PH 221-3A Fall 2010

Waves - II
Lectures 27-28
Chapter 17
(Halliday/Resnick/Walker, Fundamentals of Physics 8
th
edition)
1
Chapter 17 Waves II
In this chapter we will study sound waves and In this chapter we will study sound waves and
concentrate on the following topics:
Speed of sound waves
Relation between displacement and pressure amplitude p p p
Interference of sound waves
Sound intensity and sound level
Beats Beats
The Doppler effect
2
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal
waves that propagate in solids liquids and
S i i d b il l gases. Seismic waves used by oil explorers
propagate in the earths crust. Sound waves
generated by a sonar system propagate in the
sea. An orchestra creates sound waves that
propagate in the air.
The locus of the points of a sound wave that has the same displacement
is called a wavefront. Lines perpendicular to the wavefronts are
called rays and they point along the direction which the sound wave called rays and they point along the direction which the sound wave
propagates. An example of a point source of sound waves is given in
the figure. We assume that the surrounding medium is isotropic i.e.
sound propagates with the same speed for all directions. In this case the
sound wave spreads outwards uniformly and the wavefronts are spheres
centered at the point source. The single arrows indicate the rays. The ce e ed e po sou ce. e s g e ows d c e e ys. e
double arrows indicate the motion of the molecules of the medium in
which sound propagates.
3

If we apply an overpressure on an object
of volume this results in a change of volume as shown
p
V V
A
A
Bulk modulus
B
v

=
p
of volume , this results in a change of volume as shown
in the figure. The bulk modulus of the compressed material
is defined as:
p
V V
B
A
A
= SI unit: the Pascal is defined as: B
The negative sign denotes the in volume
when is positive
SI unit: the Pasca
.
/
l
V
p
V A
A
Note : decrease
p p
Using the above definition of the bulk modulus and combining it with
Newton's second law one can show that the speed of sound in a
The speed of sound
p
homogeneous isotropic medium with bulk modulus and B density
is given by the equation: v
B

= g y q
Bulk modulus is smaller for more compressible
pV
B
V

A = Note 1:
media. Such media exhibit lower speed of sound.
Denser materials (higher ) Note 2 : have lower speed of sound
4
The Speed of Sound
5
6
Example: Thunder, lightning and a rule of thumb
There is a rule of thumb for estimating how far away a thunderstorm is. You can estimate your
di t f b lt f li ht i b ti th d b t i th fl h d h i th distance from a bolt of lightning by counting the seconds between seeing the flash and hearing the
thunder and then dividing by 3 to obtain the distance in km. Why does this rule work?
7
The Speed of Sound
Problem : Both krypton (Kr) and neon (Ne) can be approximated at monatomic ideal gases. The
atomic mass of krypton is 83.8 u, while that of neon is 20.2 u. A loudspeaker produces a sound whose
wavelength in krypton is 1.25m. If the loudspeaker were used to produce sound of the same
frequency in neon at the same temperature, what would be the wavelength?
8

Consider the tube filled with air shown in the figure.
Traveling sound waves.
We generate a harmonic sound wave traveling to the
right along the axis of the tube. One simple method
is to place a speaker at the left end of the tube and is to place a speaker at the left end of the tube and
drive it at a particular frequency. Consider an air
element of thickness which is located at position x A
before the sound wave is generated. This is known
as the "e
x
qulibrium position" of the element. Under
these conditions the pressure inside the tube is constant these conditions the pressure inside the tube is constant
In the presence of the sound wave the element
oscillates about the equlibrium position. At the same
i h h l i f h l time the pressure at the location of the element
oscillates about its static value. The sound wave
in the tube can be described using one of two g
parameters:
9
( )
One such parameter is the distance , of the
l f i ilib i i i
s x t
Traveling sound waves.
( )
m m
p v s e A =
( ) ( )
element from its equilibrium position
. The constant is
the of the wave. The
, cos
m m
s s x t s kx t e =
displacement amplitude
angular wav
p p
enumber and the angular frequency
have the same meaning as in the case of the transverse
t di d i h t 16
k e
waves studied in chapter 16.
The second possibility is to use the pressure variation
from the static value. p A
( ) ( )
, sin
m
p x t p kx t e A = A
( ) ( )
( )
The constant p is the wave's pressure
The two amplitudes are connected by the equation:
m
m
A
A amplitude.
( )
The displacement and the pressure variation
have a phase differ
m m
p v s e A =
Note :
ence of 90 . As a result when p
one parameter has a maximum the other has a
minimum and vice versa.
10
1 2
Consider two point sources of sound waves S and S
h i th fi Th t i h d
Interference

2
L
t
|

= A
shown in the figure. The two sources are in phase and
emit sound waves of the same frequency.
Waves from both sources arrive at point P whose
1 2 1 2
distance from S and S is and respectively.
The two waves interfere at point P.
L L
1 1 1
2 2 2
At time the phase of sound wave 1 arriving from S at point P is
At time the phase of sound wave 2 arriving from S at point P is
In general the two waves at P have a phase diffe
t kL t
t kL t
| e
| e
=
=
rence In general the two waves at P have a phase diffe
( )
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
rence
2
Th tit i k th " "
kL t kL t k L L L L
L L L
t
| | | e e

= = = =
A h l hdiff
2 1
The quantity is known as the " "
between the two waves. Thus
2
L
L L L
t
|

A
= A
path length difference
Here is the wavelength of the two wav s. e
11
The wave at P resulting from the interference of the
t th t i f S d S h i
Constructive intereference.
1 2
two waves that arrive from S and S has a maximum
amplitude when the phase difference 2
2
0 1 2 2
m
m L m
| t
t
t
=
= A = L m A = 0,1, 2,... . 2 m L m t

= A =
0, , 2 ,. .. L
L m

A
A =
=
Destructive intereference
1 2
The wave at P resulting from the interference of the two waves that arrive
from S and S has a miniimum amplitude when the phase difference
Destructive intereference.
( )
2 1 0,1, 2,... . m m | t = + =
( )
1
2
2 1
/ 2 3 / 2 5 / 2 L m
L m
L
t
t

| |
A =
A = +
A = +
|
/ 2, 3 / 2, 5 / 2,...
2
L m L A = A = +
|
\ .
equal to an integral multiple of L constructive interference
equal to a half-integral multiple of L destructive interference
12
At an open-air concert on a hot day (T
c
= 25C, V
s
= 346.5 m/s), a person sits at a location that 7.0
m and 9.1 m respectively from speakers at each side of the stage. A musician, warming up, plays a
single 494 Hz tone. What does the spectator hear?
13
Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves
Assume that two loudspeakers in the figure are vibrating out of phase instead of in phase. (see
example 2 from the text) The speed of sound is 343 m/s. What is the smallest frequency that will p ) p q y
produce destructive interference at point C?
14
Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves
Speakers A and B are vibrating in phase. They are directly facing each other, are 7.80 m apart, and
are each playing a 73.0 Hz tone. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. On the line between the speakers are each playing a 73.0 Hz tone. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. On the line between the speakers
there are three points where constructive interference occurs. What are the distances of these three
points from speaker A?
15
Consider a wave that is incident normally on a surface
Intensity of a sound wave
of area . The wave transports energy. As a result
power (energy per unit time) passes through .
We define the wave i
A
P A
ntensity as the rat o i / I P A We define the wave i
2

nte

nsity

as the rat
SI units: / W
o
m
i / I
P
A
P A
I =
2
2 2
The intensity of a harmonic wave with displacement amplitude is given by:
In terms of the pressure amplitude
1
.
2 2
m
m m
s
v
I s I p
v
e

| | | |
= = A
| |
\ . \ .
Consider a point source S emitting
2 2
a power in t P
v
\ . \ .
he form of sound waves
of a particular frequency. The surrounding medium is isotropic so the waves
spread uniformly. The corresponding wavefronts are spheres that have S as
their center. The sound i
2
ntensity at a distance from S is:
4
r
P
I
r t
=
2
1
The intensity of a sound wave for a point sources is proportional t
4
o
r
r t
16
The auditory sensation in humans is proportional to the logarithm of the
The decibel
The auditory sensation in humans is proportional to the logarithm of the
sound intensity . This allows the ear to percieve a wide range of
sound intensities. The threshold of hearing
o
I
I is defined as the lowest
12 2
0
sound intensity that can be detected by the human ear. 10 W/m
The sound level is defined in such a way as to mimic the response
I
|

| |
=
of the human 10lo ear. g
o
I
I
|
| |
=
|
\ .
is expressed in decibels (dB)
We can invert the equation above and express in terms of as: I
|
|
( ) /10
We can invert the equation above and express in terms of as:
10
For we have: 10log1 0
o
o
I
I I
I I
|
|
|
=
= = = Note 1:
increases by 10 decibels every time increa I | Note2 :
4
ses by a factor of 10
For example 40 dB corresponds to 10
o
I I | = =
17
Example 1: Express the threshold of hearing (2.5 x 10
-12
W/m
2
) and the threshold of pain (1 W/m
2
)
in decibels.
Example 2: At a distance of 60m from a jet airline the intensity is 1 W/m
2
. I
180
= ? p j y
180
18
The intensity of sound near a loud rock band is 120dB. What is the
intensity of sound near two such rock bands playing together?
19
Problem (Decibels): Two identical rifles are shot at the same time and the sound intensity level is
800dB. What would be the sound intensity level if only one rifle were shot? (hint: the answer is not
400db)
20
Problem : Two sound sources each emit sound power uniformly in all directions. There are no
reflections. Both sources are located on the x axis, one at the origin and the other at x = +123m. The
source of the origin emits four times more power than the other source. Where on the x axis is the
intensity of each sound equal? Note there are 2 answers.
21
Consider a pipe filled with air that is open at both ends
Sound standing waves in pipes
Consider a pipe filled with air that is open at both ends.
Sound waves that have walengths that satisfy a particular
relation with the length L of the pipe setup standing waves
that have sustained amplitudes.
The simplest pattern can be set up in a pipe that is open at both ends as shown in fig.a.
In such a pipe standing waves have a antinode (maximum) in the dispacement amplitude
The amplitude of the standing wave is plotted as function of distance in fig.b.
The pattern has an node at the pipe center since two adjacent antinodes are separated The pattern has an node at the pipe center since two adjacent antinodes are separated
by a node (minimum). The distance between two adjacent antinodes is /2.
Thus / 2 Its frequency 2 L
v v
L f

= = = = Thus / 2 Its frequency

The standing wave of fig.b is known as the " "
or " " of the tube.
2
2
L L f
L

fundamental mode
first harmonic
Antinodes in the displacement amplitude c r o Note :
f
respond to nodes in the
pressure amplitude. This is because and are 90 out of phase.
m m
s p A
22
The next three standing wave patterns are
Standing waves in tubes open at both ends
2
n
L
n
=
shown in fig.a. The wavelength
where 1, 2, 3, ... The integer n is
2
n
n
L
n

=
=
known as the
The corr po es
harmonic number
nding frequencies
2
n
nv
f
L
=
2L
St di i t b t d
for n=1,3,5,7
4
, ...
n
L
n
=
The first four standing wave patterns are
Standing waves in tubes open at one end
and closed at the other
shown in fig.a. They have an antinode at the
open end and a node at the closed end.
4L
The wavelengt
4
h
n
L
n
=
23
Longitudinal Standing Waves
Problem A person hums into the top of a well and finds that standing waves are established at
frequencies of 42, 70.0 and 98 Hz. The frequency of 42 Hz is not necessarily the fundamental q , q y y
frequency. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. How deep is the well?
24

If we listen to two sound waves of equal amplitude and frequencies
Beats.
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
and and we perceive them as a sound of frequency
. in addition we also perceive "beats" which a
2
av
f f f f f f
f f
f
> ~
+
= re variations in the
2
1 2
1 1 2 2
intensity of the sound with frequency . The displacements of the
two sound waves are given by the equations: cos , and cos .
beat
m m
f f f
s s t s s t e e
=
= =
These are plotted in fig.a and fig.b.
Using the principle of superposition we can determine the resultant displacement as:
e e e e ( + (
| | | |
( )
| |
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1
cos cos 2 cos cos
2 2
2 cos cos where
m m
s s s s t t s t t
s s t t
e e e e
e e
e e
e e e
( + (
| | | |
= + = + =
| |
( (
\ . \ .

' '
= =
2 1 2
and
e e
e
+
=
| |
2 cos cos where
m
s s t t e e e
1 2
and
2 2
Since
e
e e e e
'
~
25
T
beat
1 2

beat
f f f =
T'
| |
1 2 1 2
2 cos cos where and s s t t
e e e e
e e e e
+
' ' = = =
| |
2 cos cos where and
2 2
The displacement s is plotted as function of time in the figure. We can regard
it as a cosine function whose amplitude is equal to 2 cos .
m
s s t t
s t
e e e e
e
= = =
' it as a cosine function whose amplitude is equal to 2 cos .
The a
m
s t e
mplitude is time dependent but varies slowly with time. The amplitude
exhibits a maximum whenever cos is equal to either +1 or -1 which happens t e'
twice within one period of the cos function.
Thus the
t e'
1 2
1 2
angual frequency of the beats 2 2
2
beat
e e
e e e e

| |
' = = =
|
\ .
1 2 1 2
2
The frequency of the beats 2 2 2
beat beat
f f f te te te
\ .
= = =
26
Consider the source and the detector of sound waves
The Doppler effect
shown in the figure. We assume that the frequency
of the source is equal to . f
k h f f h di i h h hi h h d We take as the reference frame that surrounding air through which the sound waves
propagate. If there is relative motion between the source and the detector then the
detector perceives the frequency of the sound as . If the source or the f f ' = p q y
detector move towards to each other . if on the other hand the source or
the detector move away from each other . This is known as the " "
f f
f f
f f
' >
' < Doppler

effect. The frequecy is given by the equation: . Here and

are the speeds of the source and detector with respect to air, respsctively.
D
S
S D
v v
f f
v
v v
v
f

' = '

When the motion of the detector or source is each other the sign of the speed
must give an shift in frequency. If on the other hand the motion is from
each other the sign of the speed must give a shift in frequency
towards
upward away
downward each other the sign of the speed must give a shift in frequency downward
The four possible combinantions are illustrated in the next p
.
age.
27
v
S
v
D
D
v v
f f f f
+
' '
= >
S
f f f f
v v
= >

v
S
v
D

D
v v
f f f f

' '
= <
S
f f f f
v v +
v
S
v
D

D
v v
f f
v v

'
=

S
v v
D
S
v v
f f
v v

'
=

v
S
v
D

D
S
v v
f f
v v
+
'
=
+
28
The Doppler Effect
A train approaching a siren. The train
A train receding from the siren. The
encounters more wave fronts per unit
time than when stationary.
train encounters fewer wave fronts per
unit time than when stationary.
f = f + additional # of condensations
additional # of condensations in a time t= (V
r
t)/
in 1 sec additional # = V
r
/
-> f = f + V
r
/ = f(1 + V
r
/f) = f(1 + V
r
/V)
A receiver on the train will detect
a higher frequency when
approaching a siren, and a lower
frequency when receding.
29
The source (train) is in motion, the receiver is stationary
A stationary receiver will detect
a higher frequency when it is
front of the train and a lower
frequency when behind the
train.
The wavelength ahead of the
train is shorter = V
E
/f and
behind the train is longer =
+ V
E
/f when the train is
i stationary.
30
Problem: The trucks travel at the same speed. They are far apart on adjacent lanes and approach
each other essentially head-on. One driver hears the horn of the other truck at a frequency that is
1.20 times the frequency he hears when the truck is stationary. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. At
h t d i h t k i ? what speed is each truck moving?
31