ByMehakChopra IndianInstituteofTechnologyDelhi

Guide:DrB.Uensal

Outline

Characteristicsofanidealinstrument HotWireAnemometry AdvantagesandDrawbacksofHotWireAnemometry PrincipleofOperation BasicConstructionofHotWireProbe ModesofOperationofHotWireAnemometers GoverningEquationandModelofHWA Calibration DirectionalSensitivity TurbulenceMeasurementusingHWA

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

FluidFlow
Fluidflowisubiquitous!e.gprocessesinourbody,Flow aroundairplanesetc itisessentialtomeasurefluid flow. Mostpracticalflowsareturbulent. Henceitisequally importanttomeasureTurbulentFluctuations. Pitottube lowfrequencyresponse ManyMethodstomeasurevelocity discussedearlier

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Characteristicsofanideal InstrumenttomeasureVelocity Fluctuations

GoodSignalSensitivity:Measurablechangeinoutputfor smallchangesinvelocity HighFrequencyResponse:toaccuratelyfollowtransients withoutanytimelag Widevelocityrange Createminimalflowdisturbance GoodSpatialResolution Lowincost HighAccuracy MeasurevelocitycomponentandDetectflowreversal Easytouse

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Inmakingmeasurements,itisnota questionofthebestinstrumentbutrather whichinstrumentwillperformbestforthe specificapplication.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

HotWireAnemometry
IntrusiveTechnique Measurementofinstantaneousvelocitiesand temperatureatapointinaflow. Hotwireanemometryisanidealtoolformeasurementof velocityfluctuationsintimedomaininturbulentflows Principaltoolforbasicstudiesofphysicsofturbulent flows. Developmentofrealisticturbulencemodels,HWA necessarytocarryoutfundamentalturbulencestudies

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

AdvantagesofHWA
GoodFrequencyresponse:Measurementstoseveral hundredkHzpossible,1MHzalsofeasible VelocityMeasurement:measuresmagnitudeand directionofvelocityandvelocityfluctuations,Wide velocityrange TemperatureMeasurements TwoPhaseFlow:Measurementsinflowscontaining continuousturbulentphaseanddistributedbubbles.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

AdvantagesofHWA
Signaltonoiseratio:havelownoiselevels.Resolutionof 1partin10000isaccomplished SignalAnalysis:Outputiscontinuousanaloguesignal, bothtimedomainandfrequencydomainanalysiscanbe carriedout.Outputcanalsobeprocessedbydigital systems. Measurementofturbulentquantitieslikevorticity, dissipationrateetc.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Drawbacks
IntrusiveTechnique:modificationoflocalflowfield HighTurbulenceIntensityFlows: Errorsduetoneglectinghigherorderterms RectificationError insensitivetoreversalofflowdirection. Contamination:Depositionofimpuritiesinflowonsensor alterthecalibrationcharacteristicsandreducefrequency response. Probebreakageandburnout Unabletofullymapvelocityfieldsthatdependstronglyon spacecoordinatesandsimultaneouslyontime. Spatialarrayofmanyprobeswouldberequired. Failsinhostileenvironmentlikecombustion

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

PrincipleofOperation
Basedonconvectiveheattransfer fromaheatedsensing element,possessingtemperaturecoefficientofresistance.
FlowRate varies Convectiveheat transfer coefficient(h) varies Heattransfer fromfilament varies

OperationofHotWireSensor

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

HotWireProbe

Structureofhotwireprobe

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Characteristicsofmaterialused formakingsensor

HighTemperatureCoefficientofresistance HighSpecificResistance HighMechanicalStrength GoodOxidationResistance LowThermalConductivity Availabilityinsmalldiameters

Tungsten:goodstrength,pooroxidationresistance Platinum:goodoxidationresistance,weak Tungstenwiththinplatinumcoatingisgenerallyused. Athightemperatures Platinumiridiumalloys,Platinum rhodiumalloysareused.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

WireDimensions
Largeaspectratios i.el/dwherelisthewirelengthand disthewirediameter,tominimizeconductionlossesto supportsandhaveuniformtemperaturedistribution Smalldiameter arepreferredeventhoughtheyhaveless strengthas: maximizestimeresponseduetolowthermalinertia maximizespatialresolution improvessignaltonoiseratioathighfrequencies eliminatesoutputnoise

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

ClassificationofHotWireProbes
Onthebasisofnumberofsensors:

SingleSensorProbeDualSensorProbe (Xprobes, SplitFibreprobes)

TripleSensorProbe

Informationaboutmagnitudeanddirectionofvelocitycan beobtainedwithprobeshaving2ormoresensors

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

ModesofOperationofHotWire Anemometers
ConstantCurrent
Current inthewireiskept constant Variationsinwireresistance causedbytheflowaremeasured bymonitoringthevoltagedrop variationsacrossthefilament.

ConstantTemperature
TemperaturehenceResistance ofthewireiskeptconstantby usingaservoamplifier Themeasurablesignalwhena changeinflowvelocityoccursis thechangeincurrent tobefedto thesensor.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

BasicCircuitryofConstantCurrent Anemometer

CircuitDiagramofConstantCurrentAnemometer

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

BasicCircuitryofConstant TemperatureAnemometer
Velocity Varies ErrorVoltage (e2 e1)varies InputVoltageto amplifiervaries

Changeincurrenti throughthesensor

Restoresthe resistanceofsensor tooriginalvalue

CCAvsCTA
CompensationofThermalinertiaofthefilamentis automaticallyadjustedinCTA astheflowconditionsvary. CTAisusedthesamewayasitiscalibrated.Calibrationis dynamic inthiscase,whileinCCAinstrumentis calibratedatconstanttemperatureandusedina constantcurrentmode. Inconstantcurrentmode,wirecanbedestroyedby burningoutifvelocityisverysmall.Thereisnosuch dangerinCTA InCTAthereisnothermalcyclinghencelonglifeof probe.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

CTAMeasuringChain

BasicCTAMeasuringChain

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

GeneralHotWireEquation

W power generatedbyjouleheatinggiven 2 byI Rw whereRw =Rw (Tw) Q heattransferratetosurrounding Qi thermalenergystoredinthewire(CwTw) Cw Heatcapacityofwire Tw Temperatureofwire HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Where:

Q=Qfc+Qnc +Qr +Qc

Forced convection term given by Radiation to natural surrounding convection givenby term
A***(T4w T4A)

Conduction toprongs givenby (k*A*dT/dx)

where A istheareaofthewire TAis thetemperatureofthefluid h istheheattransfercoefficient istheStefanBoltzmannconstant istheemissivity k isthethermalconductivity

h*A*(Tw TA )

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

HeatTransferdueto radiation

Performinganenergybalanceonthisdifferentialelement, neglectingradiationandselfconvectionweget:

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

 NaturalConvection: iseffectiveatverylowvelocities. ItdependsonthevalueofGrashofnumberGr( ) AccordingtoCollisandWilliams(1959),Itcanbeneglected forhotwireprobeswithlargevaluesofaspectratio,if

Re>Gr1/3
Radiation:inmosthotwireanemometerapplicationsthis termisverysmallandcanbeneglected

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

 Conduction:
Conductiveheattransfertakesplacetowardstheprongsresulting intemperaturedistributioninwire.

TemperatureProfileinHotWire

Tominimizeconductiveendlosses,wireshouldbeaslongas possibleandpossesslowvalueofthermalconductivity Forwireswithlargeaspectratios(l/d)heatlossesbyconduction canbeneglected.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

ForcedConvection: playsthemainroleinheat transferredtothesurrounding. ItdependsuponNusseltnumber

Where Re =Reynoldsnumber Pr =Prandtlnumberwhichaccountsforfluidproperties.(generallyconstant) 1=anglebetweenfreestreamflowdirectionandflownormaltothecylinder Gr =Grashofnumberwhichaccountsforfreeconvection(buoyancy)effects Ma =Machnumberwhichaccountsforcompressibilityeffects =Cp/Cv at =overheatratioortemperatureloading(Tw Ta)/Ta 2l/d=accountsforsensorsdimension kf/kw =ratioofthermalconductivityoffluidtosensor

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Assumption:

Flowisincompressible Wireisnormaltotheflow(1 =0) Noeffectoffreeconvectionand conduction(basicallyassuminginfinitelylong wire)

Nu =Nu(Re)
1/2 (Kings Law) AccordingtoKing ,= for an infinitely long wire Nu X + YRe

Kramersproposedthatfor0.01<Re<10000and 0.71<Pr<1000andevaluatingthefluidpropertiesat Tf =(Tw +Ta)/2,Nucanbegivenby:

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

SimpleModelforHotWireAnemometer
Consideringonlyforcedconvectionasthemodeofheat exchangeandnotconsideringheatstorageterm:
WhereTw=Temperatureofwire Ta =Temperatureoffluid

As,hence

Resistanceisafunctionoftemperature:

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

SimpleModelforHotWire Anemometer
ThusputtingthevalueofNu(byKingsLaw)and expressingresistanceasafunctionoftemperature,

Henceforfinitelengthhotwireanemometer,

) IntermsofvoltageEw, ForCTA,astemperatureandresistanceareconstant,

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

DynamicCharacteristics
Wirenotrespondinstantaneouslyduetoitsthermal inertia. DampenthevariationinwireresistanceRw andresultin flowfluctuationmeasuredsmallerthantheyare. HeatStoragetermneedstobeaccountedinheatbalance equation

Cw=thermalcapacity

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

DynamicCharacteristics
Theabovedifferentialequationhastimeconstant given by Frequencylimitisgivenby

Exponentialchangeinresistanceof wirewithinstantaneousrisein velocity

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

FrequencyResponseofCTA
Theservoloopamplifierreducesthetimeconstantand increasesthewirefrequencylimit.

where w =wiretimeconstantaloneand=
a=overheatratio Rw =wireresistance S=amplifiergain

Amplitudetransferfunctionfor velocityfluctuation

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

MethodstoDetermineDynamic ResponseofCTA
Asmallelectronicsquarewavesignalisinjectedintothe bridgeandresponseofanemometervoltageEisobserved. Outputvoltageresponsetothiscurrentsignalhasthesame timeconstantastheresponsetotheflowvelocitysignal

SquarewavetestresponseofCTA

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Calibration
Probeisexposedtoaset ofknownvelocitiesand outputvoltageEis recorded. Shouldbedoneatlow turbulenceintensitiesand constanttemperature Pitotstatictubeis generallyusedforvelocity measurement.

Calibrationofhotwiresensor usingpitottube

Wherehistotalpressure inheightofflowingfluid.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Calibration
Calibrationcurveis plottedbetweenHotWire Voltage andVelocity. TypicalCalibrationcurveis nonlinear andsensitivity decreasesasvelocity increases. As constantsA,Bandncan bedeterminedby regressionanalysis

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

 Foraninfinitelylongsensor,heattransfervaries withthecosineofanglebetweenthevelocityandthe wirenormalandVelocityalongthesensorhasno coolingeffect. Forafinitelengthsensor,adirectionalsensitivity factork (yawfactor)isintroduced,whichdescribes pronginterference. For3dimensionalflows,pitchfactorhisintroduce Effectivecoolingvelocityisgivenby:

DirectionalSensitivityofHotwire probes

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

DirectionalSensitivityofHotwire probes
E2 =A+B(Ueff)n

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

DeterminationofDirection
Todeterminedirectionusingasinglewireprobe,Rotate theprobeintheflow. Theorientationwhichgivesmaximumcurrentisthe directionofflow

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

TurbulenceMeasurements
Instantaneousvelocityinturbulentflowcanbeexpressed as: u(t)= +u(t) where isthemeanvelocityandu isthefluctuating component. Meanvelocityisgivenby: Timeaverageoffluctuatingcomponentiszero

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

TurbulenceMeasurements
However,thesecondmomentofturbulent fluctuations orvariance<(u)2>isnotzeroandisa measureofintensityoffluctuations Standarddeviationofvelocity()orurms issquare rootofvariance. TurbulenceIntensity=

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

TurbulenceMeasurements
VelocitySensitivityisgiven() Thusfluctuatingcomponentofvelocityisrelatedto fluctuatingvoltagee: e =u Henceifcalibrationconstantsareknown,fluctuationin velocitycanbecalculatedbyfluctuationinvoltage

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

FilteringandSignalDynamicRange
Voltagefluctuationsmaybeverysmallcomparedto meanvoltage. DifficultforADCtomeasurebothaverageandfluctuating components. Anemometeroutputissenttoahighpassfilterwhich eliminatesmeanvalue<E>ofvoltage Outputofhighpassfilterissenttoanoscilloscope inordertoobservepeakpeakfluctuationsandsetthe amplifiergain.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

GridGeneratedTurbulence
Meshsize(M)=onesideoftheopen squareofgrid.

Manymethodstogenerateturbulenceforexperimentation. Squaremeshgridisplacedinthecrosssectiontogenerateturbulence Gridgeneratedturbulenceishomogenousandisotropic UsedwithHWAtoprovidedatafordevelopmentofturbulencemodelse.g.to evaluatetheoryforthedecayofturbulence.

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

Highcontractionratioanomalyof axisymmetriccontraction ofgridgeneratedturbulence[1]

Experimentsreportedanomalousincreaseinsecond ordermomentsoflongitudinalvelocityfluctuationsin measuringpropertiesofaxisymmetricstrained turbulence Thisanomalywasresolvedbyremovingtheexperimental inaccuraciesandgaveresultsinagreementwithdirect numericalsimulationsandturbulencetheory Studieswerecarriedinawindtunnelinwhichtherewas gridgeneratedturbulenceandhotwireprobeswereused

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

zgrErtun andFranzDurst,Onthehighcontractionratio anomalyofaxisymmetriccontractionofgridgenerated turbulence,PHYSICSOFFLUIDS20,0251032008 BruunH.H,HotWireAnemometryPrincipalandSignalAnalysis, OxfordUniversityPress PerryA.E,HotWireAnemometry,OxfordSciencePublication SmolyakovA.V.andTkachenkoV.M., TheMeasurementof TurbulentFluctuations,SpringerVerlagBerlinHeidelberg1983 GoldsteinR.J,FluidMechanicsMeasurement,Hemisphere Publishing JorgensenF.E(2002), Howtomeasureturbulencewithhotwire anemometers apracticalguide TropeaCetal,SpringerHandbookofExperimentalFluid Mechanics Springer

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

CompressibilityEffects
Forhighvelocityflows,compressibilityeffectsbecome significant. NeedtoconsiderMachnumberMaandCp Knudsennumber(Kn)isimportantparameterforlow densityflowsandisgivenby:

where =molecularmeanfreepath InthiscaseNu =Nu(Re,Kn)

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

HotFilmProbes

Platinumornickelfilmaredepositedonthermallyinsulatingsubstratelike

quartz. Usedinliquidflowsandhightemperatureultrasonicgasflowsduetotheir sturdyconstruction

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

TurbulentFlows
Mostpracticalflowsareturbulent. Contributesignificantlytotransportofmomentum,heatand mass. Acomplex,unpredictableandrandomprocess. Responsibleformostfluidfrictionlosses. Rationaldesignofairplanes,ships,turbinesetc haveto considerturbulence.

Henceitisequallyimportanttomeasure TurbulentFluctuations
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

MeasurementofIntegral Properties
InstrumentslikePitot tubes, venturimeters Onlymeasure integralpropertieslikemean velocity. Differentialpressuremeters Lowfrequencyresponse Donotrespondtofluctuations invelocity,henceunableto measureturbulence.

DiagramofPitot Tube

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

MethodsToMeasureTurbulence Fluctuations

HotWireAnemometry LaserDopplerAnemometry ParticleImagingVelocimetry FlowVisualization AcousticAnemometry ThermalMarkers DischargeAnemometry

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement

ComputationalFluidDynamics
TurbulencemodelingisanimportantissueinCFD Measurementsaremadeasasupplementtocomputer modeling Thesemethodsprovidehighqualityexperimentalflow dataforvalidationofexistingcomputercodescontaining turbulencemodels

HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement