'
L
2a
Jo
a
<l
The second
integration
r
Jo
4a
''
y=
rir
LaOoJo
= ! a4
6
respect to x. The application of the double integral comes from it interpretation as the limit of a double summation,
one variable has been shown lo be the limit of a sum, from which we infer that formula (1) involves first the determination of the limit of a sum with respect to ;/, followed by the determination of the limit of a sum with
definite integral in
How, such
forms
arise in practice will
be illustrated in the
following sections,
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following
integrals
3.
;
r*
/
^dydx, a"%/
Ji
4.
'
J,,
n\
xydoady.
246
5.
dydx
a(l
+ coi S)
?
sin Odddr.
r*d$dr.
/
|
/-as
I
c/O
^/o
8.
rf r
Jo
/o
r cos 6dOdr
r8
84. Area as a double integral. Let it be required to find an area (such as is shown in Fig. 98) hounded by two curves, with in points for the equations y^~f^(x) and y2 2 () intersecting
=/
which x a and z=b respectively. Let the plane be divided into rectangles by straight lines parallel to OX and respectively. Then the area of one such rectangle is
OT
the distance between two consecutive lines parallel where dy is the distance between, tw,o consecutive lines parallel to OX. The sum of the rectangles which are either
is
where dx
to
OY
and.
AKEA AS DOUBLE INTEGRAL
247
wholly or partially within the required area will be an approximation to the required area, but only an approximation, because
the rectangles will extend partially outside the area. assume as evident, however, that the sum thus found becomes more
We
nearly equal to the required area as the
number
of rectangles
becomes larger and dx and dy smaller. Hence we say that the required area is the limit of the sum of the terms dxdy. The summation must be so carried out as to include every rectangle once and only once. To do this systematically we begin with any rectangle in the interior, such as PQJRS, and add
those rectangles which lie in the vertical column with it. is, we take the limit of the sum of dxdy, with x and dx constant and y varying from (X). This is y^f^(x) to 2/2
first
That
=/
fl
indicated
by the symbol
/"
vt/.
x = [/2 (x) -/,()] dx.
(2)
to take
This
is
the area of the strip
TUVW. We
are
now
the limit of the
sum
and x varies from
of all such strips as a to 5.
dx approaches zero
We
have then
^ <=
If
Jo.
/"<>,-
^ ^ =Jf V,
a
(x)
-/ <V>] dx.
x
(3)
we put
together what we have done, we see that we have
n
_.
dxdy.
(4)
This discussion enables us to express the area as a double integral. It does not, however, give us any more convenient way
to
compute the area than that found in Chapter

is
III, for the result
simply what we vertical strip (see Ex.

(2)
If
it
may write down

3,
at once for the area of a
28).
first
should be more convenient
to find the area of a
horizontal strip,
we may
write
n*
dy dx.
(5)
248
BEPEATED INTEGRATION
Consider a similar problem in polar coordinates. Let an area, as in Fig. 99, be bounded by two curves r^/XÔ and r corresponding to the (0), and let the values of
2
=/
and be l and a respectively. The plane may be points B and divided into four-sided figures by circles with centers at
from
straight lines radiating 0. Let the angle
between two consecutive radii be d6 and
the distance between
two consecutive circles

be dr. We want first the area of one of the
PQRS. Here OP = r,
quadrilaterals such as
= dr, and the angle

geom-
POS=d0. By
etry the area of the 2 d0 and sector POS=^r A
the area of the sector

therefore
FIG. 99
PQRS = J (r + dr)*d6 and d0 approach zero
Now as dr
term
J r*d0
= rdrd0 + % (dr)*d0.
the second
as a limit the ratio of
in this expression to the first term also approaches zero, since this ratio involves the factor dr. It may be shown that the
affect the limit of the
second term does not
sum
of the expression,
and we
are therefore justified in writing as the differential of area
dA = rd0dr.
The
(6)
required area is the limit of the sum of these differentials. To find it we first take the limit of the sura of the
quadrilaterals, such as
PQRS, which
lie in
the same sector
UO V.
al-
and integrate rd0dr, holding have lowing r to vary from r^ to r.

is,
That
we
dd constant and
We
/
^r.
(7)
which
is
the area of the strip
TUVW.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
249
Finally we take the limit of the sum of the areas of all such strips in the required area and have
(8)
If
we put
together what we have done, we may write
=
It is clear that this
/*s /"a I r dOdr.

J>i
t/0 t
been obtained in
79,
formula leads to nothing which has not but it is convenient sometimes to have
is
the expression (9). 85. Center of gravity. It
shown
in mechanics that the cen,
ter of gravity of n particles of masses plane at points whose coordinates
m^ w 2 are^, y x ), (xz
-,
mn
lying
,
/ 2 ),
(#, y^)
respectively
is
given by the formulas
=
ss
\-m n
the point through which the resultant of the weights of the particles always passes, no matter how the particles are
This
is
placed with respect to the direction of the earth's attraction, now wish to extend formulas (1) so that they may be applied to physical bodies in which the number of particles may
We
be said to be
into
infinite.
For that purpose we divide the body
portions such that the mass of each considered as concentrated at a point (or, y). Then, if total mass of the body, the mass of each element is dm.
limit of the
n elementary
may be
m is the We have
then to replace the m's of formula (1) by dm and to take the sums involved in (1) as the number n is indefinitely
increased and the elements of
mass become indefinitely small. There result the general formulas

/
xdm
,
X=
J
I
ydm
.
9 ,J
I
(2)
dm
dm
250
these formulas
To apply
fine
we
consider
first
a slender wire so
and so placed that it may be represented by a plane curve. More strictly speaking, the curve may be taken as the mathematical line which runs through the center of the physical wire. Let the curve be divided into elements of length ds. Then, is its if c is the area of the cross section of the wire and
mass of an element of the wire venience we place DC = p and write

density, the
is
Dads.
For con-
where p
p
is
a constant.
If this is substituted in (2), the constant
be taken out of the integrals and canceled, result may be written in the form
may
and the
sx
ixds,
sy
=
I
is
yds,
(3)
where
on the
left of
the equations
the total length of the
curve. These formulas give the center of gravity of a plane curve. Ex.
1.
Find the center

a.
of gravity of
one fourth of the circumference
of a circle of radius
Here we know that the

\ rrax
total length is
we
so that,
from
(3),
we have
Cxds,
vay
Cyds.
To integrate, it is convenient to introduce the central angle <j> (Fig 100), whence x = a cos <j>,y = a sin <f>, ds = ad<j>.
7T
Then |irox= l*a*cos<f>dd>, Jo
whence
2a
FIG. 100
plate, which may be represented by a speaking, the area is that of a section
Consider next a thin
plane area. Strictly through the middle of the plate. If t is the thickness of the plate and _D its density, the mass of an element of the plate with the area AA is DtdA. For convenience we place Dt p and write
dm
pdA,
CENTER OF GEAVITY
where p
is
251
(2) and the
p's
a constant.
If this is substituted in
are canceled,
we have
i
xdA,
AyI ydA,
(4)
center of
where
is
the total area.
These formulas give the
gravity of a plane area,
y*
Ex. 2. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the parabola kx, the axis of x, and the ordmate through the point (a, b) of the
parabola (Fig 101)
We place dA=
js
dxdy in
(4)
and have
A = C Cx dx dy,
Ay = Cfy dx dy.
To evaluate, we choose the element dxdy inside the area in a general position, and first sum with respect to y along a vertical strip.
We
shall denote
by yl the value
of
y on the
parabola, to distinguish it from the general values of y inside the area The first integration gives us, therefore, respectively
C
so that
Vi
xdxdy
= xy1 dx
JCxy^dx,
and
C ydxdy
\y* dx,
we have
Ax
Ay = /C^y* dx-
On
examination of these results we see that each contains the factor
is the area ( 22) of an elementary vertical strip), multiplied by a? and ^ yv which are the coordinates of the middle point of the ordmate yr These results are the same as if we had taken dA = y t dx in the general foimula (4), and had taken the point (x, y) at which the mass of dA is concentrated as (z, y x), which is in the limit the middle point of
y^dx (which
respectively
dA. In fact this is often done in computing centers of gravity of plane areas, and the first integration is thus avoided. Kow, from the equation of the parabola y% = kx, and to complete the integration, we have to substitute this value for yt and integrate with to x = a We have respect to x from x =
AS =
*
/**
Ay
of the curve,
i kxdx
yfco"
<-
from the
k=
fl
and,
by
23,
A~
<
252
i
Substituting these values and
educing,
we have
finally
x
In solving this problem
separately, in oider to
collect all this into
a,
y=&b
we have carried out the successive mtegratioii.s show clearly just what has been done. If now we
a double integral, we have

a
Ax=f Jo
Ex.
3.
f Jo
''xdxdy.
/ly=f"f
Jo Jo
'ytlxda.
Find the center
of gravity of
a sextant of a circle of radum a

sextant so that the
To
axis of v bisects it (Fig. 102) polar coordinates.
solve this problem it is convenient to place the and to use ._
From
centei of gravity lies may write at once y
the symmetry of the figure the on OX, so that we
= 0. To
find a take
an element of area ? dddr in polar cooidinates and place x = r cos We have then, from (4),
a
r^
/
/" Jo
rr
r2 cos 6 dddr,
~6
where
ciicle
A=
lira?,
one sixth the area of a
are constant,
place
first integration 6 and dO and the summation takes with along a line radiating from
In the
r varying from to a entire area is covered
The angle then varies from The solution is as follows

.
- - to ~
6
and thus the
liraPx
_
=J
6
a 3 cos Odd
whence
2a
Consider
now
given. It is evident from symmetry that the center of gravity of the solid lies on OY, so that we have to find only y.
is
plane area (Fig. 103) ABCD about that the equation of the curve CD
a solid of revolution formed by revolving the
Y as
an
axis.
It
is
assumed
Let
dFbe any element

is
of
volume.
the density and
assumed constant.
Then dm = pdV, where p is we have

(5)
CENTER OF GRAVITY
253
Let the solid be divided into thin slices perpendicular to as was done in 26, and let the summation first take place over
one of these
tion
oL
slices.
In this summa-
is
constant,
and the result

is
the summation
therefore
slice.
y
is
times the volume of the
It
therefore u(^r'^^y)have now to extend the summation over all
We
the
slices.
This gives the result
Vy
where
is
rb
/
ir^ydy,
07?
(G)
OA = a and
obtain
=
we
&.
It is to
be noticed that
if
this result
TIG. 103
interpret dm in (2) as the mass of the slice and consider at the middle point of one base of the slice.
what we
it
concentrated
Ex. 4. Find the centei and radius (Fig. 104)

This
is
of gravity of a light cucular cone of altitude 6
a solid of revolution formed by revolv-
ing a light triangle about OF. However, the equation of a straight line noed not be used, as
similar triangles are simpler.
We
is
X have y
=b
CL
>
whence x
8 J 7r 6.
-y.
b
The volume V
known
to be
Therefore, from (G),
we have
aj = f*mP fdy = J
whence
FIG. 104
EXERCISES
1.
Show
radius a lies at a distance of
that the center of gravity of a semicircunifereuce of oa from the center of the circle on
7T
the radius which bisects the semicircumference.

2,
an.
Show that the center of gravity
of a circular arc
which subtends
sin
arc,
angle <x at the center of a circle of radius a lies at a distance

circle
from the center of the
on the radius which, bisects the
254
3.
EEPEATED INTEGRATION
A
wire hangs so as to form the catenary y
a ~
(/*
-1-
").
Find the center of gravity of the piece of the curve between Iho and x = a. points for which x = 4. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the cycloid the first two sharp x = a(<[> sm$), y = a(l coB<f>), between
points.
5.
Find the center of gravity of a parabolic segment of
base,
2b
and
altitude a.
6.
7.
8.
Find the center of gravity of a quadrant of the area of a Find the center of gravity of a triangle.
circle.
= sin x and the axis

9.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the ourvo and x IT. of x between x
Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded by tho two parabolas y* = 20 x and a? 20 y.
Find the center of gravity of a figure which is composed of a rectangle of base 2 a and altitude I surmounted by a semicircle of radius a
10. 11. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the arch of the cycloid (Ex. 4) and the axis of aj.
Ihvst
12.
Show
a distance
a ~ sinfrom
4a
that the center of gravity of a sector of a circle lies at
the vertex of the sector on a line bisecting
the angle of the sector, where a

13.
is the angle and a the radius. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the cardioid
14.
= 2 cos & + 3.
15.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curve

Find the center of gravity of a solid hemisphere.
16. Find the center of gravity of a solid formed by revolving about its altitude a parabolic segment of base 26 and altitude a. 17.
about
of y,
OF the
and the
Find the center of gravity of the solid formed by revolving plane figure bounded by the parabola y*** fee, the axis
line
y = k.
with the hemisphere of radius base of the cone coinciding with the base of the hemisphere and the vertex of the cone in the surface of the
18. Find the center of gravity of the solid faces of a right circular cone and a
bounded by the sur-
&
hemisphere
CENTER OF GRAVITY
255
86. Center of gravity of a composite area. In finding the center of gravity of a body which is composed of several parts the
following theorem
is
useful:
If a body of mass
M^ Mf
is
composed of several parts of masses
n,
and
respectively (xf ^), ? ity of the composite body is yiven by the
if the centers of gravity of these parts are (za , / ), .,(#w , #), then the center of grav-
formulas
+J
C ;
We
for
shall prove the theorem for the
% coordinate.
The
proof
is
the same.
By
85 we have,
for the original body,
MX -
fxdm,
'
(2)
where the integration is to be taken over all the partial masses But we have also n into which the body is divided. v Jfa
where the subscripts indicate that the integration in each case to one of the several bodies. But formula (2) can be written
is restricted
C MX = rx^m^ I x^dm^-}/
^dmn
and,
by
substitution from (3), the theorem
is
proved,
circles
of
Find the center of gravity of an area bounded by two which is completely inside the other.
x.
one
be placed aa in Fig. 105, where the center of the larger circle of radius a is at the origin, and the center of the smaller circle of radius o is on the axis of $ at a distance o from the origin*
circles
Let the two
256
REPEATED 1NTE( RAT U )K

1
The area which can be considered

the larger
circle,
as composed of two
]>jut.n
that of
the two paits being, fust, the smaller eirde and, wroucl, UNirregular ring whose centei of gravity
we wish
to find
Now
the center of
gravity of a circle is known to be at its center, Theiefore, in the formula of the theoiem, we know (T, J/), which
is
(0, 0),
on the left of the equation, to bo and (~c v yj to be (c, 0), and wish
T/z ).
to find (72 ,
Since we are dealing with aieas, we take the masses to be equal to the = iraz ai eas, and have, accordingly,
= irb z (the mass of the larger ciiclc), (the mass of tho smallei cncle), and
My,
M M
= if (
ft
(the
mass of tho
ring).
jor>
Substituting in the formula,
we havo
=
whence, by solving for
,r
IT/A-
TT
(<r
A-
) ra
It is unnecessary to find yi} since,

lies
by Hyiniuctiy, Mi
coutiM of
on
OX
EXERCISES
that if there are only two component masses mul. fl/^ JHf^ in formulas (1) of the theorem, the center of gravity of tho oomjxmto
1.
Show
mass lies on the line connecting the centers of gravity of tho component masses at such a point as to divide that hue into sogmtmlH
inversely proportional to the masses.
2.
out of
Prove that it a mass
if
z
a mass
M with center of gravity

is
M^
-with center of gravity (.r^ //j) tho c-oiiUu of (i?9 , ya),

1
haw
<m(,
gravity
of the remaining mass
Mi-Mt
3.
J/ t
- Mt
Find
Two
circles
of radii
and rs aro
tangtnit oxtonuJly.
their center of gravity

4. Find the center of gravity of a hemispherical by two concentnc hemispheres of radii r^ and r^ 5.
hol3
boundod
iind
Place r9
= ^ + A^ m Ex. 4, let A?' approach xero, and thus
the center of gravity of a hemispherical surface.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
6.
25Y
Find the center of gravity of a hollow right circular cone bounded by two parallel conical surfaces of altitudes 7^ and A 2 respectively and with their bases in the same plane.
7.
Place
\= /^-H A/i in Ex
6, let
A/t
approach
zero,
and thus
find the center of gravity of a conical surface

8. Find the center of gravity of a carpenter's square each aim which is 15 in on its outer edge and 2 in wide
9. From a square of edge 8 in a quadrant of a circle is cut out, the center of the quadrant being at a corner of the squaie and the radius of the quadrant being 4 in. Find the center of gravity of the
figure remaining
10.
Two
iron balls of radius
4m
and 6
in
respectively are conis
no uted by an iron rod of length 1

cylinder o
11.
in.
Assuming that the rod
radius 1 in., find the center of gravity of the system.
cubical pedestal of side 4 ft. is surmounted by a sphere of Find the center of giavity of the system, assuming that the sphere rests on the middle point of the top of the pedestal.
radius 2 ft
87. Theorems.
oi'
The
folio wing
theorems involving the center
ho used to adgravity may often vantage in finding pressures, volumes of revolution, or areas of c>I solids
surfaces of revolution.
I. The total pressure on a plane survertical faae immersed in liquid in a to the area of the surposition is equal
at face multiplied ly tlw pressure
its
center of gravity.
Let the area he placed a in Fig 106, where the axis of K is in the surface of the liquid and where the axis of y
Then, by
25,
/*
ETO< 106
is
measured downward.
'*'
yO pa-
fl!
i)^>
which may be written
IIH
a double integral in the
form
(2)
p=
CCwydydx => w nydxdy,
258 In
fact, this
may be written down directly, since the pressure on
its area,
a small rectangle dxdy is 85, Moreover, from
dxdy, times its depth,
T/,
times w.
we have
Ay --CCydxdy.
(3)
By
comparison of (2) and (3)
we have
P = wyA.
is
at the center of gravity, and the theorem proved for areas of the above general shape. If the area is not of this shape, it may be divided into such areas, and the theorem may be proved with the aid 86. of the theorem of
But wyis the pressure
Ex.1.
circular
bulkhead which closes
y="b
the outlet of a reservoir has a radius 8 ft , and its center is 12 ft below the surface of the water. Find the total pressure on it
Here
A = 9 it and the
is
of gravity
12.
depth of the center Therefore
P = 108 irw = -V-Trtons = 10.6 tons.

II. The volume generated by revolving a plane area about an axis in its plane
not intersecting the area is equal to the area of the figure multiplied by the circumference of the circle described by its center of gravity.
To
V is
prove this take an area as in Fig. 107. Then, by the volume generated by the revolution about OY,
26,
if
(4)
which can be written
as a double integral in the
form
(5)
F=27rf C\dydx.
t/
i/,
By
and,
85,
J&=
Ja
C C\dydx;
u/jTj
by
comparison of (4) and (5),
we have
V~
which was
to be proved.
THEOREMS OF PAPPUS
259
Ex. 2. Find the volume of the nag surface formed by revolving about an axis in its plane a circle of radius a whose center is at a distance c from the axis, where c > a.
know that A -sra and that the center of gravity of the circle is at the center of the circle and therefore describes a circumference of length
We
ire.
Therefoie
F=
2ir 2
ffl
2c.
III.
The area generated by revolving a plane curve about an
axis in its plane not intersecting the curve is equal to the length of the curve multiplied by the circumference of the circle described
by
its
center of gravity.
this
To prove
we need
a formula for the area of a surface of

It
revolution which has not been given.
may be shown
that
if
is
this area,
then
S^Zirlxds.
rigorous proof of this will
(6)
not be given here. However, the A student may make the formula seem plausible by noticing that an element ds of the curve will generate on the surface a belt of width ds and length 2 irx. The product of length by breadth
may be taken
as the area of the belt.

85,
Moreover, by
we have
sx
I
xds;
(7),
(7)
and comparing the two equations (6) and which was to be proved.
we have
Find the area of the ring surface described in Ex. 2. that s - 2 TTO and that the center of gravity of a circumferof length 2 ire ence is at its center and therefore describes a circumference Therefore 5 = 4 âc.
Ex.
3.
We know
Theorems II and III
are
known
as the theorems of Pappus.
EXERCISES
1.
the surface Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume and
of a sphere.
volume 2, Find by the theorems of Pappus the surface of a right circular cone.
and the
laterax
260
3.
.REPEATED INTEGRATION
Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume generated by
revolving a parabolic segment about its altitude. 4. Find by the theorems of Pappus Iho
volume generated by revolving a parabolic segment about its base. 5. Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume geru>ratod by revolving a parabolic segment about the tangent at its vortex 6. Find the volume and the surface generated by revolving a square of side a about an axis in its piano perpendicular to one. of
its
diagonals and at a distance

7.
b\b>
V
V2/
;=
from
it,s
center.
Find the volume and the area generated by revolving' a right triangle with legs a and b about an axis in its plane ]>urullel to the leg of length a on the opposite side from the hypotenuse and at a
distance c from, the vertex of the right angle.
8.
circular
water main has a diameter of 4
ft.
One end
IH
closed by a bulkhead, and the other is connected with a reservoir in which the surface of the water is 18 ft. above the center of the
bulkhead
9.
Find the pressure on an

if
Find the pressure on the bulkhead. ellipse of semiaxos
submerged,
the liquid.
a. and I completely the center of the ellipse is o units below the surface of
10. Find the pressure on a semiellipse of semiaxes a and I (a />) submerged with the major axis in the surface of the liquid and the minor axis vertical.
>
11. Find the pressure on a parabolic segment submerged with the base horizontal, the axis vertical, the vertex above the base, and the vertex c units below the surface of the liquid.
12. What is the effect on the pressure of in a reservoir if the level of the water in
^
a submerged vertical area
the reservoir is raised
by c feet ?
of inertia of a particle about an axis is the product of its mass and the square of its distance from the axis. The moment of inertia of a number
axis is the sum of the moments of separate particles abont that axis. From these definitions we may derive the moment of inertia of a thin plate. Let the surface of the plate be divided into elements o area cU Then the mass of
inertia of the
is
88.
Moment
of inertia.
The moment
of particles about the
same
each element product of the thickness of the plate and
pdA, where p
density.
is
the
ita
Lot
bo
MOMENT OF INEETIA
261
the distance of any point in the element from the axis about which we wish the moment of inertia. Then the moment of inertia of clement is approximately
I?p dA.
We say " approximately " because not all points of the element
are exactly a distance R from the axis, as R is the distance ot some one point in the element. However, the smaller the element the more nearly can it be regarded as concentrated at one
point and the limit of the sum of all the elements, as their size approaches zero and their number increases without limit,
is
the
moment
of inertia of the plate.
Hence,
if
I represents
the
moment
of inertia of the plate,

=
we have
(1)
is
If in (1)
we
let
/o
= l,
the resulting equation
1= C&dA,
where
I
is
(2)
called the
moment of
dA
in (1) or (2) is replaced sign of integration must be used.
inertia of the plane area. by dxdy or rdrdd, the double
When
Ex.
1.
Find the moment

side of length &
of inertia of
a rectangle of dimensions a and
about the
into Let the rectangle be placed as in Fig. 108. Let it be divided up in an element elements dA ~ dfdg. Then a- is the distance of some point have from OY. Hence, in (2), we y JR SB x and dA = fatly. Therefore
y=b
We
a
to
&.
first
sum
the rectangles in
vertical strip,
y ranges from
We
have
This
is
the
moment
of ineitia of
j. IG<
IQ%
the
strip
MN,
and might -have been

at once, since
all
written
down
x from strip are at a distance
OY
the left-hand boundary of the points on and since the area of the strip is Idx
262
The second
KEPEATED INTEGRATION
integration gives
now
Jo
If,
instead of asking for the
moment
of inertia of the area,
we had asked
for that of a plate of metal of thickness t and density D, the above result of the that case the total mass would be multiplied by p = Dt. But
plate is aab, so that
we have
I
of
\
Ma?
the quadrant of an ellipse
Ex.
r2
}.
2.
Find the moment

1 (a
inertia of
>L
7/
>
6)
about
its
major axis
If
we
take any element of area as dxtly,
lower edge from the axis about which = y and to be y (Fig 109). Hence
we we wish
find the distance of its
the
moment
ot ineitia
I
It will
now be
t
convenient to
sum
first
with respect to x
horizontal strip is "We therefore write
since each point of a at the same distance from
OX
J-ffffy**.
it
FIG. 109
Now, indicating by a^ the abscissa of a point on the ellipse to distinguish from the general x which is that of a point inside the ellipse, we have
for the first integration
For the second integration
To
integrate, place
= I sin
TT
<j>
Then
= afc8
If,
f* s
/o
16
consider a thin plate of mass
p,
instead of the area,
we
result
must be multiplied by
where
M=
M,
the above
irabp
whence
The polar moment of inertia of a plane area is defined as the moment of inertia of the area about an axis perpendicular to
its
plane.
This
may
also be called conveniently the
moment
MOMENT OF INERTIA
of inertia
263
with respect to the point
in
Thus we may speak, for example, of the polar moment of inertia with respect to an axis through the origin perpendicular to the plane of au area, or, more concisely, of the polar moment with respect to
the origin. If the area
is divided into elements dxdy, and one point in the element has the coordinates (#, #), the distance of that
plane of the area, for the distance of is simply its distance from that point.
which the axis cuts the an element from the axis
point from the origin

(lA
is Vi?+]A That is, in (2), if we place a 2 2 we shall have the formula for the , dxvly and J2 =o; polar moment of inertia with respect to the origin. Denoting
+y
this
by J
we
have
(3)
This integral
may be
split
up
into
two
integrals, giving
(4)
where the change in the order

integrals indicates the order in most conveniently carried out.
of the differentials in the
two
which the integration may be
The
first integral in
(4)
;
is
the
moment
of inertia about
OY
and may be denoted by / the second integral is the moment of inertia about OX and may be denoted by I Therefore K formula (4) may be written as
.
so that the problem of finding the moment of inertia may be reduced to the solving of two problems of the type of the
first
part of this section.

ellipse
Ex, 3. Find the polar moment of inertia of an

the origin,
with respect to
In Ex. 2
definition.
we found IK
ellipse it is four
for a quadrant of the ellipse. For the entire times as great, since moments of inertia are added by
Hence
264
REPEATED INTEGEATION
a similar calculation
By
Iy
Theiefoie
If the area is leplaced
^0=4 ffa*
by a
plate of
&*)
mass
Af, this result gives

I")
\.
M(a* +
If polar coordinates aie used, the element of area is
rd6d
is
and the distance

Hence,
in
of a point in
(2),
dA =
an element from the origin rdBdr and R = r. Therefore

r-
(6
In practice
respect to
r,
usually convenient to integrate first wit holding 8 constant. This is, in fact, to find tr
it is
polar
moment
of inertia of a sector with vertex at 0.

of inertia of a cncle with lespect to
Ex.4. Find the polar moment point on its circtimference

Let the
r
circle
= 2 a cos 0,
where a
be placed as in Fig 110 is the radius If
Its
we
equation is then (Ex 1, 5] take any element rdQdr an
which lie in the same sector with it, we have to add the elements i*dQdr, with r ranging from to t v where rt is the value of ? on the cncle and therefore > l = 2 a cos We have
,
find I for all elements
f Vrffltft
/o
*
1
(IB
4 a4
We have finally to
with
1
.rm these quantities,

to
**
anging from
+ - We have
*
=J*la*cQ&6d6= I
~I
TIG. 110
is
If
M
5.
the
mass
of a ciicular plate, this result, multiplied
by
p,
Ex.
centei.
Find the polar moment of

be convenient
first
inertia of a cucle
with respect to
Heie
it will
ring (Fig 111).
We
We
have
to find the polar moment of inertia of integrate first with respect to 6, keeping r constan
MOMENT OF INERTIA
which
is
265
the approximate area of the ring Swrdr multiplied by the square of the distance of its inner cucumference from the center We then have, by the second integration, ^
=
If
f
Jo
is
the mass of a circular plate, this
result, multiplied
by
p,
gives
I
/ /
f\
S \U
\\
The moment
lution
is
oE inertia of a solid
of revolution about the axis of revo-
the
sum
of the
moments
of
]FIG<
inertia of the circular sections about
the same axis
moments
If the
that is, of the polar ; of inertia of the circular sections about their centers.
axis of revolution
section perpendicular to mass is therefore pirx*dy

of inertia
OF
;
OY, the radius of any circular x and its thickness is dy. Its and therefore, by Ex. 5, its moment
is
is
about
is
is
\ pirtfdy.
The
\
total
moment
of inertia of
the solid
therefore
X\pTr
Ex.
6.
x*dy.
Find the moment

as in Ex. 4,
of inertia of a circular cone about its axis.

85.
Take the cone
Then we have
But,
if
is
the mass of the cone,
we have
M=
Therefore
fa Ma*.
EXERCISES
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangle of base & and tude a about a line through its center and parallel to its base.
1.
alti-
2. Find the moment of inertia of a triangle of base b and a about a line through its vertex and parallel to its base.
3.
altitude
Find the moment of

its base.
inertia of a triangle of base &
and
alti-
tude a about
4.
Find the moment of
inertia of
an
ellipse
about
its
minor axip
and
also about its major axis,
266
5.
Find the moment of
b,
taking the lower base as

6.
inertia of a trapezoid about its lower base, the upper base as a, and the altitude as 7*. inertia about its base of
a.
ment
of base b
Find the moment of and altitude

a about
center.
a parabolic
seg-
7. Find the polar
moment
of inertia of a rectangle of base I
and
altitude
its
8. Find the polar moment of inertia about its center of a circular r and the inner radius rr ring, the outer radius being z 9.
Find the polar moment of inertia of a right triangle of sides

b
a and
about the vertex of the right angle.
10. Find the polar
moment
of inertia about the origin of the area
bounded by the hyperbola xy=6 and the straight line aj+y 7=0. 11. Find the polar moment of inertia about the origin o the area z 2 as bounded by the curves y=x and y = 2
.
12. Find the polar moment of inertia about the origin of the area 2 2a? cos 2 0. of one loop of the lemniscate r
Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of height Ji, radius r, and mass M, about its axis.
13. 14.
Find the moment of
inertia about its axis of
a hollow right
its
cir,
cular cylinder of mass
M,
its
inner radius being rv
outer radius ra
and
its
height h.
Find the moment of inertia of a solid sphere about a diameter. A ring is cut from a spherical shell whose inner and outer radii are respectively 5 ft. and 6 ft , by two parallel planes on the same side of the center and distant 1 ft and 3 ft respectively from the center Find the moment of inertia of this ring about its axis
15.
16.
17.
of the
its
The radius of the upper base and the radius of the lower base frustum of a right circular cone are respectively r^ and r# and mass is M. Find its moment of inertia about its axis.
89.
Moments
;
of inertia
moment
theorem
of inertia is often simplified
about parallel axes. The finding of a by use of the following
The moment of inertia of a body about an moment of inertia about a parallel axis through
distance between the axes.
oasis is
its
equal
to its
center of gravity
plus the product of the mass of the body ly the square of the
MOMENT OF INEKTIA
267
shall prove this theorem only for a plane area, in the two cases in winch the axes lie in the plane of the figure or are perpendicular to that plane. shall also consider the
We
We
KT
mass of the area as equal to the

area, as in
v
*
88.
Case
I.
Wlien the axes
lie
in
tJie
plane of the Jiyure.
Fig. 112,
ity
(0,
Let the area be placed as in where the center of grav-
(^ #0
lf}
taken as the origin
0) and where the axis of taken parallel to the axis
y is LK,
about which
we wish
to find the
Let x be the distance of an element dxdy distance from LK. Then, if Ig is the moment of inertia about OF, and J the moment of inertia about
of inertia.
moment
from OF, and
its
LK, we have
x*dxdy, 1=11 JJ
It
^^ I xldxdy. JJ
i
(1)
Moreover,
if
is
the distance between
OF and LK, we
have
so that,
by substituting from (2)

rf*
Jix*dxdy
**.
in the second equation of (1),
we have
+2a
xdxdy + a*
85,
np
I
dxdy.
(3)
since
Now, by
84,
ndxdyÂi
;
.
by
\( xdxdy = Ax =
0,
and, by (1), the first integral on the right by hypothesis x = hand of (8) is Ig Therefore (8) can be written
7,-7,+ oU,
which proves the theorem for
Case II.
the figure.
(4)
this case.
to
When
the
axes are perpendicular
the
plane of
have to do now with polar moments of inertia. Let the area be placed as in Fig. 118, where the center of gravity is
We
268
taken as the origin, and

the polar
is
moment
of inertia.
any point about which we wish Let Ig be the polar moment of
inertia about 0,
and I p
axes
the polar
moment
of inertia
,
about P.
Draw through
PX' and
PY
tl
parallel to the
axes of coor-
OY. Let Ix and I be the moments of inertia about OX and OY respectively, and let 1^ and J / be the moments of inertia about PX' and PY'.
dinates
tf
OX and
Then, by (5),
88,
J J.-Moreover, Case I,
Therefore,
if
(a,
6) are the coordinates of P,
we
have,
by
(6)
1^ =
1^ a*A,
/,==/,+
/,=/ + VA.
from (5), we have
<V+&V>
is
(7)
which proves the theorem for this case also. The student may easily prove that the theorem
for the
true also
of inertia of any solid of revolution about an axis parallel to the axis of revolution of the solid.
moment
Ex. Find the polar moment of inertia of a

on the circumfeience.
circle
with respect to a point
The center of gravity of a circle is at its center, and the distance of any point on its circumference from its center is a. By Ex 5, 88, the polar
moment
theorem,
I, of a circle
about
its
center
is |ira*.
Therefore, by the above
= i* + o (F)
Ex
4,
*.
This result agrees with
88,
where the required moment of inertia
was found
directly
EXERCISES
1.
Find the moment of inertia of a
circle
about a tangent.
Find the polar moment of inertia about an outer corner of a picture frame bounded by two rectangles, the outer one being of dimensions 8 ft. by 12 ft, and the inner one of dimensions 5 ft. by 9 ft.
2.
SPACE COORDINATES
3.
269
Find the moment of inertia about one of its outer edges of a are 15 in. and the inner carpenter's square of which the outer edges
edges 13 in
4. Find the polar moment of inertia about the outer corner of the carpenter's square in Ex. 3. 5. From a square of side 20 a circular hole of radius 5 is cut,
the center of the circle being at the center of the square. Find the moment of inertia of the resulting figure about a side of the square.
6. Find the polar moment of inertia about a corner of the square of the figure in Ex. 5.
7.
of outer radius ra
cylinder.
Find the moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical column and inner radius 1\ about an element of the inner
8. Find the moment of inertia of the hollow column of Ex. 7 about an element of the outer cylinder.
9. Find the moment of inertia of a circular ring of inner radius and outer radius a about a tangent to the outer circle.
?-
10.
A circle of radius a has cut from it a circle of radius
75
i
tangent
to the larger circle figure about the line
Find the moment of inertia of the remaining through the centers of the two circles
line
Find the moment of inertia of the figure in Ex 10 about a through the center of the larger circle perpendicular to the line of centers of the two circles and in the plane of the circles.
11.
In the preceding pages we have betwo methods of fixing the position of a Cartesian coordinates (x, y), and point in a plane namely, by has been thus by polar coordinates (r, 0). If, now, any plane with a coordinate system, and, starting from a point
90. Space coordinates.
come
familiar with
;
supplied in that plane,
we measure another
distance, called
0,
at right
reach any point in space. The quanangles to the plane, we can will be considered positive if measured in one direction, tity
and negative if measured in the other. We have, accordingly, two systems of space coordinates. 1. Cartesian coordinates. We take any plane, as -3T0F, in which are already drawn a pair of coordinate axes, OX and OF, at
each other, right angles with
Perpendicular to this plane at
2TO
the origin
point of
BEPEATED INTEOKATION
we draw a third axis OZ (Fig. 114). If space, we draw PM parallel to OZ, meeting
and from
is
any
XO Y at
allel to
Jf,
M draw a line par-
the plane
the point
and
OX at L. Then for P (#, y, z), OL x, LM y, MP = It is to be noticed that

OF, meeting
z.
the three axes determine three planes, XOY, YOZ, and ZOX, called the coordinate planes, and that we may just as readily draw the line from perpendicular to either the plane YOZ or and then complete the construction as above.
ZOX
These
x
2.
= OL = NM= SE = TP,
possibilities are
shown
in Fig. 115, where it is seen that with similar sets of values for y and s.
Cylindrical coordinates.
Let
XOY
be any plane in which a fixed point is the origin of a system of polar coordinates,
and
OX is
the initial line of that
system (Fig. 116).

If
Let
OZ
be an axis
perpendicular to the plane
XOY
XOY
=
at 0.
is
from
Then,
P
if
until it
any point in space, we draw a straight line parallel to OZ meets the plane at M.
the polar coordinates of in the plane are r OM, 6 XOM, and
y
we denote
the dis(r, 0, g).
XOY
by
s,
tance
MP
It is
the cylindrical coordinates of evident that the axes and
OX
determine a fixed plane, and that the angle 6 is the plane angle of the
dihedral angle between that fixed plane and the plane through OZ and the
OZ
P are Z
point P.
If
SP
is
drawn
in the latter
plane perpendicular to OZ, it is evident that SP = r and OS = = z,
OM=
MP
measures the distance of the point P from the axis OZ, and the coordinate 2 measures the distance of P from the plane
r,
The coordinate
116
therefore,
SUEFACES
If the line
271
is
OX
of the cylindrical coordinates
the same as
the axis
OX of
the Cartesian coordinates,

it is
and the
axis
OZ
is
the
same in both systems,
evident,
from
51, that
= z. a; = r cos 0, y == r sin 0, (1) These are formulas by winch we may pass from one system
to the other.
It is convenient to notice especially that
(2)
single equation between the coordishall give nates of a point in space represents a surface. examples of the equations of certain surfaces which are impor-
91. Certain surfaces.
We
tant in applications. In this connection it should be noticed that when we speak of the equation of a sphere we mean the
volume
equation of a spherical surface, and when we speak of the of a sphere wo mean the volume of the solid bounded by a spherical surface. The word sphere, then, indicates a surface or a solid, according to the context. Similarly, the word cone is used to denote either a conical surface indefinite in
base.
extent or a solid bounded by a conical surface and a plane It is in the former sense that we speak of the equation of a cone, and in the latter sense
that
we
a cone.
speak of the volume of In the same way the
word
cylinder
may
denote either
a cylindrical surface or a solid bounded by a cylindrical surface
and two piano bases. This double use of these words makes no confusion in practice, as the context always indicates the proper mean-
ing in any particular case.

1.
Sphere will center
at origin.
ConFIG. 117
sider any sphere (Fig. 117) with its center
at the origin of coordinates and its radius
equal to
a.
through P Then, using cylindrical co6rdinates, in the right triangle OPS, OS=z, SP^r, and OP as a, Therefore 8s= a9 (1)
.
any point on the surface of the sphere. Pass a plane and P. and OZ, draw PS perpendicular to OZ, and connect
Let
P be
272
This equation
is satisfied
by the cyhnducal coordinates of any. point on

Jt is therefore
the surface of the sphere and by those of no other point the equation of the sphere in cylindrical
coordinates.
By means
*"**
which
2.
is
of (2),
90, equation (1) (>)
*+? + *,*
the equation of the sphere in

1
Cartesian coordinates.
Sphere tangent at origin to a cooi Consider a sphere tangent
dinate plane.
to the plane
at (Fig 118). Let be any point on the surface of the Let A the be sphere point in which the
XOY
axis
OZ
and
plane through
P,
to
again meets the sphere Pass a P and OZ connect A. and

,
and diawPS perpendicular

z,
X
FIG. 118
OZ
Then, using cylindrical coordi-
nates,
OS =
is
SP =
i,
and
OA = 2 a,
where a
the radius of the sphere
and
Now OA P is PS is the
a right triangle, since it is inscribed in a semicircle, perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle to the
hypotenuse. Therefore, by elementary plane geometry,
~SP*=OS' SA = OS(OA
Substituting the proper values,
- 08)
we have
(3)
which
is
the equation, of the sphere in cylindrical

90 > equation (3) becomes
coordinates.
BJ
which
(2 )
#a + ya +22
f
2 a?
= 0,
(4)
is
the equation of the sphere in Cartesian
coordinates.
3 Right circular cone. Consider any right circular cone with its vertex at the origin and its axis along FIG. 119 OZ (Fig 119). Let a be the angle which each element of the cone makes with OZ. Take any point on the surface of the cone, pass a plane through P and OZ, and draw PS perpendicular to OZ. Then
SP = r and OS = z.
But
SP =
C/o
tan
r
SOP - tan a
Therefore
we have
(5\ \V J
= gtano
as the equation of the cone in cylindrical coordinates,
SURFACES
By
2,
273
90, equation
(.">)
becomes
0,
(6)
as the equation of the cone in Cartesian coordinates, As explained above, we have heie used the word cone in the sense of a
conical surface
its
If the
cone
li
is
a solid with
its
altitude h
and the radius
of
base
a,
then tan a
In this case equation
(5) or (6) is that of the curved surface of the
cone only.
4.
face of revolution with
Surface of revolution. Consider any surOZ the axis of revolution
(Fig 120). Take P any point on tho smface and pass a plane through P and OZ In the piano POZ draw OR peipendicular to OZ and, fiom P, a straight line perpendicular to OZ meeting OZ in S If we regard OR and OZ as
a pair of i octangular axes foi the plane POZ, tho equation of the cuive CD in which the
plane
POZ
cuts the surface
is
f
FIG 120
(7)
=/(r)
exactly as y
the equation of a curve in 12 But CD is the same curve in all sections of the surface through OZ Therefore equation (7) is true for all points P and is tho equation of the sur-
~f(x)
is
face in cylindrical coordinates.
Whan
the plane
POZ
coincides with the
plane OZ r is equal to x, and equation (7) becomes, for that section, z=.ffy.\ /-g\
t
>
Hence we have the following theorem
The equation of a surface of revolution formed by may revolving about any curve in the plane be found in cylindrical coordinates by writing rfor x
OZ
XOZ
in the equation of the curve.
Tho equation
dinates
of the surface in Cartesian coorr
may thtn be found by placing
= Vr* + y*.
For example, the equation of the surface formed 2 =4o: about OZ as by revolving the parabola an axis is za as 4 ? in cylindrical co&rdinates, or
fl
121
s*sBlO(.e
5.
8 )
in Cartesian coordinates.
a right circular cylinder with its axis along OZ (Fig. 121). From any point P of the surface of the cylinder draw 7 J S the radius of the 8P OZ. Then is always equal to to perpendicular
Cylinder.
Consider
first
cylinder.
Therefore, for
all
points on the surface,
reo,
(9)
274
which
is
Reduced
the equation of the cylinder in cylindrical cobrdinates. to Cartesian coordinates equation (9) becomes
x*+y*=a?,
(10)
the equation of the cylinder in Cartesian coordinates. More generally, any equation in x and y only, or in r and 6 only, represents a cylinder. In fact, either of these equations, if interpreted in tho
XOY, represents a curve, but if a line is drawn from any point in this curve perpendicular to the plane XOY, and is any point on tins lino, the coordinates of also satisfy the equation, since z is not involved in
plane
the equation. As examples, the equation y a =4:x xepresputs a parabolic a sin 3 & represents a cylinder whoso base is cylinder, and the equation r a rose of three leaves (Fig. 65, p.
144).
Ellipsoid
Consider the surface defined by the equation

c2
(11)
If
we place z =
.
0,
we get the
satisfy
points on the surface
which Ho
in tho
XO I'
plane
These points
the
equation
*
_.^
- + *= = !
(12)
ellipse.
and therefore form an
ZOX
Similarly, the points in the
plane
lie
on the
ellipse
3 S 7
=1
>
(13)
lie
and those in the on the ellipse

6s c2
YOZ plane
(14)
of
The
construction
these
FIG. 122 ellipses gives a general idea of the shape of the surface (Fig 122). To make this more precise, let UH = * in place j (11), where zx is a fixed value.
We
have
which can be written
c2
==1,
(16)
SURFACES
As long
"
275
an
ellipse
as z
b
<
A/1
c3 , equation (16) represents
with semiaxes
a v'l
and
c8
By
taking a sufficient number of these sections
we may construct the

If z
ellipsoid with as much exactness as desired. in (16), the axes of the ellipse reduce to zero, and we
,
have a
a a point If Sj > r the axes are imaginaiy, and there is no section. 1 Elliptic paraboloid. Consider the surface
(17)
where we shall assume,

If
foi defimteness,
that c
is positive.
we
place z
^
= 0,
we get
-2 + f = 8
ft A
/ift
>
(18)
which is
satisfied in real quantities only
by x
and y
= 0.
Therefore the
XOY
If
plane simply touches the surface at
the origin
we
place z
= c, we
get the ellipse

1
'
(19)
which
the
If
lies
in the plane c units distant from
XOY plane
we
place y
0,
we
get the parabola
and
if
we
place
a?
= 0, we
get the parabola
FIG. 123
The
surface.
sections (10), (20),
For more
detail
and (21) determine the general outline we place z = s x and find the ellipse
of
so that all sections parallel to the
XOY plane
,
and above
it
are ellipses
(Fig. 123).
8.
Elliptic cone.
Consider the surface
I -!!
Proceeding as in 7,
0.
(23)
we
find that the section z
is
simply the origin
and that the
section, z
= cis the ellipse
276
If
we
place x
0,
we
get the two straight lines

i
=-t*-
(25)
and if we place y = 0,
we get the two stiaight lines

a
-z
c
(20)
The
sections
we have found
is
suggest a cone with an elliptic baso.
To
prove that the surface really

cotirdmates, obtaining
a cone, we change equation
(SJiJ)
to cylin-
^ + E^\
2
B
ra
= ~/(2 C
/i2
I/
/ /
nm
V
<*
Now if
equation 1
6 is held constant in (27), the coefficient of rz is constant,
and
thi
may J
be written
r
kz,
(28)
which
is
the equation of
two
straight hues in the plane through
OK
FIG 124
determined by &
= const Hence
two straight
9.
lines,
Plane
and the surface Consider the surface
any plane trough

is
OZ
cuts the surface
a cone (Fig. 124).
The
section z
=
is
is
ED + Cz -f D 0. /29\ the straight hne ffff (Plg 1 25 ) with the equation Ax + Vy + DssQ,
(80)
Ax +
the secfcon y =
the straight line
and the section ,
LH with the equation At + a+DszO,

By
(31)
ia
the straight hne L/C with the equation
Cz
T)
= 0.
VOLUME
The two
unless
lines (31)
0.
277
in the point
and (32)
intersect
OZ
(O, 0,
C=
Assuming
for the present that
is
not zero,
we change
(33)
equation (29) to cyhndncal cooidmates, obtaining

(.4
cos 6
+ B sin
d)r
Cz
+D=
0.
const It in the plane B This is the equation of a stiaight line the point L, which has the cyhndncal coordinates r = 0, passes through
2
LN
_ ~i
and
it
meets the line
KH,
since
when
0,
equation (33) is the
Hence the sui face is covei ed by straight lines which and meet KH. The locus of such lines is clearly a plane pass through L C in (29) is not zero. If C = 0, equation (29) is that assumed We have
same
as equation (30).
Q.
(34)
The point L does not exist, since the lines corresponding to HL and KL to are now parallel. But, by 5, equation (34) lepresents a plane parallel OZ intersecting XOYm the line whose equation is (34) Theiefoie we
have the following theorem
Any
92.
a equation of the first degree represents plane.
Volume. Starting from any point (#, y, z) in space, we linos of length dx, dy, and dz in directions parallel to OX, OF, and OZ respectively, and on these lines as edges construct a rectangular parallelepiped. The volume of this figure we call the element of volume dV and have
may draw
(1)
For cylindrical coordinates we construct an element of volume in polar whose base is rd6dr( 84), the element of plane area dz. This figure has for its coordinates, and whose altitude is and we have volume dV the product of its base by its altitude,
d7=rd0drdz.
of
( 2)
and (2) are given in (1) The two elements to differently shaped not equal to each other, since they refer To find is to be used in its appropriate place. figures. Each into elements of one of the volume of any solid we divide it
volume
dV
these types.
To do
of
any
that the a-coordinate this in Cartesian coordinates, note a plane parallel to the plane determine will point
YOZ
278
it,
and that similar planes correspond to the may, accordingly, divide any ruquirotl volume into elements of volume as follows: Pass planes through the volume parallel to Y0% ami <ta* units apart. The result is to divide the required volume into
and x units from
values of
y and &
We
slices of
is
thickness dx, one of which

in Fig. 126.
Secondly, pass planes through the volume parallel to JTOând dy units apart,
shown
with the result that each slice

tion dxdy. One such shown in Fig. 126.
is
divided into columns of cross sec-
column
is
Finally, pass planes through the required volume parallel to and dz units apart, with the result
XQY
that each
column
is
divided into
rectangular parallelepipeds of dimensions das, dy, and fe, One of these is shown in Fig. 126. It is to be noted that the order followed in the above
explanation is not fixed and that, in fact, the choice of beginning with either a or y or 4 and the subsequent order the depend upon particular volume
considered.
A
made
In
similar construction
may
be
this
for cylindrical coordinates. case the coordinate &
determines a plane through OZ. accordingly divide the volume
We
by means of planes through OZ making the angle d0 with each

other.
The result
is
is
a set of slices
in Fig.
one of which
shown
127
Fro. 127
VOLUME
279
Finally, these columns are divided into elements of volume at a distance dz apart. One such by planes parallel to
XOY
element
it
shown in Fig. 127. When the volume has been divided is evident that some of the elements
is
in either of these ways, will extend outside the

of all the elements
boundary surfaces
of the solid.
The sum
that are either completely or partially in the volume will be approximately the volume of the solid, and this approximation
becomes better as the size of each element becomes smaller. In fact, the volume is the limit of the sum of the elements.
The determination
tegrations,
of this limit involves in principle three in-
and we write
=
I
dxdyds
(3)
or
V=
CCCrd6drdz.
(4)
it
In carrying out the integrations we may, in some cases, find convenient first to hold z and dz constant. We shall then
lie
be taking the limit of the sum of the elements which

plane parallel to the
in a
XOY
plane.
We
may
indicate this
by
writing (3) or (4) in the form
V=* Cdz CCdxdy

84, 1 1
or
V=
Cdz CCrdOdr.
(5)
But, by
dxdy = A and \\rd6dr~A, where

from
is
the area of the plane section at a distance (5)

in
is
XO Y.
Hence
(6)
F=
r
/
**
Adss,
agreement with 26. Hence, whenever it is possible to find A by elementary means without integration, the use of (6) is preferable. This is illustrated in Ex. 1. In some cases, however, this method of evaluation, is not
convenient, and
it is
necessary to carry out three integrations.
This
is
illustrated in Ex. 2.
280
Ex.
1.
Fmd
the volume of the ellipsoid
=1.
By
6,
91, the section
made by
and
Z>
a plane parallel to
XOY is
an
ellipse
with semiaxes a %/!

/
%/!
za\
1
^ c
(6)
a
Therefore, by Ex. 1,
77, its area
is waft
(1
\
c 2/
Hence we use formula
and have
4
irdbc.
V = irab
r
I
l
1
s \
J_ c \
c 2/
-]ds=:3
Ex. 2. Find the volume bounded above by the sphere below by the paraboloid a;2 + yz = 4 z (Fig 128).
a:
-f
a
?/
s2
5 and
As
the
foi
i evolution, this example may be solved by but in so doing we need two integrations one We shall solve the the sphere and the other foi the paraboloid
these are stu faces of

of Ex.
1,
method
example, however, by the other method in order to illustrate that method We fii st reduce our equations to cyhn^
dncal coordinates, obtaining lespectively

r*
z* r1
and
=5 =4z
when
(1)
(2)
The
surfaces intersect
r has the
is,
same value in both equations; that
when
+ 4 z = 5, (3) 5 The latter which gives z=loiz = value is impossible but when z = 1, we have r = 2 in both equations Theiefore
z*
,
the surfaces intersect in a circle o radius 2 in the plane z 2 in the lies duecHly above the circle r plane.
=1
This
circle
XOY
the element tdQdrdz inside the surface and, holding r, 0, dd, dt constant, we take the sum of all the elements obtained by varying z inside the volume These elements obviously extend from 2 = s l in the
We now imagine
lower boundary to z
= z2
from
(1), 22
V5
r 8.
The
in the upper boundary. From (2), z1 first integration is therefore
and,
rdddr
MOdr.
'
We must now allow 6 and r so to vary as to cover the entire circle ? == 2 above which the required volume stands. If we hold Q constant, r varies from to 2. The second integration is
therefore
VOLUME
Finally, 9
281
is
must vary from
to 2
IT,
and the third integration
/5V5
If
we put
together what
we have
ft
done,
we have
F=f Jo
/>2ir
/.a
/ Jo
/
t/,
EXERCISES
Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid = y? + ^ and the planes x = 0, y = 0, and g = 4. 9*2 & C^ 2. Prove that the volume bounded by the surface - = -5 4fa
1.
and the plane * = c is one half the product of the area of the base by the altitude. = and the cylinders 3. Find the volume bounded by the plane 2 B and y* = a* az. SB -f f =
4.
Find the volume cut from the sphere r2 46.
=a
by the cylinder
= a cos
5. Find the volume bounded below by the paraboloid r* = a and 2 2 a# = above by the sphere r2 46. Find the volume bounded by the plane XOY, the cylinder _ 2 ax = 0, and the right circular cone having its vertex at 0, a-a {> 2/a its axis coincident with OZ, and its vertical angle equal to 90
7.
y sa
Find the volume bounded by the surfaces a COS 0,
ra
= &, = 0, and
8. Find the volume bounded by a sphere of radius a and a right the circular cone, the axis of the cone coinciding with a diameter of end of the diameter, and the vertical sphere, the vertex being at an
angle of the cone being 90

9.
Find the volume of the sphere of radius a and with its center for its at the origin of coordinates, included in the cylinder having 2 base one loop of the curve i* ;= a cos 2 6.
10,
Find the volume of the paraboloid
a? 4-
f = 2 * cut off by the
plane
11.
#~x 4-1.
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the paraboloid and the plane * = *.
1
282
EEPEATED INTEGRATION
The center of gravity of a
solid
93. Center of gravity of a solid.
has three coordinates,
x,
z,
which are defined by the equations

I
xdm
'
*= J
dm
'
v=
J
I
ydm
r
'
dm
dm
dm
where
solid
is
the mass of one of the elements into which the

divided,
may be
and
#, y,
and
a are the coordinates of
the
point at which the element dm may be regarded as concentrated. The derivation of these formulas is the same as that in 85
and
is left
to the student.
is
When dm
integrals
become
expressed in terms oi space coordinates, the triple integrals, and the limits 'of integration
are to be substituted so as to include the
whole
solid.
We
it
place
dm = pdF, where
is
the density.
If p is constant,
may be placed outside the integral signs and canceled from numerators and denominators. Formulas (1) then become
7x=
CxdV,
Vy=CydV,
Vz*= CzdV.
(2)
Ex. Find the center of gravity of a body bounded by one nappe of a

right circular cone of vertical angle 2 a and a sphere of radius a, the center of the sphere being at the vertex of the cone.
If the center of
the sphere
is
axis of the cone as the axis of
2, it is
solid that find z we shall use cylindrical coordinates, the equations of the sphere and the cone being respectively
x = y = Q. To
r2
taken as the origin of coordinates and the evident from the symmetry of the
z2 =s
oa
and
tan a.
a sin
in Ex. 2, 92, the surfaces intersect in the circle r the plane z = a cos a. Therefore
/>2r a a tin a />Va8
r8
As
in
V=\ JO
n
I /o
t/rotnar
rdOdrdz
r*
8 S o Tra (1 \
- cos a)
./
nZv
n a sin a /-\/a2
/0
\
\
and
t/
\zdV-\ i/O
rzdOdrdz
t/rctnrt
= Iwa w
sina cr.
Therefore, from (2),
5 s? f a (1
cos a).
CENTER OF GRAVITY
EXERCISES
1.
283
Find the center of gravity of a

7
2
solid
bounded by the paraboloid
=y
'
a
2.
-f 7;
1r
and the plane L
=c
ring is cut from a spherical shell, the inner radius and the outer radius of which are respectively 4 ft. and 5 ft., by two parallel the same side of the center of the shell and distant 1 ft planes on
and 3
ft.
respectively from the center.
Find the center of gravity of
this ring.
3. Find the center of gravity of a solid in the form of the frustum of a right circular cone the height of which is h, and the radius of tho upper base and the radius of the lower base of which are
respectively r^ and
4.
?'
Find the center of gravity of that portion of the solid of Ex. 2, p. 73, which is above the plane determined by OA and
OB
(Fig. 31).
5.
Find the center of gravity A
of the ellipsoid e
6.
~ + 73 + -= =
ej*
Qn
o*
of a
body
in the
form of an octant
a i*
1.
a?
<?
Find the center of gravity of a solid, bounded below by the r* and above by the right circular cone * + f = 2 a. paraboloid az
7. Find the center of gravity of a solid bounded below by the #2 = 1. cone * SB r and above by the sphere r*
8.
JB
Find the center of gravity a ** 3 i and r = 0, i* + *

,
of a solid
bounded by the surfaces
94.
Moment
of inertia of
solid.
If
solid
body
is
divided
of
into elements of
volume
c?F,
then, as in
is
88, the
moment
inertia of the solid about
any axis
1=
CtfpdV** p C&dT,
(1)
where JB is the distance of any point of the element from the we have assumed axis, and p is the density of the solid, which to be constant and therefore have been able to take out of the
integral sign.
If
is
the total mass of the solid, p
may be
determine^ from the formula
JtfwpK
284
If the
moment
of inertia about OZ,
which we shall
JR required, then hi cylindrical coordinates so "that (1) becomes
= r and dV= r$6drdz,

(2)
call 1^ is
Iz = p CCCr*d0 drds.
If
we
use Cartesian coordinates to determine
/,,,
we have
and
dV= dxdydz,
so that
'xdydz.
(3j
Iy and Ix are the moments Similarly, and OX respectively, we have

if
f\ f\ SI
of inertia
about
OY
(4)
In evaluating (2) with respect to z last.
it
is
We
sometimes convenient to integrate indicate this by the formula

(5)
of inertia of a
Ia = p
But
I I
Cdz CCr9 dO dr.

88, the polar
i^dddr
is,
by
moment
plane section perpendicular to OZ about the point in which OZ intersects the plane section. Consequently, if this polar moment is known, the evaluation of (5) reduces to a single integration. This has already been illustrated in the case of solids of revolution.
similar result
is
obtained by considering (3).

of inertia is
ease with which a
moment
In fact, the found depends upon a

integra-
proper choice of Cartesian or cylindrical coordinates and, after that choice has been made, upon the order in which the
tions are carried out.
Equation (3)
may
be written
in the
form
(6)
>WCy*dxdydt,
and the order of integration in the two integrals need not be the same. Similar forms are derived from (4).
The theorem of 89 holds for solids. This by the same methods used in that section.
.
is
easily
proved
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Ex. Find the moment of inertia about OZ of a cylindrical altitude h whose base is one loop of the curve r a sin 3 6,
285
solid of
The
base of this cylinder
is
shown
in
Fig 65,
p.
144.
We
have, from
formula (2),
In8fl
wheie the limits
are obtained as follows:
First, holding r, 6, d6, dr constant, we allow z to vary from the lower base s = to the nppei base z = li, and integrate. The result phra dOdi is the moment of inertia of a column such as is shown in Fig 127. We next hold and d& constant and allow r to vary from its value at the
origin to its value on the curve r = a sin 3 0, and integrate. The result 4 ain 4 3 Qd& is the moment of inertia of a slice as shown in Fig. 127. \ /7i to vary from its smallest Finally, we sum all those slices while allowing
value
to its largest value
^
1
*-
The
result is
zz
The volume
of the cylinder
may
f
be computed from the formula
V = Jo
I
a"
/idBinSO
i rdBdrdz
Jo
nh
Jo
A
2
.
Therefore
Af=
-faphePir
and
Js
=JI/
EXERCISES
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular parallelepiped about an axis through its center parallel to one of its edges.
1.
2.
the surface
Find the moment of t= 2 and $ =
inertia about
r.
OZ
of a solid
bounded by
3. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of radius a and height h about any diameter of its base as an axis. 4. Find the moment of inertia aboxit OZ of a solid bounded by
the paraboloid
=*
~+
and the plane
e.
5. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of height li and radius a about an axis perpendicular to the axis of the cone at
its vertex.
6. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of of its base. height h and radius a, about a diameter of the 7. Find the moment of inertia about OZ of the portion and the cylinder aa out out by the plane sphere ?* 4- *"
r **
cos
6.
286
8.
Find the moment of inertia about OX. of a solid 'bounded by
r*
the paraboloid
9.
and the plane
= 2.
Find the moment of

}
inertia about its axis of a right elliptic

its
cylinder of height
respectively 2
10.
I
'
h the major and the minor axis of a and 2 b.

inertia
base being
Find the moment of

'
about
OZ
of
the ellipsoid
t+t + t =i ^
7,2
GENERAL EXERCISES
n
n
1.
Find the center of gravity of the arc of the curve x*

is
-I-
y*
*,
which
2.
above the axis of

wire
is
x.
8 a? Find the bent into a curve of the form 9y2 center of gravity of the portion of the wire between the points for 5 respectively. and x which x
.
3.
ay*
=
4.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curve a? and any double ordmate.
of x, the axis of y,
5.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the axis and the curve j/2 = 8 2 x>
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curves
=x
and y
= -5
>
the axis of
x,
and the
line
=2
<
6. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the axes of x and y and the curve x a cos 8 ^, y a sin s
=
a
7.
jg2
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the &

a
ellipse
y.
~z
+
8.
=1
(a
> *)
tlie
<Hfle
as
+y =
2
and the axis of
v?
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the parabola 8 y and the circle cca + f = 128
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curves ay = 0, the axis of y, and the line = o, Find the center of gravity of an area in the form of a semi-
9.
**
~ a (y - &) = 0, a2
10.
circle
of radius
a surmounted by an
of
its
sides coinciding
equilateral triangle having one with the diameter of the semicircle.
Find the center of gravity of an area in the form of a rectangle of dimensions a and I surmounted by an equilateral triangle one side of which coincides with one side of the rectangle which is b units long.
11.
GENERAL EXERCISES
12.
287
Find the center of gravity of the segment of a circle of radius a cut off by a straight line b units from the center.
13. From a rectangle b units long and a units broad a semicircle of diameter a units long is cut, the diameter of the semicircle coinciding with a side of the rectangle. Find the center of gravity
of the portion of the rectangle left.

14. Find the center of gravity of a plate in the form of one half of a circular ring the inner and the outer radii of which are respectively
'
and
15.
>
Ar
In the result of Ex. 14, place rz = r^ AT- and find the limit as vO, thus obtaining the center of gravity of a semicircumference.
16.
Find the center of gravity
of a plate in the
10 in across the top and 12 in. that of the top being each 2 in.
tall,
the width of the upright
form of a T-square and
17. From a plate in the form of a regular hexagon 5 in. on a side, one of the six equilateral triangles into which it may be divided is removed. Find the center of gravity of the portion left.
18.
r o/
Find the center of gravity of a plate,

(a
in the
form of the
ellipse
c,
~ + 75 = 1
> i),
in which there is a circular hole of radius
the center of the hole being on the major axis of the ellipse at a distance d from its center.
19.
Find the center
of gravity of the solid
formed by revolving
!K
2
?/
about
lines
OY the
?/
and y
surface bounded by the hyperbola -j a
j$
=1 and the by revolving a;, and
&.
20.
Find the center
about the line %

the parabola ya
= a the area bounded by that line, the axis of = hx.
of gravity of the solid generated
21. Find the center of gravity of the segment cut from a sphere of radius a by two parallel planes distant respectively and hz (hz 7^) from the center of the sphere.
>
22.
Find the moment of inertia of a plane triangle of altitude a and

its
base b about an axis passing through the base.
center of gravity parallel to
23. Find the moment of inertia of a parallelogram of and base b about its base as an axis,
altitude
288
24.
Find the
moment
radius
and the outer radius of which are respectively 3
of inertia of a plane circular ring, tho inner and 5 in.,
about a diameter of the ring as an axis.

plate 10 in. on a side has a square hole 5 in. on a the center of the hole being at the center of tho jilafco and its sides parallel to the sides of the plate. Find the moimmt of inertia of the plate about a line through its center parallel to ouo
25.
side cut in
it,
A square
side as
26.
an axis. Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 25 nbout one of
the outer sides as

27.
an
axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 20 about one side of the hole as an axis.
28.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of

diagonals as
Ex
2tf
about ono
of
its
an
axis
29. A square plate 8 in. on a side has a circular hole 4 in. in diameter cut in it, the center of the hole coinciding with tho cuntor
of the square
30.
Find the moment of

its
inertia of the plate about
lino
passing through
center parallel to one side as an axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 29 about a
diagonal of the square as an axis

31.
parallel to its
Find the moment of inertia of a semicircle about a tangent diameter as an axis.
32.
Find the polar moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 25 about
its center.
33. Find the polar moment of inertia of the entire area bounded 2 by the curve = a? sm 3 6 about the pole. 34. Find the polar moment of inertia of the area bounded by tho cardioid r = a ( 1 + cos about the pole. ff)
T-
35.
=a
Find the polar moment of inertia of that area of tho circle which is not included in the curve r a, sin 2 6 about tho
pole.
36. Find the moment of inertia about OF of a solid bounded by the surface generated by revolving about OY the area bounded by the curve </ x, the axis of y, and the line y 2. 37.
radius
its
an
A solid is in the form of a hemispherical shell the inner and the outer radius of which are and r Find respectively moment of inertia about any diameter of the base of the shell as
,
axis.
GENERAL EXERCISES
in the form of a spherical cone cut of radius a, the vertical angle of the cone being moment of inertia about its axis.
38.
is
289
from a sphere 90. Find its
by a right
A solid
A
39.
solid is cut from a hemisphere of radius 5 in
circular cylinder of radius 3 in, the axis of the cylinder being perpendicular to the base of the hemisphere at its center Find its
moment
40.
of inertia about the axis of the cylinder as an axis.
An anchor ring of mass M is bounded by the surface
generated
by revolving a circle of radius a about an axis in its plane distant b(b > <i) from its center. Find the moment of inertia of this anchor
ring about
41.
(a
its axis.
oj2
Find the moment of

ft),
inertia of the elliptic cylinder
a*
=1 + 77 (r
?/"
>
42. 43.
44.
its
height being
h,
about the major axis of
its
base.
Find the center of gravity of the solid bounded by the cylinder 2 a cos 0, the cone ss = r, and the plane x = Find the moment Find the volume
of inertia about
of the cylinder
0,
OZ
of the solid of Ex. 42.
of the curve r
= 2 a cos 2
=
46. 46.
having for its base one loop between the cone = 2 r and the plane
Find
the center of gravity of the solid of Ex. 44.

inertia about
Find the moment of
OZ
Find the volume of the cylinder having for its base one loop = and of the curve r ss a cos 2 & and bounded by the planes =s x + 2 a.
47.
ft
48.
Find the moment
of inertia about
OZ
of the solid of Ex. 47
Find the volume of the cylinder r = 2 a cos the planes * = and * =s 2 x + a.

49.
60. 61.
included between
Find the moment
of inertia about
OZ
spherical shell of which, the inner radius and the outer radius are respectively rl and ra , a circular hole of radius
Through a
a (a is bored, the axis of the hole coinciding with a diameter fj) of the shell. Find the moment of inertia of the ring thus formed
<
about the axis of the hole.
ANSWERS
[The answers to some problems are intentionally omitted.]
CHAPTER
Page 4
1.
2)
4.
5.
21^.
l^jj.
2.
3.
100ft per second 88 07 mi. per hour for entire trip.
7. 8.
2J
l^mi
08.4.
per hour.
40J\>.
6. 1,26.
9.
Page 5
10.
2)
8.
106
Page 7
3)
1.
06
ft.
per second.
2.
128
ft.
per second.
Page 8
3)
8. 4.
128
74
ft.
per second.
5. 6.
68
ft
ft.
ft
pci bccoud.
52
per second. per second.
Page 11
1,
(
;
5) 24
j.
12 ii
8.
85 42
82
57.
6.
5. 8.
5, 4,
2.
16
14.
4,
8aia
when = 2 + 2M + c
t
;
10, 6,
when
=3
6at
+ 26.
Page 13
1.
TT
6)
ft.
i- sci.
per second.
2,
0.
3.
87rra cu. in. per second.
2?r
4,
4wra
5,
167irsq.
in.
per second.
Page 14
6)
7.
6. 8irr.
8 (edge) 3
8, birr*.
9. 18.
10. 2ir.
CHAPTER
Page 18
(
II
7)
3.
4fc B
-2.
+ B+1.
4.
:-
5.
8,
-,_
S
.
7.
tf
8,
8-~
201
292
Page 21
1.
ANSWERS
(
9)
if if if
Increasing
Increasing
2.
3.
Increasing Increasing Increasing

Increasing
Increasing
4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
if
if
if if
x x x a
>2 > < < aj < x < <
decreasing
g
;
,
if
decreasing
if
if
< 2. x<
>
.
|.
decreasing
,
decreasing if sc > 2 or x > 1 , decreasing

5 or
1
if
if if
x
a:
or
>S >
decreasing
decreasing
< K < 1. < x < 8. 1 < x <

1
fj.
Always
increasing.
Increasing iftc<
Increasing
(
if
lor
1
,
10.
>
^<a<l; decreasing decreasing if x < 1.
if
<x <
J or
a;
>
1.
Page 24
10)
1.
2.
3.
When t < - 1 or t > I when !<<!. 5 when t > 5. When When t < 2 or t > 4 when 2 < i < 4.
,
4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
Always moves
in dnection in
winch
a is measxirod.
When t >
when
<
$.
Always increasing. Always decreasing

Increasing
Increasing
9.
10.
Increasing
when t > 2 when t > when < < f
decreasing
decreasing
decreasing
when t < 2. when i < $ when < > |.
Page 26
11)
1.
TrA 8 .
2.
irh sq. ft.
per second.
Page 27
8.
11)
5.
4.
20 9 sq
2 cm. per second. in. per second.

8.
0.20
6.
64 cu. ft per second.

(
Tl
TT
(t tal
hol ff ht >*'
4 TT (2
+
3
12
36)
t is
thickness.
Page 31
1.
13)
0.46; 2.05.
;
1.46.
2.
-2
5.
2.41.
07.
4. 1.12
S 93.
G.
2.52.
Page 35
1. 2.
3.
14)
8a;-y_9 = 0.
2x + Sy +
3
J/
6.
21aj-2y-13 = 0. +S= ,_ V3a;-y-2V3-2=

1
jj-
0.
+y+l= *12. tan-ij. 18, tan-*12. + 2y + 8 = 0. 8. 4x- Sy-1 = 0. 14.*. -M.-4y-.6-0. W. i.-Sy-M-o. 10. 5a: - Qy - 4 = 0. W, (-Itfr,
6,
7.
aj
2ft)*
*The symbol tan-
represents the angle whose tangent is \ (cl.
46).
ANSWEES
Page 39
1. 2,
3.
293
15)
>|).
(-
(2, 4J).
(0, 4), (2, 0).
9.
4, (1, 7), (3, 3).

6.
10.
(-
2, 0), (1,
6.
(-1,
(
- 3),
17)
- 0).
(- 3, 10), (1, 2) 278 + 27^-86

18a5
=
-
11.
- 28 = 0.
(3,29).
18.
tan-ijj
Page 43
1.
aSsq.in.
3. 5ft.
5.
2.
Length
is
twice breadth.
4. 50.
Page 44 (5 17)
6,
7,
Depth
-o
is
one-half side of base.

ft.
2 portions 4
long
;
4 portions 1
..
ft.
long
8,
Breadth
Altitude
jjt.
= = ^-f; 5
depth
=
(P
9,
10,
2000 cu. in.

5
base - ? 4 4 2547 cu. in
- perimeter)
,
1L Height
12.
of rectangle
= radius of semicircle
semicircle of radius,
-7=
VS
in.
Page 46
1,
18)
426ft.
Page 47
8.
3,
18)
5.
40ft.
676ft.
a y = 2x8 + x
05ft.
4,
88$
ft.
7.
-4x+6.
Page 49
1.
19)
2.
7$. (
3,
62J.
4. 36.
5.
6.
Page 53
8.
20)
;
0.0001
0.000001
;
0.00000001
10.
000003 sq.
456 58 ou.
in.
9.
0.000009001
0.000000090001.
11,
in.
Page 54
1.
72 sq. in.
16 Sir
4.
5.
27.0054 ou. in. 28.2749 cu m.
6.
7.
606 0912.
0012.
8,
cu. in.
8.
5.99934
294
Page 55 (General Exercises)
'
ANSWERS
_
4x
' '
2a
'
(a
14.
- x) 2
"
(x
if
+ I) 2
,
'
_ j
2 Vajs
13.
t '
Increasing
if
>
increasing
f<o;<ora;>2,
x
decreasing
if
y,
if
- .
< decreasing if a; < f or <j < x <
- 2.
2.
15. Increasing if
> <
4/7
,
decreasing
<
o,
16. Increasing if
^= or x >
V3
<
3
~ V3
2(t
decreasing
if
^= < x
< =
V3
V3
17.
Increase
if
decrease if x
>
4 ft
-

18. 20. 21. 22.
1< t < 5 Up when
19.
,
<*<
4.
23. 24.
< i < 6 J down when 6 < < 12. when t > 4 decreasing when t < 4. D increasing when < 3, v deci easing when t > 3 speed increasing when 2<i<3ori>4, speed decreasing when !S<2or3<i<4 Increasing when !<<2ori>3, decreasing when *<lor2<i<3
Increasing
, ,
0055
in.
25. 8 6 in. 26. 1 sq in
per minute per second per minute.
27. 28.
+ 2y + 6 = 7x+
x
0.

29.
80.
x- 2 = x - 2y - 7 = 0. 35. (2, - 2).

36. 37. 38.
31.
32.
2x-y + 3 = 0.
tan-l
41.
83.
34.
(-,
8|).
(lj, 0)
10.
x
tan-i T - y - 11
(-
1, 13), (5,
((-
3, 13), (1,
- 95). - 19).
42. 43.
=
J,
4, 20).
44. (1,
- 1), (52.
Bx

46.
6f
ft.
long
47. Altitude of 48.
cone
is
| radius of sphere.
^ *u sideof base
53.
- x2 + = x8
- IB
+
7x
x*
i** a Altitude=
=^_
long
49. 2 pieces
3 in long, 3 pieces 1
in.
54.85^. 2g 56. 20 1
50 600ft.
51.
57. 72. 59. 0.0003.
56ft

60. 0.00629.
64. 0.09 in.
cu in
67.
24.0024 sq.
in.
62. 288
TT
cu
65. 0.0003.
69, 0.4698.
63, 161. 16 cu. in,
66. 854.1028j 353.8972,
Page 66
1.
23)
3.
8J
23,} (
52 T S
2.
4.
r 166f
Page 67
24)
160ft
2. 140ft.
3.
1.
57Jft.
Page 68
24)
4.
When
25)
83ft.
5,
8000irft.-lb.
Page 70
1.
8$ T.
(
2.
2JT.
3.
3T.
Page 71
6.
25)
7.
Approx. 2418 Ib.

11. 2 1 ft.
585}T.
9.
6.
10.
234| T 2 T.
from upper side
Page 75
1.
(
TT.
26)
8. 4.
5.
21
84
A *.
7.
cu
8
8.
in.
9.
25f IT
213 JTT.
625V8 ~~
l^w.
6577r.
10.
11.
2|
38|

1.
2. 3.
6Jft. 81ft.
10
ft
5. 20.
8.
9.
"'
JfT
Reduced to | original
pressure
~3~
8.
12.
4.
8JJ mi-
'

13.
Twice
Jft
as groat.
17.
20.
34lcu.m.
14,
T.
35
19. 96 IT.
16. 16 to. 16. 68
^TT
21.^-1 2 28. (aft - Jft")ir

27.

24. STT.
29.
26. 115J.
26.
80.
28.
204|
728,049
ft.-lb.
5301 ft Jb.
CHAPTER IV
Page 81
1.
28)
8
i/
&a +
- 8as -f
11
0.
6,
cs 0.
3.
(-3,
5); 5.
*.(- *.!);
8a~
296
Page 84 (
a-
ANSWERS
30)
M-2,o).
(o.i).
MO, -if) 5. 8H ft.

6.
7.
as/,
ft
MH,0).
Page 85
(
9.
lOVlOft.
. 8.
iom/5
i
30)
y
2
+ 6a;-9 = 0.
10.
x*-4x-12y + 16= 0.
Page 87
31)
2-
(0,
3), (0,
V6),
5.
o,
_
.
6.
9x2 + 25â - 36x - 189 = 49a; 2 + 24 y2 _ 12 0y _ 144
Page 91
32)
I-
(3,0),
(2,0), (Vl3,
(0,
0),
3a;2y=0;
3.
V2),
(0,
V5),
4.
(2V,0); (4,0),
Page 102
1.
36)
98).
18s2
+ 22a;_3
'
_
~(a;
2
'
-9)
11.
-.
12.
21
13.
7 2a!
8.
_i +
^
*2
^'
14'
ANSWERS
15
'
297
-"
3i
ii 11
-.
(JR
tr
.
i>)
*"'
M
'
\' (x
.
~"a)
- 6)
18.
a V(a +
1
x2 ) 8
jr8
,
19.
22.
v'W-.tfi
r
(x
+ l)Vxa -l
8)*
V(x2 +9) 8
V(l
~]
.
20.
v*--*
Page 104
<tt/
vV +
Vi/
+ x)*
2
(
je
37)
a
Vy
,
__x
2a8x
ai
'
* ""'
'*
*"
--J
U
g
,,'S*
a///
i
!_. '
""ftw*
8>
" 1/&
xa
i'
8u 8
e'
2X2
-3
Page 105
(38)
Sa O.
2,
x~7y + 5 = 0.
3.
(-2.-1).
12.
13.
4.
PAgel06(88)
-.
10, tan-18.
5
8.*".
"i
5 *
ton" 1
A-
11.
tan-i|.
Page 110
1. a,
3.
(40)
5
V44.9tK x-r 8 x^d/-!)'4 V4tf+i. = 0j SVll7-48t + l6ia x*-0x +

,
a Bin
,.
fo
\ Ba
20
20
sill
2a
'
4.
(8,1).
'4*
11.
yaa
"aj
8V i
4, Circle;
,
Moond.
x
2. 12.6 ft,
per second.
3,
û, perminute.
!5 -fl, per secona (x-
distance of point
from *dl).
2,64 ft. per second.
Pftge 113
6.
(41)
?,
0.18 cm. por second.
nute. mumi*. permi 0.21 in. per
8.
6.6
ft.
per second.
^ti^t.per
^dtonoe
8 ccond,
where,
of top of ladder, is the distance

of
and
IB
of foot of
ladder, fromDase
pyramid.
298
20. 3
ANSWERS
1 --, tan2 2'
28. 21.
-; tan- 17.
2i
81.
32. 30. 27.
~ On
7T
i
-,lan
x$
11
tan-i
5
tan'
33.
ifi
"
8
OJ
35.
'
= 2 ato - <W8?
'
2
-1-
(i
I)

41. 6 8
37.
mi per houi 3s
28 8 mi
20 ft per second
4
,
42.
'
lOVEft per second,

1
(100,20).
43.
\ 04-
|250-3i 3
1
'
Vs2
s
- 400
is
ft
pei second, whore
39.
Velocity in path
VCKC
length of lope from
man
to boat.
40.
44.
45.
sJu
06 ft per minute ft per minute.

46.
47.
08
ft.
per minute
52.
53.
Breadth, 9
depth,
9V3 in.
01 in. per minute.
Length
| bieadth
,
48.
per minute |f 49. 04 in. per second. 50. Length is twice breadth 51 Other sides equal.
sq in
54.
Side of base, 10 ft
depth, 5 ft
55.
Depth
side of base.
,
56.
Radius, 3
in.
height,
in.

57. 2
60. 8
64 in
58.
59.
Vi'
a
mi from point on bank nearest to A. bn bm ,

,
61.
4 1|} mi tiavel ou land
mi. on land
Vn2
m2
63. l^f-hr.
Vn2 - mr
64.
mi
in water
v/lOO mi per hour.

65. Velocity
m still water =
,
mi per hour
|
b
66.
Base
= aVI
altitude
CHAPTER V
Page 126
1.
44)
6. 7.
15 cos 5 x
2. sec 2 -.
3.
5 sin2 5 x cos8 5 aj.

_ o60!, tan 5 sec 2
&X
.
2sm2 2zcos2x.
5 sin 10 x.
2
8.
4.
-8csc
2 3a;ctn3x.
ANSWERS
Page 127
9. hin1
299
(
.
44)
13. 2 cos
14.
4 x.
9tan4 3aj.
2 sec 2 x (sec 2 2 x sm8 2 a; cos2 2 a;
15
10.
tan2 2 x)
16
17.
?
}
11. 18. 12. 2 sec
-?.
x (sou x
(
tana-)
Page 129
.
45)
5.
S_.
5.
Mil--6.
;
At extieme points
of
motion, at
moan
7.
TT.
3. 7T,
- 3) (5 - s) 2V(fc
10, 2?r.
point of motion.
;
4(4-8)
4.
At moan
at point of motion extreme points of motion.
8.
18.
Page 136
1.
1)3.
48)
9.42
ft.
=
(
per second
% = =F 86.40 ft.
per second.
2.
63
Page 137
3.
48)
8 radians per unit of time.

(
Page 138
a
49)
'
b cos
<t)
Page 141
50)
17V17
6.
300
Page 145
17.
ANSWERS
(
,
51)
18. Origin
. ,
Origin
19.
(V3, j).
a^j|, |)
Origin
(2,
21.
^8^20 =
25.
22. r 23. r
24. r
26.
27.
x-a= x2 + V* - 2 ax
28.
Page 148
52)
1.
IT
tan-* 1
3.
0.

9.
2(l
sec2 2x).
10. sec4 11. cos2
(3x
+ 2).
3 x).
y)
y)
ig
(2-
14
sec 2 (x
sec2 (x sec2 (x
1
+ y) sec 2 (x + y)
21.
15.
16.
8csc2 4x(ctn4x + l) a tan ox sec2 ox. 8 cos8 2 x sin 4 a; cos 6 x.

1
24.
.x
18.
tan4 2
l
2(x
a;.
+ l)Vx
1 25.
2
x)Vx3
2
2x
2
19.
_ (x + 1) Vx
xV49x -l
4
26.
20.
V3-4x-4x 2~3x
x2
V2 + x - x2
27.
(x
2
-l)Vx2 -2
Vo = 3; 2

29.
30. 31.
fc
Va2 sm2 ^ + 62 cos2 ^.
35.
2^_
V41,
47.
j
""*"
Origin
^
A.
34.
2aVi.
49. Origin;
48. Origin;
(^,tan-i
2
).

52.
COS(?
51.
-
53. (x8
+ y 2) 2 +
aa;(x
+ y2 )
s= 0.
54,
tan-i.
ANSWERS
65. 0)
301
59 6
'
tan-12
57.
-.
IflVift
72
'
56. 0,
:,ton-i8V5.
2
62.
Kg*
68
'4
61.
V2ft
At an
1 angle tan-
/*;
with ground.
Page 152 (General Exercises) 63.12m. 65. a.

64.
68.
sVBft.
/i
/
67. 0.1 ft
per second.
.
69.
.
15 sq ft 10.04 sq. ft. per second. 26 7 mi. per minute.

,
nn
70.
b sin &
/i
+
,
&2 8in0COS(? \
\
CL4.B.
71,
<*
Vaa -6a sin2 0/

fa
)
;
times angular velocity of
,..,
,
AS. where
= angle
,
~22
)
-321 V9 sin 2 * + 4 cosat

OsecSiVtan 3< + 4sec2 3<.
2
where
= (2 k + 1)
78.
5^-^ = 1

73.
74.
sin 20.
75.
tan-^Vi
tan- 1 ^ tan- 1 3 Vs.
aVl+cos2 o5,
a5
fastest
when
75.
x = far; most slowly when = (2A! + l)-.

2
77. 0,
78.
79.
tan-i^, tan-i4V2 tan-i3; tari-ij.
CHAPTER VI
Page 162
(
55)
,
(The student is not expected to obtain exactly these answers merely to indicate approximately the solution.)
1.
they are given
y =0.62 x-
0.70.
2.
1 = 0.00172)
Page 163
3.
55)
4.
^=s0.80(2.7)^.
(
1
c=0.010(0,84).
5.
a=0.0000000048Z3'o.
j" =
10.
Page 165
56)
1
"
12. e- 2ac (3cos3a;
2sin8x).
~*
n j. 1 13, Ctll"" 1 !!/.

<
14.
3.
2 a; a** -Una.
"'
Vi^"+~4*
_.,
16, 16.
e"
4.
^
'
e-
5|
rf j. A
-
-.
10.
- 4 sec 2*.
2(e
8a!
W'
2 see's.
J;
.
20:4.8
"'
e- 2a?)
ig.
'
eaa+e-is*
asVx
+l
302
Page 167
(
ANSWERS
57)
2.
?/
= 45.22eoola:
4.
Page 168
5.
57)
022 9*
P = 10000 e
6. c
= 0.01e-
n44B
<.
7,
mm,

*10.
0.018
24.
*11.
Load
102
-6
6 length.

31. 2"\/2e~ 2i
,
2e~ 2 *
33.
35.
Vic*.
87.
(l
+
x
1) *
'
38.
CHAPTER
Page 176
(
VII
59)
3.8
2.
2i
3.
41
61
a;
+
,
a;
8
.
2s 17x7 --h ^
,
15
315
2
3
e.
32-4
'
4"4"
""
+2
-L.
- ____
.
____
__
^
JL
T
5
7
2
2 2s
V2
~2l~3!
+"
j
9.
0.0872
4695,
10,
* Statement in regard to answeis to exeicises in
55
is
true of tins answer,
ANSWERS
Page 178
(
303
60)
5 2
52 8
58
___ +
.___
_____
/ 1
ir\ 8
V
si
oy
21
E+
to
2!
31
8.
0.7193
9,
0.8480
10.
8.0042
'
~
5
a
*
2
_
1
'
+
1
'
5 2
2_ 8
j.^ x %~
a '21
^!_I^ ?!. 2*31
10. 1
- 2cc + 2
x
u
11
a j. H.
i
-2aj 8
- 2fc8 +
4a*
14.
9659.
...
15. 0.61CO.
T
13
21
8!
!
5!^
'
18.
19>
3.4.?!
+ ^!+...,
0.69815; 10986. 22 314; 1.6094.

-

88, 2.0805.
a;8
2e
a6
5(2
I)
'
"*"
""
a7
_
M,
2.9625.
7(8
!)
304
ANSWERS
CHAPTER
VIII
X
x2
'
Page 183
61)
8j/
2
,
5.
y xy xy
6.
(K
+ y)*
*
'
---, x
+
y
tf
'
s._L_, 2 x2
'
+2/
x2 +i/
>
*_. 2
x
x2^ 2
i 7
y
1
s.
,
y
4.
,
VI
xay 2
(
Vl
v x2 + y a
Page 185
x2
1.
62)
2.
y*
5e"
-5
sm (x
y)
3,
Page 187
1.
63)
2.
000061
(
0012.
3,
2^
Page 188
63)
4.0.018m
5.00105
64)
2.
6.0015m.
7.
6320ft.
8.0.0064.
Page 191
1.
-2.
-|
4.
5.
Vx2 +
11. 3.0 in
12. 13.
o.
6.
y2
0;0

8. 9l
- 14.33 cu
1735
ft.
10. 0.5655 sq. in.;
05756sq.m
035m,
2.206 sq. in. per second 15. 4.4 uq. in. per second.

16.
_iyJ5.
5
17
/y-tan-ia a tan A
fit &*.
ia is.
-cos a
V5
.
'Sina,
1.
CHAPTER IX
Page 198
.
66)
-p uiiiij,.
7. 8.
-p if*
i(x*
4)a.
14
'
2.
g\(3x+7)x4
llnW-im.
În(2x
~a
ln ( 1
^).
9.
+ sin2x)
1
14.
~Jcos*2x.
10.
4.
i
W16
17.
nz __!
a:
L.
2.758
1)].
.1
12.
i.
3(x-smx)
ln(x
+ Sx2 +
1).
ig,
20.
ANSWERS
Page 202
,
805
67)
1.
,3x -sin- 1 4 3
i
4x-3
'
V7
V21
V?
11.
.sin-
-^-sm-i
6x-5
5
Vs
sec -1 xV8.
i
Vs
12.
4.
5.
V5
-=-.
13.
V3
VlO
15
V2
5sm19.
1
V2
.
*5
16.?
Page 204
(
17.
--2V4-x2
ft
~. 4
18. v.
~36
2C
68)
11.
Jln(8a+Vo"-l).
12.
3.
-p
n
'
3a; + 5 ^Lln-*"-
V5
V33
2x
7- 8 + V5
+
5
-t-
2x
.
V33_
5.
-r- In (3
14. 1
.
2x-6
2x
=rln
2
VlS
4x-l-Vl3 _ 4x-l + Vl3
20
7.
5'
15.
16,
-
8.
2 VlC
9.
8X+V15
--
+ V5
~
:
2 Vi5
18. -4=1]
V2
w,
4 to
-..
(
19.
ln;
20.
iln
Page 207
1,
2,
69)
8.
- ^ COB (S 05-2).
~Jsin(4~2x).
Jsec(8x
1).
2 esc -
3,
9.
^ln [sec (4 x
x
+ 2) + tan (4 a + 2)].
+
2 cosx.
10.
ctn(8-2a).
etnas)
4,
4tan?.
4
2
11. In (esc
8x
13.
6. 7.
$ln
sin 6 as,
14,
cosx.
306
ANSWERS
5.
4.
Vx2
tan- 1 V.e2
V4-X2
8.
sin- 1 -2
,x
^(9\/8-10V5).
9.
4Vx2 -4
15.
10.
|.
11..
(
12.-
18.
14..
Page 216
1.
74)
3* 1) e
(8
7.
8.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
x2 zcos-ix Vl xtan- 1 3a-j^ln(l+ 9a2
9.
2 J (2 cos + sin a) e *. 2 J(x + 2xsincc + 2cosx). 4-2Ve
10.
11.
J (81 In 8 -96).
la^Beo-^x
sin z (In sin (
a;
i(-2).
l(7T-2).
1)
12.
Page 217
75) X2
4.
In
-l
2
2)
2.
5.
In'

a;
--. 2
2 as
ANSWERS
T.
8.
ij
/,
307
(2 (1
+ CST S + 2s +
)
.
9.
a;*)*.
-\/8
a;
+
.
xa
10.
za
11. 12.
n\, [B fdu
- 1) - 3 sm (2 z
COB*
(2
1 1) ]
/
a:
In (a
1).
un - /3
f>\
1
+ 4 cos2 - +
5
B\.
13.
14.
,)
ctn 4 x (] 5
c (-
,V, t 8 HucB
15.
16.
tau
(jt
- 2) +
5
10 ctn2 4 x
5 suc
(.r
1)
In tan
c'sc
7
- 1)
.
(a-
- 2)].
3 ctn4 4 a)
Ju
fi (7 c\sc 2
tr)
11 i(MoSa--7)v/8ee8j. 18. Vcac2x

19.
~?% (8 ctn
20.
21.
T jt,j(lB3
'
5 x + 8 ctn 3 5 a:) Vctn 6 x 34sina 4o; + Own 4 4 a) \/wn4a5.
fl
(9 ctn 5
4 ctn 6 a ) \/ctn8 5
1
x.
23, sin- 3
1 - sec- .
sr
+
-!
OB
35.
V5
30.
24.
sin- 1
2;r-5
36.
Vl6
_
^sin-i-^-. s aVa
JL
Vo
31.
*
Vc
25
,.
O 35
i
'
ppf**" J-
V6
4
2
28.
V6
2
00
i
33.
,2J!-1
38
,23; + 8 = sin- 1 =
21 i B ec-i^ti.
2
V2
V8 V5
39.
Vn
Vn
J-sec-i^li. 'sVs Vs
2V6

41.
a
-i"T
-ft 42
- Rl Tl **" 1
-2
rrm-i
48. ln(oj-|-Vxa
49.
-7).
2
1
2
1-2
43.
-i-soc-i^-.
aVo
. -
V6
9-S nv
1 JL
"^T
51.
**
SGC
"*"* *
62.
Inj^-h Va
V(ca
53, 2
+ 7). + In (a; 4- V
lfi
_
a
4).
45, 4
VlO
46.1
54.
V8ica
-i= In
+l -8
4r1
V21
55,
-Ox).
308
ANSWERS
59.
1
6V?
4 Vo
57.
VH
58.
=ln(5x
+ 2 + V25x2 +
20 x
5)
8x+V7
.
ln(3x-4 + V9x2 - 24x +

4
62.
în^?- 2
x
14)
V5 +
V6
x V&
-2
i ^
2V21
63.
ln-. x
2x-5
x
__
bo.
in
12
x-1
3x +
67.
15
68.
ta
.. 1, 64. -In
4V6
2x71.
.^ 2V6
70.
(tan3x
72. In
73.
l
5"
[sec(x-g) cos2x.
ctnSx). + tan ( aj
)]
74.
ln(secx
tanx).

75
-x
8
-sm 8 -cos4
3
.a;
x
3
9 16
2a;
.
sin
Gx-3)
91.
'
106.
(In 5)8
ANSWERS
107.
809
V5-2
'
112. 113.
6?
7.
1
118.
V5
108 '0
119 .
109>c2
110.
~e
/
V
114.^11X2.
' .
+ 4V2
'
WO121. 2
122.
~^jTil
,
^^/g
\
i
14
- In 3.
I
'
...
........
A"
116. STT 117.
ft*/ '
lu 5
UvS.
CHAI?TEB
123.
Page 229
10.
11.
(
.
77)
2 ?H^V2
'
2w2 a8
Jjfira
A/8^
13> 14.
T^ T
16< 16.
~8"
79)
T
2
259jw.
JTTW.
Page 232
1.
(
.
2a2
7m_
5
6.
aa V2
3
2
7,
8.
HTT.
^
'JJ,"
4.
4n'
~~.
2
J.
10.
|7ra
9. 407T.
4-(7T-2). *
Page 234
1.
80)
is
^L.
;
ft
radius of semicircle.
2
IT
2.
is
xadius of semicircle.
2u 3
7T0
Page 235
6.
80)
7.
7ra8 .
100 revolutions per minute.
8.
5.64 Ib. per square inch,
Page 236
81)
8),
I
4.
5.
Ca.
STr'a.
7.
310
Page 238
l
ANSWERS
(
82)
m
'a
22f ft.-lb
7.
vka
5
6.
686 1 ft.-lb
'12
2kca2 k
,
is
the con-
2,
R+
(
4.
196,350 ft.-lb
stant ratio
8.
mi.-lb
B is radius of
earth in miles
2 irC
Page 239
82)
9. 1.76ft.-lb., 1 56ft.-lb.

1
Ssm-i|
~
,
3.
16
-12 In 3
6.
1^
15 T\
5_
_.
247T
+
2
9V3 -
10
^TTCE 11. ^ Trfc2
_
Vi^jj
,
15
fe
and kz are the values for k
in the equation
2
j/
12.
-..
15
13.

14.
dfrrf.
15.4FGn4-l)
16
17.
19.
.,
15
26.
15
'
23.
_4

24. 400irlb.
28.
123 T
n
31. 21 J.
.
441b.
'
34.
J.D
-(8ir+9V3)
35.
'

861
-4
37.
^(8+7T),
(57T-8),
(8-7T)
42.
88
'
T*
41.950
-(In 9-1).
ANSWERS
48,
|
311
45.
-""
2
8a3

49.
q ~. a a*
T.
50. 50,000 ft.-lb.
51, 438,1 ft.-lb.
CHAPTER XI
Page 245 ( 83) 1.80 -In 8.
2.
In 3.
8.
2Jf.
4. IT
Page 246
6.
83)
'
14. 10,
T"
11,
'
"~
'
'
~6~"
12.
.
~ (22 y
TT).
Va (IT V2 - 4).
30
Page 254
cz
85)
(i
(f^ 4.
c"
.
1^\
)
(2 e+l
'
~~r>
.
/0 8 4e(e --l) v 7
6.
/
7.
8.
On axis of qxxadrant,
?
.
.
4 a 'N/S
'
center of circle.
Sv
from
4.
lira,
r-\
Intersection ot medians.
5,
On
axis,
~ from
/-, -\.
\2
vertex.
8/
10.
On
4 a*
axis, distant
3
f
0fca
fr0
m L!!'
16. 16.
On axis, distant On
axis, distant
(radius)
from base.
ir.
18.
On
axis, distant
from
base.
a - from base.
Middle point of
axis.
Page 256
3,
86)
(ri 2 rx
On On
line of centers, distant
+ r|
*'
*"*,?
from center of
circle of radius r,.
4,
5,
axis of shell, distant

axis.
^ a
~~
Middle point of
(
8 (r *"
from common base of spherical surfaces.
^)
Page 257
6,
86)
a 1
-
On
On
axis,
distant
from
base,
7,
8,
$ (4$, 4|),
axis,
of distance
from vertex to base.
the outer edges of the square being; taken as
OJTand OF.
312
9.
ANSWERS
On axis, distant 4 8 from corner of square On axis, distant 3.98 m from center of cylinder in direction of On axis, distant 8.4 ft. from base of pedestal.
(
10.
11.
larger ball.
Page 260
3.
87)
base
x
,
altitude
4.
^ 15
7rg
;
a
a
altitude
and 26
= base
of segment.
5-
altitude
and 26
= base of segment.
+
62
5
6.
7.
27ra26, 8ira6.
^(b + Sc),
7r[2ca
26c
(6
2c)
Va2 +
62 ]
Page 268
1
89)
McP, a
(
= radius.
Page 269
89)
9
10.
11.
4)
32a8
9
Sffffl4
326
8. Tra8
9.
(37T
20
16V2).
10.
u,
ANSWERS
Page 283
(
313
93)
2t
On
axis of ring, distant 2ft.

'
from
6-
Qa
center of shell.
3.
fî /
-^
6
V
8
On ax 1S
7i
,
distant
from upper base

4.
+ 2 Vt + '.") 4W + V. + T/)
(
?.
+
8
(0,0,
On
axis, '
, from
, base.
u u 8/00
Ot
(
2
(
2b2
2
8[b
-(b
\ -a )&]/
2
)
Page 285
1.
94)
2 ^5 Jlf (a +
62 ), where Jf is mass, and a and & are the lengths of the sides perpendicular to the axis.
2.
Atf
M.
2
-1-
8, 4.
jf M(3 a
J
Jfcf
2 W)
5.
(a
6 2 ).
6.
^ M(a + 4 ^M a +
2
/i)
'
2 a2 (15 TT
25 (3
TT
(8
47i).
- 26) - 4)
Page 286
14.9T
.
94)
9.
2
8.
i^.. 3
(
..
}flf(a
+ &8 ).
10.
Page 286
General Exercises)
oV
/
a;
=6
is
the ordhiale.
852
\ 7
10.
On
axis,
.
distant
from base of triangle and away from

&*
semicircle.
11,
On
axis, distant
4a*+ 2ab -^ +
from base.

18,
On axis of segment, distant

of circle,
T.IL1'"
(
^ from center
8 7m8
314
~~
ANSWERS
On
On
axis, distant
,
18.
from center of
*v
!
semicircle.
8(86 -Tra)
' .
14.
15.
16. 17.
axis of plate, distant

axis, distant
J-
7*
f J- f^\
1J
from center
of circles.
On
On
On
gp1
7T
2"""
I/
from center
of circle
axis of square, 8 in. f lorn bottom.

axis, distant
-
in.
o
c 2d
from center of hexagon from center of

ellipse
18.
On
axis, distant
ab
19.
~C
On
On
On
axis of solid, distant

axis, distant
96
16
from smaller base
20.
21.
from base
^ of distance to
4-T^n^fh
top.
~
l
~\
axis of segment, distant
~"
ll '-"
of sphere
22.
21
Ji
f] 8
2
'ii
fmrn **"*
ofmtnr \jouuv3i
T^lfa
23,

24. *j-2l. 25. JJL5
a*
31>
26.
27.
u *fM. &&M
uyi_4Tr]
S7 ( 15
^-
32)J
34.
16
35.
a
32.
1S radius.
%JiM.
86
'
30
37t
29
30,
XPJli_4
33.
~.

38-
3Q-18-5V2;.
39.
42. 43.
(^,0,
J/i&M
1
40.
1
ly/OLO
in,
44
48
'
32
51.
+
3465
'
49
'
3ira8
80.
__
^13838
103
INDEX
(The numbeis refer to the pages)
Abscissa, 28
Acceleration,
9, 21,
186
Center of gravity, of plane curve, 250

of quarter circumference, 250 of right circular cone, 253 of sextant of circle, 252 of solid of revolution, 252
Circle, 79, 148 of cuivature,
Algebraic functions, 70 Amplitude, 128 Angle, between curve and radius

vector, 140
between curves, 104 between straight lines, 35

vectonal, 142
140
Circular measure, 119

acceleration, 185
Angular velocity and

Anti-sine, 180
Cissoid, 98
Approximations, 53, 187 Arc, differential of, 106, 146 Archimedes, spual of, 145
Area, as double integral, 246 of ellipse, 225 of plane curve, 47, 225 in polar coordinates, 280 by stimulation, 60
of suiface of revolution, 259
Compound-interest law, 166 Cone, circular, 272 elliptic, 275 Constant of integration, 45, 194
Coordinates, 27
cylindrical, 270 polar, 142
space, 269
Asymptote, of any curve,

of hyperbola, 90
80,
02
Curvatuie, 189 Curves, 91 Cycloid, 137

Cylinder, 278
Cylindrical codrdinates, 270
Definite integral, 62, 194 Derivative, 15
higher, 40
partial, 181
Average value
See
Mean
value
Axis, of cooidmates, 28 of ellipse, 86

of hyperbola, 00 of parabola, 82
Cardioicl, 145
second, 39
sign of, 20, 40
Differential, 50 of arc, 106, -146
Cartesian equation, 100 Cartesian space coordinates, 260
Catenary, 157 Center of_ gravity, of any solid, 282 of circular arc, 258 of composite area, 255
'
of area, 64
total,
185
Differential coefficient, 51
Differentiation, 15 of algebraic functions, 94
of half
a parabolic segment, 25f
of plane area, 251,
815
316
Differentiation,
INDEX
exponential and logarithmic functions, 163 of implicit functions, 102
of of inverse trigonometric functions,
Graphs, 27
of exponential functions, 157
of inverse
tiigonometnc functions,
130
of logarithmic functions, 157 in polar coordinates, 142 of trigonometric functions, 121
131
partial, 181
of polynomial, 18 of trigonometric functions, 124 Directrix of parabola, 81 Distance between two points, 79
Hyperbola, 87
Implicit functions, 102
Double integration, 244

e,
Increment, 16
the number, 155
Indefinite integral, 63, 194
Infinite integrand, Infinite limits, 229
Eccentricity, of ellipse, 87 of hyperbola, 90
229
Element of integration, 64
Ellipse, 85
Integral, 45, 194

definite, 62, 194
225 Ellipsoid, 274 volume of, 280 Elliptic cone, 275

area
of,
double, 244
indefinite, 68, 194
Integrals, table oJ, 217
Integrand, 194
Elliptic paraboloid,
275
Equation of a curve, 29
Equations, empirical, 159 parametric, 109
roots of, 30
Integration, 45, 194 collected formulas, 217
constant of, 45, 194
by by
partial fractions, 216
Equilateral hyperbola, 90, 92 Exponential functions, 154

Palling body, 6, 8 Focus, of ellipse, 85
of hyperbola, 87
parts, 212 of a polynomial, 45
repeated, 244 by substitution, 208 Inverse sine, 130 Inverse trigonometric functions, 130
of parabola, 81 Force, 128 Formulas of differentiation, 101, 124, 131, 163 of integration, 195, 199, 202, 205, 207, 217
Fractions, partial, 216
Lemniscate, 144
Length of curve, 235

Limit, 1
of
Functions, 15
algebraic, 79
exponential, 154
implicit 102 inverse trigonometric, 130
of (1 + h)\ 156 theorems on, 93 Limits of definite integral, 63 Line, straight, 81 Linear velocity, 135
logarithmic, 154 trigonometric, 119
Logarithm, 154
Napierian, 156
INDEX
Logarithm, natural, 156 Logarithmic spual, 168
Radian, 119
317
Eadms
of curvature, 139
Maclaurm's series, 173 Maxima and minima, 41
Eadius vector, 142 Bate of change, 11, 189

Revolution, solid of, 73 surface of, 259, 273
Mean
value, 233
Measure, circular, 119 Moment o inertia, 200

of circle, 204 polar, 202 ol quadrant of ellipse, 262
Hoots of an equation, 30 Rose of three leaves, 144
Second derivative, 89
sign of, 40
of rectangle, 201 of solid, 283 of solid of revolution, 265
Segment, parabolic, 83 Senes, 172 Maclaurm's, 173

power, 172 Taylor's, 177
Sign of derivative, 20, 40 Simple harmonic motion, 127
Slope, of curve, 86
Moments of inertia about parallel axes,

260
Motion, in a curve, 107 simple harmonic, 127 Napierian logarithm, 166

Ordinate, 28 Origin, 27, 142
of straight line, 31 Solid of revolution, 73
Space coordinates, 269 Speed, average, 3

true, 6
Pappus, theorems Parabola, 81, 146
of,
259
Sphere, 271, 272

Spiral, logarithmic, 158
Parabolic segment, 83 Paraboloid, 275

Parallel lines, 38
of Archimedes, 145
Straight line, 81
Substitution, integration by, 208
Parameter, 109 Parametric representation, 109

Partial differentiation, 181 Partial fractions, 216
Summation, 66
Surfaces, 271
of revolution, 273
212 Parts, integration by,

Period, 128
Table of integrals, 217 Tangent line, 88, 104

Taylor's series, 177 Total differential, 185
Perpendicular Plane, 276

Polar
linos,
84
Polar coordinates, 142
moment
of inertia, 202
Pole, 142
119 Trigonometric functions, Trochoid, 138 37 Turning-point,

Value, mean, 238 Vector, radius, 142
Polynomial, derivative integral of, 46
of,
18
Power
series,
172
Pressure, 68
Vectonal angle, 142

Velocity, 21, 107
theorem on, 267

Projectile, 110
angular, 135
318
Velocities, related, 111 Vertex, of ellipse, 86
INDEX
Volume, of any
solid,
277
hyperbola, 90 ot paiabola, 82
of parabolic segment, 84
of solid with parallel bases, 71 of solid of revolution, 73
Work, 237

Wood, Bailey: Elementary Calculus

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wood, Bailey: Elementary Calculus

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS

0V MATHEMATICS IN THK MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

GINN AND COMPANY

LONDON OHtCAGO SAN PBANOISOO COLUMBUS

AND FREDERICK H BAILEY

GINN AND COMPANY PROPRIETORS BOSTON V.S.A.

adapted to the use of students in the

able neither to appreciate nor to master.

Average speed True speed

Differentiation of a polynomial Sign of the derivative

... ... ....

The second derivative Maxima and minima

general summation problem 25. Pressure

27 Distance between two points

Hyperbola Other curves 34 Theorems on limits 35. Theorems on derivatives

37 Differentiation 38 Tangent line

101 102 104

differentials dx, dy, ds

41. Related velocities

Graphs of trigonometric functions

119 121 124

44. Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Graphs 47 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions 48. Angular velocity

of inverse trigonometric functions

differentials dr, dO, ds, in polar coordinates . General exercises

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The exponential The logarithm

55. Certain empirical equations 56. Differentiation 57.

The compound-interest law

63. Total differential of

a function of two variables

Rate of change General exercises

Other algebraic integrands Integrals of trigonometric functions

70. Integrals of exponential functions

73-74 Integration by parts

Integration of rational fractions

Table of integrals General exercises

78. Infinite limits, or integrand 79. 80. 81. 82.

Area in polar cobrdmates

Double integrals Area as a double integral

Center of gravity of a composite area

Moment of inertia Moments of inertia about

Space cooidinates 91. Certain sui faces

Center of gravity of a solid Moment of inertia of a solid

Since the calculus

based upon the idea of a

In finding the aiea of a

area of the circle

said to be the limit of the area of the

any small number

sum n has thus been

found, then the

said to be the limit of the

certain constant, the area of the circle

and the number 2

the essential property of a limit, which

small quantity which

two examples already given. For the polygon

the sum. of the terms of the series

Examples may be given, however,

The student should

the significance of the word If a railroad train approaches a

station, that difference

does not remain small.