Blast Effects on Structures and Slopes

Outline Examples of Blasting for Slope and Tunnel Formation General Principles of Blasting in Slope and Tunnel Limitations of Current Vibration Limit Criterion Other Parameters required for better understanding of Blast Effects on Slope and Tunnels Simplified Finite Element Model for studying Effects of Blasting near Slopes Future Monitoring Works required to improve the Current understanding of Vibration Limits Conclusions
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Example 1: Controlled Blasting for Rock Slope Trimming

18 August 1995

Road Widening at Tai Lam Section of Tuen Mun Highway Boulder Fall Fatality in 18 August 1995
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Extensive Rock Mapping after Accident

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Risk of Large Wedge formed by Sheeting Joints

Scheme Design before Tendering For Constructability Purposes

Need to create two Free Faces to control direction of blasting

7 134

5 92

3 67 0 0

6 117

4 75

1 25

2 50

Direction of blasted rock

Example 2: Controlled Blasting for Shaft Excavation

Upper shafts Diaphragm Wall

Excavated diameters range between 2.5 m to 50 m (SCI) and at a maximum depth over 150 m

Below the toe of the diaphragm walls 1.5 m long blasting holes were used. Lower shafts Drill and Blast As the ground conditions improved with the depth of excavation the shot hole length was increased to 2.4 m. Two types of full face blasting patterns namely wedge cut and parallel hole cut (with relief holes) were used.

55 35 18 14 10 8 5 2

Wedge Cut to create Free Faces

Plan View Looking Down Sequence of Initiation

For the SSDS shaft excavation, the following was used:

ICI manufactured explosives Powegel 2500UG (bulk emulsion) Pexgel and Tovex are cartridge explosives in 25 mm and 32 mm diameter sizes. Pexgel and Excel non-electric detonators, Nonel GT/T non-electric detonators. The emulsion was pumped into the blast holes. A primer charge with one cartridge and detonator was placed at the bottom of the hole before filling with emulsion. The specific charge (powder factor) was approximately 3.6 kg/m3 with the bulk emulsion The specific charge was approximately 2.7 kg/m3 with cartridge explosives.

Explosives: The purpose is to generate peak gas pressure and heat in crushing and plastically deforming weak/soft rocks, without creating excessive throw, over break, ground vibration and air vibration

Each blast hole should be primed, charged and stemmed so that explosion gases are confined for a reasonable period of time.

Explosives: should have a low cost and a high energy yield per unit weight coupled with: Insensitivity to initiation by friction, mechanical impact and fire; Totally reliable sensitivity to initiation by the detonator or primer for which the explosive has been designed; Unlimited resistance to water and low temperatures; Oxygen balance and hence minimal yield of poisonous explosion gases; Excellent handling characteristics, and Unlimited shelf life.

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Explosives: grouped into two principal categories:

High explosives (detonator-sensitive)

Normally can be initiated by No. 8 strength detonator or by a strand of 10 g/m detonating cord

Blasting agents (detonator-insensitive) Blasting agents (detonator-insensitive) consists largely of AN (ammonium nitrate is classified as an oxidizing agent and not considered to be an explosive). -ANFO (consists of AN (ammonium nitrate) and diesel oil) -Slurries -Emulsion -Watergel -Heavy ANFO

1.Emulsion explosive 2.Watergel explosive 3.Dynamites (NG (nitroglycerine) sensitized) 4.Cast Pentolite-type Boosters

1.Emulsion explosive water-in-oil type (consists of micro droplets of super-saturated oxidizer solution within an oil matrix. Oxidizer within the micro droplets consists of mainly ammonium nitrate (AN) Excellent water resistance Densities usually lie in the range of 1.1 to 1.2 g/cm3

2.Watergel explosive based on saturated aqueous solution of AN in which fuels (aluminum powder), sensitizers are dispersed. Have been largely replaced by emulsion explosives. 3.Dynamite explosive are NG-based explosive of high sensitivity 4.Cast Pentolite-type Boosters boosters to initiate ANFO-type, emulsion and watergel blasting agents. - make principally of cast pentolite (a mixture of TNT and PETN) - completely waterproof

Detonating explosives are divided into Primary and Secondary. Primary (used in the blasting caps and cast primers (mercury fulminate, PETN, Pentolite etc.) are used as initiators for the Secondary. Secondary are those applied to the breakage of rocks.

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Blasting agents

ANFO (consists of AN (ammonium nitrate) and diesel oil) AN is a strong supporter for combustion, but it is not flammable itself - cost is lower for ANFO and energy yield per ton is usually higher than other explosives - the micro voids within each porous prill of the diesel oil absorb and retain the optimum amount of oil - usually used in dry blast hole situations

Slurries are blasting agents based on saturated aqueous solution of AN, often with other oxidizers such as sodium nitrate in which fuels, sensitizers, gellants are dispersed to avoid segregation of the solids

Emulsion-based Blasting Agents - maintain the properties of the slurries but with improved strength and water resistance - cartridged emulsion-based blasting agents - bulk emulsion-based blasting agents

Watergel-based Blasting Agents - cartridged watergel-based blasting agents require high-explosive boosters (e.g., PENTEX) to initiate them reliably - pumped watergel -based blasting agents

Heavy ANFO consists of a mixture of porous prilled AN, oil and an emulsion blasting agent. - If the emulsion can fill up the micro void within the ANFO, then the density can reach 1.00 to 1.25 g/cm3 - should be used in hole diameters of about 100 mm - generates about 20% to 50% more energy than an equal volume of ANFO

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Why do we need to create a free face before massive explosion?

1.

When an explosive is detonated, it is converted within a few thousandths of a second into a high temperature gas, pressure exceeds about 18000 atmospheres. This energy is transmitted into the rock in the form of a compressive strain wave at a velocity of 2000-6000 m/s. The rock within 1 to 2 charge radii is crushed by compression. As the compressive wave front expands, the strain quickly decays and beyond this point (pulverized zone), the rock is subject to intense radial compression where tangential strains start to develop. When these tangential strains exceed the tensile strength of the rock, radial fractures began. When the compressive wave reaches a free surface, it is reflected as a tensile strain wave. If the reflected tensile strain wave is sufficiently strong, spalling occurs progressively from any effective free face back toward the blast hole. This causes unloading of the rock mass, producing an extension of previously formed radial cracks. Rock is much weaker in tension than in compression, therefore the reflected strain wave is very effective in fracturing the rock. The expanding gases will wedge open the strain-wave generated cracks and expel the rock mass.

2. 3. 4.

5.

Mechanism of Rock Breakage by Explosion

6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

The fragmentation process will depend on: 1. 2. 3. 4. Degree of confinement provided by the stemming (inadequate will cause energy lost). Charges within the blast hole (inadequate will result in poor transmission of strain wave). Amount of burden (excessive burden will choke the gas expansion). Sequence of blasting (ensure development of free surfaces for the rock to move into).

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Initiating Devices and Systems

Initiating devices and systems are designed to activate explosive charges: 1. From a safe distance 2. At a pre-determined time 3. In a pre-determined sequence and 4. With pre-determined time intervals between successive detonations Initiating systems explosive and inert components which transmit signals to explosive charges by non-electric or electric means. Non-electric initiating systems utilize chemical reactions, which can range from slow burning to rapid violent detonation, to initiate explosive charges either directly or via non-electric detonators. Electric initiating systems require a device which can generate or store electrical energy and transmit to electric detonators by a circuit of insulated conductors.

Initiating Devices
Detonators contain relatively sensitive high explosives which are initiated by an energy signal from an external source. Delay detonators incorporate a controlled time delay to sequence the detonations of charges. Shock-tube Detonators are Non-electric Detonators assembled from: 1. A high strength, non-electric detonator which features a PETN base charge and pyrotechnic delay elements inside an aluminum shell; 2. A length of shock tube (one end of the tube is crimped into the detonator shell and the other is closed off by a waterproof seal) and 3. An inert plastic connector (for connecting the shock tube to a trunk line of a detonating cord). The energy required to fire a Shock-tube detonator is transmitted by means of a stable shock wave which travels through the tube at approximately 2000 m/s. It cannot be initiated by flame, friction or impact and eliminates the accidental initiation by stray electrical currents, static electricity and radio frequency.

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Electric Detonators An instantaneous electric detonator consists of an aluminum which is closed at one end and contains a base charge of high-explosive PETN, a sensitive priming charge and an electric fuse head. The fuse head consists of a fine metal bridge wire which is surrounded by a sensitive flashing composition, and is soldered across the ends of two insulated lead wires. The lead wires pass through a rubber plug which is securely crimped into the shell to provide a water-resistant seal. When sufficient electrical energy is passed through the lead wires, the fine bridge wire becomes hot enough to ignite the fuse head, which initiates the priming charge and the powerful PETN base charge. Instantaneous electric detonators with a No. 8 or higher strength base charge are recommended as starter detonators for initiating detonating cord trunk lines.

Aluminum powder

Electric Detonator

Electric Detonator with Delay

Electronic Detonator 19

No. 8 strength detonators have explosive mixture equivalent to 2 g of 80% mercury fulminate and 20% potassium chlorate.

Detonating Cords they are strong, flexible linear explosives which consists of a continuous core of high explosive, covered by a seamless plastic jacket which may be over-wrapped with other textile yarns.

All cords suitable for use in construction blasting contain PETN, a high-explosive powder, and detonate at 6.0 to 7.5 km/s. Detonating cords designed for specific tasks have PETN core charges ranging from 1.5 g/m to 85 g/m, enclosed in appropriate outer cover.

Energy sources such as static electricity, stray electrical currents or radio frequency transmissions will not initiate detonating cord.

Detonating cords can be reliably initiated by means of a No. 8 strength detonator which is firmly attached to a dry section of cord at least 150 mm from the cut end.

Detonating Cord Contains explosive charge of 10 g of PETN per meter run Diameter nominally 4.65 mm

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Detonating Cord Trunk Line they are cords with core load of 3.6 to 10.0 g/m that will allow transmission of signal from one point to another even though joins are made by simple knots. Detonating Cord Down Line detonating cord can be reliably initiated by non-electric trunk line delays.

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Initiating Systems
Initiating Systems for Bench-Type Blasts 1. MS (millisecond)-delay shock-tube detonators are used inside blast holes. Short delay times are used between blast holes, to ensure that they interact effectively to produce good fragmentation. A trunk line of 3.6 to 5.0 g/m detonating cord is used to initiate the in-hole shock-tube detonators. Two instantaneous No. 8 strength electric detonators are used to initiate the detonating cord trunk line.

2. 3.

Initiating Systems for Tunnelling 1. LP (long-period)-delay shock-tube detonators are used inside blast holes. Relatively long delay times are required between blast holes, to ensure that broken rock is effectively ejected during the blast. A trunk line of 3.6 to 5.0 g/m detonating cord is used to initiate the in-hole shock-tube detonators. Two instantaneous No. 8 strength electric detonators are used to initiate the detonating cord trunk line. Two detonators are used to ensure reliable initiation.

2. 3.

LP Detonators long period delay intervals for tunneling MS Detonators millisecond delay intervals for benching type operations T & D Detonators - millisecond delay intervals with an additional connector to enable them to be used as Trunk Line Delays between blast holes.

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Production Bench Blasting

The production of a well-fragmented and loose muck pile that can be handled easily requires the understanding of the following parameters: 1. Type of explosive 2. Properties of the rock being blasted 3. Blast hole diameter 4. Blast hole inclination 5. Effective burden 6. Effective sub-drilling 7. Effective spacing 8. Stemming 9. Initiation sequence for detonation of explosive charges 10. Delays between successive blast holes and/or rows of blast hole

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Production Bench Blasting Terminology

Joints, bedding planes, faults, or soft seams may allow the explosives energy to be wastefully dissipated rather than performing the work. Pre-existing fractures may tend to dominate the nature of the fracture pattern produced by a detonating blast hole. In order to maintain a constant burden with depth, all blast holes should be inclined. Sub-drilling is necessary in order to break the rock at bench level. Breakage of the rock usually projects from the explosive charge in the form of an inverted cone with sides inclined at 100 and 200 to the horizontal. Experience has shown that effective sub-drilling equal to 8 times the blast hole diameter is usually adequate to ensure effective digging to grade.

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1 Free Face

2 Free Faces

Free Face away from previously blasted rock

Blasting to a a) free face, b) free end and c) buffered end

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Too small a burden allows the radial cracks to extend to the free face, giving rise to rapid venting of explosion gases with a consequent loss of efficiency and the generation of fly rock and air blast problems. Too large a burden chokes the blast and gives rise to very poor fragmentation and a general loss of efficiency. Experience has shown that the explosive charge is most efficient when the burden is equal to 25 to 35 times the blast hole diameter. Effective burden and spacing depends on blast hole pattern and sequence of firing A square pattern which is fired row by row gives an effective burden equal to the spacing between successive rows

Identical pattern fired at different sequence, resulting in different burden and spacing

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When the free face is uneven, the use of easer blast hole, to reduce the burden, is recommended.

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Most simplest but not the most satisfactory For use in strong rock where near vertical joints strike across the bench at an angle to the face.

For use in condition where the strike of two joint sets intersect.

When free face is not available.

Golder Associates (1992)

Blast is broken down into a number of successive detonations by means of delays 28

When the front row is detonated and moves away from the rock mass to create a new free face, time should be allowed for this new face to be established before the next row is detonated. Typically, minimum delay intervals of 5 to 8 ms per meter of burden are used. A typical blast with a burden of 2 m would have a delay of at least 15 ms between rows.

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Experience has shown that: a staggered pattern with an effective spacing equal to 2.0 times the effective burden gives good results. The use of stemming is to direct explosives effort into the rock mass. The optimum stemming length depends on the properties of the rock and can vary between 0.7 to 1.0 times the burden. The blasting sequence should always be such that the blast holes detonate in rows starting at the free face. When the front row is detonated and moves away from the rock mass to create a new free face, time should be allowed for this new face to be established before the next row is detonated. Typically, minimum delay intervals of 5 to 8 ms per meter of burden are used. A typical blast with a burden of 2 m would have a delay of at least 15 ms between rows.

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Side-Hill Blasting

Most side-hill cuts require that the muck pile be retained within the boundaries of the cut. By designing the delay pattern with the V offset from the centerline, the principal direction of rock movement is largely up the slope.

Design is based upon the use of millisecond delay detonators located well down within the blast holes.

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Square Pattern

Rectangular Pattern

Staggered Pattern

Principal direction of rock movement changes as the angle within the V (angle ) increases.

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Principal direction of rock movement is down the hillside.

Purposely dispose the rock down the hill for bench blasting

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Smooth Wall Blasting using Pre-splitting (Pre-shearing) Technique Requires greater amount of drilling, higher drilling accuracy Involves drilling a row of closely spaced 38-89 mm diameter blast holes along the design excavation limit. Blast holes are lightly charged and detonated simultaneously. Pre-split blast holes can be fired either as a separate shot or with the production blast (pre-split should detonate about 50 ms before the earliest-firing production blast holes).

Golder Associates (1992)

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Spacing between pre-split blast holes normally increases with the blast hole diameter. Heavily charged detonating cord can also be used as the entire pre-splitting charge rather than attaching half cartridges or whole cartridges of explosives to a detonating cord.

Golder Associates (1992)

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Creation of Free Face for Blasting in Tunnels

Hole Type used in a Round Nomenclature used in Tunnelling

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Blasting in Tunnels and Caverns

General rules for design of burn-cut: Maximize the number and diameter of (uncharged relief holes A and B) Locate blast holes such that each is shielded by a relief hole. Shielding refers to the practice of drilling relief holes directly in line between blast holes that may have an adverse effect to one another Initiate charges with long period so that any compression of a later-firing charge is given the opportunity to relax.

Blast hole 1, 2 and 3 are shielded by the relief holes Each charge has two or three relief holes to which it can shoot Any ground movement or deformation and gas venting tends to be into the relief holes rather than into a blast hole on a later delay 37

Wedge Cut

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Width of blast round Height of blast round Blast hole diameter 43 mm Blast hole length Number of blast holes Diameter of relief holes Length of relief holes Number of relief holes

4.6 m 7.6 m 1.5 m 55 102 mm 1.7 m 3

Types of explosives: 32x300 mm cartridge of Powergel Exel (non-electric) detonators MS delay numbers 4 to 30 Exel LPD number 10 to 15 TLD (trunk line delay) 0 ms, 17 ms and 34 ms Powder factor: Maximum charge per delay 1.51 kg/m3 1.138 kg

Estimated PPV at sensitive location 40 11 mm/s (43 m away)

Exel LPD number 10 to 15

MS delay numbers 4 to 30

TLD (trunk line delay) 0 ms, 17 ms and 34 ms

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Powder factor is affected by: Blast hole diameter Type and geometry of cut Mean advance per round

Tunnels with small cross sectional area generally require higher energy factor/powder factor than those with large cross sectional area because of the high concentrations of explosives in the cut.

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Blasting Shafts

Blasting pattern for small round (this case 1.2 m x 1.8 m) Short advance of 0.9 m to 1.0 m

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Blasting pattern for larger rectangular and square shafts A V cut is used

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Blasting pattern for larger circular shafts (4 m or greater diameter) A pyramid cut is used

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Influence of Rock Mass Properties on Blasting

Empirical correlation between explosive type and rock mass properties. Brady and Brown (1985) suggested that uniaxial compressive strength may be used to represent the ease of generating new fractures in the medium.

Brady and Brown (1985)

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Generalized classification adopted in Soviet Union, based on unit consumption of Ammonite No. 9 (AN based blasting agent).

Rzhevsky and Novik (1971)

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Generalized correlation between compressive strength and powder factor in bench blastings

Kutuzov (1979)

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Empirical correlation between fracture frequency, shear strength and powder factor of the explosive

Ashby (1977)

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Blastability Index (Lilly, 1986) correlates to geomechanical parameters

BI = 0.5( RMD + JPS + JPO + SGI + HD)

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