Stability and Variation in a Hopi Lullaby Author(s): George List Reviewed work(s): Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 31, No.

1 (Winter, 1987), pp. 18-34 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/852289 . Accessed: 06/07/2012 13:37
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in a Hopi Lullaby1 Stabilityand Variation

George List
he changinginterestsof scholarsare reflectedin the termsthey employ. The word change,itself, is now a termin frequentuse. In a rethe editornoted that all four articlesin the cent issue of Ethnomusicology, withchange(Rice 1983:v). Totaland abruptchangein issuewereconcerned any aspectof cultureis, of course, uncommon.Thus, changeor variation with its obverse,continuityor stability. must be discussedsimultaneously In this study, I examineelevenperformances of a song of the Hopi Indians of NorthernArizonaand pose the followingquestions:If one asks a likely Hopi to singthe lullabyaboutthe blackbug, how is this performance to differ from those whichwererecordedin the past, and those whichmay be recordedin the future?Whatis stable, what is varied,and what are the of suchvariation? Whatdoes a Hopi meanwhenhe saysthat he parameters will sing the lullabyaboutthe blackbug? Sincewhatis beingexaminedis a song, I shall considerboth the words and the melody. Most Hopis live in three clustersof villagessituatedon the southern rim of the greatBlackMesa. Fromeast to west, these populationareasare known as First Mesa, Second Mesa, and Third Mesa. They displaysome slight culturaldifferencessuch as dialect. The bulk of Hopi songs are composedby individualsfor a particular occasion. This is true, for example,of the songs performedat publicceremonies,suchas the kachinadance,andthose sungby womenwhilegrinding becameavailable, corn. Beforeinexpensive, taperecorders battery-operated such songs were usually known only in the area in which they were composed and had a relativelyshort life. To this, the black beetleor stink bug durthe Reservation lullabyis an exception.It has been knownthroughout sung ing the century,at least, and its composeris not known.It is primarily by women, but is also occasionallysung by men to their children. In the past it was the customof Hopi mothersto straptheirinfantsto cradleboardswhichthey then tied to theirbacks. By this meansthey could carrytheirinfantsfromplaceto placeas they worked.Thechildwas sungto or, by both sexes, whileheld in the arms. In sleep whileon the cradleboard rubbed.The lullabyhas the lattercase the child's back was simultaneously no pulse and no coordinationof kineticand musicalrhythmis involvedas there would be, for example,when rockinga child to sleep in a cradle. T
18

Hopi Lullaby

19

This study is based upon eleven recorded performances of this lullaby by six informants, three men and three women. A list of recordings studied and the provenience of each is given in Figure 1. Their sources are given at the end of the article. In figure 1 the informants are represented by capital letters and the chronological sequence by Arabic numbers. When the singer has been recorded in more than one performance this is indicated by lower case letters.
Performance/ Informant 1A 2B 3C 4D 5Ea-d 6Fa-c Sex Man Man Man Woman Woman Woman Date 1903 1941 1956 1960 1960 1960 Place Oraibi, First Mesa Fort Wingate School Shipaulovi, Second Mesa Sichomovi, First Mesa Sichomovi, First Mesa Sichomovi, First Mesa Collector Natalie Curtis Willard Rhodes Robert Black George List George List George List

Figure 1. List of Recordings

There is at least one recording from each mesa area, and the recordings span the period from 1903 to 1960. Singer E was recorded on two different days in a total of four performances of the lullaby. Singer B was a Navaho who sang Hopi songs.2 My preference would be to make all the data upon which my conclusions are based available to the reader. In a short study this is not usually possible. However, the reader will find below two pages of text transcriptions and five pages of transcriptions of melody and text of the lullaby. I am aware that this amount of transcription is rarely offered in a study of this length. My purposes in offering it are 1) to allow the reader as much opportunity as possible to check my conclusions against the data upon which they are based, and 2) to offer data which might be used in comparative studies or the development of theories concerning musical change. I am of the opinion that in recent years ethnomusicological studies have overemphasized the presentation of theory at the expense of that of data. I find this unfortunate. In writing concerning trends among ethnomusicologists who consider themselves anthropologists, Alan Merriam seemed of a similar opinion. "While I always find it useful to attempt to generalize on the basis of the data at hand, it would be reassuring to have more data." (Merriam 1975: 64-65) I first shall be concerned with the text of the lullaby. In Figure 2 I offer the text of the lullaby and its translation into English. This is the text as it is spoken, not as it is sung. It will be seen later that the text differs in some particulars when it is sung. I am indebted to Ekkehart Malotki for as-

20

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

Puwva Go to sleep! Puwva (etc.) Go to sleep! Hohoyaw'u Beetle. Puwva Go to sleep! supoopave Right on the road. Puwva (etc.) Go to sleep!

naa'iikwi'ukyang'u While carrying each other on the back. Figure 2. Text of Lullaby as Spoken

sistance in the preparation of the spoken text and its translation, and to Douglas Parks for assistance in the preparation of the sung texts. In the Hopi language there is a contrast between long and short vowels. When the vowel is long, it is doubled in transcription, as aa. For ease in printing, the u represents the i (the barred i, high, back, and unrounded vowel). The glottal stop is indicated by a raised comma. The actual meaning of puwva, which in repetition forms the refrain, is "he falls asleep" or "he slept." "Go to sleep" is the English equivalent given to me by the Hopi who acted as my translator. In this song, an anology is made between the Hopi mother carrying an infant on a cradleboard and the posture of indigenous beetles who are frequently seen one carrying the other on its back. This beetle is known colloquially as the "stink bug" since it produces a foul odor when crushed. The capital letters placed to the left of the text represent formal analysis. IR and FR symbolize initial refrain and following refrain respectively. The three central phrases are given in the spoken version of the text in the order in which they most frequently occur and are identified as A, B, and C. In Figure 3, I offer transcriptions of the text as sung in a number of performances of the lullaby. As before, the formal analysis is given at the left of the text. In Figure 3, V. represents a section of vocables or meaningless syllables and the apostrophe, the breath accent. The breath accent is produced by action of the diaphragm and is applied here to the repetition of the final vowel of a syllable. Two versions of phrase B are in common use. I have indicated them as B' and B2. Hopi words are usually combinations of more than one

IR. A. B.' C. FR.

Performance 4Da. Puwva ha puwva 'ha'ha puwva Hohoyaw'u shup6bpave'e naaiikwi'ukyang'u 'ha puwva Puwva 'ha puwva puwva

Figure 3. Illustrative Sung Texts

Hopi Lullaby
Performance 5Ea. 'a puwva Puwva puwva Hohoyaw'u pbopave'e naaiikwi'ukyang'u Puwva 'a puwva puwva ha yaw lo lo ha yaw o lo lo o olo Performance 3Ca IR. A. B.' C. FR. IR. A. B.' C. FR. IR. A. C. FR. IR. A. C. B.2 FR. IR. A. C. FR. V. Hohoyaw'u shupoopave'e naaiikwi'uchang'u Puwva puwva ye puwva puwva Performance 3Cb Hohoyaw'u shupoopave'e naaiikwi'uchang'u Puwva puwva ye puwva puwva puwva (Spoken) "he puwva" Puwva puwva Hohoyaw'u naaiikwi'ukyang'u Puwva 'a puwva Puwva puwva Hohoyaw'u naaiikwi'ukyang'u poopave'e Puwva 'a puwva Performance 6Fa. puwva puwva puwva puwva

21

IR. A. B.2 C. FR. V.

Performance 6Fb. puwva puwva

puwva puwva

Performance 2Ba Hohoyaw'u naaiikwi'ukyang'u Puwva puwva puwva puwva Zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei Performance 2Bb IR. A. C. B.' FR. V. Hohoyaw'u naaiikwi'ukyang'u shupoopave'e Puwva puwva puwva puwva Zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei zei

Figure 3. Continued

22

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

grammatical element, such as a noun plus a possessive pronoun. Some linguists refer to these combinations as "free forms." The word or prefix su may be translated as "exactly." When it is present, the beetles are found right in the middle of the trail or road. When it is absent, the meaning is that the beetles are found elsewhere on the trail or near it. As can be seen, there is considerable variation in the sung texts. Some of these are minute and consist only of the addition, repetition, or substitution of phones. In all performances of B' or B2 the final vowel e is repeated as a breath accent. Similar breath accents are found following the final a of puwva and can be seen in both the initial and following refrains of performances 4D and 5E. In performance 4D the aspiration h is added to the breath accent. Thus in 5E one finds puwva'a and in 4D puwva'ha'ha. In five cases sh is substituted for s. These substitutions are found in the initial syllable of phrase B, performances 4D, 3Ca, and 3Cb, 2Bb, and 2Bc. Finally, in performance 3C, in the last free form of phrase C, ch is substituted for the ky commonly spoken or sung. For the purpose of our analysis, I need to first establish the parameters of a single statement of the song. I shall consider this to consist of a minimum of two phrases, one of which is C, plus one group of puwvas in the form of a refrain. In some performances, only one statement of the lullaby is heard. In others, as many as four may be sung in a continuous flow. These repetitions may or may not be exact. Five of the six singers sang the song more than once, either in one or several performances. Of these five, only singer A sang the same text throughout, both refrain and phrases. The greatest variation is seen in the refrain. Of the five, only two, singers A and B, consistently sing the same number of puwvas in each refrain. Figure 4 lists the various forms of the refrain and number of times each occurs. When there are two groups of puwvas in the refrain, they are connected with a plus sign.

Repetitions of puwva 2 2+2 2+3 2+4 3 3+3 3+4 4 5

Occurrences 3 2 1 1 6 7 1 4 1

Figure 4. Numbers of "puwvas" in Refrain, and Their Groupings

Hopi Lullaby
Order of phrases AB' C AB2C ACB' ACB2 AC B' C Figure 5. Variation in Non-refrain portion of Text Occurrences 7 5 1 1 3 1

23

Variation in the formal organization of the non-refrain section of the text is not as great. It should be remembered that the three phrases were assigned the letters A, B, and C, since this is the most common order in which they occur, and that the two forms of phrase B are alike except for the presence or absence of the initial prefix, su. In figure 5, I list the various forms taken by the non-refrain section of the text and the number of occurrences of each. The interchange of phrases B and C seems very common. After recording performances 4D and 5E, I asked each singer to speak rather than sing the text of the song. In doing so, both singers spoke the three central phrases in the order A, C, B, rather than A, B, C. I asked the Hopi who was translating for me to listen to performance 4D and then to speak the words of the song. In so doing, he also reversed the order, speaking the phrases in order A, C, B, rather than A, B, C. Obviously, it is important to know that the creature referred to is a beetle and that it is carrying another on its back. Where it and the beetle it is carrying are located in relationship to the trail or road can be added later, as in the form A, C, B, or omitted, as in the form A, C. I doubt that the form B, C would occur unless phrase A had been sung earlier in the performance, as in performance 2B. I now turn to the melody of this song. In the first decade of this century Benjamin Ives Gilman published an extensive study of Hopi melodies. After employing several methods of transcription, including that of attempting to establish microtones, he came to the conclusion that Hopi melody is without a scale. (Gilman 1908: 4-16, 69-226). In a previously published study of Hopi song I advanced the hypothesis that the Hopis conceive melody as a series of contours rather than as a series of discrete pitches (List 1985: 144). I shall employ here the same method of transcription I used in the previous study. In this diatonic pitches represent a pitch band a whole tone in width rather than specific, discrete pitches. Although no clef is employed in the transcriptions, the lines and spaces are those of the treble clef, the pitches sounding an octave lower than written. In pitch band notation, for example, a note written on the second line may represent a G, a G sharp, a G flat,

24

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

or any pitch within a band a whole tone in width. I have indicated the diatonic pitch nearest to what I hear sung. In some cases the selection of the pitches is somewhat arbitrary since what is being represented is more a descending or ascending glide than a specific pitch. As indicated previously, performances of this lullaby display no easily discernible pulse. In this they differ from Hopi announcement chants, neither being associated with a kinetic activity. The durational values found in the transcriptions were determined by establishing an artificial pulse an eighth note in value. This produced tempi of MM 108 to MM 144. For ease in reading as well as in determining melodic contours, I have employed the following procedures in writing durational values: 1) Whenever possible I have used only one note to represent a sustained pitch, tying it to a subsequent note of the same pitch only when necessary. 2) When two notes are tied or two rests follow each other, the longer has been placed before the shorter. 3) Groups of notes sung to the same syllable are phrased together. Thus the first note of such a group is not beamed to a previous note. In Figure 6 I offer transcriptions of both text and melody of one statement of the lullaby by each of the six informants. In all but one case the transcription is of the first statement by the particular singer, and is thus identified by a, as in lAa. In the case of singer F it is her second statement which is transcribed and it is therefore identified as 6Fb. What is offered in Figure 6 is a comparative score, that is, the renditions notated do not occur simultaneously but are placed one above the other for purposes of comparison. Singers B and C do not sing an initial refrain. The transcriptions of their renditions therefore begin on the second page of Figure 6. In some statements of the lullaby only two central phrases are sung rather than three and the following refrain is sung immediately after the second central phrase. Such an omission of a third phrase is indicated on page 3 of Figure 6 by an arrow. Only singers B and E add a section of vocables to the statement of the lullaby. Thus they are the only singers represented in the fifth page of Figure 6. In the comparative score phrases of dissimilar length must be written within a similar horizontal space. For this reason it was at times necessary to omit the hyphens between the two syllables of puwva (e.g., puw-va). The capital letters found above the staff represent a simple form of contour analysis of the musical phrases. H represents the highest pitch of the phrase; L the lowest pitch. M represents any pitch found at the beginning or end of the contour which is neither its highest nor its lowest pitch. If the designation M is given to two pitches, and they are not the same, the higher is marked M2 and the lower M'. In the statements of the lullaby transcribed, each singer employs the same contour in singing the phrases A, B, and C. Singer A employs the con-

Hopi Lullaby

25

L M

L M
p. aLvf,

1Aa.

JLUj
p1W-v pvvq

P nl..
LH

p.w *K

n^u1Bj_ j
pu a4

L M
-'ha4PUw-

4-D
VWV- piwPN

L H
H t

5E.
L.G puw-va

6Fb.

sfznJ
PD AW pw_uys

pW_H

LPW LVK-VW

m8X2nt^
puwl p(W !S _- p^iX

Figure 6. Illustrative Transcriptions of the Melody

tour M-H-L and the other five singers the contour L-H-L. Although all singers but A make use of the same contour, the intervallic relationships are not necessarily the same. In Figure 7 I offer transcriptions of the melody of all performances of phrase A. Singer D sang only one statement of the lullaby. The other five singers sang two to four statements of the lullaby, either in continuity or in separate performances. Only singers B and C reasonably maintain both contour and pitch level. Singers A and F constantly raise their pitch levels as they progress from one statement of the lullaby to another, and this is reflected in the pitch level of the transcribed phrases. In most cases it is only the melodic contour which is stable.

26

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

Aa
1Aa. hU
ho-ho#W

L
)e

,!e
S- poo-pa-vI'e

L.

I
L H
?

L
I

H
I

28a.

Ja

ho-hoydR

nawiilim& -k y

L
3Ca.

I.

7lo-P-r' sh''e
ho-ho-#R sh6pobpave'e

L
w=LJ

L
_____

t
ho ho-~

'

'
t

su-p0oo-pave' e

UL
SE.

F LL

HI

. ho-ho-yalJ'

poo pav'e

H L I.

6Fb.
ho-hoigr n -iio'-knti
Figure 6. Continued

1L_

L
L

nr

Hopi Lullaby

27

M IAa. TTi
..

L
-

s~~~~

K1 >mi.
i A a0 pvU-vo,

r00-13

p PkttW puH^wa

rrn

H ------&. ,ZBO"~~~~~i 25,~~~~~~~~I

iiiiii !ii

L M fiR~

4I

puf)va pwVQ_

LH
i ^ -41 T
-

3Ca.

'

F"V u J[tTWI_ rW

m:.-^t

a -ikv,'u char _

pu^-l

puw-mye

H_

L M
..... aw-va

4D.

..

br"
x-

..

L P?

pu

Hk-l M Ln->toiym
5E.

H nM Ay
-

H n
- -

,,,,,

niFL
-

?l

Lo&' p

w' i ' -W

pe poo- pq-vee
Figure 6. Continued

ph_'a-

28

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

1Aa.-t#4J.
pu4-viava(,

j,
I

.
i
tt

r
VO puw-

wpa .

H LH m a b.~~~~~~~I i
i.J jJ

:r-~.~:',~,J4

Jj JJ J
i zeia z6ei Z( 4el

*-

pAAW-v pwLV(Zeirei 2IzZEQiZeiji-

3Ca.
pL- v puw

iH 4-D
--,--,~
L.

L
ZL
_

hra va pWpJ-va puwva

'ha_ pud-ua

SE

jo
haFiw go o

o
h 6.lo

IoIo o
lo io0 lo

Figure 6. Continued

Hopi Lullaby

29

26a.

z zei e i zeFzeize zef rei r zef

zef zet e

tFr '--

F._*.j. LA r. yv

lo
Figure 6. Continued

. , _t_ 7 I) 1. rr 4 r 7 r r I I ri 4 L y 6) Y L. U lolo si a r ha e ee heyhey

.e f.

' ..

Although the Hopis may conceive their melodies as a series of contours, this does not mean that they do not recognize melodic differences. After singer D had sung the lullaby, I played for her the recording of performance 1A. I then asked her if she had sung the same words and the same melody. She replied that the words were the same but that her melody was a little different from that sung by the other singer. The two transcriptions in question are 1A and 4D given in Figure 6. It can be seen that the words she sang are indeed the same except for the number of repetitions of puwva in the refrain. However, the contours of both the phrases and the refrain differ in the two performances. In Figure 8 I offer totals of the various contours employed in the eleven performances of the lullaby. The two occurrences of L-H-M are caused by the singer running out of breath before she finishes the phrase. It can thus be said that this contour is not produced intentionally. Thus, in reality, only two contours are employed in singing phrases A, B, and C. These two, of course, are very much alike. The sample is too small to permit the definite establishment of stylistic differences in the performance of this lullaby in the three different areas of the Reservation or the changes which have occurred over time. However, there is some evidence concerning such differentiation and change which should be considered. The versions of the lullaby sung by the three women from the First Mesa, singers D, E, and F, have one characteristic in common. This might be described as the performance of a melodic circumflex extending the second syllable of the word puwva. Three examples are given in Figure 9.

30

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

IAo

v.a e _i

2I3e M

h 3hcffb
hohok

hokhh hoh

Ibc

:1

= ~ib

:b

ho ho~ov,
ho ho9k
oho,#jt/M

hohoh)u'h hohytn

hoho/9

1-Ar"
5Ecbhorh#AU
hohoya

,ZrJ c~ifj
6CFc.!
hoho&'

hohoRu

hofo)auM
Figure 7. Performance of Phrase A Compared

hohoymdL

Hopi Lullaby
Contour Refrain Phrases

31

H-L-M

26

M-H-L

12

L-H-L

36

H-L-H

12

H-L

L-H-M

Figure 8. Contour Variations

Lullaby 2B was sung by a Navaho rather than a Hopi, and at a site off the Hopi Reservation. Nevertheless, performance 2B is similar in a number of respects to performance 3C from Shipaulovi, Second Mesa. The characteristics the two performances have in common are: 1) No refrain precedes the first statement of the phrases. 2) The following refrain consists of one group of four or five puwvas. 3) A tremolo-like effect is employed in singing the first puwva of the refrain. Figure 10 offers examples of this. One might conjecture that the Navaho learned the song from a Second Mesa Hopi. There remains the 1903 recording from the Third Mesa. This is primarily differentiated from the other lullabies by the contour with which the phrases are sung. Since I have only one example from the Third Mesa, and there is a fifty-three year lapse of time between this recording and the next recording of a Hopi in 1956, it is impossible to determine whether this is a stylistic characteristic of the Third Mesa or a form which has been modified in later use.

32

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

v pOw-

ha

ha pw -v

.FE.

VA puwfOF5.

Ia

v puWQ-

Ak!J

-HF.

PA-v6

J M~^~~~A 'a PV - vc

Figure 9. Puwva Configuration

What conclusions can be gained from the preceding analysis? Which elements are stable, which are variable, and what are the acceptable parameters of variation? In determining this, I have distinguished four levels, the first the most stable, and the last the least. At the first level I list those elements of text and melody which are always present in any statement of the song. Textwise, two phrases are always present, one of which is C. To this is added a refrain consisting of not less than one group of puwvas. Melodically, the initial motion of the phrase contours is ascending. In contrast, the initial motion of the refrain contours is descending. The second level consists of melodic elements which are always present in one or more alternative forms. Thus the melodic contour to which a group of puwvas is sung may continue to descend or may ascend to the initial pitch, or to an intermediate pitch. Three alternative contours are produced. In contrast, the pitch contours of the phrases after leaping upwards return to the pitch at which they began or to that just below it. Thus, two alternative contours are produced. At the third level are meaningful textual elements which may or may not be present in any statement of the song. Phrase A is almost always pres-

Hopi Lullaby

33

z3a.

3 Ca
....

^j~~~~
VL

fn
n

...

^
.

n/n^y I
pu-vA pQ/-v

FU

plW- Vt

ye

Figure 10. Puwva Configuration

ent, phrase B is frequently present in one of two alternative forms. An initial refrain is also more often present than not. At the fourth level I place the only element in this song which is subject to free variation, the section of vocables. In this, the singer has free choice of vocables and melodic contours and their association. To the above I add a number of deduced rules of order and number. Concerning textual phrases: If phrase B is present, it may precede or follow phrase C, but it may not precede phrase A. Concerning the textual refrains: If there is no initial refrain, the followwill consist of one group of puwvas. If an initial refrain is sung, refrain ing it and the following refrain may consist of one or two groups of puwvas. Concerning the phrase contours: A particular singer may employ either of the two possible contours, but not both. Concerning the refrain contours: The following refrain must not close with the pitch contour H-L. Either of the other two possible contours may be employed. Concerning the section of vocables: This must occur immediately after the following refrain. In sum, if a Hopi sings this lullaby we can be certain that elements from the first and second levels will be present. Some of the elements at the third level will probably be present and the one element in the fourth level possibly be present. The occurrence of these elements in any statement of the song will be controlled by certain rules of order and number. Assuming that the eleven performances studied are representative, this is an excellent example of the degree to which a song may be varied and still maintain its identity.

34
Notes

Ethnomusicology, Winter 1987

1. This article is a revised version of a paper given at the Conference of the Midwest Chapter of the Society for Ethnomusicology, Bloomington, Indiana, 7 April 1984. 2. This version was transcribed from a Library of Congress disc ( see above). The only information offered with the disc is that it is a Hopi lullaby recorded by Willard Rhodes. I applied to the collector for further information, and he was kind enough to supply me with the place and date of recording and the name of the informant. The recording was not made on the Hopi reservation, and Rhodes had no information concerning the home village of the informant. I therefore applied to the Hopi Tribal Council at Kykotsmovi for the later information. After some time, I received a reply from the Council's office informing me that the individual in question was not a Hopi, but "a Navaho who sang Hopi lullabies."

Sources of the Recordings

Man. 13 May 1903, Oraibi. Recorded by Natalie Curtis Burlin. Archives of Traditional Music accession number Pre '54-118-F, ATL No. 1554.12. 2A. Man. 1941. Village and Mesa unknown. Recorded by Willard Rhodes. Library of Congress AAFS L43, Side B, Band 5. 3C. Man. Summer, 1956. Shipaulovi, Second Mesa. Recorded by Robert Black. ATM accession number 60-005-F, ATL No. 1806.18. 4D. Woman. August 1960. Sichomovi, First Mesa. Recorded by George List. ATM accession no. 68-233-F, EC no. 2927. 5E. Woman. 2 August 1960. Sichomovi, First Mesa. Recorded by George List. ATM accession no. 68-233-F, EC no. 2928. 6-8E Woman. 8 August 1960. Sichomovi, First Mesa. Recorded by George List. ATM accession no. 68-233-F, EC no. 2931. 9-1lF Woman. 8 August 1960. Sichomovi, First Mesa. Recorded by George List. ATM accession no. 68-233-F, EC no. 2932. Singer A was recorded with a cylinger phonograph, singers C-F with open reel tape recorders. I have no information concerning the apparatus used in recording singer B but at that date, 1941, the recording would have probably been made on an acetate or aluminum disc. The three women I recorded lived in Sichomovi, the central village among the three found on the Mesa. There was no electric supply at that date in the village on the mesa. These conservative Hopis had not yet accepted electricity as part of the Hopi way of life. I recorded the singers in Polacca, the village which had been established below the mesa, at an apartment near the Day School. The recordings were made with an Ampex 601, full track, 71/2 IPS. 1A.

References
Gilman, Benjamin I. 1908 "Hopi Songs," in Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, Vol. 5, pp. 4-15, 69-226. List, George 1985 "Hopi Melodic Concepts." in Journal of American Musicological Society, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 143-152. Merriam, Alan P. 1975 "Ethnomusicology Today," in Current Musicology,Vol. 20, pp. 50-66.