Module2: One-dimensional gas dynamics

Lecture4: Governing Equations(Contd.)

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

Speed of sound & Mach number

Speed of sound is the speed at which small disturbances or waves are propagated through a compressible fluid or an elastic medium in general. Its relation to the compressibility of the fluid is given by

p a2 = , s
= 1

isentropic compressibility s =

1 p s

Ks

K s is isentropic bulk modulus

The disturbances (the temperature and velocity gradients) produced in a fluid by a sound wave are so small that each fluid particle undergoes a nearly isentropic process. In a perfect gas

p = const.
a2 =

p = RT

In a flowing fluid, the speed of sound is a significant measure of the effects of compressibility when it is compared to the speed of the flow. This introduces the dimensionless parameter called Mach number M =

u a

M will vary from point to point in a flow because of change in u and a . In an adiabatic flow an increase in u always corresponds to an increase of M. A flow is called subsonic if M < 1 and it is called supersonic if M > 1.

Area-velocity Relations

For a steady adiabatic flow in a stream tube of varying area the continuity equation is

du dA + =0 u A

For incompressible flow d = 0 and this gives the simple result that increase or decrease of velocity is proportional to decrease or increase of area. The change in density modifies this simple relation. Using Eulers equation for steady flow

u du =

dp

dp d d

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

Since, adiabatic, inviscid flow is isentropic

dp dp = d d s

u du = a 2
or

= M 2

du u

At very low Mach numbers the density changes are so small compared to the velocity
changes, that they may be neglected in flow computation and it may be considered that = constant. Hence, equivalent definitions of incompressible flow are a = or M = 0 . The continuity equation now becomes

M2
or

du du dA + + =0 u u A

du dA A = u 1 M 2

(1) At M = 0, a decrease in area gives a proportional increase in velocity (2) For 0 < M < 1 (subsonic speeds), the relation is qualitatively the same as for incompressible flow, a decrease of area giving an increase in velocity, but the effect on the velocity is relatively greater. (3) At supersonic speeds, the right hand side becomes positive implying an increase of speed is associated with an increase of area. This is due to the fact that at supersonic speeds the density decreases faster than the velocity increases, so that the area must increase to maintain the continuity of mass.

Form the equation, at M = 1,

dA du can be finite only if = 0 . Considering a tube in which the u A

velocity increases continuously from zero to supersonic speeds, it is obvious from above that the tube must converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the supersonic portion. Hence, the area must be minimum at M = 1, sonic condition is reached only at the throat. The same logic holds when the velocity decreases continuously from supersonic to subsonic. Hence M = 1 can be attained only at a throat of the tube. The inverse is not true, that is, M is not necessarily 1 at a throat. Since the equation shows that a throat corresponds to du = 0 ; the velocity attains a maximum or a minimum there, depending on whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic. Near M = 1, the flow is very sensitive to changes in the area, since the denominator (1 M2) is very small.

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

Some Important Relations

In adiabatic flow the energy equation for a thermally and calorically perfect gas is

1 2 u + C pT = C pTo 2
2 Now, a = RT = C p 1

1 T = ( 1)C pT

or

C pT =

a2 1
2

a u2 a2 + = o 2 1 1
Multiplying by

1
a2
2 ao T 1 2 M +1 = 2 = o 2 T a

To 1 2 M = 1+ 2 T
Hence, the isentropic relations become

po

1 2 M = 1 + p 2

( 1)

1 2 1+ M = 2

1 ( 1)

In the above equations, the values of To and ao are constant throughout the flow and can be taken as the actual reservoir value. The values of p o and o are the local reservoir values. They are constant throughout only if the flow is isentropic. Instead of the reservoir, any other point in the flow can be used for evaluating the constant in the energy equation. The throat, where M = 1, is a very useful point. The flow variables at the throat are called sonic and are denoted by superscript *. The flow speed and sound speed are u and

a . At sonic condition M = 1 and u = a . The energy equation then gives

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

u2 a2 u 2 a 2 1 + 1 2 ao a = + = + = 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
2

a T 2 2 = = + 1 To ao
2

Thus for a given fluid the sonic and the reservoir temperatures are in a fixed ratio, so that T* is constant throughout in an adiabatic flow.

For air

T = 0.833, To

a = 0.913 ao

Using the isentropic relations with M = 1,

p 2 1 = = 0.528 po +1

2 = o +1

= 0.643

It is not necessary that a throat actually exist in the flow for sonic values to be used as reference.

The speed ratio u Using

= M is a convenient quantity in many situations.

u2 a2 1 + 1 2 + = a 2 1 2 1

Or,

1 1 1 +1 1 + = 2 2 ( 1)M 2 1 M 2
2 + ( 1)M 2 +1 = 2 ( 1)M ( 1)M 2
2

or M

( + 1)M = 2 + ( 1)M 2
2

+1
= 1+ 2

M2 M2

1
2

+1
2 + 1 M2

Alternatively

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

M2 =

M 2 2 = + 1 1 2 + 1 M ( 1) 2 2 M 2

M* < 1 for M < 1, and M* > 1 for M > 1

Using p = RT and eliminating T from the energy equation for adiabatic steady flow,

u2 p po + = 2 1 1 o
For isentropic conditions, p

po

o
1

p p = o o o

po p o po

Hence, the energy equation becomes

u2 po p + p o 2 1 o 1

1 o
1 2 u (used for normalizing pressure and forces) is 2

po

This is the steady state Bernoullis equation for an adiabatic compressible flow. In a compressible flow, the dynamic pressure

not simply the difference between stagnation and static pressure. It depends on Mach number as well as static pressure.

1 2 u 2

2 1 M2a 2

=
=

1 p 2 1 M = pM 2 2 2
p p 1 p M 2 2 = 2 p 1 2 M p

Hence, C p =

p p 1 2 U 2

For isentropic flow, this becomes

Cp =

2 M 2

2 1 + 2 1 M ( ) 1 2 2 + ( 1) M
2 U u2 2 , M = a 2 a2

M and U are reference quantities, M 2 =

M or a can be eliminated from the above definition using the energy equation in the form

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering

U2 a2 u2 a2 + = + 2 1 2 1
1 2 2 1 2 u Cp = 1 1+ M 1 2 2 M 2 U

NPTEL IIT Kharagpur: Prof. K.P. Sinhamahapatra, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering