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2.5 INTERPRETATION OF THE FLUID DATA

The data gathered with the different techniques have to be interpreted in terms of the fluids contained in the porespace of the reservoir. The following information about the reservoir fluids are required: Fluid Type Fluid Saturation Fluid Properties For the interpretation of the fluid data it is important to have a good understanding of the borehole environment. The borehole environment is described first. Then for each tool, used to evaluate the above, the principle and evaluation techniques are discussed. The section ends with a discussion of the techniques used to determine the fluid distribution in the reservoir.

THE BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT

We are interested in a description of the reservoir as it is in the subsurface. When a well is drilled to gather information, the natural state of the fluids in the reservoir is disturbed, at least locally around the well in the region were data are gathered. The effect of this disturbance must be taken into account in any interpretation.

Mudcake and Invasion

When a well is drilled through a porous and permeable layer, the pressure in the well has to be kept above the pressure of the formation fluid to prevent an influx of formation fluid into the borehole. The pressure differential forces drilling fluid into the formation. As it enters the formation, the suspended solids in the mud are filtered out and plaster the borehole wall to form a mudcake. The mud filtrate enters into the formation and displaces formation fluid away from the wellbore. Figure 2.59 illustrates the process schematically. Once the mudcake has reached a certain thickness, it will effectively seal of the formation and prevent further invasion by the filtrate. To reach this mudcake thickness, a certain amount of mud filtrate must invade the formation, and will remain in the pores. A highly porous rock will be able to accommodate more mud filtrate in a given rock volume than a rock with low porosity. The depth of invasion by the filtrate will be less in a rock with high porosity. The build up of a mudcake is a dynamic process. It may take several hours for a mudcake to fully build up if it is left undisturbed, but for much of the time the mudcake is being continually worn away by the drillstring rubbing on the walls of the borehole while drilling or tripping. The mudcake which is worn away is replaced by new mudcake, and more filtrate invades the formation. The invading mud filtrate increases the pressure in the formation near to the borehole, creating a pressure gradient away from the borehole out into the formation. This pressure gradient provides a driving force to displace formation fluids and excess mud filtrate away from the borehole. Eventually, stable saturation and pressure profiles are formed through the invaded zone.

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Invasion Profiles
In a water bearing zone all the formation water will be replaced by mud filtrate. In an oil or gas bearing zone residual hydrocarbons will be left behind as a result of capillary effects. The diameter of an invaded zone is typically up to 1m. Figure 2.60 a & b shows typical invasion profiles for a water bearing and an oil bearing zone.

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In a high permeability interval the formation fluids and mud filtrate can flow rapidly away from the borehole, and there is no detectable pressure gradient in the formation. The pressure differential between the borehole and the formation is supported entirely by the mudcake. The pressure gradient through the invaded zone in a low permeability zone may be quite large, because the fluids can flow only slowly away from the borehole. This pressure gradient is maintained while drilling, because mud filtrate continues to invade the formation as fresh mudcake builds up, but will decline slowly if the borehole is left undisturbed. This often complicates recording the true formation pressure in a low permeability zone by wireline techniques.

FORMATION RESISTIVITY
Well log information is required to quantify the hydrocarbon saturation, i.e. the fraction of the pore space filled with hydrocarbons. The most common logging technique for saturation determination is resistivity logging. The resistivity of the formation is measured by passing an electrical current through it.

Formation Resistivity
The resistivity of a substance is defined as its electrical resistance per unit volume. It is therefore a property of a substance that is independent of the amount of the substance being considered. The resistivity of reservoir rock is determined by the way in which an electric current can flow through it. As the formation water is the only conductive material present in the rock, it depends on: The resistivity of the formation water Depends on temperature, and the concentration of salts dissolved in the water (i.e. its salinity). The amount of formation water Depends on the amount of pore space, and the extent to which this pore space is filled with formation water (i.e. water saturation). The geometry of the formation water The more tortuous the path followed by the current, the higher will be the resistivity.
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In the case of water bearing rock it will be easier for the current to flow than in the presence of hydrocarbons. Figure 2.61 illustrates this point. The electrical resistivity of a pore system is described by the Archie equations. These equations may be used to quantify the hydrocarbon saturation from the measured resistivity.

FIRST ARCHIE EQUATION (WATER BEARING FORMATION)

The resistivity of a water bearing formation will be proportional to the resistivity of the formation water in the pores, and inversely proportional to the amount of pore space available to contain formation water. In fact the formation resistivity is inversely proportional to the porosity raised to a power, because of the tortuosity of the path followed by the current. This power is expressed as the cementation exponent.

Ro = phi(-m) * Rw

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The cementation exponent varies according to rock type. Typical values range from 1.4 for unconsolidated sand, to 2.2 or higher in some types of limestone. It can be determined on core plugs, provided the porosity can be measured, by filling them with water of known resistivity and then measuring the formation resistivity.

Second Archie Equation (Hydrocarbon Bearing Formation)

When hydrocarbons are present in the pore system, their presence reduces the amount of pore space occupied by conductive formation water. The formation resistivity is inversely proportional to the water saturation. In fact the formation resistivity is inversely proportional to the water saturation raised to a power, because of the tortuosity of the path followed by the current. This power is expressed as the saturation exponent.

The saturation exponent (n) varies with rock type. Typically it has a value of about 2. It can be determined on core plugs, by filling a sample of known porosity with water of known resistivity, and then measuring the resistivity of the sample as a function of the water saturation as the water is replaced by oil. Combining the first and second Archie equation gives:

This can be solved for the hydrocarbon saturation

m n

cementation exponent from cores, or estimated for the lithology saturation exponent from cores, or estimated for the lithology
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RESISTIVITY TOOLS
Various devices are available for measuring the resistivity of the virgin (uninvaded) formation. There are two main types of resistivity measuring devices, laterologs and induction logs.

True Formation Resistivity

The true formation resistivity must be measured to be able to evaluate the hydrocarbon saturation in the reservoir. When the resistivity measurement is carried out by a sonde in the borehole, the measurement will be influenced by the mud filtrate that has invaded the formation. Three main parameters determine the response of a resistivity measuring device: Rt true formation resistivity Rxo invaded zone resistivity di invaded zone diameter Three independent resistivity measurements are required to eliminate the effect of the invaded zone, and determine the true formation resistivity. These measurements are the Deep, the Shallow and the MSFL, each having a different depth of investigation (see Figure 2.62).

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In any resistivity measurement, in fact in any log measurement, there will be the unwanted influence of the borehole. Logging tools are designed in such a way that these borehole influences are minimized under normal conditions. Correction procedures, which take into account the borehole size, mud resistivity, etc., are available to remove the remaining influences of the borehole. These procedures are described in a series of correction charts that are available from each logging contractor.

Tool Principle: The Laterolog

The laterolog emits a "measuring" current into the formation from one electrode, and "focussing" currents from a series of auxiliary electrodes positioned symmetrically about the measuring current electrode. This focuses the measuring current into a sheet to obtain the best tool resolution (Figure 2.63). The focussing

currents can be adjusted so that the tool simultaneously measures the "deep" resistivity (Figure 2.63 left), and the "shallow" resistivity (Figure 2.63 right). The shallow resistivity is better described as an intermediate resistivity. This gives two of the three independent resistivity measurements. As current flows from the tool into the formation, the laterolog is particularly suited for use with conductive borehole fluids, i.e. salty, water based muds. The tool will not work in oil based mud.

Tool Principle: The Induction Log

The induction log is based on an entirely different principle. A current is induced in the formation around the borehole by electromagnetic coupling with an alternating current (~20 kHz) flowing in a coil inside the tool. The induced current flowing in the formation induces a response in a receiver coil in the tool (Figure 2.64). The response can be analyzed in terms of formation conductivity, the reciprocal of resistivity. By adjusting the arrangement of receiver coils, the formation resistivity can be measured at a longer or shorter distance from the borehole. This gives two of the three independent resistivity measurements, a deep reading and an intermediate reading.

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As there is no direct flow of current from the induction tool to the formation, this tool can be used with low conductivity borehole fluids, such as fresh water muds or oil base muds. The resolution of the tool is not as good as that of the laterolog, because the arrangement of the coils does not allow sharp focussing of the measurements.

Tool Principle: The Microresistivity Log

Both the laterolog and the induction log give two of the three independent resistivity measurements, a deep and an intermediate reading. A shallow resistivity reading can be provided by a microresistivity device. The most widely used of such devices is the micro spherically focussed log (MSFL). The measuring device is a rubber pad with rectangular electrodes on it, which is pressed against the borehole wall (Figure 2.65). Current emitted from the central electrode is focussed by means of currents from the other electrodes. The resistivity of essentially only the invaded zone is obtained.

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The tool has a very good resolution as a result of the pad geometry. The tool will not work in oil based mud, because current has to flow from the pad into the formation.

Interpretation of three resistivity logs

Charts are available to determine the true formation resistivity from the three resistivity measurements at different depths of investigation (e.g. in SchIumberger Chart books).

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The log shown in Figure 2.66 is an example of the three readings, recorded over a sand interval. Above 833 m there is a clear separation between the curves. Close to the borehole the resistivity is low, due to the presence of mud filtrate. Going deeper into the formation the resistivity increases. This strongly suggests the presence of hydrocarbons. The true formation resistivity will be even higher than the deep resistivity device reading. Below 833 m no separation is observed between the curves. They all read low resistivities. This indicates that even deep in the formation, where the mud filtrate did not penetrate, the resistivity is still low. We conclude that the formation is water bearing. The hydrocarbon water contact is at 833 m. The reading of the deep resistivity tool is usually taken as the true formation resistivity for a quick look evaluation. This ignores the influence of the invaded zone, which tends to make the reading of the deep resistivity tool lower than the true formation resistivity. The resulting interpretation is somewhat pessimistic in terms of hydrocarbon saturation.

FLUID TYPES AND CONTACTS FROM TOOL COMBINATIONS

Hydrocarbon saturation can be measured by resistivity logs, but where are the fluid contacts, and is the hydrocarbon oil or gas?

Mudlogging and Sidewall Sampling

The first indications about the fluid content of a reservoir are given by the mudlog. Oil stained cuttings and oil shows in the mud indicate oil bearing formation. Gas shows in the mud, especially light components, may indicate the presence of gas. Sidewall samples may distinguish between oil and gas if the formation is known to be hydrocarbon bearing (e.g. from interpretation of the porosity and resistivity logs) but it is not clear what type of hydrocarbons are present. Strong oil shows are expected in sidewall samples from an oil zone.

Porosity and Resistivity

The resistivity response of a reservoir with a certain formation water is determined by the porosity and the water saturation. Simple inspection of the three resistivity logs will be sufficient to distinguish hydrocarbons from water if the porosity is greater than about 20% and fairly constant, (see Figure 2.68) If there is a significant variation in porosity, the porosity and resistivity logs are used simultaneously to distinguish between hydrocarbons and water (Figure 2.67). Across a water bearing intervals a porosity log (best to use the density log) will "tramline" with the deep resistivity log. When the porosity curve goes to the left (indicating a higher porosity) the resistivity curve will do the same (indicating a lower resistivity) and vice versa. In doing so, both measurements follow the first Archie formula, which is an indication of water bearing formation. Across hydrocarbon bearing intervals the resistivity will react in the opposite manner ("Mae West"). This is caused by an increasing hydrocarbon saturation with increasing porosity as a result of reduced capillary effects. In hydrocarbon bearing rock the absolute amount of water present in the formation is inversely related to the porosity.

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Density and Neutron

Resistivity logs cannot distinguish between oil and gas, because any hydrocarbon is a nonconductive material and will cause the same response on a resistivity log. The combination of density and neutron logs over a hydrocarbon bearing zone can distinguish between oil and gas, as explained in section 2.4 (See also Figure 2.68).

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Uncertainties in Determining Fluid Contacts

The methods described can give an accurate insight into the fluid distribution in the reservoir, provided the conditions are favourable. In less ideal conditions (for example low permeability, shaly reservoir, alternating thin layers of reservoir and shale, insufficient well penetration), the log and pressure data may not be able to exactly pinpoint the fluid contacts. In such cases limits on the positions of the fluid contacts can be defined. The position of the OWC is bounded by a "water up to" (WUT), and an "oil down to" (ODT). The GOC position is bounded by an "oil up to" (OUT), and a "gas down to" (GDT). Examples of these limits can be seen on the logs in Figure 2.69.

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Pressure vs. Depth

The fluid distribution in a reservoir can be determined independently by analysing the pressure profile across the reservoir interval. Pressure measurements at various depths can be obtained with a wireline formation tester (see chapter 2.5). These are plotted on a graph of pressure versus depth to show the pressure gradients through each of the reservoir fluids (Figure 2.70). The intersection of the oil and water gradients defines the depth of the free water level (FWL). The intersection of the gas and oil gradients determines the gas oil contact (GOC). The oil water contact (OWC) lies some distance above the FWL, depending on the capillary behaviour of the rock and fluids. The difference in elevation between the OWC (or the gas water contact, GWC) and the FWL can vary between almost zero in high permeability rock to tens of metres in low permeability material.

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