The Verb

The general review

Grammatically, the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative function of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical, categories, but also in its various subclass divisions. The complicated character of the grammatical and lexico-grammatical structure of the verb has given rise to much dispute and controversy and also terminological disagreements among the scholars. The general categorical meaning of the verb is process. A verb is a word (e.g.: to run or a phrase (e.g.: run out of , which expresses the existence of a state (love, seem or the doing of an action (ta!e, play . "rom the point of view of their outward structure, verbs may be simple, composite and phrasal. The original simple verbs are not numerous (go, ta!e, real, etc . #ut conversion ($ero-suffixation as means of derivation, greatly enlarges the simple stem set of verbs. %t is one of the most productive ways of forming verbs in &'. 'x.: a cloud - to cloud, a house - to house, a man - to man, a park - to park. The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verb are: -ate; -en; -ify; -izy. The verb-deriving prefixes are: #e- (e.g.: belittle, befriend, bemoan ( 'n- (e.g.: engulf, embed ( )e- (e.g.: remake ( *nder- (e.g.: undergo ( +ver- (e.g.: overestimate ( ,ub- (e.g.: submerge ( &is- (e.g.: misunderstand The composite verb stems (blac!mail, whitewash, etc . -hrasal verbs occupy an intermediate position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word combinations. Among such stems . specific constructions should be mentioned: A a combination of the head-verb (have, give, ta!e and some others with a noun( the combination has its e/uivalent an ordinary verb. 'x.: to have a smoke - to smoke; to give a smile - to smile; to take a stroll - to stroll. # 0 combination of a head verb with a verbal postposition that has a specificational value. 'x. stand up; go on; give in; be off, get along. +n the basis of the sub1ect-process relation all the notional verbs be divided into actional and statal. Actional verbs express the action performed by the sub1ect. To this class belong such verbs as do, act, make, go, read, learn, discover, etc. Statal verbs denote the caste of their sub1ect. To this subclass belong such verbs as be live, survive, worry, suffer, see, know, etc. They usually occur in the simple form in all tenses. They are not generally used in progressive forms. #ut if there are used so there any change of meaning. '.g.: Oh, it hurts! Oh, it!s hurting! Finite & non-finite verbs The complicated structure and character of the verb has given rise to much dispute and controversy. The morphological field of the 'nglish verb heterogeneous. %t includes a number of groups or classes of verbs, which differ from each other in their morphological and syntactic properties. All 'nglish verbs have finite and non-finite forms. 2

The finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb- predicate. "inite verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular depending on the way the participle %% are formed. Non-finite verbs perform different functions according to their intermediary nature (sub1ect, ob1ect, adverbial modifier, attribute . They may be used as any member of the sentence but the predicate. %nside the sentence verbals ma!e up complexes with other members of the sentence. nlusin The nucleus of the morphological field of the verb is based on the finite verbs, and the periphery includes all other groups of verbs and verbals. The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb are categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood. This complete set is revealed in every word-form of the notional finite form. "rom the functional point of view the class of verbs may be subdivided into the set of full nominative value and partial. 3otional verbs are verbs of full nominative value. The set of partial nominative value represent semi-notional and functional verbs. The first set is derivationally open it includes the bul! of the verbal lexicon. The second set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characteri$ed by individual relational properties. Semi-notional and functional verbs include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, lin!-verbs. ,eminotional verbs (seem, happen, turn out, begin, continue, stop, fall, try, etc . Link-verbs: seem, appear, look, feel, become, get, grow, remain, keep. Auxiliar verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorical forms of the verb. These are the verbs be, have, do shall, will, should, may, might. Auxiliary verbs to give other information about actions and states. 'x. be may be used with the present participle of a full verb to say that an action was going on at a particular time (4in progress4 . " was swimming. !x"# The verb 5to have6 may be used with the past participle of a full verb to say that an action is completed (" have finished my #ob . 7in!-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative , which is commonly expressed by a noun, an ad1ective or a phrase of a similar semantico-grammatical character. %t should be noted that lin!-verb, although they are named so, are not devoid of meaningful content. Their function is connecting (lin!ing the sub1ect and the predicative of the sentence. The lin!ing function in the purest form is effected by the verb be (pure lin!-verb . All the lin!verbs other than the pure lin!s the pure specification express some specification (specifying lin!verbs . Two main groups: A perceptional lin! verbs: seem, appear, loo!, feel, taste. # factual lim!-verbs: become, get, grow, remain, !eep. 8erbals ma!e up a special grammatical category. The infinitive Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupies a uni/ue position. %ts status is that of the principal representative of the verb-lexeme as a whole. This is determined by the two factors: A its giving the most general dynamic name to the process( # its serving as the actual derivative base for all the other regular forms of the verb. The %nfinitive is intermediate between the verb and the noun. %t combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. %t is considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. The $artici%le The -articiple is intermediate between the verb and the ad1ective and adverb. The Present Participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb and those of the ad1ective and adverb, serving as /ualifying processual name. %n its outer

form the present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund and distinguishes the same grammatical categories. 7i!e all the verbals it has no categorical time distinctions, and the attribute 4present4 in its conventional name is not immediately explanatory( it is used from force of tradition. Past Participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the ad1ective, serving as the /ualifying processual name. %t is a single form, having no paradigm of its own. %t conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. The main functions in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative. The &erun' The gerund is the non- finite form of the verb, which li!e the infinitive combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. ,imilar to the infinitive, gerund serves as me verbal name of a process, but its substantive /uality is more strongly pronounced than that of the %nfinitive. A /uestion might arise, why the %nfinitive and not the gerund is ta!en as the head-form of the verbal paradigm9 The gerund cannot perform the function of the paradigmatic head-form for a number of reasons. %n the first place, it is more detached from the finite verb than the infinitive semantically. Then it is a suffixal form, which ma!es it less generali$ed. "inally, it is less definite, being sub1ect to easy neutrali$ation in its opposition. :ence the gerund is no rival of the infinitive in the paradigmatic head-form function. The formal sign of the gerund is wholly homonymous with that of the present participle: it is the suffix 6-ing6 added to the grammatically leading element. 7i!e the infinitive the gerund is a categorially changeable form. %t distinguishes the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition , and the category of voice (passive in opposition . ;onse/uently the categorical paradigm of the gerund includes < forms: the simple, the perfect active, the simple passive the perfect passive. (o'al Verbs &odal verbs express the attitude: ability, obligation, permission, advisability, probability. &odal 8erbs are defective in forms. They do not differentiate the category of person, number, voice, aspect, perfect, no future tense no verbals. They have lost many of their categorial meanings. &odal verbs or modals are concerned with our relationship with someone else. &odal have . ma1or functions which can be defined as primary and secondary. $rimar function of (o'al Verbs" %n their primary function &8s closely reflect the meanings: A of ability (can=could . = can lift $% kg&" can type. # of permission (may=might . 'ou may leave early. ; of prediction (will=would - (shall=should . "t will rain soon. > +f escapable obligation or duty (should=ought to . 'ou should (ought to) do as you are told. ' +f inescapable obligation. 'ou must be *uiet. " +f absence of obligation. 'ou needn!t wait. Secon'ar function of &8s %n their secondary function nine of modal auxiliaries can be used to express the degree of certainly=uncertainly a spea!er fuels about a possibility. They can be arranged on a scale from the greatest uncertainty (might to the greatest certainty (must . might may could can be right should have been right ?ou ought to @

would will must very certain almost certain

<

The category of aspect

The aspective meaning of the verb reflects the mode of the reali$ation of the process. The opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous represents the aspective category of development. The mar!ed member of the opposition is the continuous. %t is built by the auxiliary be plus the -resent -articiple. %n symbolic notation it is represented by the formula be...ing. The categorial meaning of the ;ontinuous is 4action in progress4. The unmar!ed member is the indefinite, which leaves the meaning unspecified. "our combinations of the continuous and the indefinite are possible in principle in &odern 'nglish. '.g.: +hile " was typing, ,ary and -om were chatting in the ad#oining room. +hile " typing, -om and ,ary were chatting in the ad#oining room. +hile " was typing, they chatted in ... +hile " typed, they chatted. ;learly, the difference in meaning cannot lie in their time denotations. The time is shown by their time signals (were - ed . The meaningful difference consists in the following: the continuous shows the action in the very process of its reali$ation( the indefinite points it out as a mere fact. Ae spea! of the morphological category of the verb, but care should be ta!en that the character of the development of the action may also be expressed lexically or remain implicit. '.g.: +hen " entered the room he was writing a letter. .e wrote and wrote the letter (le/ically). +hen " entered the room, he wrote a letter. %n the last sentence the form of the verb doesnBt express the ;ontinuous aspect explicitly because the spea!er isnBt interested in the action, but in the ob1ect of the action. Traditionally forms li!e 4is writing0 are called -resent, -ast, "uture ;ontinuous Tense, but that is not /uite right. ,uch forms should be called -resent Tense, ;ontinuous aspect (is writing). The -resent Tense is modified by the ;ontinuous. %t the ;ontinuous were a special tense then we should spea! of . tenses at once. #ut the action canBt develop in . tenses at once. %f the actions are not progressive by themselves (if they are not shown as progressive , the description will go without the continuous forms. The ;ontinuous refers a to a definite time-point. The category of development undergoes explicit various reductions: 2. The unlimitive verbs are very easily neutrali$ed 'x. -he night is wonderfully silent. -he stars shine with a fierce brilliancy, the 1outhern 2ross and wind. -he 3uke!s face seemed blushed, and more lined than some of his recent photographs showed. .e held a glass in his hand. $. 4s to the statal verbs, their neutrali$ation amounts to a grammatical rule. They are so called 4never-used-in-the-;ontinuous4 verbs: a the uni/ue 5to be6 and 5to have6( b verbs of possession, verbs of relation, of physical perception, of mental perception @. Aorthy of note is the regular neutrali$ation with the introductory verb supporting the participial construction of parallel action. 'x. .e stood smoking a pipe. 3ot normally: .e was standing smoking. 5. +n the other hand, the ;ontinuous can be used to denote habitual, recurrent actions. ;ontinuous verb forms are more expressive than non-continuous - they are used in emotional speech. 'x.: .e is always complaining. %. ,pecial note should be of the broadening use of the ;ontinuous with unlimitive verbs. :ere are some typical examples. 'x. " heard a rumor that a certain member here present has been seeing the prisoner this afternoon ('.&. "orster . " had a horrid feeling she was seeing right through me and knowing all about me. +hat matters is, you!re being damn fools (A.:ailey C. ;ompare similar transpositions in the expressions of anticipated future. '.g.: 3r. 4arons will be seeing the patient this morning (A.:ailey . 1oon we shall be hearing the news about the docking of the spaceships having gone through.
,ince the neutrali$ation of the ;ontinuous with these verbs is /uite regular, we have an emphatic reduction serving the purpose of speech expressiveness.

The ;ategory of voice

The category of 8oice expresses relations between the sub1ect and the ob1ect of the action or between the sub1ect and the action. The opposition of the passive form of the verb to the active form of the verb expresses the voice of the 'nglish 8erb. '.g.: writes - is written. The passive form is the strong member of the opposition. +n the plane of expression it is mar!ed by the combination of the auxiliary be with the -ast -articiple of the notional verb. The active form as a wea! member of the opposition expresses 4non-passivity4. The Active 8oice shows that the sub1ect of the sentence is the doer of the action. The -assive 8oice shows that the sub1ect is acted upon. The agent may be expressed in the sentence and itBs usually introduced with the help of the preposition by. 'x. -he book is written by a young writer. The sentence with the passive voice may include a means of the action, which is introduced, with the help of the con1unction with. 'x. -he book is covered with a newspaper. The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the 'nglish verb than in the system of the )ussian verb, since in 'nglish not only transitive but also intransitive verbs can be used. %n accord with their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into . large sets: the set of passivi$ed verbs and the set of non-passivi$ed verbs. %n particular the passive is alien to many verbs of the statal subclass, such as have, belong, cost, resemble, fail, misgive, etc. The demarcation line between the passivi$ed and non-passivi$ed set is not rigid, and the verbs of the non-passivi$ed set may migrate into the passivi$ed set in various contexts. 'x. -he bed has not been slept in. -he house seems not to have been lived in. ,ometimes the opposition between . forms may be reduced. %t means that the verb may be used in the Active 8oice form with the meaning of the -assive 8oice. *sually we observe it with medial verbs and some authors spea! of the medial 8oice. The matter is that verbs may be transitive (which re/uire a sub1ect and an ob1ect and intransitive (which do not re/uire an ob1ect because an action of the verb is directed at a sub1ect. 'x. .e reads a book. 1he smiled. &edial verbs do not re/uire any sub1ect but as the 'nglish sentence re/uires that the position of the sub1ect should be filled in, then the ob1ect fills in the position of the sub1ect. 'x. -he book sells well. Verbs that are Active in Form but $assive in (eanin& ,ome verbs which are usually followed by an ob1ect (to sell, to cut, to wash can be used without an ob1ect and ta!e on a passive meaning. %n this, case, the person carrying out the action of the 8erb is not referred to. 'x. -his book sells well, i.e. it is sold to many people. -he dress washes&irons, well, i.e. it is easily washed&ironed. -his material makes up nicely into suits, i.e. it can be used by the tailor for making suits. -he butter spreads easily, i.e. it can be spread easily. -he bread is cutting badly because it!s very soft, i.e. to cut the bread is difficult. Other tenses may also be used. -he book sold well. -he dress has washed well. -he material will make up nicely. 3ote: the verbs are followed by adverbs in the above examples. %t is also possible to omit the adverb, if the meaning is clear. This is often the case in the /uestion form and in the negative. '.g.: -he book didn!t sell, so it wasn!t reprinted. -he dress is very pretty. +ill it wash6 -he material should make up into a winter dress, shouldn!t it6 7utter won8t spread when it!s been in the fridge. +ill the bread cut6 "f not, try the other knife. There are some other verbs of this sort, with the nouns (sub1ects that they are often used with in this construction (4 car) drives, steers (4 clock) winds up (4 boat) sails (4 door) locks, unlocks (4 book) reads well & easily, i.e. the book is good & easy to read. 7arge native cigarettes smo!ed easily and coolly. The lion chops will eat better than they loo!. C

$roblem of neutrali)ation# $assive in form but active in meanin& Ahen dealing with the category of 8oice the problem is that the -assive 8oice constructions coincide with the compound nominal predicate ( was opened . %f this construction (be E -articiple %% expresses a state then it is a compound nominal predicate in the Active 8oice. 'x. -he window was broken and it was cold in the room. 1he was e/cited (a.v.) 1he was e/cited by the friend!s words. (9. :.) #esides there . 8oice some authors spea! of some more 8oice forms. The most popular are the )eflexive 8oice and the )eciprocal 8oice and the &iddle 8oice. 'x. 1he dressed herself. -hey helped each other. The reflexive and reciprocal pronouns should be loo!ed upon as the voice auxiliaries. ,uch word combinations are treated as analytical verb forms of the )eflexive or )eciprocal voice . :owever we canBt agree to the idea , because : 2. The reflexive=reciprocal pronouns preserve their lexical meaning but auxiliaries in analytical forms loose their meanings. .. There are syntactic relations between the components. The reflexive = reciprocal pronouns are ob1ects to the verbs. Ae can prove this by using homogeneous ob1ects. 'x. .e dressed himself and his brother. -hey praised one another and all the *uests. .e defended himself, a victim of the situation. :ence, such word combinations are free word combinations. As for the &iddle 8oice, some authors find it when comparing the following sentences: 'x. .e opened the door.--he door opened. The &iddle 8oice uses are cases of neutrali$ing reduction of the voice oppositions. 'x. .e broke the ice.--he ice broke. The verbs are active in form, but passive in meaning. 'x. 1he was delightful to look at, witty to talk to. Another case of neutrali$ation: ?ou are of mista!en (-assive in form, but active in meaning . %t expresses a state. The forms of the Active 8oice canBt be opposed and it there is no opposition we canBt spea! of any special grammatical category. %n sentences li!e 5the door opened6 we should spea! of medial verbs in the Active 8oice.

;ategory of Tense
The ;ategory of Tense is the basic verb category. %t expresses the correlation between the action and event and ob1ective time. Ae !now that the actions or event can exist and develop only in time. The morphological category of tense reflects the ob1ective logical category of time. #ut the difficulty is that the morphological category of tense doesnBt always express the ob1ective time. Ae should differentiate the notions of the ob1ective and relative time. %n the language we mostly deal not with ob1ective but with relative time. Ae can spea! of the ob1ective-time only in those cases wnen the moment of spea!ing coensides with a developing action. #ut actually we ta!e some moment of time as a starting point in reference to which all the actions are expressed. %f this starting point of time is ta!en in the plane including the moment of spea!ing then we deal with the -resent tense. Any action which proceeds this starting moment of time is expressed by the -ast Tense. And finally, any action which follows this starting point of time is expressed by the "uture Tense. ,o we differentiate @ principal tense forms in 'nglish: -resent, -ast, "uture. %n 'nglish there exists one more specific tense form which is called the 4"uture-in-the--ast4. This tense form is used when we want to say that the action is treated as "uture in reference to some -ast moment of time. The -resent Tense is formed by the %nfinitive without the particle to in the @-rd person singular the verb ta!es the inflexion -s(-es . The -ast Tense of the regular verb is formed with the help of the inflexion -ed. The -ast Tense of the irregular verbs is formed in some different ways: 2 by sound alternation (sit-sat-sat ( . by sound alternation and a dental suffix (!eep-!ept-!ept ( @ supplitively (be-was=were-been ( < without any change in the form of the verb (put-put-put . The "uture Tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb shall=will and the infinitive of the notional verb. The "uture-in-the--ast is formed with should=would and infinitive of the notional verb without the particle 4to4. Traditional grammar spea!s of 2C tense forms in 'nglish but actually there exist only < of them. The matter is that when spea!ing about an action we express its primary characteristics of tense but then it may be necessary to show the character of the development of the action or to compare the action with some other one and then in suchycases the primary tense category is modified by some other verb categories such as aspect (continuous or non-continuous , perfect (perfect or non-perfect . ,o we get complex analytical forms, which express not one category of tense but a number of them. 'x. %f we analy$e such forms, as 4is reading4 we should say that this verb expresses -resent Tense and continuous aspect or perfect. :ence the modification of the category of Tense by the category of aspect brings about the appearance of 2C verb forms. Ahen spea!ing about the category of tense we should remember that we distinguish different tense forms on the basis of some opposition. #ut in a number of cases these oppositions may be reduced. %t means that morphological form typical of one tense may express the meaning of some other tense. Ae usually observe it in definite contexts. 'x. The form of the -resent Tense may express the meaning of the -ast, "uture Tense in subordinate clauses of time and condition (%f % see him tomorrow % will as! him to do it for you . #esides the -resent Tense may be used to express an action planned for the "uture especially with verbs of motion. Ahen dealing with the category of tense we should touch upon one more problems, which is typical of 'nglish. The problem is !nown as the ,e/uence of tenses. %n 'nglish if the predicate verb in the main clause of a complex sentence is used in the past tense, the predicate verbs in the subordinate clauses G0n be used in the present or future tenses. The

-resent tense is replaced by the -ast Tense modified or not modified by the -erfect and the "uture Tense is replaced by the "uture-in-the--ast. The ,e/uence of tenses is explained by many traditional grammars as a mechanical shift of tenses. :owever, this explanation canBt be treated as ade/uate. 3o mechanical shift ta!es place. %n the events in the main and subordinate clauses are simultaneous, then the same tense forms are used. %f the events of the subordinate clause precede the events of the main clause, than the predicate verb in the subordinate clause is modified by the -erfect. %n the actions the subordinate clause follow the events of the main clause, then the predicate verb ta!es the specific form in the "uture-in-the--ast. Ae observe this correlation of events only when the starting temporal center is in the -ast. #ut if the starting point is in the -resent, no se/uence of tenses is observed and we use any tense form in the subordinate clause or clauses, which is re/uired by the logical se/uence of events. ,o what we mean by the traditional term ,e/uence of Tenses that is in reality se/uence of events is nothing but a synthesis of two categorical notions: 2 The category of tense which expresses the relation of the action to some moment of time.( . The category of perfect, which expresses the relation of actions to each other.

The ;ategory of &ood

The category of &ood is the most controversial category of the verb. #.A. %lyish: 4 The category of mood in the present 'nglish verb has given rise to so many discussions, and has been treated in so many different ways, that it seems hardly possible to arrive at any more less convincing and universally acceptable conclusion concerning it.4 Among the scholars to be named in the first place in relation to the problem are A.%. ,mirnits!y, whose theories revolutioni$ed the presentation of 'nglish verbal grammar( then #.A. %lyish , a linguist who made a great contribution to the general problem of mood( then ?.3. 8orontsova( J.,. Khlebni!ova. The category of &ood expresses the relations between the action, denoted by the verb, and the actual reality from the point of view of the spea!er. The spea!er may treat the action=event as real, unreal or problematic or as fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or as an imaginary phenomenon. %t follows from this that the category of &ood may be presented by the opposition obligue mood - direct mood L unreality L reality. -he former is the strong member. -he latter is the weak member. &ood relates the verbal action to such conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility. The most disputable /uestion in the category of mood is the problem of number and types of +bligue &oods. +bligue &oods denote unreal or problematic actions so they canBt be modified by the category of tense proper. They denote only relative time, that is simultaneousness or priority. >ue to the variety of forms itBs impossible to ma!e up regular paradigms of +bligue &oods and so classify them. ,ome authors pay more attention to the plane of expression, other to the plane of content. ,o different authors spea! of different number and types of moods. The most popular in Grammar has become the system of moods put forward #y -rof. ,mirnits!y. :e spea!s of C mood forms: The %ndicative &ood ,ub1unctive %% The %mperative &ood The ;onditional &ood ,ub1unctive % The ,uppositional &ood Sub*unctive + expresses a problematic action. ,ub1unctive % is used in American 'nglish and in newspaper style. ,ub1unctive % coincides with the %nfinitive without the particle to. 'x.: ;ing me up if he would be there. This mood is expressed in 'nglish to a very minor extent (e.g.: 1o be it then! . %t is only used in certain set expressions, which have to be learned as wholes: 2ome what may, we will go ahead. .eaven forbid that... <od save the =ueen! 1o be it then. 1uffice it to say that... >ong live the ?ing! 7e that as it may... <rammar be hanged! This &ood is also used in that clauses, when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, etc. The use of this sub1unctive % occurs chiefly in formal style (and especially in Am ' where in less other devices, such as to - infinitive or should L infinitive. "t is necessary that he be there. "t is necessary that he should be there. "t is necessary for him to be there. Sub*unctive ++ denotes an unreal action and it coincides in the form with the -ast %ndefinite Tense (,ub1unctive %% -resent or -ast -erfect (,ub1unctive %% -ast . 'x .: " wish he had told the truth. "f only he were here! &ood is expressed in 'nglish to a much greater extent by past tense forms. '.g.: 2M

"f you taught me, " would learn *uickly. "f she was&were to do smth like that. .e spoke to me as if " was& were deaf... " wish " was&were was 3ote: 2 @+asA is more common in less formal style . +nly @wereA is acceptable in 4As it were4 (L so to spea! @ @+ereA is usual in 4%f % were you4. The ,on'itional (oo' denotes an unreal action and is built by the auxiliary verb 4world4 E any %nfinitive a non-perfect infinitive expresses ,imultaneousness while a perfect infinitive expresses priority. '.g.: 7ut for the rain we would go for a walk. 7ut for the rain we would have gone... The Su%%ositional (oo' also expresses a problematic action and is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb 4should4 for all the persons E %nfinitive. '.g.: ;ing me up if he should be there. This mood can be used with any verb in subordinate that - clauses when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation resolution, demand etc. (demand, re/uire, insist, suggest... '.g.: "t is necessary that every member should inform himself of these rules B "t is necessary for every member to inform... "t is strange that he should have left so early. Sub*unctive + and the Su%%ositional (oo' are differentiated only by their form but their meaning is the same. Ta!ing into consideration the fact that the forms of the -bli&ue (oo's coincide in many cases with the forms of the %ndicative &ood, there arises a problem of homonymy or polysemy. '.g.: .e lived here. (The indicative &ood, -ast Tense, -riority, real action . "f only he lived! (,ub1unctive %%, simultaneousness, unreal action

22

;+3>%T%+3A7 ,'3T'3;',
-he 4dvanced Cnglish 2ourse for Doreign 1tudents by #rian Kelly, #.A. 7., 7ongmans, 2IHM, pp. FC-I2. Theme 58erb: &ood6

A" PROSE PASSAGES" .See also %ars" /01-/02"3 4" *nless Eim stops burning the candle at both ends, he may ruin both his health and his prospects. :e is certainly going the pace. %f he were able to loo! into the future, he would not be so wild. There is no doubt that he will go to the bad. unless he changes his ways. %n any case, he will not get on in the world, if he gives way to his inclinations so easily. %f he tried to control himself, and live more /uietly, it would be better for him. #ut he is game for anything, when he is in one of his wild moods. %f a young man fools away the time that he should spend in study, he cannot e/pect to come off with flying colours in his examinations. #ut Nim ma!es fun of steadiness, and says that if it means drudgery, hard work is not worth while. According to him, a life that did not include women, wine, and cards, would not be life at all, but mere existence. :e forgets that if you do not take advantage of your opportunities while you are young, your life must necessarily be a failure afterwards. 'ven supposing a man like that got over his folly later, and turned over a new leaf, it would probably be too late. %f you should see him, % thin! you ought to try to persuade him of his foolishness. 'ou might tell him that it is a shame to see a brilliant young fellow li!e him ma!ing a fool of himself. %f you would try, % thin! it might do some good. >o you thin! you could9 *nless we lay our heads together and find some way of getting him away from the company he is !eeping, he will so to the dogs altogether. #ut as long as he meets all attempts to help him with high words, it will be difficult even for the friends of a lifetime to have patience with him. "t would be difficult to expect anybody to lend a helping hand to a man. == he persisted, as Nim does, in placing a wrong construction on everything that is said to him. %f only he realized that his friends are acting for the best, it might be possible to do something for him. #ut if he persists in calling everybody a busybody for ta!ing an interest in his welfare, he must not be surprised if they draw in their horns. %f he keeps on in that strain, everybody will give him up as a bad 1ob. ,upposing everybody were to behave as he does, what would become of the world9 :e says that it would be a better place to live in( and that he would be more impressed with my remar!s, did he not suspect that % spea! with my tongue in my chee!. %t seems that he has heard rumors of my own gay and 1oyous youth. All % can say is that if his actions were to be considered as a norm of natural behaviour, then = should have been considered an anchorite by comparison. = should be the last person in the world to condemn a little fun. provided it did not interfere with the more serious business of life. 4 nation can only prosper on condition O that its citizens work hard and live soberly. +f course. if Eim is bent on pic!ing /uarrels with his best friends, he may do so, provided that he does not come running to them afterwards to ma!e friends again. %f he sows his wild oats, we are not going to reap the crop. 5" % must visit &rs. P. today, because she is not well again. %f she were more careful of her health, she would not have these attac!s. Things would be different with her, if only she took the rest that she so badly needs. #ut she will not, unless somebody convinces her of the necessity for it. 1he would get into a state of nervous excitement, if her relatives were to press her too much about it. ,upposing someone did so, it would only aggregate the already dangerous state in which she now finds herself. % dare say she could easily get better, provided she took a little more nourishment. #ut even supposing she did, it would probably be of little use, for she would immediately start overtaxing her strength again. ,he would work from dawn to dus!, provided she could stand on her feet. ,he tries to be patient, but finds it difficult. ,he says that if only people would remember how miserable cantan!erousness ma!es those around them, sick people might be more patient. %f she let her daughter &ary loo! after household matters, it would be a help. #ut she says that &ary is very young yet( and that the servants would probably not obey 2.

her. if she were in charge. % thin! that &rs. P. is mista!en. % am sure that the servants would obey &aty without hesitation, provided that ,rs. F. supported her with her authority. /" %n the third exercise, we saw that Nohn and &aty had decided to go to Aorthing. 4 Ahat station do we leave from94 as!ed Nohn. 4Aaterloo,4 answered &ary promptly. 4"f we hurry, we should get a train at about two thirty. %f we should be late for that, we could get one about half an hour later.4 4 "f you would decide beforehand what we are going to do over the wee!-end, and avoid this last-minute rush.4 said Nohn, 4 we might have some chance of getting somewhere sometime.4 Arrived at Aaterloo ,tation, &ary made her way to the in/uiry-office. 42ould you tell me what platform the trains leave for Aorthing from9 4 she as!ed. 4 " might, if this were 8ictoria ,tation,4 answered the cler! with a grin. 4'ou might try going there.4 4 Aell nowQ " must have been mistaken,0 cried &ary gaily, turning to Nohn. 4 Ahat do you thin! of that94 4 %f " were to say what % thought,4 growled Nohn, 4 this building would go up in flames.4 4 +h, well,4 said &aty cheerfully, 4 anybody might make a mista!e. 'ou might have made sure yourself before we started, instead of leaving it all to me.4 4 #ut what shall we do9 4 persisted Nohn. 4 "f we went to 8ictoria at once, we might get a train to arrive in Aorthing somewhere before four. #ut the afternoon would be half over. 2ouldn!t we get a train for some place from this station9 +e might try ,alisbury, where you were born. % wish we had some !ind of hi!erBs guide-boo!.4 4 As! at that boo!stall over there,4 suggested &ary. 4 And if they have one, buy it.4 4 +ould you mind showing me some !ind of hi!erBs guide 9 4 said Nohn( at the boo!stall. 4 ;ertainly, sir,4 said the assistant. 4 ,ight " suggest this one 9 4 4 2ould " have a look at it first 9 4 said Nohn, and examined it. 4 % wish you would consult me before paying for things,4 said &ary, on loo!ing NohnBs purchase over. 4 "f you did, you might buy the wrong thing less often. This one has nothing about camping-grounds.4 4 ,ight " suggest,0 remar!ed Nohn, 4 that ,aturday afternoon is hardly the best time to buy boo!s of the !ind anyway 9 'ven if we should find one, it would be too late to ma!e any use of it.4 &ary stood stoc!-still in the middle of the station. 4% want a proper guide-boo!Q4 she wailed. 4?ou would get the wrong one G 'ou might try and please me 1ust for once. %f you were really a loving husband, you would. ?ou have been behaving li!e a bear all afternoon. "f you don!t stop, "!ll scream G 0 And she loo!ed as if she would, too. Nohn cast an uneasy glance around at the passers-by, who were eyeing 4the pair curiously. 4 ;ome on,4 he said urgently. 4 %f you go on li!e that, we will never get anywhere. 7etBs go to 8ictoria, by all means, and see if there is a train. Though we should have been in Aorthing by now, if you had not made the silly mista!e of bringing us here first.4 4 "f you were as clever as you thin! you are, you wouldn!t have let me ma!e it.4 retorted &ary. 4 7oo! here, if we go into all that again, we shall be here all night,4 answered Nohn impatiently. 4 7etBs go.4 They got into a train at a /uarter past three, and had to ta!e seats separately, at opposite ends of the coach, the train was so crowded. Nohn reflected that it might have been worse, for he re/uired time to cool down. :e found himself sitting with a married couple and their child, and got into conversation with them. 4 ,ight " ask you,0 he said to the man, 4 if your wife li!es hi!ing 9 4 4 %f she does,0 replied the man, 4 she!s kept the secret pretty well. 'ou might ask her, though.4 4 %f " did,0 replied the lady, with a placid smile, 4 it wouldn!t make much difference, anyway. "t would take a good deal to move my husband out of his garden over a wee!-end.4 2@

4 7uc!y husband Q 4 said Nohn. 6" %f you should happen to meet a seer who could loo! into the future as well as into the past, you might let me !now. %f = had ever met such a person, = should have asked him to drop in and have a chat, long ago. "or there are so many interesting /uestions that = could have asked him. "or it seems to me that many of the events which have so influenced modern life might not have taken place, and that many of the advantages we now en1oy could never have been ours, had not certain men lived Bin certain countries at certain dates. "or instance, unless there are financial or personal reasons to slop me, = can go to America if " want to. >o % owe this to ;olumbus and %sabella of ;astile, or should " have been able to go even if these people had never seen the light9 Again, it would be interesting to !now what would have happened to Asia &inor and 3orth Africa if ,ahomed had never been born ( and whether the <reek Cmpire might have recovered from the decline that had set in or whether some other power would have hurried it on to its ruin and destruction. %f >uther had been a >ominican instead of an Augustinian, what a difference it might have made. -he flower of the ;enaissance need not have withered so soon in northern 'urope ( ?ant!s philosophy might have taken a different direction ( .enry the Cighth might not have repudiated his first wife( and Cnglish thought might perhaps have been a little more logical. #ut in that case, we should not have had the charming destructiveness of #ernard ,haw, or the wild and beautiful expression of ,hellyBs spiritual hunger. %f we had not taken Aestern ideas to Napan, need we have been worrying to-day about her expansion in the "ar 'ast 9 3ared she have underta!en the ;hinese adventure, if Cngland and the H.1.4. had put, their foot down firmly in the beginning 9 +ould " have had a vote to-day, if ;ousseau had not written his 4 ,ocial ;ontract,4 and if :oltaire had not blazed up in a white flame of anger at the in1ustices of his epoch 9 As for the Great Aar, could the 4llies have been .successful, if <ettysburg had been lost instead of gained by the forces of the 3orth 9 Aho !nows . . .9 There are so many 4ifs4 in lifeQ 7" T8! 9S! -F T8! ,-N:+T+-NAL S!NT!N,!S /1" %n a simple statement of cause and effect (par. CC , the verb which expresses the condition is either of the same tense as the verb that expresses the result, or one of the verbs is in the present tense, and the other is in the present perfect. !"&"# "f you mi/ glycerine with potassium permanganate, you get spontaneous combustion. %f you live in 7ondon, you have learnt what fog is. "f you have lived in &adrid, you know the -uerto del ,ol. %f one lived in 7ondon during the war, one had to do without many luxuries. %f you have been in )ome, you have probably seen ,t. -eterBs. /2" Ahere the possibility of fulfilling the condition is entertained, we express the residt by means of 0shall0 or 4 will0, or by means of the imperative, or by means of any other suitable anomalous finite in the present tense. -he condition can be expressed by means of any ordinary verb in the present tense. !"&"# %f " drink wine with my lunch to-day, = shall feel uncomfortable all afternoon. "f you break your 1ourney-in -aris, you will have time to see 3otre >ame. %f Eohn studies hard, he may pass the exam. %f you finish your wor! before six, you can go home. %f you get the opportunity, you must meet her. "f you go to 7ondon, you must visit the #ritish &useum. %f he comes here, you ought to refuse to see him. %f he calls, tell him = am not at home. .e will talk about religion, if he can get a listener. "f you really are unwell, you had better go to bed. %f he gives the order, = dare not obey it. "f his father leaves him the money, he need not work any more. "f you really are diabetic, you must not eat sugary food. %f you cannot control your temper, you should not get into arguments. 6;" %f the fulfillment of the condition is considered less likely or less welcome than some other alternative, however,4 should0 is used in the conditional clause. '.g., 1hould he refuse to do it, 2<

arrest him at once. 1hould the worst come to the worst, " can always leave the country. 1hould the crisis come, " shall be at my post. 64" Ahen the fulfillment of the condition is considered rather unlikely, the condition is expressed by the preterit (*.v.) of any suitable verb ( and the result by means of 4 should,0 0 would,0 0 might,0 or 4 could 0. '.g., "f " drank wine with my lunch, = should be uncomfortable all afternoon. -rovided = broke my 1ourney in -aris, = could see 3otre >ame. "f she stood up to her husband, he would not bully her. .e might be cured of his tuberculosis, on condition that he went to some place li!e ;olorado.2 65" Ahere the fulfillment of the condition is considered highly improbable, or impossible, the condition is expressed by means of the anomalous finite 4 were0 in all three persons, followed by the infinitive with 4 to,0 or by a noun or pronoun complement. The result is expressed by 4 should,0 0 would,0 0 might,0 or 4 could 0 The use of 0should0 in the second and third persons strengthens the unreality of the supposition. C.g., Ahere should one finish, if one were to act in accordance with that criterion. %f = were you, " should not do it. = could never forget it, were " to live to be a hundred. %f he were to live in -aris, he might change his ideas about "renchmen. = would help you, if = were able to. %f = were rich, " could do a lot of things that % cannot do now. 6/" Ahen the fulfillment of the condition depends on chance, we express the condition by means of 0should0 with an infinitive, in all three persons. The result is expressed by an infinitive preceded by the past or present tense of any of the anomalous finites except4 will0 and 4 would0 in the meaning of custom or obstinacy, and 4 used to.0 -he imperative can also be used. C.g., "f you should see Nohn, you may as well humor him. %f = should come into a fortune, = might go on a trip round the world. %f you should find the boo!, send it along to my house. %f you should happen to hear from him before tomorrow, you can telephone me. %f you should hear any strange noise, you must telephone the police at once. %f he should find himself in difficulties, he ought to be able to extricate himself easily. %f you should be unable to finish the wor! in time, you had better ask &iss ,mith to help you. %f they should find the dog, they will let you know at once. %f the lions should escape, they would be caught at once. %f it should get dark before you arrive, you need not be afraid, as the roads are /uite safe. % dare not thin! what = might do if he should get ill. = might do anything. 66" Ahen the fulfillment of the condition depends on consent, 4 would0 with an infinitive expresses the condition in all three persons (par. .2 (# . The result is expressed by 4 should0 0 would,0 0 might,0 or 4 could.0 '.g., = might understand you better, provided you would speak a little more slowly. = could not do it if = would. "f he would show a little more good will. = would help him. %f he would arrange the preliminaries, = could go on with the wor! alone. 60" ;onditionals dependent on consent are often used incompletely in polite language.2 The result with 4 might0 is also used alone, often indignantly. 2ould you send the parcel at once9 %.e., 2ould you send the parcel now, if you would6 'ou might get the letter written at once. %.e., 'ou might write the letter now, if you would. 'ou might at least be polite! 'ou might wipe your feet before you come inQ % had rather you did not go. 6<" To indicate a past condition, which was not fulfilled, the condition is expressed by 4 had 0 or 4 could have 4 followed by a past participle( and the result is expressed by means of the perfect infinitive of any suitable verb, preceded by the past tense of any anomalous finite except 4had better0 0used to,0 and must (obligation . C.g., %f = had told him that, he would have been angry. %f the wireless operator had repaired his transmitter, the ship could have been saved. %f you had received the order, you should have obeyed. %f = had got your letter in time, = could have come. %f he could have found a friend, he need not have starved. %f he had been threatened with a pistol, he dare not have resisted. .ad " known, " should have come. 2ould he have helped me, he would have done so. .ad he lived, he was to have been -rime &inister.
%n this class of sentence, the condition is often left une/pressed. C.g.: >o you thin! that "red will pass his exam. 9 Aell, of course, he might . . . i.e., .e might, if he studied. Aill you lend me five pounds9 Aell, of course, = could . . . i.e., = could if " trusted you.
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6</" The part of the sentence which expresses the condition can be introduced by one of the following con#unctions: on condition that as long as provided providing if if only suppose supposing unless !x"# Hnless Nohn stops playing the fool, he will not be a success in life. 1upposing everybody behaved li!e- that, what would become of the world 9 4s long as he continues obstinate, one cannot, do anything about it. ,he could get better, provided she too! a little nourishment. 6<<" The con1unction introducing the condition is often omitted when the fulfilment of the condition is unlikely (par. <2 ( highly improbable or impossible (par. <. ( or unwelcome (par. <M . %t can also be omitted in sentences expressing a condition depending on chance (par. <@ ( or a past condition that was not fulfilled (par. <C . %n all these cases, the condition is introduced by an anomalous finite, followed immediately by its sub1ect. '.g., 1hould he refuse to pay, see your solicitor9 3id " !now, % might tell you. +ere he to live in -aris, he might change his ideas. 1hould you see Nohn, as! Bhim to ring you up. .ad " told him, he would have been angry. .ad " got your letter( % could have arranged the matter. There might be some possibility of my helping you, did " have the money. ," !=!>,+S!S -N T8! ,-NST>9,T+-N -F ,-N:+T+-NAL S!NT!N,!S" (a) ;hange -rose -assage (i so as to convey that fulfillment of the conditions expressed is rather unlikely. (b) ;hange -rose -assage (. so that the sentences express past conditions unfulfilled. (c ;hange the following sentences, so as to indicate that the fulfillment of the4 conditions given is unwelcome. !"&"# %f people tal! scandal in her presence, &ary tells them that they ought not to run down their friends and neighbors. %f they ta!e it badly and brea! off with her, &ary remains as cool as a cucumber. %f they drop on her, she says, she has no need to worry. %f they do not mind their pBs and /Bs while they are with her, it is necessary for her to bring it home Bto them that they must not tear other peopleBs characters to shreds. %f they want to ma!e innocent fun of other people, it is /uite another matter. %f they send her to ;oventry as a result of her attitude, well and good. ,he can grin and bear it. (d) ;hange the sentences in the following passage, so as to convey that the fulfillment of the conditions expressed is almost or completely impossible. !"&"# %f ,olomon conies bac! to earth again, he will find everything changed, at least superficially, with the exception of the heart of man. :e will notice, for instance, if he pic!s up a newspaper, that all men are still liars. %ndeed, he will be enormously surprised if he finds any thing else to be the case. As he remar!ed some thousands of years ago, 4 That which is croo!ed cannot be made O straight.4 %f he enters the divorce courts and listens to the divorce cases, he will find that model wives are as scarce as ever. And if anyone tells him with pride., that women can now be freed from bad husbands, he will murmur inconse/uently, 4 Aho can find a virtuous woman 9 "or her price is above rubiesQ 4 ,hould anybody as! him what he thin!s of all the wonderful discoveries that have been made since his time, he will answer obstinately, 4 %s there anything whereof it may be said B This is new ...4 There is no new thing under the sun.4 #ut he will notice one new thing, 1ust the same. :e will observe, provided he gets the opportunity to mix with a few 'nglish families, that whereas in his day the women got their own way with their menfol! by diplomatically managing them, they now rule the poor males openly and brutally. And, unless he is more unobserving than % ta!e him to be, he will draw consolation from the fact that a man need not, indeed cannot, any longer be saddled with a hundred shrewish wives at once, but can have them one at a time, if he is willing to spend sixty pounds or so in divorce expenses. (e) Ahere possible, change the following sentences so as to convey that the conditions depend for their fulfilment either on chance or on consent. 2C

!"&"# %f % get a lot of money left to me, % shall start a newspaper. ,upposing somebody reali$es what good % can do in this way, and provides me with the wherewithal, the newspaper will be a sensation. Ahat will you say if you pic! up a newspaper that tells the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth9 %f % get the necessary capital, and if % manage to find ten men or so who are incrable of lying, the success of the venture is assured. #ut it will be difficult to fulfil these conditions. &ost people, including newspapermen, cannot underta!e to tell the truth, even if they want to. "or he is a brave man who tries to tell the truth to others, when he cannot tell it to himself. %f you ever meet a man who can be perfectly fran! with himself, you might introduce me to him. And if he wants to ta!e on the chief editorship of my paper, % shall pay him an enormous salary. #y pure force of truth, he will ma!e the thing a success, even if % do not find any others li!e him to assist him. RRR 2.;hange -rose -assage (< so as to ma!e the sentences express conditions whose fulfillment is rather likely. .. ;lassify the conditional sentences in -rose -assage (@ under separate headings, according to the class of condition expressed. :" ?9!ST+-NS -N T8! $>-S! $ASSA@!S 2. &ay Nohn ruin his health and prospects9 Ahat would prevent him from being wild9 Ahat is there no doubt of9 Aill he get on in the world9 Ahat would be better for him9 Ahen is he game for anything9 Ahat cannot a young man expect9 Ahat does Nim ma!e fun of9 Ahy9 Ahat !ind of life would be mere existence9 Ahat does he forget9 %f a man li!e that got over his folly, what would be the result9 %f you should see him, what ought you to do9 Ahat might you tell him9 Ahat might do some good9 *nless we lay our heads together, what will happen9 %f he meets all attempts to help him with high words, what will be the result9 Ahat would it be difficult to expect anybody to do9 *nder what condition might it is possible to do something for him9 Ahy must not he be surprised if people draw in their horns9 %f he !eeps up in that strain, what will happen9 Ahat does he say would happen if everybody were to behave as he does9 *nder what condition would he be more impressed with my remar!s9 Ahat is your answer to that9 Aould you condemn a little fun9 :ow can a nation prosper9 *nder what condition may Nim pic! /uarrels with his best friends9 %f he sows his wild oats, who will reap the crop9 .. *nder what conditions would &rs. P. not have her attac!s9 :ow could things be different with her9 Aill she ta!e the rest she needs9 %f her relatives were to press her, what would happen9 Ahat would aggravate her state9 :ow could she get better9 Aould nourishment be of any use9 Ahat would she do from dawn to dus!9 Ahat does she say would ma!e sic! people more patient9 Ahat would be help9 >oes she thin! the servants would obey &ary9 *nder what condition would the servants obey &ary B9 @. >oes &ary expect to catch the two thirty9 >oes she consider the unwelcome possibility of missing it 9 :ow do you !now9 Ahat remar! does Nohn ma!e about last minute rushes9 Ahat did &ary say at the Aaterloo in/uiry office9 Ahat did the cler! answer9 >id &ary as! Nohn what he thought of it9 And what did Nohn answer9 Ahat does &ary thin! Nohn might have done9 Ahat does Nohn thin! might happen if they went to 8ictoria immediately9 Ahat does &ary tell Nohn to do at the boo!stall9 Ahat does Nohn say at the boo!stall9 Ahat did the assistant say9 Ahat did Nohn answer9 Ahy did &ary wish Nohn would consult her before buying things9 Ahat suggestion did Nohn as! to be allowed to ma!e9 Ahat did &ary do then9 Ahat did she wail that Nohn might try and do9 %f he didnBt stop behaving li!e a bear, what would she do9 Ahy did Nohn cast an uneasy glance around9 Ahat did he say urgently9 Ahat did he suggest9 *nder what condition would they have been in Aorthing by then9 Ahat was &aryBs retort, and NohnBs impatient answer9 Ahat did Nohn reflect when he had to ta!e a seat separate from &ary9 Ahat /uestion did he as! the man passenger9 Ahat did the man answer9 Ahat did the lady reply when he as!ed her if she li!ed hi!ing9

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<. Ahat might you let me !now 9 %f % had met a seer, what should % have done 9 Ahat could % have as!ed him 9 Ahat does it seem to me 9 *nder what condition can % go to America 9 Ahat reflex ion do % ma!e about ;olumbus and %sabella of ;astile 9 Ahat would it be interesting to !now about Asia &inor and 3orth Africa 9 Ahat is an interesting con1ecture about the fate of the Gree! 'mpire 9 Ahat might have happened if 7uther had been a >ominican 9 Ahat should we probably not have had, in li!e case 9 Ahat about Napan9 Ahat reflection do % ma!e about my right to vote 9 *nder what conditions would the Allies not have been able to win the war 9

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