02 Mountain-Risks Laloui Soil Mechanics Part02

Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations
Saturation states
4. 3. Residual Partially saturated state 1. 2. Saturated Quasi-saturated state state SS 0.1 Vw / V = 1 r < r=
Liquid phase 0.1 << S 0.85 Liquid 0.85 phase S 1is isdiscontinuous, r < r < air phase is air continuous Liquid and phases are continuous phase is both continuous Possibility continuous, ofair negative phase pore is discontinuous water pressure The uw<0fluid phase (gaz + liquid) becomes compressible
lyesse.laloui@epfl.ch
Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations

When the soil pores are filled by more than one fluid, e.g. water and air, the porous material is termed unsaturated with respect to the wetting fluid: Water, uw Gas, ua Water, uw Solid grains Solid grains
Saturated
The matric suction s is defined as:
Unsaturated
s = (u a u w )
Water retention curve

The water retention curve plots the evolution of the degree of saturation, Sr, as a function of the matric suction.
Sr 1
1 2 3 4
Hydric hysteresis
Sr(res) se
Funicular Pendular
Ln s
Sr(res) :Residual degree of saturation se : Air entry suction, below which Sr =1

1. Hydric loading path

Idealized shape of the volumetric response(s):
Ln s
D 2 wetting 1 drying D Unsaturated zone C B C
NC OC
0
se C C sB
E
B A
Saturated zone
A E
Sr
vh
Isotropic mechanical loading path

v
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 C3 B3
Volumetric response
to drained isotropic consolidation under three levels of applied suction, p = exterior load Points A2, B2 and C2 delimit the elastic domain for each path They define a yield locus in (p-s) plane called
A3
s
C1 B1 A1 A2 B2
Ln(p)
C2 C3 B3 A3
Loading Collapse (LC)

yield curve (Alonso et al., 1990 BBM)
Ln(p)
Wetting collapse
p
D C A C
For given soils, a decrease in suction can induce a collapse. A necessary condition to obtain plastic compression on wetting is a preliminary mechanical consolidation. LC curve Elastic domain
B Swelling Collapse
v
A
s
AB: drying (p=const.) BC: mechanical consolidation (s=const.) CC: wetting elastic swelling CD: wetting plastic collapse
C D
B C
s
Variations in degree of saturation

p
F G The mechanical load may have an influence on the degree of saturation, provided that mechanical solicitations induce elasto-plastic changes in the void ratio, and thus in the fluid volume fractions EEE Drying-wetting (p=0) EF Mechanical consolidation (Sr=const.=1) FGF Drying wetting (p=const.)
Sr
F E
se
Ln(s)
S res
G E
se
Ln(s)
Effective stress for a multiphase material

Extending Terzaghis proposal to unsaturated soils: Effective stress Gas, ua Water, uw
d 'ij = d ij u ij
=1
Continuum solid
Solid Multi-phase description
Single-phase description
Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:
= ( ij ua ij ) + (ua uw ) ij ij
Effective stress for a multiphase material

In Bishops equation, the effective stress parameter is expressed as a function of Sr (involving volume ratios)
= f ( Sr )
Experimental determination The relation is not unique for all materials
(adapted from Jennings and Burland 1962)
A possible approximation is:
= Sr
(Schrefler 1984)
Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

Both the Bishops effective stress concept and the independent stress framework allow the description of the effect of suction on the mechanical behaviour For a complete description of the hydro-mechanical coupling the Bishops effective stress is not sufficent.
1 Mechanical behaviour
Advanced feature: 2-sided coupling
Hydraulic behaviour
3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

Mechanical behaviour
Stress and strain variables stress strain rate
= ( ij pa ij ) + Sr s ij
Modifications to the constitutive model:
&ij
- Use of a complete elastoplastic framework -The influence of suction on the mechanical behaviour must be taken into account 1 (e.g suction-induced hardening)
1 Mechanical behaviour Hydraulic behaviour

Hydraulic behaviour
The mechanical model needs to be completed: Evolution of Sr and s need to be known to obtain the effective stress
= ( ij ua ij ) + S r s ij
A full description of the state of the material must include the hydric behaviour :
Mechanical behaviour 2
Hydraulic behaviour
The hydraulic part undergoes the influence of the mechanical state (coupling 2 )

The work input rate study leads to work conjugate stress variables and strain rates:
stresses strain rates
= ( ij pa ij ) + Sr s ij
&ij
Mechanical behaviour Hydraulic behaviour
s = pa pw
& S r
In this combination, if Bishops generalised effective stress is choosed for the mechanical part, the stress variable for the hydric part is the matric suction
A constitutive model for unsaturated soils

ACMEG - S
In this section, a constitutive model is presented, taking into account the typical features of behaviour listed below:
Effects of suction on mechanical response: - Increase of preconsolidation pressure - Decrease of compressibility - Increase of shear strength
1 Mechanical behaviour
Coupled elastoplastic framework
Hydraulic behaviour
2
Effect of mechanical state on hydric response - Shifting of the water retention curve

ACMEG - S Referring to previous discussion, the following stress framework is adopted: Stresses work conjugate strain rates
= ( ij ua ij ) + S r s ij
(Bishops generalised effective stress)
&ij
(soil skeleton strain)
s
(matric suction)
& S r
(degree of saturation)
The model is formulated within the framework of hardening plasticity The strain rate is decomposed into an elastic and a plastic part:
&ij = &ij + &ij

e
Isotropic stress paths

ACMEG - S
vm
A1 C1 A2
(a)
s
D1 C1 D2 A1 D3 A3 C3
(b)
(s)
D2 D3 C2 C3 A3
C2
D1 m/(1+e0) m/(1+e0)
A2
se
E
LC yield curve
Ln p'
p'c0
p'
Under this type of loading, i.e. mechanical load at constant level of suction, the strain rate is elastic-plastic:
m me m p & & & v = v + v
The parallel representation of experimental results in ( v ln p ') and ( s p ') planes lets appear the existence of a yield curve.
Isotropic stress paths : LC yield curve

ACMEG - S
Comparison between numerical and experimental results

( s ) = pc 0 for 0 < s < se pc s ( s ) = pc 0 1 + s log for s > se pc se
400 350 300 250
100
(Sharma 1998) Bentonite/kaolin mix
90 80 70 s (kPa) 60 50 40 30
(Kane 1973) loess
s (kPa)
200 150 100 50 0 0 100 200 P' (kPa) 300 400 EXP model
EXP model
20 10 0 0 50 P' (kPa) 100
150
LC Curve: behaviour under hydric loading

ACMEG - S
Ln s
D
Ln s
D LC curve Elastic zone
se
E A
C B
se
C B E A
p'c0
p'
vh
Path AB : ( 0<s<se , Sr=1 ) initially overconsolidated material. Drying equivalent to mechanical load and provokes elastic deformations. Path BC: (0<s<se , Sr=1 ) plasticity threshold reached, yielding on LC Path CD : (0<s<se , Sr=1) - partial saturation state, pc increases faster than , so the deformations are reversible. Path DE : upon wetting, fully reversible behaviour
LC curve: swelling collapse mechanisms

ACMEG - S
s sA
A B C
The path followed is a wetting on a initially consolidated material. LC curve Elastic zone
sB sC se
v
Path AB : The stress state remains inside the elastic domain.
Ln(p')
B A C
sA sC sB
= net + s
, so
if s
, then
. .
Path BC: The yield limit is reached on point B. Further wetting provokes a yielding on the LC curve. The only possible straining is a plastic compression to reach point C.
Ln(p')
Deviatoric stress paths

The modified Cam-clay model (Schofield and Wroth, 1968; Roscoe and Burland, 1968) is extended to unsaturated states by substituting Terzaghis effective stress by Bishops generalised effective stress. The deviatoric yield surface is simply expressed as follows:
2 2 f = q M p ( pc ( s ) p ) = 0
which includes the effects of suction such as the increase pc with s The critical state line is assumed unique in (p-q) plane and obeys the relation: q = Mp The elastic part of the deviatoric strain increment is simply written:
&d =
e
& q 3G
with G being the elastic shear coefficient (assumed independent on suction)

Deviatoric stress paths

ACMEG - S
Graphical representation of the yield surface

ACMEG - S
Modelling the hydraulic behaviour :
( , )
Mechanical Mechanical behaviour behaviour
( s, S r )
Hydraulic behaviour 2
The aim of the second part of the model is the description of the evolution of the hydraulic stress and strain variables, respectively s and Sr. Model for the soil water retention curve (SWRC) The mechanical influence on the hydric state is introduced by the HM coupling
Modelling the soil water retention curve

ACMEG - S
Hydraulic behaviour Hydric hysteresis

Sr 1 Sr
A B C
MODEL
Sr(res) se Ln s Sr(res)
E D
se sd sw
Ln s
CD: Main drying curve AB: Saturated part , 0<s<se DE: Reversible slope , Kh , Sr = constant = 1. EB: Main wetting curve d = S at point C s is called the drying yield suction, S w d r sw(unsaturated is the wetting yield suction, Sr slope =Sr atr point E BC: state) s Reversible d
log = h ( S r S r ) s & s s s dW s K h ( s) = K h0 & = d = with the elastic modulus S S log log = S S S ( ( ) ) h r r h r r sref r s s K h (s) Wd
Coupling with mechanical part

ACMEG - S
Sr e1<e0 e0 se Ln s
Sr
A B C
Sr(res)
Sr(res)
E se1 se2
Ln s
The mechanical straining of the material may cause the water retention curve to be shifted right. Shifting of water retention curve piloted by the air entry value se, which is dependent on the volumetric strain: Mechanical state v
se(vp)
(Sr-s) relation
Mass and momentum balances

Water/solid mass balance
neglected for twophase modeling
n S w n w p w n S w p g S w s + w p w t S w s t + k rw K s w w v + w (p g ) =0 n Sw n g pg n Sw p w 1 Sw s + g pg t 1 Sw s t + k ra K s g g v + g (p g) =0
[' - Sw pwI - (1- Sw) pg I] + g = 0
Air/solid mass balance
Momentum balance of the three-phase mixture
Content
Introduction to Geomechanics Introduction standard approach Effective stress concept Soil constitutive behaviour Seepage Advanced Geomechanics for Landslides Hydro-Mechanical coupling Unsaturated soils Finite elements simulations
Predicting time-dependent (Trisenberg) landslide
Location
Principality of Liechtenstein Slope in the Rhine valley : 5 km2 The infratructures of Triesen and Triesenberg are subject to significant damage induced by the movements during critical periods The major difficulties in modelling the Triesenberg landslide are related to the huge area of instability, the unsaturated conditions of the slope and the relatively low velocity of the movements.
4 km
Location
24
1.5 km 3 km
Two main parts :
Deeper-seated slope movement : 1.7 km2 - 74 Mio m3 Active slide : 3.1 km2 37 Mio m3 Mean inclination : 24 Mean depth : 10 to 20 m
Kinematic
Sliding mass Slip surface
Bedrock
Mean term velocity of the surface movements
Inclinometric profile
Surface movement : Medium term (> 20 years) Short term (+/- 1 year) Exceptionally (< 1 month)
From 0,5 to 3 cm per year From 0,1 to 4 cm per year Until 6 cm per year
Vertical distribution of movement : A well-defined slip surface

Morphology
-Three distinct active zones -The general shape of the whole instability phenomena is curved while the directions of the movement vectors are almost parallel -Three bowl-shaped parts in the in-depth profile of the slide along a transversal cross-section (this should correspond to the BC of each independent slide)
Three quasi-independant landslides
-The damages on infrastructures and buildings are mainly concentrated along the region corresponding to the crests
Hydrogeology
Hydraulic input from Valna Valley Direct infiltration Double feeding system in piezometric observations
Tacher et al.
Water table is about 20 m to 30 m below the soil surface at the top of The upper part : Buntsandstein sandstone, schists and limestones the landslide, whereas at the bottom, it almost reaches the surface The lower part : Austroalpine Triesen Flysh (clayey schists) The: landslide takes Rhine place river in unsaturated conditions for a large part of its profile Toe alluvia
2D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling] 2 main actives zones

Zone clearly observable on the map of the average annual displacements
Initial time 1st January 2000

8
Continuous inclinometer B5 Inclinometer KL1A Inclinometer KL1A (Trend) Numerical modelling
Displacements [cm]
Good agreement with the general trend The measured values are higher than the simulated ones
6 4 2 0 May/15/2000 Nov/15/1999 Sep/15/2000 Mar/15/2000 Jan/15/2000 Jul/15/2000
Date
3D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling]
D isplacem e nts 7 6 P ore w a ter pre ssure 100 Pore water pressure [kPa] 90
Displacements [mm]
Displacements [mm]
Displacements [mm]
40 distribution 20 April August of the movements Qualitatively, the simulated is fairly similar50 to the 5 80 40 4 70 30 and GPS) of annual 0 measured values (by survey displacement
12 9
3 2
60 50
Pore water pressure [kPa]
20
-20
30
The modelling results 1 40 exhibit one main active zone within each slide, which is fairly 20 10 -40 0 30 small in size 0 -60 10
3
-1
50
20 10 0 150 20 0 250 300 T im e [d a ys]
50
100 150 200 250 300 Tim e [days]
50
100 150 20 0 25 0 30 0 T im e [d a ys]
Elastic reversible behaviour
Elasto-plastic (irreversible) behaviour lyesse.laloui@epfl.ch
Pore water pressure [kPa]
50
D isplacem e nts P ore w ater pre ssure
D is pla ce m e n ts P o re w ater pre ssure

40
15
60
Stabilizing La Frasse landslide
Characteristics of the landslide
Instabilities induced by : Hydraulic pore pressures (crises) Viscosity of the materials (between crises)
Background
Evolution of the observed displacements of three points A, B, C on La Frasse Landslide and of rainfall (monthly and 6-month running mean values). The shaded triangular bands represent the range of long-term average velocity characterizing the zones in which points A, B and C are located.
Hydro-Mechanical Modelling
433 m 1890 m
406.3 kN/m
2D Mesh: 1694 nodes, 1530 elements Six layers with different mechanical characteristics
600.0 kN/m
Main assumptions: Hydro-mechanical coupled formulation Darcys law for the fluid phase + saturated media + K = f(porosity) Cyclic elasto-plastic + viscoplastic constitutive laws (Mohr-Coulomb, Cap, Hujeux)
Comparison between two constitutive laws: cyclic elastoplastic model (Hujeux) and elasto-perfectly plastic model (Mohr-Coulomb) Crisis 94 300 days Displacement point 1
2 1
Horizontal displacement
Horizontal displacement [m]
Vertical displacement
Vertical displacement [m]
0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05

0 50 100 150
0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08

0
M-C
Hujeux EP
M-C
Point 1
200 250 300
Point 1
50 100
Hujeux EP
150 200 250 300
Time [Days]
Time [Days]
Influence of drainage pumping

Crisis 94 300 days Displacement point 1
2 1
0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 Point 1 -1.2
0 50 Vertical displacement [m]
5 4 3 2 1 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [Days] Without pumping
With pumping
Point 1
With pumping
Without pumping 250 300
100 150 200 Time [Days]
Influence of drainage pumping

Crisis 94 300 days Displacement point 2
2 1
0.1
Vertical displacement [m]
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1

0 50 100 150 200 Time [Days] 250 300
With pumping Without pumping
0.05 Without pumping 0 -0.05 -0.1

0 50 100 150 200 Time [Days] 250 300
With pumping
Point 2
Point 2
Conclusion
Conclusions
Natural slopes represent complex phenomena to model, both in space and time Strong need for numerical analysis Multiphase coupled formulation and unsaturated soil mechanics may significantly improve the modelling Advanced 3D FEM analysis is confirmed to be a useful tool for the design and selection of risk mitigation strategies
Conclusion Recent publications

Franois B., L. Tacher, C. Bonnard, L Laloui, V. Triguero. Numerical modelling of the hydrogeological and geomechanical behaviour of a large slope movement: The Triesenberg landslide (Liechtenstein). Canadian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 44, pp. 840-857, 2007. Nuth M., Laloui L. Effective Stress Concept in Unsaturated Soils: Clarification and Validation of a Unified Framework. International Journal of Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (in press), 2007. Charlier R, L. Laloui, F. Collin Numerical modelling of coupled poromechanics processes. REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 10, N6-7, pp. 669-702, 2006. Laloui L., M. Nuth. An introduction to the constitutive modelling of unsaturated soils. REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 9, N5-6, pp. 651670, 2005. Tacher L., C. Bonnard, L. Laloui, A. Parriaux. "Modelling the behaviour of a large landslide with respect to hydrogeological and geomechanical parameter heterogeneity". Landslides journal. Vol. 2, N1, pp. 3-14, 2005.
Conclusion
Course Notes
Could be obtained at : www.lelivre.ch
Laloui L. "Mechanics of Porous Media". Course notes Doctoral programme of Mechanics - EPFL, 2006. 122 pages. Laloui L. "Ecoulements souterrains". Course notes for students of the Civil Engineering Section of the EPFL, 2002 (new edition in 2007). 114 pages. Laloui L. "Seepage and Consolidation in Tunnelling". Course notes Master of Advanced Studies in Tunnelling - EPFL, 2007 (95 pages). Laloui L. "Groundwater Flows Interacting with Structures". Course notes for the Advanced-level courses in hydraulic schemes, EPFL 2001.

02 Mountain-Risks Laloui Soil Mechanics Part02

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Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations

Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations

Water retention curve

Sr(res) :Residual degree of saturation se : Air entry suction, below which Sr =1

1. Hydric loading path

Isotropic mechanical loading path

Loading Collapse (LC)

Variations in degree of saturation

Effective stress for a multiphase material

Solid Multi-phase description

Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:

Effective stress for a multiphase material

(adapted from Jennings and Burland 1962)

A possible approximation is:

Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

1 Mechanical behaviour Hydraulic behaviour

3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling

Mechanical behaviour Hydraulic behaviour

A constitutive model for unsaturated soils

A constitutive model for unsaturated soils

&ij = &ij + &ij

Isotropic stress paths

Isotropic stress paths : LC yield curve

Comparison between numerical and experimental results

(Kane 1973) loess

20 10 0 0 50 P' (kPa) 100

LC Curve: behaviour under hydric loading

LC curve: swelling collapse mechanisms

Path AB : The stress state remains inside the elastic domain.

Deviatoric stress paths

with G being the elastic shear coefficient (assumed independent on suction)

Deviatoric stress paths

Graphical representation of the yield surface

A constitutive model for unsaturated soils

Modelling the hydraulic behaviour :

Modelling the soil water retention curve

Hydraulic behaviour Hydric hysteresis

Coupling with mechanical part

Mass and momentum balances

neglected for twophase modeling

Air/solid mass balance

Momentum balance of the three-phase mixture

Predicting time-dependent (Trisenberg) landslide

Two main parts :

Sliding mass Slip surface

Mean term velocity of the surface movements

Vertical distribution of movement : A well-defined slip surface

Three quasi-independant landslides

2D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling] 2 main actives zones

Initial time 1st January 2000

Continuous inclinometer B5 Inclinometer KL1A Inclinometer KL1A (Trend) Numerical modelling

6 4 2 0 May/15/2000 Nov/15/1999 Sep/15/2000 Mar/15/2000 Jan/15/2000 Jul/15/2000

3D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling]

Pore water pressure [kPa]

20 10 0 150 20 0 250 300 T im e [d a ys]

100 150 200 250 300 Tim e [days]

100 150 20 0 25 0 30 0 T im e [d a ys]

Elastic reversible behaviour

Elasto-plastic (irreversible) behaviour lyesse.laloui@epfl.ch

Pore water pressure [kPa]

D isplacem e nts P ore w ater pre ssure