THE REVOLT OF ISLAM

by BERNARD LEWIS
When did the conflict with the West begin, and how could it end? Issue of 2001-11-19 Posted 2001-11-19

IMAKING HISTORY

President Bush and other Western politicians have taken great pains to ake it clear that the !ar in !hich !e are engaged is a !ar against terroris "not a !ar against Arabs# or# ore generally# against $usli s# !ho are urged to %oin us in this struggle against our co on ene y& 'sa a bin Laden(s essage is the opposite& )or bin Laden and those !ho *ollo! hi # this is a religious !ar# a !ar *or Isla and against in*idels# and there*ore# inevitably# against the +nited States# the greatest po!er in the !orld o* the in*idels& In his pronounce ents# bin Laden akes *re,uent re*erences to history& 'ne o* the ost dra atic !as his ention# in the 'ctober -th videotape# o* the .hu iliation and disgrace. that Isla has su**ered *or . ore than eighty years&. $ost A erican"and# no doubt# European"observers o* the $iddle Eastern scene began an an/ious search *or so ething that had happened . ore than eighty years. ago# and ca e up !ith various ans!ers& We can be *airly sure that bin Laden(s $usli listeners"the people he !as addressing"picked up the allusion i ediately and appreciated its signi*icance& In 0102# the 'tto an sultanate# the last o* the great $usli e pires# !as *inally de*eated "its capital# 3onstantinople# occupied# its sovereign held captive# and uch o* its territory partitioned bet!een the victorious British and )rench E pires& 4he 4urks eventually succeeded in liberating their ho eland# but they did so not in the na e o* Isla but through a secular nationalist ove ent& 'ne o* their *irst acts# in Nove ber# 0155# !as to abolish the sultanate& 4he 'tto an sovereign !as not only a sultan# the ruler o* a speci*ic state6 he !as also !idely recogni7ed as the caliph# the head o* all Sunni Isla # and the last in a line o* such rulers that dated back to the death o* the Prophet $uha ad# in 895 A&D& A*ter a brie* e/peri ent !ith a separate caliph# the 4urks# in $arch# 015:# abolished the caliphate# too& During its nearly thirteen centuries# the caliphate had gone through any vicissitudes# but it re ained a potent sy bol o* $usli unity# even identity# and its abolition# under the double assault o* *oreign i perialists and do estic odernists# !as *elt throughout the $usli !orld& ;istorical allusions such as bin Laden(s# !hich ay see abstruse to any A ericans# are co on a ong $usli s# and can be properly understood only !ithin the conte/t o* $iddle Eastern perceptions o* identity and against the background o* $iddle Eastern history& Even the concepts o* history and identity re,uire rede*inition *or the Westerner trying to understand the conte porary $iddle East& In current A erican usage# the phrase .that(s history. is co only used to dis iss so ething as uni portant# o* no relevance to current concerns# and# despite an i ense invest ent in the teaching and !riting o* history# the general level o* historical kno!ledge in our society is abys ally lo!& 4he $usli peoples# like everyone else in the !orld# are shaped by their history# but# unlike so e others# they are keenly a!are o* it& In the nineteen<eighties# during the Iran<Ira, !ar# *or instance# both sides !aged assive propaganda ca paigns that *re,uently evoked events and personalities dating back as *ar as the seventh century& 4hese !ere not detailed narratives but rapid# inco plete allusions# and yet both sides e ployed the in the secure kno!ledge that they !ould be understood by their target
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audiences"even by the large proportion o* that audience that !as illiterate& $iddle Easterners( perception o* history is nourished *ro the pulpit# by the schools# and by the edia# and# although it ay be"indeed# o*ten is"slanted and inaccurate# it is nevertheless vivid and po!er*ully resonant& But history o* !hat= In the Western !orld# the basic unit o* hu an organi7ation is the nation# !hich is then subdivided in various !ays# one o* !hich is by religion& $usli s# ho!ever# tend to see not a nation subdivided into religious groups but a religion subdivided into nations& 4his is no doubt partly because ost o* the nation<states that ake up the odern $iddle East are relatively ne! creations# le*t over *ro the era o* Anglo<)rench i perial do ination that *ollo!ed the de*eat o* the 'tto an E pire# and they preserve the state<building and *rontier de arcations o* their *or er i perial asters& Even their na es re*lect this arti*iciality> Ira, !as a edieval province# !ith borders very di**erent *ro those o* the odern republic6 Syria# Palestine# and Libya are na es *ro classical anti,uity that hadn(t been used in the region *or a thousand years or ore be*ore they !ere revived and i posed by European i perialists in the t!entieth century6 Algeria and 4unisia do not even e/ist as !ords in Arabic"the sa e na e serves *or the city and the country& $ost re arkable o* all# there is no !ord in the Arabic language *or Arabia# and odern Saudi Arabia is spoken o* instead as .the Saudi Arab kingdo . or .the peninsula o* the Arabs#. depending on the conte/t& 4his is not because Arabic is a poor language",uite the reverse is true"but because the Arabs si ply did not think in ter s o* co bined ethnic and territorial identity& Indeed# the caliph ' ar# the second in succession a*ter the Prophet $uha ad# is ,uoted as saying to the Arabs# .Learn your genealogies# and do not be like the local peasants !ho# !hen they are asked !ho they are# reply> (I a *ro such<and<such a place&( . In the early centuries o* the $usli era# the Isla ic co unity !as one state under one ruler& Even a*ter that co unity split up into any states# the ideal o* a single Isla ic polity persisted& 4he states !ere al ost all dynastic# !ith shi*ting *rontiers# and it is surely signi*icant that# in the i ensely rich historiography o* the Isla ic !orld in Arabic# Persian# and 4urkish# there are histories o* dynasties# o* cities# and# pri arily# o* the Isla ic state and co unity# but no histories o* Arabia# Persia# or 4urkey& Both Arabs and 4urks produced a vast literature describing their struggles against 3hristian Europe# *ro the *irst Arab incursions in the eighth century to the *inal 4urkish retreat in the t!entieth& But until the odern period# !hen European concepts and categories beca e do inant# Isla ic co entators al ost al!ays re*erred to their opponents not in territorial or ethnic ter s but si ply as in*idels ?kafir@& 4hey never re*erred to their o!n side as Arab or 4urkish6 they identi*ied the selves as $usli s& 4his perspective helps to e/plain# a ong other things# Pakistan(s concern *or the 4aliban in A*ghanistan& 4he na e Pakistan# a t!entieth<century invention# designates a country de*ined entirely by its Isla ic religion& In every other respect# the country and people o* Pakistan are" as they have been *or illennia"part o* India& An A*ghanistan de*ined by its Isla ic identity !ould be a natural ally# even a satellite# o* Pakistan& An A*ghanistan de*ined by ethnic nationality# on the other hand# could be a dangerous neighbor# advancing irredentist clai s on the Pashto<speaking areas o* north!estern Pakistan and perhaps even allying itsel* !ith India&
IITHE HOUSE OF WAR

In the course o* hu an history# any civili7ations have risen and *allen"3hina# India# Areece# Ro e# and# be*ore the # the ancient civili7ations o* the $iddle East& During the centuries that in European history are called edieval# the ost advanced civili7ation in the !orld !as undoubtedly that o* Isla & Isla ay have been e,ualled "or even# in so e !ays# surpassed"by India and 3hina# but both o* those civili7ations re ained essentially li ited to one region and to one ethnic group# and their i pact on the rest o* the !orld !as correspondingly restricted& 4he civili7ation o* Isla # on the other hand# !as ecu enical in its outlook# and e/plicitly so in its aspirations& 'ne o* the basic tasks be,ueathed to $usli s by the Prophet !as %ihad& 4his !ord# !hich literally eans .striving#. !as usually cited in the Boranic phrase .striving in the path o* Aod. and !as interpreted to ean ar ed struggle *or the de*ense or advance ent o* $usli po!er& In principle# the !orld !as divided into t!o houses> the ;ouse o* Isla # in !hich a $usli govern ent ruled and $usli la! prevailed# and the ;ouse o* War# the rest o* the !orld# still inhabited and# ore i portant# ruled by in*idels& Bet!een the t!o# there !as to be a perpetual state o* !ar until the entire !orld either e braced Isla or sub itted to the rule o* the $usli state& )ro an early date# $usli s kne! that there !ere certain di**erences a ong the peoples o* the ;ouse o* War& $ost o* the !ere si ply polytheists and idolaters# !ho represented no serious threat to Isla and !ere likely prospects *or conversion& 4he a%or e/ception !as the 3hristians# !ho $usli s recogni7ed as having a religion o* the sa e kind as their o!n# and there*ore as their pri ary rival in the struggle *or !orld do ination"or# as they !ould have put it# !orld enlighten ent& It is surely signi*icant that the Boranic and other inscriptions on the Do e o* the Rock# one o* the earliest $usli religious structures outside Arabia# built in Cerusale bet!een 810 and 815 A&D&# include a nu ber o* directly anti<3hristian pole ics> .Praise be to Aod# !ho begets no son# and has no partner#. and .;e is Aod# one# eternal& ;e does not beget# nor is he begotten# and he has no peer&. )or the early $usli s# the leader o* 3hristendo # the 3hristian e,uivalent o* the $usli caliph# !as the By7antine e peror in 3onstantinople& Later# his place !as taken by the ;oly Ro an E peror in Dienna# and his in turn by the ne! rulers o* the West& Each o* these# in his ti e# !as the principal adversary o* the %ihad& In practice# o* course# the application o* %ihad !asn(t al!ays rigorous or violent& 4he canonically obligatory state o* !ar could be interrupted by !hat !ere legally de*ined as .truces#. but these di**ered little *ro the so<called peace treaties the !arring European po!ers signed !ith one another& Such truces !ere ade by the Prophet !ith his pagan ene ies# and they beca e the basis o* !hat one ight call Isla ic international la!& In the lands under $usli rule# Isla ic la! re,uired that Ce!s and 3hristians be allo!ed to practice their religions and run their o!n a**airs# sub%ect to certain disabilities# the ost i portant being a poll ta/ that they !ere re,uired to pay& In odern parlance# Ce!s and 3hristians in the classical Isla ic state !ere !hat !e !ould call second<class citi7ens# but second<class citi7enship# established by la! and the Boran and recogni7ed by public opinion# !as *ar better than the total lack o* citi7enship that !as the *ate o* non<3hristians and even o* so e deviant 3hristians in the West& 4he %ihad also did not prevent $usli govern ents *ro occasionally seeking 3hristian allies against $usli rivals"even during the 3rusades# !hen 3hristians set up *our principalities in the Syro< Palestinian area& 4he great t!el*th<century $usli leader Saladin# *or instance# entered into an agree ent !ith the 3rusader king o* Cerusale # to keep the peace *or their utual convenience&

+nder the edieval caliphate# and again under the Persian and 4urkish dynasties# the e pire o* Isla !as the richest# ost po!er*ul# ost creative# ost enlightened region in the !orld# and *or ost o* the $iddle Ages 3hristendo !as on the de*ensive& In the *i*teenth century# the 3hristian counterattack e/panded& 4he 4atars !ere e/pelled *ro Russia# and the $oors *ro Spain& But in southeastern Europe# !here the 'tto an sultan con*ronted *irst the By7antine and then the ;oly Ro an E peror# $usli po!er prevailed# and these setbacks !ere seen as inor and peripheral& As late as the seventeenth century# 4urkish pashas still ruled in Budapest and Belgrade# 4urkish ar ies !ere besieging Dienna# and Barbary corsairs !ere raiding lands as distant as the British Isles and# on one occasion# in 085-# even Iceland&

4hen ca e the great change& 4he second 4urkish siege o* Dienna# in 0829# ended in total *ailure *ollo!ed by headlong retreat"an entirely ne! e/perience *or the 'tto an ar ies& A conte porary 4urkish historian# Silihdar $eh et Aga# described the disaster !ith co endable *rankness> .4his !as a cala itous de*eat# so great that there has been none like it since the *irst appearance o* the 'tto an state&. 4his de*eat# su**ered by !hat !as then the a%or ilitary po!er o* the $usli !orld# gave rise to a ne! debate# !hich in a sense has been going on ever since& 4he argu ent began a ong the 'tto an ilitary and political Elite as a discussion o* t!o ,uestions> Why had the once victorious 'tto an ar ies been van,uished by the despised 3hristian ene y= And ho! could they restore the previous situation= 4here !as good reason *or concern& De*eat *ollo!ed de*eat# and 3hristian European *orces# having liberated their o!n lands# pursued their *or er invaders !hence they had co e# the Russians oving into North and 3entral Asia# the Portuguese into A*rica and around A*rica to South and Southeast Asia& Even s all European po!ers such as ;olland and Portugal !ere able to build vast e pires in the East and to establish a do inant role in trade& )or ost historians# $iddle Eastern and Western alike# the conventional beginning o* odern history in the $iddle East dates *ro 0-12# !hen the )rench Revolution# in the person o* Napoleon Bonaparte# landed in Egypt& Within a re arkably short ti e# Aeneral Bonaparte and his s all e/peditionary *orce !ere able to con,uer# occupy# and rule the country& 4here had been# be*ore this# attacks# retreats# and losses o* territory on the re ote *rontiers# !here the 4urks and the Persians *aced Austria and Russia& But *or a s all Western *orce to invade one o* the heartlands o* Isla !as a pro*ound shock& 4he departure o* the )rench !as# in a sense# an even greater shock& 4hey !ere *orced to leave Egypt not by the Egyptians# nor by their su7erains the 4urks# but by a s all s,uadron o* the British Royal Navy# co anded by a young ad iral na ed ;oratio Nelson& 4his !as the second bitter lesson the $usli s had to learn> not only could a Western po!er arrive# invade# and rule at !ill but only another Western po!er could get it out& By the early t!entieth century"although a precarious independence !as retained by 4urkey and Iran and by so e re oter countries like A*ghanistan# !hich at that ti e did not see !orth the trouble o* invading"al ost the entire $usli !orld had been incorporated into the *our European e pires o* Britain# )rance# Russia# and the Netherlands& $iddle Eastern govern ents and *actions !ere *orced to learn ho! to play these ighty rivals o** against one another& )or a ti e# they played the ga e !ith so e success& Since the Western allies"Britain and )rance and then the +nited States"

e**ectively do inated the region# $iddle Eastern resisters naturally looked to those allies( ene ies *or support& In the Second World War# they turned to Aer any6 in the 3old War# to the Soviet +nion& And then ca e the collapse o* the Soviet +nion# !hich le*t the +nited States as the sole !orld superpo!er& 4he era o* $iddle Eastern history that had been inaugurated by Napoleon and Nelson !as ended by Aorbachev and the elder Aeorge Bush& At *irst# it see ed that the era o* i perial rivalry had ended !ith the !ithdra!al o* both co petitors> the Soviet +nion couldn(t play the i perial role# and the +nited States !ouldn(t& But ost $iddle Easterners didn(t see it that !ay& )or the # this !as si ply a ne! phase in the old i perial ga e# !ith A erica as the latest in a succession o* Western i perial overlords# e/cept that this overlord had no rival"no ;itler or Stalin" !ho they could use either to da age or to in*luence the West& In the absence o* such a patron# $iddle Easterners *ound the selves obliged to obili7e their o!n *orce o* resistance& Al Faeda"its leaders# its sponsors# its *inanciers"is one such *orce&
III"THE GREAT SATAN"

A erica(s ne! role"and the $iddle East(s perception o* it"!as vividly illustrated by an incident in Pakistan in 01-1& 'n Nove ber 5Gth# a band o* a thousand $usli religious radicals sei7ed the Areat $os,ue in $ecca and held it *or a ti e against the Saudi security *orces& 4heir declared ai !as to .puri*y Isla . and liberate the holy land o* Arabia *ro the royal .cli,ue o* in*idels. and the corrupt religious leaders !ho supported the & 4heir leader# in speeches played *ro loudspeakers# denounced Westerners as the destroyers o* *unda ental Isla ic values and the Saudi govern ent as their acco plices& ;e called *or a return to the old Isla ic traditions o* .%ustice and e,uality&. A*ter so e hard *ighting# the rebels !ere suppressed& 4heir leader !as e/ecuted on Canuary 1# 012G# along !ith si/ty<t!o o* his *ollo!ers# a ong the Egyptians# Bu!aitis# He enis# and citi7ens o* other Arab countries& $ean!hile# a de onstration in support o* the rebels took place in the Pakistani capital# Isla abad& A ru or had circulated"endorsed by Ayatollah Bho eini# !ho !as then in the process o* establishing hi sel* as the revolutionary leader in Iran"that A erican troops had been involved in the clashes in $ecca& 4he A erican E bassy !as attacked by a cro!d o* $usli de onstrators# and t!o A ericans and t!o Pakistani e ployees !ere killed& Why had Bho eini stood by a report that !as not only *alse but !ildly i probable= 4hese events took place !ithin the conte/t o* the Iranian revolution o* 01-1& 'n Nove ber :th# the +nited States E bassy in 4eheran had been sei7ed# and *i*ty<t!o A ericans !ere taken hostage6 those hostages !ere then held *or *our hundred and *orty<*our days# until their release on Canuary 5G# 0120& 4he otives *or this# ba**ling to any at the ti e# have beco e clearer since# thanks to subse,uent state ents and revelations *ro the hostage<takers and others& It is no! apparent that the hostage crisis occurred not because relations bet!een Iran and the +nited States !ere deteriorating but because they !ere i proving& In the *all o* 01-1# the relatively oderate Iranian Pri e $inister# $ehdi Ba7argan# had arranged to eet !ith the A erican national< security adviser# Ibignie! Br7e7inski# under the aegis o* the Algerian govern ent& 4he t!o en et on Nove ber 0st# and !ere reported to have been photographed shaking hands& 4here see ed to be a real possibility"in the eyes o* the radicals# a real danger" that there ight be so e acco odation bet!een the t!o countries& Protesters sei7ed
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the E bassy and took the A erican diplo ats hostage in order to destroy any hope o* *urther dialogue& )or Bho eini# the +nited States !as .the Areat Satan#. the principal adversary against !ho he had to !age his holy !ar *or Isla & A erica !as by then perceived"rightly "as the leader o* !hat !e like to call .the *ree !orld&. 4hen# as in the past# this !orld o* unbelievers !as seen as the only serious *orce rivalling and preventing the divinely ordained spread and triu ph o* Isla & But A erican observers# reluctant to recogni7e the historical ,uality o* the hostility# sought other reasons *or the anti<A erican senti ent that had been intensi*ying in the Isla ic !orld *or so e ti e& 'ne e/planation# !hich !as !idely accepted# particularly in A erican *oreign<policy circles# !as that A erica(s i age had been tarnished by its !arti e and continuing alliance !ith the *or er colonial po!ers o* Europe& In their country(s de*ense# so e A erican co entators pointed out that# unlike the Western European i perialists# A erica had itsel* been a victi o* colonialis 6 the +nited States !as the *irst country to !in *reedo *ro British rule& But the hope that the $iddle Eastern sub%ects o* the *or er British and )rench E pires !ould accept the A erican Revolution as a odel *or their o!n anti<i perialist struggle rested on a basic *allacy that Arab !riters !ere ,uick to point out& 4he A erican Revolution !as *ought not by Native A erican nationalists but by British settlers# and# *ar *ro being a victory against colonialis # it represented colonialis (s ulti ate triu ph"the English in North A erica succeeded in coloni7ing the land so thoroughly that they no longer needed the support o* the other country& It is hardly surprising that *or er colonial sub%ects in the $iddle East !ould see A erica as being tainted by the sa e kind o* i perialis as Western Europe& But $iddle Eastern resent ent o* i perial po!ers has not al!ays been consistent& 4he Soviet +nion# !hich e/tended the i perial con,uests o* the tsars o* Russia# ruled !ith no light hand over tens o* illions o* $usli sub%ects in 3entral Asian states and in the 3aucasus6 had it not been *or A erican opposition and the 3old War# the Arab !orld ight !ell have shared the *ate o* Poland and ;ungary# or# ore probably# that o* +7bekistan& And yet the Soviet +nion su**ered no si ilar backlash o* anger and hatred *ro the Arab co unity& Even the Russian invasion o* A*ghanistan in 01-1"a clear case o* i perialist aggression# con,uest# and do ination"triggered only a uted response in the Isla ic !orld& 4he P&L&'& observer at the +nited Nations de*ended the invasion# and the 'rgani7ation o* the Isla ic 3on*erence did little to protest it& South He en and Syria boycotted a eeting held to discuss the issue# Libya delivered an attack on the +nited States# and the P&L&'& representative abstained *ro voting and sub itted his reservations in !riting& Ironically# it !as the +nited States# in the end# that !as le*t to orchestrate an Isla ic response to Soviet i perialis in A*ghanistan&

As the Western European e pires *aded# $iddle Eastern anti<A ericanis !as attributed ore and ore to another cause> A erican support *or Israel# *irst in its con*lict !ith the Palestinian Arabs# then in its con*lict !ith the neighboring Arab states and the larger Isla ic !orld& 4here is certainly support *or this hypothesis in Arab state ents on the sub%ect& But there are incongruities# too& In the nineteen<thirties# Na7i Aer any(s policies !ere the ain cause o* Ce!ish igration to Palestine# then a British andate# and the conse,uent rein*orce ent o* the Ce!ish co unity there& 4he Na7is not only per itted this igration6 they *acilitated it until the outbreak o* the !ar# !hile

the British# in the so e!hat *orlorn hope o* !inning Arab good !ill# i posed and en*orced restrictions& Nevertheless# the Palestinian leadership o* the ti e# and any other Arab leaders# supported the Aer ans# !ho sent the Ce!s to Palestine# rather than the British# !ho tried to keep the out& 4he sa e kind o* discrepancy can be seen in the events leading to and *ollo!ing the establish ent o* the State o* Israel# in 01:2& 4he Soviet +nion played a signi*icant role in procuring the a%ority by !hich the Aeneral Asse bly o* the +nited Nations voted to establish a Ce!ish state in Palestine# and then gave Israel i ediate de<%ure recognition& 4he +nited States# ho!ever# gave only de<*acto recognition& $ore i portant# the A erican govern ent aintained a partial ar s e bargo on Israel# !hile 37echoslovakia# at $osco!(s direction# i ediately sent a supply o* !eaponry# !hich enabled the ne! state to survive the atte pts to strangle it at birth& As late as the !ar o* 018-# Israel still relied *or its ar s on European# ainly )rench# suppliers# not on the +nited States& 4he Soviet +nion had been one o* Israel(s biggest supporters& Het# !hen Egypt announced an ar s deal !ith Russia# in Septe ber o* 01JJ# there !as an over!hel ingly enthusiastic response in the Arab press& 4he 3ha bers o* Deputies in Syria# Lebanon# and Cordan et i ediately and voted resolutions o* congratulation to President Nasser6 even Nuri Said# the pro<Western ruler o* Ira,# *elt obliged to congratulate his Egyptian colleague"this despite the *act that the Arabs had no special love o* Russia# nor did $usli s in the Arab !orld or else!here !ish to invite either 3o unist ideology or Soviet po!er to their lands& What delighted the !as that they sa! the ar s deal"no doubt correctly"as a slap in the *ace *or the West& 4he slap# and the agitated Western response# rein*orced the ood o* hatred and spite to!ard the West and encouraged its e/ponents& It also encouraged the +nited States to look ore *avorably on Israel# no! seen as a reliable and potentially use*ul ally in a largely hostile region& 4oday# it is o*ten *orgotten that the strategic relationship bet!een the +nited States and Israel !as a conse,uence# not a cause# o* Soviet penetration& 4he Israeli<Palestinian con*lict is only one o* any struggles bet!een the Isla ic and non<Isla ic !orlds"on a list that includes Nigeria# Sudan# Bosnia# Bosovo# $acedonia# 3hechnya# Sinkiang# Bash ir# and $indanao"but it has attracted *ar ore attention than any o* the others& 4here are several reasons *or this& )irst# since Israel is a de ocracy and an open society# it is uch easier to report"and isreport"!hat is going on& Second# Ce!s are involved# and this can usually secure the attention o* those !ho# *or one reason or another# are *or or against the & 4hird# and ost i portant# resent ent o* Israel is the only grievance that can be *reely and sa*ely e/pressed in those $usli countries !here the edia are either !holly o!ned or strictly overseen by the govern ent& Indeed# Israel serves as a use*ul stand<in *or co plaints about the econo ic privation and political repression under !hich ost $usli people live# and as a !ay o* de*lecting the resulting anger&
IVDOUBLE STANDARDS

4his raises another issue& Increasingly in recent decades# $iddle Easterners have articulated a ne! grievance against A erican policy> not A erican co plicity !ith i perialis or !ith Iionis but so ething nearer ho e and ore i ediate" A erican co plicity !ith the corrupt tyrants !ho rule over the & )or obvious reasons# this particular co plaint does not o*ten appear in public discourse& $iddle Eastern
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govern ents# such as those o* Ira,# Syria# and the Palestine Authority# have developed great skill in controlling their o!n edia and anipulating those o* Western countries& Nor# *or e,ually obvious reasons# is it raised in diplo atic negotiation& But it is discussed# !ith increasing anguish and urgency# in private conversations !ith listeners !ho can be trusted# and recently even in public& ?Interestingly# the Iranian revolution o* 01-1 !as one ti e !hen this resent ent !as e/pressed openly& 4he Shah !as accused o* supporting A erica# but A erica !as also attacked *or i posing an i pious and tyrannical leader as its puppet&@ Al ost the entire $usli !orld is a**ected by poverty and tyranny& Both o* these proble s are attributed# especially by those !ith an interest in diverting attention *ro the selves# to A erica"the *irst to A erican econo ic do inance and e/ploitation# no! thinly disguised as .globali7ation.6 the second to A erica(s support *or the any so<called $usli tyrants !ho serve its purposes& Alobali7ation has beco e a a%or the e in the Arab edia# and it is al ost al!ays raised in connection !ith A erican econo ic penetration& 4he increasingly !retched econo ic situation in ost o* the $usli !orld# relative not only to the West but also to the tiger econo ies o* East Asia# *uels these *rustrations& A erican para ountcy# as $iddle Easterners see it# indicates !here to direct the bla e and the resulting hostility& 4here is so e %ustice in one charge that is *re,uently levelled against the +nited States> $iddle Easterners increasingly co plain that the +nited States %udges the by di**erent and lo!er standards than it does Europeans and A ericans# both in !hat is e/pected o* the and in !hat they ay e/pect"in ter s o* their *inancial !ell<being and their political *reedo & 4hey assert that Western spokes en repeatedly overlook or even de*end actions and support rulers that they !ould not tolerate in their o!n countries& As any $iddle Easterners see it# the Western and A erican govern ents( basic position is> .We don(t care !hat you do to your o!n people at ho e# so long as you are coKperative in eeting our needs and protecting our interests&. 4he ost dra atic e/a ple o* this *or o* racial and cultural arrogance !as !hat Ira,is and others see as the betrayal o* 0110# !hen the +nited States called on the Ira,i people to revolt against Sadda ;ussein& 4he rebels o* northern and southern Ira, did so# and the +nited States *orces !atched !hile Sadda # using the helicopters that the cease*ire agree ent had allo!ed hi to retain# bloodily suppressed the # group by group& 4he reasoning behind this action"or# rather# inaction"is not di**icult to see& 3ertainly# the victorious Aul* War coalition !anted a change o* govern ent in Ira,# but they had hoped *or a coup d(Etat# not a revolution& 4hey sa! a genuine popular uprising as dangerous"it could lead to uncertainty or even anarchy in the region& A coup !ould be ore predictable and could achieve the desired result"the replace ent o* Sadda ;ussein by another# ore a enable tyrant# !ho could take his place a ong A erica(s so<called allies in the coalition& 4he +nited States( abandon ent o* A*ghanistan a*ter the departure o* the Soviets !as understood in uch the sa e !ay as its abandon ent o* the Ira,i rebels& Another e/a ple o* this double standard occurred in the Syrian city o* ;a a and in re*ugee ca ps in Sabra and Shatila& 4he troubles in ;a a began !ith an uprising headed by the radical group the $usli Brothers in 0125& 4he govern ent responded s!i*tly& 4roops !ere sent# supported by ar or# artillery# and aircra*t# and !ithin a very short ti e they had reduced a large part o* the city to rubble& 4he nu ber killed !as esti ated# by A nesty International# at so e!here bet!een ten thousand and t!enty< *ive thousand& 4he action# !hich !as ordered and supervised by the Syrian President#

;a*i7 al<Assad# attracted little attention at the ti e# and did not prevent the +nited States *ro subse,uently courting Assad# !ho received a long succession o* visits *ro A erican Secretaries o* State Ca es Baker# Warren 3hristopher# and $adeleine Albright# and even *ro President 3linton& It is hardly likely that A ericans !ould have been so eager to propitiate a ruler !ho had perpetrated such cri es on Western soil# !ith Western victi s& 4he assacre o* seven hundred to eight hundred Palestinian re*ugees in Sabra and Shatila that sa e year !as carried out by Lebanese ilitia en# led by a Lebanese co ander !ho subse,uently beca e a inister in the Syrian<sponsored Lebanese govern ent# and it !as seen as a reprisal *or the assassination o* the Lebanese President Bashir Ae ayyel& Ariel Sharon# !ho at the ti e co anded the Israeli *orces in Lebanon# !as repri anded by an Israeli co ission o* in,uiry *or not having *oreseen and prevented the assacre# and !as *orced to resign *ro his position as $inister o* De*ense& It is understandable that the Palestinians and other Arabs should lay sole bla e *or the assacre on Sharon& What is pu77ling is that Europeans and A ericans should do the sa e& So e even !anted to try Sharon *or cri es against hu anity be*ore a tribunal in Europe& No such suggestion !as ade regarding either Sadda ;ussein or ;a*i7 al<Assad# !ho slaughtered tens o* thousands o* their co patriots& It is easy to understand the bitterness o* those !ho see the i plication here& It !as as i* the ilitia !ho had carried out the deed !ere ani als# not accountable by the sa e hu an standards as the Israelis& 4hanks to odern co unications# the people o* the $iddle East are increasingly a!are o* the deep and !idening gul* bet!een the opportunities o* the *ree !orld outside their borders and the appalling privation and repression !ithin the & 4he resulting anger is naturally directed *irst against their rulers# and then against those !ho they see as keeping those rulers in po!er *or sel*ish reasons& It is surely signi*icant that ost o* the terrorists !ho have been identi*ied in the Septe ber 00th attacks on Ne! Hork and Washington co e *ro Saudi Arabia and Egypt"that is# *ro countries !hose rulers are dee ed *riendly to the +nited States&
VA FAILURE OF MODERNITY

I* A erica(s double standards"and its sel*ish support *or corrupt regi es in the Arab !orld"have long caused anger a ong $usli s# !hy has that anger only recently *ound its e/pression in acts o* terroris = In the nineteenth and t!entieth centuries# $usli s responded in t!o !ays to the !idening i balance o* po!er and !ealth bet!een their societies and those o* the West& 4he re*or ers or oderni7ers tried to identi*y the sources o* Western !ealth and po!er and adapt the to their o!n use# in order to eet the West on e,ual ter s& $usli govern ents"*irst in 4urkey# then in Egypt and Iran" ade great e**orts to oderni7e# that is# to Westerni7e# the !eaponry and e,uip ent o* their ar ed *orces6 they even dressed the in Western<style uni*or s and arched the to the tune o* brass bands& When de*eats on the battle*ield !ere atched by others in the arketplace# the re*or ers tried to discover the secrets o* Western econo ic success and to e ulate the by establishing industries o* their o!n& Houng $usli students !ho !ere sent to the West to study the arts o* !ar also ca e back !ith dangerous and e/plosive notions about elected asse blies and constitutional govern ents&

All atte pts at re*or ended badly& I* anything# the oderni7ation o* the ar ed *orces accelerated the process o* de*eat and !ithdra!al# cul inating in the hu iliating *ailure o* *ive Arab states and ar ies to prevent a hal* illion Ce!s *ro building a ne! state in the debris o* the British $andate in Palestine in 01:2& With rare e/ceptions# the econo ic re*or s# capitalist and socialist alike# *ared no better& 4he $iddle Eastern co bination o* lo! productivity and high birth rate akes *or an unstable i/# and by all indications the Arab countries# in such atters as %ob creation# education# technology# and productivity# lag ever *arther behind the West& Even !orse# the Arab nations also lag behind the ore recent recruits to Western<style odernity# such as Borea# 4ai!an# and Singapore& 'ut o* a hundred and *i*ty<*ive countries ranked *or econo ic *reedo in 5GG0# the highest<ranking $usli states are Bahrain ?No& 1@# the +nited Arab E irates ?No& 0:@# and Bu!ait ?No& :5@& According to the World Bank# in 5GGG the average annual inco e in the $usli countries *ro $orocco to Bangladesh !as only hal* the !orld average# and in the nineties the co bined gross national products o* Cordan# Syria# and Lebanon"that is# three o* Israel(s Arab neighbors"!ere considerably s aller than that o* Israel alone& 4he per<capita *igures are !orse& According to +nited Nations statistics# Israel(s per<capita A&D&P& !as three and a hal* ti es that o* Lebanon and Syria# t!elve ti es that o* Cordan# and thirteen and a hal* ti es that o* Egypt& 4he contrast !ith the West# and no! also !ith the )ar East# is even ore disconcerting& $oderni7ation in politics has *ared no better"perhaps even !orse"than in !ar*are and econo ics& $any Isla ic countries have e/peri ented !ith de ocratic institutions o* one kind or another& In so e# as in 4urkey# Iran# and 4unisia# they !ere introduced by innovative native re*or ers6 in others# they !ere installed and then be,ueathed by departing i perialists& 4he record# !ith the possible e/ception o* 4urkey# is one o* al ost unrelieved *ailure& Western<style parties and parlia ents al ost invariably ended in corrupt tyrannies# aintained by repression and indoctrination& 4he only European odel that !orked# in the sense o* acco plishing its purposes# !as the one<party dictatorship& 4he Baath Party# di**erent branches o* !hich have ruled Ira, and Syria *or decades# incorporated the !orst *eatures o* its Na7i and Soviet odels& Since the death o* Nasser# in 01-G# no Arab leader has been able to gain e/tensive support outside his o!n country& Indeed# no Arab leader has been !illing to sub it his clai to po!er to a *ree vote& 4he leaders !ho have co e closest to !inning pan<Arab approval are Fadda*i in the seventies and# ore recently# Sadda ;ussein& 4hat these t!o# o* all Arab rulers# should en%oy such !ide popularity is in itsel* both appalling and revealing&

In vie! o* this# it is hardly surprising that any $usli s speak o* the *ailure o* oderni7ation& 4he re%ection o* odernity in *avor o* a return to the sacred past has a varied and ra i*ied history in the region and has given rise to a nu ber o* ove ents& 4he ost i portant o* these# Wahhabis # has lasted ore than t!o and a hal* centuries and e/erts a signi*icant in*luence on $usli ove ents in the $iddle East today& Its *ounder# $uha ad ibn Abd al<Wahhab ?0-G9<2-@# !as a theologian *ro the Na%d area o* Arabia& In 0-::# he launched a ca paign o* puri*ication and rene!al& ;is purpose !as to return the $usli !orld to the pure and authentic Isla o* the Prophet# re oving and# !here necessary# destroying all later accretions& 4he Wahhabi cause !as e braced by the Saudi rulers o* Na%d# !ho pro oted it# *or a !hile success*ully# by *orce& In a series o* ca paigns# they carried their rule and their *aith to uch o* central and eastern Arabia# be*ore being rebu**ed# at the end o* the eighteenth century# by the 'tto an sultan# !ho the Saudi ruler had denounced as a backslider *ro the true *aith

and a usurper in the $usli state& 4he second alliance o* Wahhabi doctrine and Saudi *orce began in the last years o* the 'tto an E pire and continued a*ter the collapse& 4he Saudi con,uest o* the ;e%a7# including the holy cities o* $ecca and $edina# increased the prestige o* the ;ouse o* Saud and gave ne! scope to the Wahhabi doctrine# !hich spread# in a variety o* *or s# throughout the Isla ic !orld& )ro the nineteen<thirties on# the discovery o* oil in the eastern provinces o* Arabia and its e/ploitation# chie*ly by A erican co panies# brought vast ne! !ealth and bitter ne! social tensions& In the old society# ine,ualities o* !ealth had been li ited# and their e**ects !ere restrained# on the one hand# by the traditional social bonds and obligations that linked rich and poor and# on the other hand# by the privacy o* $usli ho e li*e& $oderni7ation has all too o*ten !idened the gap# destroyed those social bonds# and# through the universality o* the odern edia# ade the resulting ine,ualities pain*ully visible& All this has created ne! and receptive audiences *or Wahhabi teachings and those o* other like< inded groups# a ong the the $usli Brothers in Egypt and Syria and the 4aliban in A*ghanistan& It has no! beco e nor al to designate these ove ents as .*unda entalist&. 4he ter is un*ortunate *or a nu ber o* reasons& It !as originally an A erican Protestant ter # used to designate Protestant churches that di**ered in so e respects *ro the ainstrea churches& 4hese di**erences bear no rese blance to those that divide $usli *unda entalists *ro the Isla ic ainstrea # and the use o* the ter can there*ore be isleading& Broadly speaking# $usli *unda entalists are those !ho *eel that the troubles o* the $usli !orld at the present ti e are the result not o* insu**icient oderni7ation but o* e/cessive oderni7ation& )ro their point o* vie!# the pri ary struggle is not against the Western ene y as such but against the Westerni7ing ene ies at ho e# !ho have i ported and i posed in*idel !ays on $usli peoples& 4he task o* the $usli s is to depose and re ove these in*idel rulers# so eti es by de*eating or e/pelling their *oreign patrons and protectors# and to abrogate and destroy the la!s# institutions# and social custo s that they have introduced# so as to return to a purely Isla ic !ay o* li*e# in accordance !ith the principles o* Isla and the rules o* the ;oly La!&
VITHE RISE OF TERRORISM

'sa a bin Laden and his Al Faeda *ollo!ers ay not represent Isla # and their state ents and their actions directly contradict basic Isla ic principles and teachings# but they do arise *ro !ithin $usli civili7ation# %ust as ;itler and the Na7is arose *ro !ithin 3hristian civili7ation# so they ust be seen in their o!n cultural# religious# and historical conte/t& I* one looks at the historical record# the $usli approach to !ar does not di**er greatly *ro that o* 3hristians# or that o* Ce!s in the very ancient and very odern periods !hen the option !as open to the & While $usli s# perhaps ore *re,uently than 3hristians# ade !ar against the *ollo!ers o* other *aiths to bring the !ithin the scope o* Isla # 3hristians"!ith the notable e/ception o* the 3rusades# !hich !ere the selves an i itation o* $usli practice"!ere ore prone to *ight internal religious !ars against those !ho they sa! as schis atics or heretics& Isla # no doubt o!ing to the political and ilitary involve ent o* its *ounder# takes !hat one ight call a ore prag atic vie! than the Aospels o* the realities o* societal relationships& Because !ar *or the *aith has been a religious obligation !ithin Isla *ro the beginning# it is
11

elaborately regulated& Isla ic religious la!# or the Sharia# deals in so e detail !ith such atters as the opening# conclusion# and resu ption o* hostilities# the avoidance o* in%ury to nonco batants# the treat ent o* prisoners# the division o* booty# and even the types o* !eapons that ay be used& So e o* these rules have been e/plained a!ay by odern radical co entators !ho support the *unda entalists6 others are si ply disregarded& What about terroris = )ollo!ers o* any *aiths have at one ti e or another invoked religion in the practice o* urder# both retail and !holesale& 4!o !ords deriving *ro such ove ents in Eastern religions have even entered the English language> .thug#. *ro India# and .assassin#. *ro the $iddle East# both co e orating *anatical religious sects !hose *or o* !orship !as to urder those !ho they regarded as ene ies o* the *aith& 4he ,uestion o* the la!*ulness o* assassination in Isla *irst arose in 8J8 A&D&# !ith the urder o* the third caliph# +th an# by pious $usli rebels !ho believed they !ere carrying out the !ill o* Aod& 4he *irst o* a succession o* civil !ars !as *ought over the ,uestion o* !hether the rebels !ere *ul*illing or de*ying Aod(s co and ent& Isla ic la! and tradition are very clear on the duty o* obedience to the Isla ic ruler& But they also ,uote t!o sayings attributed to the Prophet> .4here is no obedience in sin. and .Do not obey a creature against his creator&. I* a ruler orders so ething that is contrary to the la! o* Aod# then the duty o* obedience is replaced by a duty o* disobedience& 4he notion o* tyrannicide"the %usti*ied re oval o* a tyrant"!as not an Isla ic innovation6 it !as *a iliar in anti,uity# a ong Ce!s# Areeks# and Ro ans alike# and those !ho per*or ed it !ere o*ten acclai ed as heroes& $e bers o* the eleventh<tothirteenth<century $usli sect kno!n as the Assassins# !hich !as based in Iran and Syria# see to have been the *irst to trans*or the act that !as na ed a*ter the into a syste and an ideology& 4heir e**orts# contrary to popular belie*# !ere pri arily directed not against the 3rusaders but against their o!n leaders# !ho they sa! as i pious usurpers& In this sense# the Assassins are the true predecessors o* any o* the so<called Isla ic terrorists o* today# so e o* !ho e/plicitly ake this point& 4he na e Assassins# !ith its connotation o* .hashish<taker#. !as given to the by their $usli ene ies& 4hey called the selves fidayeen"those !ho are ready to sacri*ice their lives *or their cause& 4he ter has been revived and adopted by their odern i itators& In t!o respects# ho!ever"in their choice o* !eapons and o* victi s"the Assassins !ere arkedly di**erent *ro their odern successors& 4he victi !as al!ays an individual"a highly placed political# ilitary# or religious leader !ho !as seen as the source o* evil& ;e# and he alone# !as killed& 4his action !as not terroris in the current sense o* that ter but# rather# !hat !e !ould call .targeted assassination&. 4he ethod !as al!ays the sa e> the dagger& 4he Assassins disdained the use o* poison# crossbo!s# and other !eapons that could be used *ro a distance# and the Assassin did not e/pect"or# it !ould see # even desire"to survive his act# !hich he believed !ould insure hi eternal bliss& But in no circu stance did he co it suicide& ;e died at the hands o* his captors&

4he t!entieth century brought a rene!al o* such actions in the $iddle East# though o* di**erent types and *or di**erent purposes# and terroris has gone through several phases& During the last years o* the British E pire# i perial Britain *aced terrorist ove ents in its $iddle Eastern dependencies that represented three di**erent cultures> Areeks in 3yprus# Ce!s in Palestine# and Arabs in Aden& All three acted *ro nationalist# rather than religious# otives& 4hough very di**erent in their backgrounds

and political circu stances# the three !ere substantially alike in their tactics& 4heir purpose !as to persuade the i perial po!er that staying in the region !as not !orth the cost in blood& 4heir ethod !as to attack the ilitary and# to a lesser e/tent# ad inistrative personnel and installations& All three operated only !ithin their o!n territory and generally avoided collateral da age& All three succeeded in their endeavors& 4hanks to the rapid develop ent o* the edia# and especially o* television# the ore recent *or s o* terroris are targeted not at speci*ic and li ited ene y ob%ectives but at !orld opinion& 4heir pri ary purpose is not to de*eat or even to !eaken the ene y ilitarily but to gain publicity"a psychological victory& 4he ost success*ul group by *ar in this e/ercise has been the Palestine Liberation 'rgani7ation& 4he P&L&'& !as *ounded in 018: but beca e i portant in 018-# a*ter the de*eat o* the co bined Arab ar ies in the Si/<Day War& Regular !ar*are had *ailed6 it !as ti e to try other ethods& 4he targets in this *or o* ar ed struggle !ere not ilitary or other govern ent establish ents# !hich are usually too !ell guarded# but public places and gatherings o* any kind# !hich are over!hel ingly civilian# and in !hich the victi s do not necessarily have a connection to the declared ene y& E/a ples o* this include# in 01-G# the hi%acking o* three aircra*t"one S!iss# one British# and one A erican"!hich !ere all taken to A an6 the 01-5 urder o* Israeli athletes at the $unich 'ly pics6 the sei7ure in 01-9 o* the Saudi E bassy in Bhartou # and the urder there o* t!o A ericans and a Belgian diplo at6 and the takeover o* the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro# in 012J& 'ther attacks !ere directed against schools# shopping alls# discothL,ues# pi77erias# and even passengers !aiting in line at European airports& 4hese and other attacks by the P&L&'& !ere i ediately and re arkably success*ul in attaining their ob%ectives"the capture o* ne!spaper headlines and television screens& 4hey also dre! a great deal o* support in so eti es une/pected places# and raised their perpetrators to starring roles in the dra a o* international relations& S all !onder that others !ere encouraged to *ollo! their e/a ple"in Ireland# in Spain# and else!here& 4he Arab terrorists o* the seventies and eighties ade it clear that they !ere !aging a !ar *or an Arab or Palestinian cause# not *or Isla & Indeed# a signi*icant proportion o* the P&L&'& leaders and activists !ere 3hristian& +nlike socialis # !hich !as discredited by its *ailure# nationalis !as discredited by its success& In every Arab land but Palestine# the nationalists achieved their purposes"the de*eat and departure o* i perialist rulers# and the establish ent o* national sovereignty under national leaders& )or a !hile# *reedo and independence !ere used as ore or less synony ous and interchangeable ter s& 4he early e/perience o* independence# ho!ever# revealed that this !as a sad error& Independence and *reedo are very di**erent# and all too o*ten the attain ent o* one eant the end o* the other& Both in de*eat and in victory# the Arab nationalists o* the t!entieth century pioneered the ethods that !ere later adopted by religious terrorists# in particular the lack o* concern at the slaughter o* innocent bystanders& 4his unconcern reached ne! proportions in the terror ca paign launched by 'sa a bin Laden in the early nineties& 4he *irst a%or e/a ple !as the bo bing o* t!o A erican e bassies in East A*rica in 0112& In order to kill t!elve A erican diplo ats# the terrorists !ere !illing to slaughter ore than t!o hundred A*ricans# any o* the $usli s# !ho happened to be in the vicinity& 4he sa e disregard *or hu an li*e# on a vastly greater scale# underlay the action in Ne! Hork on Septe ber 00th&

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4here is no doubt that the *oundation o* Al Faeda and the consecutive declarations o* !ar by 'sa a bin Laden arked the beginning o* a ne! and o inous phase in the history o* both Isla and terroris & 4he triggers *or bin Laden(s actions# as he hi sel* has e/plained very clearly# !ere A erica(s presence in Arabia during the Aul* War"a desecration o* the $usli ;oly Land"and A erica(s use o* Saudi Arabia as a base *or an attack on Ira,& I* Arabia is the ost sy bolic location in the !orld o* Isla # Baghdad# the seat o* the caliphate *or hal* a illenniu and the scene o* so e o* the ost glorious chapters in Isla ic history# is the second& 4here !as another# perhaps ore i portant# *actor driving bin Laden& In the past# $usli s *ighting against the West could al!ays turn to the ene ies o* the West *or co *ort# encourage ent# and aterial and ilitary help& With the collapse o* the Soviet +nion# *or the *irst ti e in centuries there !as no such use*ul ene y& 4here !ere so e nations that had the !ill# but they lacked the eans to play the role o* the 4hird Reich or the Soviet +nion& Bin Laden and his cohorts soon reali7ed that# in the ne! con*iguration o* !orld po!er# i* they !ished to *ight A erica they had to do it the selves& So e eleven years ago# they created Al Faeda# !hich included any veterans o* the !ar in A*ghanistan& 4heir task ight have see ed daunting to anyone else# but they did not see it that !ay& In their vie!# they had already driven the Russians out o* A*ghanistan# in a de*eat so over!hel ing that it led directly to the collapse o* the Soviet +nion itsel*& ;aving overco e the superpo!er that they had al!ays regarded as ore *or idable# they *elt ready to take on the other6 in this they !ere encouraged by the opinion# o*ten e/pressed by 'sa a bin Laden# a ong others# that A erica !as a paper tiger& $usli terrorists had been driven by such belie*s be*ore& 'ne o* the ost surprising revelations in the e oirs o* those !ho held the A erican E bassy in 4eheran *ro 01-1 to 0120 !as that their original intention had been to hold the building and the hostages *or only a *e! days& 4hey changed their inds !hen state ents *ro Washington ade it clear that there !as no danger o* serious action against the & 4hey *inally released the hostages# they e/plained# only because they *eared that the ne! President# Ronald Reagan# ight approach the proble .like a co!boy&. Bin Laden and his *ollo!ers clearly have no such concern# and their hatred is neither constrained by *ear nor diluted by respect& As precedents# they repeatedly cite the A erican retreats *ro Dietna # *ro Lebanon# and"the ost i portant o* all# in their eyes"*ro So alia& Bin Laden(s re arks in an intervie! !ith Cohn $iller# o* AB3 Ne!s# on $ay 52# 0112# are especially revealing> Si ilar in*erences are dra!n !hen A erican spokes en re*use to i plicate"and so eti es even hasten to e/culpate"parties that ost $iddle Easterners believe to be deeply involved in the attacks on A erica& A good e/a ple is the repeated o**icial denial o* any Ira,i involve ent in the events o* Septe ber 00th& It ay indeed be true that there is no evidence o* Ira,i involve ent# and that the Ad inistration is un!illing to ake *alse accusations& But it is di**icult *or $iddle Easterners to resist the idea that this re*usal to i plicate Sadda ;ussein is due less to a concern *or legality than to a *ear o* con*ronting hi & ;e !ould indeed be a *or idable adversary& I* he *aces the prospect o* i inent destruction# as !ould be inevitable in a real con*rontation# there is no kno!ing !hat he ight do !ith his already considerable arsenal o* unconventional !eapons& 3ertainly# he !ould not be restrained by any scruples# or by the consideration that the greatest victi s o* any such attack !ould be his o!n people and their i ediate neighbors&

)or 'sa a bin Laden# 5GG0 arks the resu ption o* the !ar *or the religious do inance o* the !orld that began in the seventh century& )or hi and his *ollo!ers# this is a o ent o* opportunity& 4oday# A erica e/e pli*ies the civili7ation and e bodies the leadership o* the ;ouse o* War# and# like Ro e and By7antiu # it has beco e degenerate and de orali7ed# ready to be overthro!n& Bho eini(s designation o* the +nited States as .the Areat Satan. !as telling& In the Boran# Satan is described as .the insidious te pter !ho !hispers in the hearts o* en&. 4his is the essential point about Satan> he is neither a con,ueror nor an e/ploiter"he is# *irst and last# a te pter& And *or the e bers o* Al Faeda it is the seduction o* A erica that represents the greatest threat to the kind o* Isla they !ish to i pose on their *ello!<$usli s& But there are others *or !ho A erica o**ers a di**erent kind o* te ptation"the pro ise o* hu an rights# o* *ree institutions# and o* a responsible and elected govern ent& 4here are a gro!ing nu ber o* individuals and even so e ove ents that have undertaken the co ple/ task o* introducing such institutions in their o!n countries& It is not easy& Si ilar atte pts# as noted# led to any o* today(s corrupt regi es& '* the *i*ty<seven e ber states o* the 'rgani7ation o* the Isla ic 3on*erence# only one# the 4urkish Republic# has operated de ocratic institutions over a long period o* ti e and# despite di**icult and ongoing proble s# has ade progress in establishing a liberal econo y and a *ree society and political order& In t!o countries# Ira, and Iran# !here the regi es are strongly anti<A erican# there are de ocratic oppositions capable o* taking over and *or ing govern ents& We could do uch to help the # and have done little& In ost other countries in the region# there are people !ho share our values# sy pathi7e !ith us# and !ould like to share our !ay o* li*e& 4hey understand *reedo # and !ant to en%oy it at ho e& It is ore di**icult *or us to help those people# but at least !e should not hinder the & I* they succeed# !e shall have *riends and allies in the true# not %ust the diplo atic# sense o* these !ords& $ean!hile# there is a ore urgent proble & I* bin Laden can persuade the !orld o* Isla to accept his vie!s and his leadership# then a long and bitter struggle lies ahead# and not only *or A erica& Sooner or later# Al Faeda and related groups !ill clash !ith the other neighbors o* Isla "Russia# 3hina# India"!ho ay prove less s,uea ish than the A ericans in using their po!er against $usli s and their sanctities& I* bin Laden is correct in his calculations and succeeds in his !ar# then a dark *uture a!aits the !orld# especially the part o* it that e braces Isla &
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