Nicomachus' Introduction To Arithmetic

of J;lcuDitf
HUMANiSTiC SERiES
VOLUME XVI
NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
,
~
THE MACMILlAN COMPANY
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THE NAOfILLAN CO. OF CANADA, bc.
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NICOMACHUS 'OF
INTRODUCTION
TO
ARITHMETIC
TRANSLATED INTO ENGlISH
BY
MARTIN LUTHER D'OOGE
WITH STUDIES IN GREEK ARITHMETIC
BY
FRANK EGLESTON ROBBINS
AND
LOUIS CHARLES KARPINSKI
:!OriD !arlt
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN AND COMPANY, LTD.
19. 6
COPY'R.IGHT, 1926.,
'B,y' FRAN'CIS W.. KELS'EV',
set U:p ,A-d' .. Pu: In26.
-, t""" - - 4Q. (iI.;Ul' 7' -
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8. CuBhiol ,Co. - Berwh;{, a: Smith Co..
X
ood Mue .. USA I '. .' -.-
,. ""or'W' " .' .. ,..' ' ..... ....
IN
COMMEMORATION
OF THE
WNG AND INTIMATE FRIENDSHIP
BETWEEN TWO KINDRED SPIRITS
EDWARD WALDO PENDLETON
MARTIN LUTHER D'OOGE
( "
PREFACE
PROFESSOR Martin Luther D'Ooge died suddenly on September
12, ] 91 5, leaving unfinished a work on the I ntroductiott to Arithmetic
by Nicomachus. His translation of the Greek text was complete,
but the supporting studies had not been commenced.
As 500n as possible after his death, colleagues of Mr. D'Ooge in the
University of Michigan took up the unfinished task, and their work
combined with his appears in this volume. Mr. Karpinski contrib-
uted Chapters I, Ill, IV and the greater part of Chapter X of Part
I, together with the first section of Part Ill, Extensions of a Theorem
of l\-icomachus; Mr. Robbins made the final revision of Mr. D'Ooge's
translation and prepared the rest of the volume. At first it was pro-
posed to present a revised Greek text, but this proved to be imprac-
ticable without too great delay.
Sincere thanks are due to Mrs. Edward Waldo Pendleton, whose
generous help made the publication of the volume possible. We are
under much obligation also to our colleagues, who have rendered assis-
tance on many points. A special mention of indebtedness should be
made to the University Editor, Dr. Eugene S. McCartney, for his
scholarly assistance in the preparation of the manuscript for the press.
FRANK EGLESTON RonBINs
LOUIS CHARLES KARPINSKI
A.....N ARBOR, MICHIGAN,
September 1
1
1925.
CONTENTS
PART I
STUDIES IN GREEK MATHEMATICS
,ACII:
THE MANUSCRIPTS AND TEXT OF THE INTRODUCTION TO
ARiTHMETIC . . [46
THE LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF NICOMACHUS [61
3
16
46
66
124
138
79
88
III
BEFORE NI-
THE MAmEMATICAL CONTENT OF THE GREEK MATHEMATICA

GREEK ARITHMETICAL NOTATION
THE LIFE OF NICOMACHUS
THE \VORKS OF NICOMACHUS.
THE PmLOSOPHY OF N ICOMACHUS .
NICOMACHUS'S PHILOSOPHY OF NUMBER
TRANSLATORS AND COMMENTATORS OF NICOYACHUS
THE SUCCESSORS OF NrCOMACHUS
I. THE SOURCES OF GREEK MATHEMATICS
H. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEK ARITHMETIC
COMACKUS. ..
XII.
Ill.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
PART II
TRA:-ISLATION OF THE INTRODUCTION TO ARITHMETIC
OF NICOMACHUS OF GERASA, THE PYTHAGOREAN
BOOK I
BOOK II
[SI
'3
0
PART III
SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO THE INTERPRETATION
OF THE INTRODUCTION TO ARITHMETIC
I. EXTENSIONS OF A THEOREM OF NICOMACHUS
'89
I!. GLOSSARY OF GREEK TERMS

'9'
Ill. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

3"
INDEX
3'3
ox
I
PART I
STUDIES IN GREEK MATHEMATICS
I
.
CHAPTER I
THE SOURCES OF GREEK MATHEMATICS
ARITHMETIC is fundamentally associated by modern readers, par-
ticularly by scientists and mathematicians, witb the art of computa-
tion. For the ancient Greeks after Pythagoras, however, arithmetic
was primarily a philosophical study, having no necessary connection
with practical affairs. Indeed the Greeks gave a separate name to the
arithmetic of business, Ao-yWT,KTj; of this division of the science no
Greek treatise has been transmitted to us. In general the philosophers
and mathematicians of Greece undoubtedly considered it beneath
their dignity to treat of this branch, which probably formed a part of
the elementary instruction of children. The evidence for the existence
of treatises on the fundamental operations is very insecure and vague,
resting upon a passage of Diogenes Laertius 1 and a citation by
Eutocius.
2
So far as the content of the logistic is concerned, our main source
of information is the scholium' on Plato's Charmides, 163 E. This
scholium is undoubtedly based on the lost work of Geminus, although
it may be through the medium of Anatolius.' A passage in Proclus'
which explicitly mentions Geminus touches analogous points.
The scholium is as follows: "Logistic is the theory which deals with
numerable objects and not with numbers j 6 it does not, indeed, con-
sider number in the proper sense of the term, but assumes I to be
unity, and anything which can be numbered to be number (thus in
place of the triad, it employs 3; in place of the decad, 10), and dis-
cusses with these the theorems of arithmetic.
I VilU PhiJosoplwrum, VIIT. 12, where a certain Apollodorus is designated as 6 )"o'Y'I1'n.(6r,
which may mean, as Cantor thinks, that he was a RuJun11leiSler.
I In the Com1Mnl4,y on tlu Mea.sure",ent of the Circk by Archimedts (in Heiberg, A,drimedis
Opera Omnia cum CommenJariis Euctf)(;ij, Leipzig, 1881, vol. Ill, p. J02.line 4), he mentions the
M'Yll1TlK!i of a certain Magnus or Magne!.
I ~ ~ quoted on the basis of the text given in C. F. Hermann's edition of Plato (Leipzig,
1907), vo!. VI, p. 290. See also Hultsch, Heronis Alexa1Ulrini GeometrKOf'lIm cl StereomdrKOf'Um
Rdiquioe, Berlin, 1864, pp. 247-248.
t Tannery, La GhmKJrk GrUqlU, Paris, 1887, pp. 48-49.
I Produs, In Primum Eudidis EJementorum Libr"m Commnltarii. pp. 38, 1-42, 8 (ed.
Friedlein) .
Compare the similar distinction made by Aristotle.
3
4
"It treats, then, on the one hand, that which Archimedes called
'The Cattle Problem,' and on the other hand, 'melite' and 'phialite'
numbers, the one discussing vials (measures, containers) and the other
flocks; and when dealing with other kinds of problems it has regard
for the number of sensible bodies and makes its pronouncements as
though it were for absolute objects.
"It has for material all numerable objects, and as subdivisions the
so-called Greek and Egyptian methods for multiplication and division,
as well as the summation and decomposition of fractions, whereby it
investigates the secrets lurking in the subject-matter of the problems
by means of the procedure that employs triangles and polygons.
"It has for its aim that which is useful in the relations of life and in
business, although it seems to pronounce upon sensihle objects as if
they were absolute,"
The philosophical arithmetic of the Greeks, ap,Op;rrwc-r}, of which
the arithmetic of Nicomachus is a specimen, corresponds in a measure
to our number theory; tbe subject was designed for mature students
as a preparation for the study of philosophy, and was not at all in-
tended for children. Arithmetica is, as the name indicates, the study
of that which is implied in number. This branch of arithmetical
science developed along two quite distinct lines. On the one hand
we have the rigid, mathematical discussion of the properties of num-
bers, involving the forms of proof and the rigor of the demonstrational
geometry, which is the great contribution of Greece to science; on the
other hand we have a mystical development, ascribing even magical
powers and life-properties to numbers. This pseudo-science which
employs the results, but not the demonstrations of the rigid science, is
commonly termed arithmology.' Greek arithmetic must be con-
sidered, then, from the point of view of the philosopher and theoretical
mathematician, rather than from that of our elementary schools.
Arithmetic was intimately connected by tbe early Greeks with both
geometry and music. The treatise on arithmetic by Euclid, as found
in the seventh, eighth, and ninth books of the Elements,' is wholly
from the geometrical standpoint. This point of view is reflected in
many ways in later treatises, that of Nicomachus, for instance, which
considered arithmetic as an independent science. The intimate con-
I See Chapter VII, pp. 90 8'., for Il discussion of arithmology and of the share of Nicomachus
in it.
lOur references to the Elements of Euclid will be to the n ~ l i s edition by Sir T. L, Heath,
TIte TlrirlUn Books of E/ldid's Ekmnus, three volumes, Ca.mbridge, t908.
SOURCES OF GREEK MATHEMATICS
5
nection between arithmetic and music accounts, in some measure,
for the complete and even tedious discussion of ratios in the Greek
treatises on arithmetic. In consequence, our consideration of the
origins of Greek arithmetic will necessarily touch incidentally not only
the processes of computation of the Greeks, but also geometry, music,
and even other sciences, as related to the sciences of the older civiliza-
tions.]
For the sources of the early Greek arithmetical sciences we must
look to Egypt and to Babylon, possibly even beyond to India and
China. Evidence of the exchange of ideas between Greece and Egypt,
and between Greece and Babylon, has accumulated so much in recent
years as to show a degree of intimacy long unsuspected.' In the early
centuries of the Christian era, knowledge of Greek astronomy was
carried to India; traces of reciprocal influence in ancient times are
not wanting, although any detailed statement must await more ac-
curate information of the historical development of Hindu learning.
The sciences, biological, physical, and mathematical, as well as the
fine arts and technical arts, are involved in the interchange of ideas
between Orient and Occident, but our interest is centered upon the
mathematical sciences. In this field the Oriental science served pri-
marily as a directive force, determining the topics which for centuries
occupied the attention of Greek mathematicians.
In mathematics and astronomy the early traces of Oriental influence
cover a wide range of ideas, touching at the lower point the simplest
operations of computation and at the upper point the development of
complicated astronomical theories. At the outset we may say that one
extraordinary achievement in mathematics remains undisputedly
Greek in its origin, namely, the development of logical, demonstrative
geometry. Writers 3 who confound with the whole of science the
systematization of the sciences achieved by the Greeks, together with
this process of logical demonstration, entirely mistake the nature of
science and the processes of its progress. Science is concerned with
the problems involved in comprehending the universe in which we live.
Science involves inevitably the knowledge of numbers and form, or
I For more complete discussion of arithmetic and logistic, see Heath, A History of Gruk
(Oxford, IQU), vo!. It pp. 13-16.
F. Cumont, The OrU"tal Religions in Roman Paganism (Chicago, 1QII); and AsJroloty
cNd Religion emong tlu Gruks end Romans (New York, 1912); l\.Hlhaud, N01IfJt1Jes &udes sur
"Histoire de la Pen.sk (Paris, 1911), pp. 41-133.
Like John Bumet, Gruk PltiJosop"'Y, Part I, Thcle.s to PkUo (London, 1920), pp. 4 ff.
6 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
mathematics, as well as the sciences of material things and life-pro-
cesses. This science begins with primitive man, and develops as man
develops.
The processes of computation in Greece were closely allied to those
of Egypt. The abacus with its counters for reckoning, which was
in wide use among the ancient Greeks,J had its counterpart, according
to Herodotus,' in Egypt. While no trace of any Egyptian abacus has
been found, Plato's statement that in Egypt" systems of calculation
have been actually invented for the use of children" suggests that the
Egyptians may have invented the abacus for the purpose for which it
is now used in our primary schools.
The I Egyptian methods' of multiplication and division, mentioned
in the scholium on Plato's Ckarmides quoted above, are now known
to us through the preservation and publication of the Abmes manual,'
an Egyptian arithmetic which dates from about 1700 B.e. Multipli-
cation is effected by repeated doubling. Division is the inverse of
multiplication, effected by doubling and re-doubling the divisor until
the dividend can be obtained by summation of the appropriate doubles.
Thus the product of 27 times 57 is obtained as follows:
57 l'
114 2'
228 4).
456 8'
912 16'
'539
The multiplication of 27 times 57 is treated as 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 times
57. The accent marks to indicate which numbers are to be summed
appear in the papyrus. Were 1539 to be divided by 27, the same
series of doubles would be written, and the required summands would
be obtained by subtraction from the dividend or by inspection. A
multiplier or quotient involving fractions would be treated in the same
way; thus, to multiply 57 by 7 ~ t, the numbers ~ and 14t. ~ and
t respectively of 57, would appear among the summands to be added.
Multiplication by 10 was sometimes included, without any doubling.
The most distinctive feature of the Egyptian arithmetic is the
I HcrodolUS. 11. 36; Aristotle, Constitl/tion of A/hens, 68, 3 fr.; Plutarch, YilQ Cahmis
Minoris, 70; Sextus Empiriclls, Adt'crslts Jlalhemalicos, IX. 194.
t Herodotus, ibid.
, Eisenlohr, Ein matlumalisches Handblu:h det' alien Aegyptcr (Patyrus Rhind des British
Musellm), Leipzig, I8c)I; T. Eric Peet, The Rllind MaJhcmaJical Papyrus, London, 1923.
7
restriction of the operations with fractions to unit fractions, Le. those
having one as the numerator; t is the single exception. Thus t was
written as 1 t, and t as t ..ft; the juxtaposition indicates that the
fractions are to be summed. Now the Greek symbolism for fractions
includes special devices for writing such unit fractions, together with
a separate symbol for the fraction j.' The little that we know of
ancient computation, supported by definite indications of later docu-
ments, shows the intimate connection between the Greek and Egyptian
methods of treating fractions. Thus, Euclid has a special term for
a unit fraction,' while in the works of Hero of Alexandria and Dio-
phantus series of unit fractions in true Egyptian fann are common.
3
Furthermore, in the aritltmetica the superparticular is definitely con-
nected with the notion of a unit fraction.
Mention has been made of the 'summation and decomposition of
fractions.' In the absence of any treatise on logistic from the classical
period, the meaning of the scholiast's phrase is revealed to us only
by later documents. A Greek papyrus of the eighth century A.D.,
found at Akhmim in Egypt,' includes unit fractions entirely after the
manner of the Abmes manual. The products of t, t, t, t, t, t, t, and
to- by the integers from r to 10, and by the tens to 90 are written in
terms of unit fractions. A fragment of the same nature appears in the
ancient Egyptian manual, giving the product of t by t, t, t, 1, t, +.
n, and t, as well as the products separately, of t by t, and 1 by!, by
t, -h, t, and n, and t by t- The distribution problems by Abmes of
I, 2, 3, 6, 7,8, and 9 loaves of bread among ten people are arithmeti-
cally analogous.
Undoubtedly we have here the' decomposition' process into unit
fractions; this also appears in the introductory material of the Egyp-
tian manual wherein the fractions having 2 as a numerator and odd
numbers to 99 as denominators are resolved into unit fractions.
ri
Some of the same numerical operations are found also in two letters
1 Heath, Dio/J1uJnlus of Alexandria, A Stud)' in the Hislory of (;rule Algebra (sond edition,
Cambridge, 1910), pp. 44-47.
2 Elements, Book VI, definition 3: .. A number is a pari of a number, the less of the greater,
when it measures the greater; but parts when it does not measure it." Heath adds (vol. H,
p. 280) that "by the expression parIs the plural of Euclid denotes what we should
call a proper !rrulioll." J Heath, Diophan'us, p. 46.
J. Baillet, Le Pa"us d'Akhmim, AUmoirts P1lo1i/ts par Its MeMes tU la
Mission Archtologique Frant;aise all CajrtJ (Paris, 1&}2), T. IX, pp. I-&].
Similar fractions in Michigan Papyrus, No. 621; described by L. C. Karpinski, Iris, vol. V
(IQ22), pp. 20-25, with facsimile. The text was published by F. E. Robbins, ClassiaU PIriJology.
vol. XVIII (1923), pp. 328-333.
of the fourteenth century written by the Greek monk Nicolas Rhabdas
Atarvasda of Smyma, who gives further the reverse process of 'sum-
mation' of unit fractions into ordinary ones.! Doubtless it was early
recognized that for multiplication and division by a series of unit
fractions the combination of the set into a single common fraction was
desirable. Nicolas explains the process of combination.
Europe continued to employ the unit fractions for many centuries.
Leonard of Pisa in the thirteenth century includes in his famous
Liber Abbaci a table for decomposition into unit fractions,' and employs
them frequently. The Arabs 3 and the Hindus, too, used Egyptian
methods, although not exclusively, in their discussions of fractions,
and traces of the Egyptian process of multiplication are preserved to
this day among the Russian peasants.
Plato makes a statement about Egyptian mathematics which shows
not only his own respect for Egyptian methods of instruction, but
also brings to light certain Egyptian problems which may have had to
do with the problems on containers, 'phialite numbers,' mentioned in
the scholium on the Charmides already cited. Plato says (Laws, 819) :
U All freemen, I conceive, should learn as much of these various
disciplines as every child in Egypt is taught when he learns his alphabet.
In that country, systems of calculation have actually been invented
for the use of children, which they learn as a pleasure and amusement.
They have to distribute apples and garlands, apportioning the same
number either to a larger or smaller number of persons. . .. Another
mode of amusing them is by taking vessels of gold, and brass, and
silver, and the like, and mingling them or distributing them without
mingling; as I was saying, they adapt their amusement to the numbers
in common use, and in this way make more intelligible to their pupils
the arrangements and movements of annies and expeditions, and in
the management of a household they make people more useful to
themselves, a;nd more wide awake; and again in measurements of
things which have length, and breadth, and depth, they free us from
that ludicrous and disgraceful ignorance of all things which is natural
to man."
1 Paul Tannery, Holias sur lu 1JeIa LeUres ArithmtJiquts tk Nkolas R1rabd4s, Notius et
Ezlraib de Matlwcrus tk la BihliolMple NaJiotJak (Paris, 1886), vo!. XXXII, pp. 121-252,
J Scrilli tk U01UJTdo Pisano, published by B. BODcompagni, Illw.abbati (Rome, 1857), vol. I,
p. 79'
See Karpinski, Tile Algebra of AblI Ka".u Sltoja bm As14"., in Bibliat1uca M ~
(third series), vol. XII, pp. 5:1-54-
SO
'-l' 'u-nc"'-'ES-- OF' GREEK M''A'THE'MA''Tl'C'-'S" ':,.1\.1. ...., 1_ .'.".1,.'.. I. ,"".'.' ". I ,1 ..
1
:_.'>
9
Th:e prloblems of /"h,e' Ahmes 'papyrus on, the di.sltribution of loaves,
,-,f- b] 1:-d'l :,', ,:' - - .. t.,' ,--;".,-',1" I '.,' "'d- tb
i
, "-' " ,,b,l, '.', t," :h-, .. :h '.'"" ,,'h"ll "",'',
o am,ong .en peopce, an" " e pro .. em 0 W le we __ recur
OlD the distributIon of 1'00 lo"ayes ,of bread accordin,g to the te'l-e ms of' an
a.rithm.etical senes", are certainly suggesti.ve of t'he typ,e of prob,]lems, of
distrlb,ution to, Plato h,ad rle:fe:r'ence. 'The following p.roblem I
in the E,gyptian papyrus i.s dou'btless ODe of .he type dealing with,
,('p'hla'lI"t'e') - c"1 pour' (fr .. o.. 'lm' con--taI"'o--'er)1 th-re'.'e' t-JDl

ilo
, es .. "
'. -...... '.' ....' ,I " '; .,:... ' .. ' .. , '" ..' _ ' 11. .: ,'. " I,. 1.' .' I _. .' . _ ,
I
'' ." 'd:d' .1.. 1 dl ,1 I fi''''1-1- tiJ
t
,".' t -' t-' -f t'h ,."-' h, .: 'I ?I"" In'
" a '. "W an-"5"' .'. 1. up. I la: par Ol"e measure _ave, ,1,,11.
the Greek anth,olo,gy a,re found a series of problems 'o,n the distribution.
of appl es and nuts:, and problems ,on. the weights of bowls" W ich
"I"o'v'o')-ve eC"q'uat-l"O'DS ln.. ODre-." an'd' 'tw.....,'-o, unk I'n''o-wn q"ua:n--'t]"tie-"'s 3 .,,-,'.',",1,, , .. ' .. I .......: :'. ,.:'.' ' ... :....: .....,', '.,,1 _ ._' . .' ..' ,,,I, '> ."_' ' .... , .'c .. 1 ... ,"'-.:-."
The intimate conne,ctio]n 'betw'e,en Greek IOglstlC Egypti,an arith-
metic ca'n hardly be se,ri,ous)y questi:o:ned. So far as G,rele,k a,ithmetua
1
'S' c'oncern'"ed'
j
'h'ere agaln we- fm'd' tha-t the G"re-'eks w"ere msplred by tb, "el"fl ,11" ,1:,_. 1::'_,; I, " ' ' _ I.. ' .. ...' :'1:.":,...' . ". "1:_ .. ,: .: .....',<1 .
IOriental predecesso'ls" The available 'Babylonian an,cl Egyptian
docum,lents in the ,exact sciences are as yet extremely limited; OIUl
p'resent infonnation is more or less accid,en.taI., and by no means com-
preh,en,slve. So far as early Egyptian mathematical sci'ence is co.n'w
cerned, we ar,e largely dependent,upon the Ahm.'es, papyrus,.. ,B,ut these
f
.." d"- - -. - t - _! . ,., .. d"-'" - t' .' .. - .. f- d - 1 t I l :.' .' _ ' (: I . . I. I ,,_"., - ': : .:': . . .] .. I . ,.' .,.. '.. : . : I . _'.' I '1 I' .': . . . . '!".-. : - . I , -' ". ,". . '. . . . "I" '. . _ ... -. - I.' 'I'" :- : ", . -._. '.. .- :
ew SUrvIVIng __.ocum,en, S,give ,In. lea, Ions o. _eveop.men aon,g many
di.fferent lin,es of math.ematic,al th,o'ught,. Their conte.nt is, as we havle
already partially indlcat.ed" quite in h,armony'with the. Greek traditions
cO'Deeming E,gyptian and, s,cience. 'In view of thisl cor-
_.- - _. d ... "d' f' 'f . "h'" d' 'ft" '., ... d" ... .. 'f' al" - - ... - - .'_. ",. '. . . .' " 1 I . -I - I" '. '. . .' ' . . ' . - - " .' . . . ' . . ,', .. ' '. , ': I. ' I '.. . . , . " " : ' . ".' '..
respon .,ence ,an.. 0 er ... e .. ,nlt.e m .. lcatlons, o. re -. progress m
m
-th-mat''cal t-hl'nki
l
'ng among th'e 'Egyp"tiilfan's w-e' are w-rr-- 't'ed- m.'-- . lae .1- . I .... "1 1 ':,'_"", "., .... -".,', .:,'a .an. ..,.... .11,
.. d" h G": ek d , ill 0'" tal
gI.VID,g some cre
,
enc,e: tO
I
t, ere,,':- tra '.' Itlons concernlng .' n'en'_:
science which. are not y'et clo:nfi.rm,ed by indi.genous
Aritbmology is closely related to the occult sciences, astrology,
a
:c 'llch' 1 emy:- 'an' . d 'm 'g-lC Wh',, .... 'I!),e:- 'a-l,e"h-'e:''m"'y'" IS 'Uln-'d"'O"U'bIt',e',d:ly .... ' a, 'c''0,''''m' 'p' r-
r ":" ..' '. .:,.' _' ":' _ _ : '. _ ",' .:.... _ L , _ ,"_. .' '. .. I _ -. ... _ 1. .'. . ". ,'" I '.' -', ( - '. _..... ':
late the IOriental so'urce, of its-heories, is un,questio,ned.
c
Betwee' .. ,. the industria-. arts of Egypt a:nd ,Ba.bylon and 'the d,ev,elop-
m
,, e,-"otl- ,0:If' tb -,eo:"r'!ies:- :o,f a:lc:h',e'm;' 'y: thle,'re:.. IS :a .. n -,a,'t-e' In--e-:ct-lO'D a's:
, I ' _ ' '. "," . ' .'" _' . _ .. ." 'I '.. _" ,.... _'. .. , ' _" ..' ',' , .'- :.. : ..:' " I
Berthelot. b,as sh,own. :F'urthermo1re this auth,orit.y even ,asse'rt.s that
T
--:h 11'" .-'=1' h:-:, -:. t k....c.' '1' fl-' .... '.' 'B-, 'b'" :)...,.. .. -. ........ ,. -'," "th .'. th ....,.... " tb 't.' ',', ..' ,t ' .' '.
,,I aes may .. a,v,ea .. en ro,m ay Q,man my I, S ,IS . leary .'. ,a..: w,aer
is ,the m:aterial can,se of all' things.,'
I, Eisenlobr,. 0/1. ,it.) pp, 71-7,.,; Peet, ciI., pp. 7'8-79.
I: 'EisenlQhr
t
O/J'. ca", ppa 63-6s; 'Peet, "/I. eM.., pp..
I, See'" '. A: . till G-:.L I"_,ll... Ii'.',- . '1 I' .... .' - '6 ."1 1I " . ....'., .." ,!io
,'. .... ,eaLa, )u"ory oJ . ,ree". B:-.e Vg, ,i-. l' pp. IS 1.' ." VG.. ',. pp. 441'-443 li
Tannery" Diollla"" A Opera om.nM."v'ol. 11 J805), pp, 43 2.
t ... Or.'Iri ..., l'AI .. I.';,...,;. 188-" .. 5)1 ,C'ha,'p':l"er' '11'1- I '0'-' It ':". p 25-
1
-
UCl'LU.g .) 0... ' DC ..1.1,"",..,..... no. .' t . 'I .' .' .. '. .'"'' . ". "''i1i . '. ",
So far as the origin of the signs of the zodiac and the star-symbols is
concerned, Oriental and Occidental contributions are not separable,
and the same is true of other scientific ideas.' Astrology was born
and bred in the temples of the Babylonians. The desire to forecast
the future and equally the desire to establish a connection between the
marvels of the beautiful heavens of the East and the events on the
mundane sphere resulted in the cultivation of astrology. The devotion
to the art constituted the first scientific study of the stars.' "The
observations which the priests of the ancient Orient gathered with
indefatigable patience inspired the first physical and astronomical
discoveries, and just as in the period. of scholasticism, the occult
sciences [astrology and magic] led to the exact sciences. But these,
by making evident later the vanity of the marvellous illusions by
which they were nourished, destroyed the foundations of astrology
and magic to which they owed their birth.'"
The observations of the Egyptian and, more particularly, of the
Babylonian astronomers, furnished a mass of material which was
used by the Greeks.' Ptolemy and Hipparcbus utilized the observa-
tions and the computations of the Chaldeans, mentioning specifically
certain eclipses observed j 6 Theon of Smyma discusses the different
types of treatment of astronomical problems by Egyptians as com-
pared with the Babylonians;' Diodorus Siculus notes that both the
Egyptian priests and the Chaldeans were skilled in the prediction of
eclipses.' As scientific observers of celestial phenomena the Baby-
lonians compare favorably with the greatest of the Greek astronomers.
Further than this, the evidence of their ability to use the data intel-
ligently is indisputable. The determination of the period and mean
motion of the moon, the determination of the lengths of the seasons
and of the year, the determination of the period of eclipses and the
periods (ephemerides) of the planets, and a host of minor deductions
were derived by the scientists of the Orient from their data. The most
I Franz Boil, SpJroera, Neue griuhische Te%Je ulld UnttTslIchungen zur GesclrUNte ia SUnI-
bilder (Leipzig, H)OJ), p. 461.
J Cumont, Lt.s Religions OrientaIes dans le Paganis1PU Romain (Paris, 1909). See also his
Aslrology and Religion among the Greeks alld Rtnrums (New York, 1912).
I Cumont, La Religions Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain, p. 235-
t Heath, AdsJarchus DJ Somas, The AndmJ Copt,,,iws, A History of Greek Astronomy to
Aristardus (Oxford, J913), Chapter Ill.
Pto!emy, Composition Malhlmaliqlle de Claude PtoUmle (Almagest), cd. Halma (Paris,
1813). voJ. I. Book IV, pp. 216, 244-247. 267.
Theon of Smyrna, p. 177.9 ff., Hiller.
7 Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotha Historica, I. 50; II30.
SOURCES OF GREEK MATHEMATlCS l[
notable advance in astronomy in Babylon was undoubtedly made
during the period in which the science was making real progress in
Greece; indebtedness was mutual, but independent scientific progress
on both sides is incontestably established.
To deny to Babylon, to Egypt, and to India their part in the develop-
ment of science and scientific thinking is to defy the testimony of the
ancients,' supported by the discoveries of modem authorities.' The
efforts which have been made to ascribe to Greek influence the science
of Egypt, of later Babylon, of India, and later of the Arabs, do not add
to the glory that was Greece. How could the Babylonians of the
golden age of Greece have taken over the developments of Greek
astronomy? This would have been possible only if they had arrived
at a stage of development in astronomy which would have enabled
them properly to estimate and appreciate the work which was to be
absorbed. There has never been any question concerning the nature
and origin of such feeble beginnings of science as are found among the
American Indians. As regards the Babylonians, the Hindus, and the
civilization of Europe in the time of Alexander the Great and up to
600 A.D., the problem is entirely different. These are peoples who had
reached approximately the same stage of development. The admis-
sion that Greek astronomy immediately affected the astronomical
theories of Babylon and India carries with it the implication that this
science had attained somewhat the same level in these countries as in
Greece. Without serious questioning we may assume that a signifi-
cant part of the science of Babylon and Egypt that was developed
during the times which we think of as Greek was indigenous. Nor do
we thereby detract from the real greatness of Greece. The Hellenic
civilization remains as an integral and vital part of all civilization,
and not as something apart.
Turning to the arilhmetica proper, we may first inquire as to the
Egyptian attempts at systematization of the science. The Ahmes
manual in itself is evidence of a noteworthy step in this direction,
since it establishes the fact that the body of ideas which we now group
under the name' mathematics' was recognized as a separate field by
I Hipparchus and Ptolrmy, Theon of Smyma, and Diodorus. as cited above; Herodotus, 11.
109 i Berosus, fragg. I7 fr. in C. MUller. Fragmmta Hisloriawlfm Gru(corJIm, vo!. 11, pp. 509 f.;
Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromala, 11. 4 i Pliny, Nall/raJ;s llislorifJ, VI. 121 i VII. 193
! Heath, Berthelot, Ball, Cumont, as cited above; Kuglcr. Die babylonische Ai ondrechnung
(Freiburg, 1900), pp. 50-51; 203-211; Epping, Aslronomiscnts aus Babylon (Freiburg, 18&),
pp. 183-190_
the Egyptians. While no definitions of number, as such, have as yet
been found, lamblichus informs us that Thales gave the classical
definition of it as a collection of units, and the definition of the unit,
arithmetically, as one of a group, "following the custom of the Egyp-
tians with whom he studied." 1 Furthermore, the distinction between
even and odd, fundamental in the arithmetica, is implicit in the Egyp-
tian manual. For example, the first part of the work is devoted to a
table for the conversion into unit fractions of fractions with odd de-
nominators from 5 to 99 and with 2 as numerator. This table in and
of itself marks real progress in systematization.
The decad, which is prominent in the Pythagorean arithmetic, also
receives, in a way, particular attention in the Ahmes papyrus, for 10
appears over and over again in the problems of the Egyptian manual.'
Attention to arithmetical and geometrical series was given both
in early Babylon and in early Egypt. The single reference which we
have, as yet, to the arithmetical and geometrical series in Babylon
is found in a moon tablet a deciphered by Hincks. This gives the
geometric series S,lO, 20, 40, 80 followed by the arithmetical series,
Ba, 96, I12, 128, ... 240.
In the Egyptian manual we have much more than the simple ap-
pearance of arithmetical and geometrical series. The discussion of
arithmetical and geometrical progressions reveals an unexpected
familiarity with rules which we now express by algebraical formulas, a
familiarity which has not received adequate appreciation. The es-
sential points of the two formulas which we have for the nth term and
the sum of the arithmetical series, a, a + d, a + 2 d, a + 3 d, .. ",
appear from the problems to have been familiar to the Egyptians.
Comparatively intricate problems are handled with the ease and in-
timacy born of long acquaintance.
The problem numbered 40 by Eisenlohr reads: "To distribute 100
loaves of bread among 5 people so that t of the (total of the) first three
equals that of the last two. What is the difference?" The solution
shows that it is understood that the loaves are to be distributed in
arithmetical progression.
"Following instructions, the difference si," is the next somewhat
cryptical suggestion of the manual. I hold that this reference implies
11,. NianMclri AriJhMdialm InlroduttimreM LilJeI, p. 10,8 (Piste1li).
1 EiscnIohr, op. ciI., 208, 211, 216, 217. 218, 219. et passim.
I Tu Literory Gaulk, Aug. Sf 1854. with reference to Tablet K 90 of the British Museum.
13
definite rules of procedure in such problems, leading to the difference
st, if unity be taken as the first term, under the conditions proposed.
Our common procedure, in analytical solution of this problem, leads
to the result, d = st a or d = st if a is I. Even if the method of
arriving at this value for d be that of 'false position,' the procedure
which, being adaptable to similar problems, arrives definitely and
surely at the complete solution of the proposed problem must be
regarded as scientific.
From this point the solution follows the lines of previous problems.
With 1 as the first term and st as the difference, the terms are I, 6!,
12, 17t, and 23, having 60 as a sum. To complete this to the required
100 loaves there must be added 40, or i of 60. After it has been noted
that this is the case, there is added to each of the numbels in the dis-
covered series i of itself, a process that gives Ii, la! t, 20, 2%, and
38f as the series fulfilling the required conditions.
A second problem involving an arithmetical series is entitled U In-
structions for the difference in distribution." The solution opens
with the phrase, "If you are told," which was later adopted by Arabic
mathematicians, and is not uncommon even today. "If you are told,
[distribute] 10 measures of grain to 10 people so that the difference in
[the amount received by] each person as compared with the next one is
t of a measure of grain. I take the mean, one measure. I subtract
I from 10, leaving 9. I take t of the difference, n, and take it nine
times. This gives t n, which I add to the mean. From this take
away t measure for each person in order to arrive at the goal. Follow-
ing instructions: It n, It t n, It n, I! n, 'n, t t t n, t t n,
t ! n, t n, t t n, together 10." The solution of this problem as
given by the Egyptian manual should be compared step by step with
the solution by the ordinary procedure with the formulas of our ele-
mentary algebra; the close correspondence is too striking to be
regarded as wholly accidental.
No one could ask that the ancient Egyptians should have modern
formulas with a literal symbolism, for this advance was not made in
Europe until the end of the sixteenth century of the Christian era.
The similarity in method is, however, highly significant, revealing a
development in analytical thinking that is not equalled for many
centuries. In effect, we have in these problems the first term of an
arithmetical series regarded as a function of the common difference,
under given conditions, and the last term as a function of the mean
14
and the difference. This is true functional thinking whose like is
haIdly met again until Archimedes.
The single illustration of a geometrical series confirms the implica-
tions of the solutions found in the problems involving arithmetical
series. The text is extremely concise, and possibly mutilated:
"A ladder
2,801
5,602
11,204
19,607
I
2
4
together
scribe 7
cat 49
mouse 343
sheaf 2,401
gram 16,807
together 19,607."
At the right we have the summation of the series 7, 49, 343, 2,401, and
16,807 by actual addition; at the left we have the summation of the
same series 7 X 2,801, with the multiplication effected in the usual
manner. Now our formula for the summation of this series gives
7' I
7 -, or 7 times 2,801.
7 - I
Some three thousand years after Abmes an Italian mathematician
of prominence, Leonard of Pisa, includes in his arithmetic the same
series with one further term. He effects the solution in precisely
the two ways selected by his Egyptian predecessor. In India, too,
powers of 7 received special attention. The words, or illustrations,
which accompany the numbers suggest the nursery rhyme concerning
the old woman going to St. Ives.
So far as geometrical formulas are concerned the Egyptians had
definite methods for finding the area of triangles, rectangles, trapezoids,
and circles, as well as for finding the volume of cylinders.' Recently
an Egyptian document has been published which gives the expression
for the volume of a truncated pyramid' Further there have been
found in Egyptian papyri problems concerned with determining the
sides of a rectangle when the area and the ratio of the sides are given.
3
All of this material connects directly with the geometry of Greece.
Iamblichus asserts that Pythagoras brought the harmonical progres-
I Eisenlohr, op. cil., pp. 75-115.
lB. Touraeff, The Volume of the TmncaJcd PyramUJ in Egyptian MaJhematics, A.ncUnI
Egypt, 1917, pp. 100-102; Karpinski, An Egyptian MaJhemolkaJ PapyrflS i" Moscow, Sderra,
vot 57, 1923, pp. 528-519.
I H. Schack-Schachnburg, Der Berliner Papyrus 6619, Zeilschrif' fur iigyptisclu SJmuhe,
vol. XXXVIII, pp. 135-140, and vol. XL, pp. 65-66.
IS
sion to Greece from Babylon, but no Babylonian record confirming the
statement has yet been found.
The squares and cubes of numbers also received particular attention
in Babylon, and tables of squares and cubes have been found. In
Egypt the relation 3' + 4' = 5' appears to have been used in the laying
out of right angles by means of a stretched rope. Democritus, an able
Greek mathematician of the fifth century B.C., boasts: "So far as the
laying out of lines is concerned, no one has surpassed me, not even
the rope-stretchers of ancient Egypt." 1 Michael Psellus of the
eleventh century mentions the Greek equivalents of the Egyptian
names of the higher powers, first power to twelfth power; it is sup-
posed that the statement is based upon the lost commentary upon the
Arithmetic of Diophantus by Hypatia. Again the reference, although
not confirmed by available Egyptian material, adds to the probability
of mathematical developments in addition to those with which we
happen, almost accidentally, to be familiar.
The mystical element in Greek arithmetic is undoubtedly also of
Oriental origin. "It must be remembered that at Babylon a number
was a very different thing from afigure. Just as in ancient times and,
above all, in Egypt, the name had a magic power, and ceremonial
words formed an irresistible incantation, so here the number possesses
an active force, the number is a symbol, and its properties are sacred
attributes.":1 This attitude we see occasionally in Nicomachus, and
to a more pronounced degree in later mediaeval times.
The purpose of this introduction is to show the Oriental inspiration
and origin of many of the Greek developments in mathematics. The
assertion, which has been seriously made by Burnct,3 that all science
is Greek in its origin, is shown to be not at all in accordance with the
facts. The well-established tradition' of Babylonian and Egyptian
influence upon the science of early Greece is confirmed by a mass of
self-supporting evidence, naturally not confined to one branch of
science, which has been illustrated above with particular reference to
arithmetic. Greece retains the right to enjoy the profound admiration
of the world of science, but the Orient, also, must be credited with
contributions worthy of note.

1 Clement of Alexandria (cd. Potter), p. 357.
2 Cumont, Astrology and Religion umo1lg the Crteks and ROmdns (New York, 19U), p. 30.
I John Burnet, Creek Philosophy, Part I, Thalcsto Plulo (London, 1914), pp. 4 iT.
Bretschneider, DU Geometric Ilnd die Geometer i'or Euklides (Leipzig, 18iO), pp. 3-35.
CHAPTER II
TIlE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEK ARITHMETIC BEFORE
NICOMACHUS
ONLY a slight acquaintance with Greek mathematics is necessary
to convince one that the Introduction to Arithmetic of Nicomachus is
but a restatement of facts which were common property not only in
Nicomachus's own generation but even long before him, and that,
except for the few unimportant propositions the discovery of which
our author with pardonable pride claims for himself, the book is largely
unoriginal.' This naturally leads to the inference that the Introduc-
tion must be closely connected with other mathematical treatises,
which served as the fountains whence Nicomachus drew his supply.
Because so little remains of this literature, it is difficult to demonstrate
the hypothesis in detail; few, however, will question its general truth.
A few words concerning the purpose of the Introduction, and the
type of books of which it is a representative, will make clearer its
necessarily dependent position among mathematical books, and ex-
plain why it became famous in spite of little originality. Iamblichus,
when he refers to the Introduction as the &.pdJI'-TJn,q rx."'!, or Art of
Arithmetic,' exactly describes it, and properly locates it in literature.
The Introduction belongs, then, among the artes or T'x'V4r., concise,
practical descriptrons and systematic expositions of the principles of
various arts and sciences, a type of treatise exceedingly common in
ancient times,3 and one which, save in a few well-known exceptions,
made scant claim to originality.
I Cl. the estimate of Cow, History of Greek MQ1h,matks (Cambridge, 1884), p. 94.
1 P. 4. 12 fI. (Pistelli). See p. So.
aThe name was most often applied to texts of rhetoric, to mark the superiority of this over all
other arts. E. M. Cope, Int,odud;on to Aristotle's RMtorit: {London, 1867}, pp. I, 17. and notes,
discusses this and gives examples of the use of T'X"'1. lI'PAl',.ATtiA, and h"W'ril,ll'l, all of
which were used in about the same sense, as "a system or body of rules and principles" of any
art. The of Korax was "the earliest theoretical Greek book, not merely on Rhetoric, but
in any branch of art" (R. C. Jebb, Attic Oralors, vol. I, p. cxxi), and Aristotle's lost
nx,w. was a collection of such material. lsocrates refers to rhetorical treatises under this name:
>.ot.rol olll'pO Tlh ICcU.ovlohtlf Tixl'Cl.s l'p4IfU.1"O),.,Il/Jl1lU'1'"tS (OraJw XIU.
19). His own (fragmentary) dXJ"I'J is collected in the BenselerBlass edition (Leipzig, 1904), veL
,6
GREEK ARITHMETIC BEFORE NICOMACHUS 17

Designed for the use of students, they aimed to present in small
compass and with accuracyI clearness and completeness, the elements
of a subject, so that it might easily be comprehended and put into
practice, in which regard they may best be compared to the modern
school and college text-book. The scholars of ancient times, like their
modern brethren, did not publish the results of special research in books
of this character j and just as our school-books differ from such monu-
mental works as The Origin of Species, so we must consider that the
InJrodmlion 10 Ar-itlzmelu differs from the great original treatises of
Diophantus and Heron.
Even without presenting new material, Nicomachus found it possi-
ble, therefore, to win fame by writing an (art of arithmetic.' Because
in clearness, conciseness, compendiousness, orderly arrangement and
adaptability for scholastic use, it satisfied the demands of seekers
after education or general information, it remained the standard work
of its class for many centuries. Independence was not, and did not
need to be, one of its virtues. To understand it we must survey the
historical processes out of which developed the science of which it is
an epitome.
Greek interest in the topics dealt with by arithmetic can be traced
back to the very dawn of all their science among the Ionians of the sixth
century before Christ. Tradition credits Thales with the introduction
of geometry into Greece from Egypt, and even designates the theorems
which were his discoveries.
1
For the present purpose, however, it is
more important to note that the astronomical problems with which
Thales is said to have dealt - the length of the year,' the prediction
of an eclipse,' the determination of the apparent size of the sun as Th-
of the complete circle of the heavens,' and the determination of the
equinoxes,' - are all fundamentally arithmetical, a fact which far
11, p. ::75. The title of one of Protagoras's works was Tt-X"' ~ ~ T l A c W (Diogenes Laertius, VIn.
SS). The pscudo-Hippocratean On the Art was, however, a defense of mc<.licine. 'Introduc-
tions,' twa:'Yw-yal, also, were of much the same nature as the Tix",,; examples are, besides those
written by Nicomachus, that of Aldnous 10 the Plalonic philosophy, and that of Porphyry to
the Aristotelian.
1CL Burnct,op.cit., p. 20; Eudemus in Proclus, In EI4lid.l, pp. 157. 10; '50,20; '99. I; 352.
I4 (Friedlein). Cr. Heath, A Hislcry of Gruk MaJhematus, vol. I, pp. 128-137.
I Diogenes Laertius, L 24, 27; T. L. Heath, Aristarchus of Samos, p. 21; A l/istory of Greek
MaJMmaliu, vo!' I, pp. 137-139.
, Diogenes Laertius, I. 23; Thoon of Smyrna, p. 198, 16 (Hitler); Heath, Arisla,chus of Sames,
pp. 13-18; Diets, Die F,agmenle de' Vorsok,aJiw, vol. P, p. 7, no. 5.
t Diogenes Laertius, I. 24; Heath, op. tit., p. 22, where the point is disputed.
i Diogenes Laertius, 1. 23; Heath, op. ,it., p. 20.
outweighs the statement of the late writer Iamblichus that Thales
gave a definition of number based upon Egyptian tradition.'
Not Ionia, however, but Magna Graecia, was destined to be the
real birthplace of Greek arithmetic; for although the Ionians un-
doubtedly set in motion the wonderful series of scientific researches
that culminated in Plato and Aristotle, the immediate successors of
Thales do not seem to have been much concerned with mathematics,
and Pythagoras and his school must receive the credit for laying
its real foundations. Just what was the measure of their service in the
development of arithmetic it is hard to say, because, as is generally
admitted, no Pythagorean treatises were published until the time of
Philolaus, that is, for nearly a century after the lifetime of Pythagoras
himself.' Still there is enough to show that many of the subjects
treated by Nicomachus were known in the earliest days of the sect.
Pythagoras himself is said to have determined the numerical ratios
of the fundamental musical concords,' a statement which implies a
knowledge of the ratios in general; the discovery of the tetraktys,
too, was said to be his, and was commemorated by the customary
oath of the Pythagorean brethren,' in view of which it is clear that
figurate numbers, certainly triangles, squares and heteromecic num-
bers, were known in the earliest days.' The classification of numhers
into odd and even, and perhaps some of the others which we observe
in Nicomachus, may also safely be ascribed to Pythagoras and his
group. Although the traditions that credit Pythagoras with a knowl-
edge of the three common proportions,6 if not their introduction into
Greece, are late, it is not improbable, since he was acquainted with
ratios, that he knew them.
No inconsiderable portion of Nicomachus's material, then, was al-
1 See p. 127.
I Cf. Diogenes Laertius, VIII. 85. Iamblichus, Vita PytMgorka, 199, distinctly says that no
one had met with any Pythagorean writings until Philolaus (ftOf'flU ca. 440 B.C.) published his
books. A written text-book might have circulated within the community itself, of course, but
there is no evidence that they used books of any sort.
CL Nioomachus's account of his discovery, ManI/ok HarnwniCllm, c. 6, and Theon of Smyrna,
p. 56, 9 (Hiller); Burnct,op. cif., pp. 45 ff. In general see Heath's chapter on" Pythagorean
Arithmetic," History, vol. I, pp. 65 if.; Leon Brunschvig, Les Etapes de. la Plli/osophit M ~
maJiqlU: (Paris, 1922), pp. 33 ff.; Aldo Mieli, Le Smole lonica PylhagoNca ed Elcala (Florence,
1916), pp. 236 fI.
t Quoted by Theon of Smyma, p. 94, 6-7 (see HilIer, ad loc, for other citations).
5 Cr. Bumet, op. ,it., pp. 52-54.
e Xicomachus, InJroduction, 11. :no I; Iamblichus, In Ni'omachi Arithmeticam Z,urodudionem,
p. 118, 23 (Pistelli).
,..f
.. ,
0- ,I
"
'at'- 'n-"'e:-'c' 'e's' . .... '.' I. I ,.:.,J _"."-
'SI
. -, .
. 'ral . '
IOID.gl hie"
I
le, :00'1 ces 1,.1
. lo,ba,hIe that 'nii'm,e i:1'.,
f.orm; but V)'w of
".,. :-''SI to ha.ve characte'rlz'l
...-,",,",,1'1 hat this formulatio".
'ha'e bee I Y'I,
I 1 a,ny'
I "
.. 1
"\
,D'I. ',' ers
" pas-
'. "ndle've"n
,I le
ha'D,ded,
_,.........e,". tary
hi ala I,S and
(..pL q,vu(wr;)
,,S
.' ',' ,'1 . '11"0'" , . rO"'p'e:ri'
, " I ," ..', l.. i_-:
- I . , ..
- ' . "
,'01)

'. . .
.,... ''1.. ',_.....
1- .
of tr,,....'..."",..
0
',"
,.r .
" " I
i' e',
. I , .......u.'..
,_._ ... .e
I:" e, 'a, be
_',t ",'0' ,thy a'u,tho
" ,.10 ,.,'u:hors most - O'
I ." r' ':=-'n' teu.m' I'- I. _ .":". " .,.
,; ,of Philol'laus":.
. ,gained, lof the
p:..< I. In one' hi
d
.. -- .'
'. ,. ,aD.
. , t " .Id, 't,!' ; .e:-,r'
l
'01 1-
_. ",' I" 10 I
'. s, assigned 0
1
("'0" ': th,e latter hal
" 6
', I' '(' s-'t,:
.1_ I :.1 .
'0
numbers, primes and composites, multiples and submultiples, ratios,
and pyramidal numbers, besides many other matters more akin to
arithmology or to geometry.
The tradition of Nicomachus 1 that Philolaus used the expression
'hannonic proportion,' and referred to the-cube as 'geometric har-
mony,' and that of Iamblichus,' ascribing to him the use of the so-
called 'musical proportion' 6, 8, 9, 12, show that the proportions also
were included in his arithmetical knowledge, although only three
kinds are reputed to have been known to him.' By the time of
Philolaus, therefore, we may assume that the aTS aTithmetica was
practically complete in all its essentials.
On the other hand, perhaps no written codification of it had as yet
been made. We know that Philolaus wrote much, but we hear of no
arithmetic among his books; there are also references to the 'Py-
thagorean tradition' concerning various matters of arithmetic and the
allied sclences,' but none coupled with the name of an 'art of arith-
metic.' Such books may have been compiled, but probably for the
most part the Pythagorean doctrines of arithmetic occurred in philo-
sophical or musical contexts, if we may judge by the fragments of
Philolaus, for much as the school valued mathematics, it was never-
theless to them a means to the end of philosophizing about the nature
of the universe. The mathematics of the Pythagoreans, also, was even
at this early day deeply tinged with arithmological speculations, which
detract from its value as pure sclence; and the tendency persisted
among their descendants for many centuries, as we may observe in the
writings of Nicomachus, Theon, and Iamblichus.
Archytas, who is far more important than Philolaus in the history
of arithmetic, lived fully a generation later and was a somewhat older
contemporary of Plato.' Of course we may assume that he was familiar
with all the science of arithmetic as it was known to Philolaus, and it
Ilmroductifm, n. 26. 2.
tIn NiaJmaclli Arithmairom lntroductiofum, p. u8, 20-22 (Pistelli) .
Iamblichus, In Nkomaclti Aritnmdumn InlrodUdiomM, p. 100,19 (Pistelli), says the others
were discovered later.
, E.g., Theon of Smyma, p. 41. 8 if. (Hiller), admits that the arithmetic he has thus far pre-
sented is taken from' Pythagorean tradition'; see also what he says about the proportions,
p. 116,3 ff. Some of the makers of this tradition may ha"'e belonged, of course, to the Alexandrian
period, like Myonides and Euphranor (see on lnlroduction, n. 22. I; 28.6). Note also that
Nicomachu!l vaguely mentions' other writers' on arithmetic (see p. 29), some of whom may have
been early Pythagoreans.
5His JWruit is given as ca. 4OQ-36S D.C. For his life, see Diogenes Laertius, VIII. 79 ff.
I
is probable that it underwent refinement at his hands. What is more
important, be quite certainly wrote an a's arithmelua, but we cannot
be certain whether it was an independent book, or, as is more likely, a
part of a more voluminous work on musical theory. At any rate
it is the first example of this type of literature for the existence of which
there is more than mere conjectural testimony.
The chief evidence that Archytas compiled an a,s a,ithmetua is
found in a detailed proof in Euclidean form of the proposition that no
number, that is, no rational number, can be a mean between nand
n + I; this is quoted by Boethius and ascribed to Archytas; it occurs
also in the Euclidean Sectio Canonis.' The theorem finds a direct
application in musical theory in the proof that the' tone,' the numerical
ratio of which is 9: 8, cannot be halved,' and so it is very probable
that it originally occurred, just as it is now found in Euclid, in a treatise
on harmony. But in point of mathematical refinement it is far above
the level of Nicomachus, and whatever its subject, the book of which
it was a part is of high importance in the history of arithmetic.
Another fragment of Archytas, dealing with the proportions, is
likewise notable for its scientific accuracy of expression. This is
quoted by Porphyry' as follows: "Archytas, in explaining the means,
wrote the following: 'There are in music three means; the first is the
arithmetical mean, the second is the geometrical, and the third is the
subcontrary mean which is called harmonica!' The mean is arith-
metical when the three terms are in proportion according to the follow-
ing excess: the quantity by which the first exceeds the second is the
same precisely as that by which the second exceeds the third. In this
proportion it is found that the ratio of the greater terms is smaller,
and the ratio of the smaller terms is greater. There is a geometrical
mean when the first term is to the second as the second is to the third;
here the ratio of the greater terms is identical with that of the lesser.
The subcontrary mean, which we call harmonical, exists when the
first term exceeds by a fraction of itself the second, while the second
exceeds the third by the same fraction of the third. In this proportion
the ratio of the greater terms is greater, and of the lesser is less.' "
We may note that in addition to defining the proportions Archytas
I Boethius, De IMtitmione J.{US'ka, In. t1; cf. P. Tanntry, Un TraiU (Ate d'AriJhmtJique
Antukur d EUlide, Bibliotlte{a JlalMmatua, 3 Folge, \'01. VI. pp. 225 If. Set al50 Euclid, St"",
Corwrris, in Von }an, Musui S,riptlWts Graui (uipz,ig, 1&)5), p. 152; Heath, History, vol. I, p. 90.
I. Euclid. Seclio Colttmis, c. 16, p. 161 (Von lan) .
In PtolttJllU, Harmtmua, p. 267; Diels, Die FrOKmeffU de V01'soMatiier, vat. P, pp. 334-335.
I
I
I
I
I
states what is the peculiar characteristic of each; this is precisely the
procedure of Nicomachus in the Introduction. Archytas perhaps herein
furnished a model for future writers of arles.'
Either in the same work or in another, Archytas seems to have
written upon certain of the fundamental conceptions of arithmetic;
for it is reported that he and Philolaus used the terms' monad' and
'one' indiscriminately, and that he believed the monad to partake of
the nature of both odd and even,' and we may note also the passage
which Nicomachus quotes in the Introduction, I. 3. 4. Archytas was
besides a pioneer in mechanics and an able geometrician.
The first two fragments cited above, together with several others
which need not be mentioned here, seem, to judge from their similarity
of subject, to have come from the same work of Archytas, and Diels,
who groups them under the title Discourse on Harmony (a.pp,OVI.KO,;, se.
Myo.), has probably made the best conjecture as to both name and
nature of the work, for an underlying interest in music pervades them
all. This book, however, was also cited by the ancients as On Mathe-
matUs or On Musi",' Blass's conjecture as to the character of the
book,4 that it was a comprehensive one on mathematics, with a general
introduction and sections dealing with harmony and the other mathe-
matical sciences, and that the ancients cited it by the subjects of the
various parts, is on the whole less likely than the theory which con-
ceives it to have been a treatise dealing primarily with music, but
containing a subsidiary discussion of arithmetic as a necessary intro-
duction to the theory of harmony.
The section on arithmetic must have been a systematic ars arith-
metita,. whether or not it was a complete one must remain in doubt.
It is at least true, as Tannery declares, that the proposition preserved
by Boethius would naturally be one of a series like that in the seventh
book of Euclid's Elements, and we may be assured that ratio and pro-
portion also were systematically dealt with. Tannery adds that most
probably this could not have been original with Archytas, but is evi-
dence for an a,s arithmetica already existent in his time. However
1 Cf. Nicomachus, bu,oduction, n. c. 23 fI. Note that sjmjlar definitions of the means are
given by Plato in Timaeus, 31 C..., 32 A, and 36 A-B
Theon of Smyma, pp. 20, 19 j 22, 5 fr. (Hiller).
I re-pt l'athJ,u,.T'II';;.s, Porphyry, I,. t o l ~ Harmonie4, p. 236, introducing the fragment
quoted by Nicomachus,lnJroduttitm, I. 3. 4, as from the apl'OKA"bt. Diets's fragment 3 is cited as
from re-pllM'8Jll'6.TwII by lamblicbus. The fragment on the proportions, cited by Porphyry and
quoted above, purports to come from the re-pt T;;.s l'OWucljr.
MBarlBes Graux, pp. 583-584.
that may be, the name of Archytas is the first with which is associated
something definite in the history of the development of a formal arith-
metic, and it is in consonance with his undoubted eminence as a mathe-
matician to assume that it was by his own original efforts that he
accomplished a great share of the contributions already mentioned.'
Plato and the Academic philosophers who succeeded him were
hardly less concerned with mathematics than Archytas and the
Pythagoreans. Although but one proposition, that which specifies
that between two plane numbers as extremes one mean can be found,
but that there must be two between two solid numbers,' is definitely
linked with the name of Plato in the later tradition of the ars arith-
metica, he nevertheless exercised in another way his influence upon its
form, for we see that Nicomachus planned his I ntradmtion so as to
explain the mathematical principles involved in the difficult Platonic
passages concerning the world-soul in the Timaeus and the marriage-
number in the Republic'
The esteem in which Plato held mathematical studies is sufficiently
seen from the importance he attaches to them in his account of educa-
tion in both the Republic and the Laws,' and by his constant references
to things mathematical. Undoubtedly they were the subject of in-
struction and discussion in the Academy, and we might well conjecture
that for such purposes some formal outline of the subject was prepared,
if nothing more than a set of lecture notes, but there is no positive in-
formation that a book of the sort existed. Some of the matters which
it would contain can be inferred, however, from the mathematical
references of the dialogues.
Like Nicomachus, Plato gives a list of allied mathematical sciences,
the most famous of which is that in the Republic, which contains
arithmetic, plane geometry, solid geometry, and astronomy' Music
I The opinion of T. L. Heath of the importana of Archylas's contribution is to be from
the follo"'ing quotation from Th, Thj,tcC1' Boolsof Eudid'J EJ,mols, \'01. 11, p. 295: "Wc ha,,'c
then here a clear indication of the uisteoce at least as url)' a.!i the date of Arch},ta.!l (about
4Jo-J65 1I.e.) of an E/,WU'"ls of :4ritbU't;c in the form which "'e call Euc1idean:' Cr. Heath,
His/rNY, \'01. I, pp. 211-216.
I Cf. ltdrodlfCtiOfl, Jt. 24.6 and Plato, Tifll/UUtl.S, J' A.
I Cr. l..trodwtio1l, 11. '4.6.
4 R"'jb/ic, 5u cH.; Lan, 817 E. See Bumet, 0'. (it., pp."4 tt.
t Plato's arithmetic includes also logistic. Other sciences mentioned arc those of ""eighing and
measuring, f'fuutJj and IlwPloC'i, besides thOS(' spohn of by Nicomachus. The passagc:s refer-
rinK to thcsr sciences arc R",Wlu, 522 C8".; Laws, 817 1:; Pltif,b'lJ. SS .: If.; AlcibilUiu, 126 c;
EIliIf)'"""lJ, '90 Il; Prolaroras, 356 D6.; Gorrias, 453 E; Jli"ilJl Jfirwr, 367 6. i PoliJit:lU,
2&4 E; TlttoctdlU, 198 11. If.
'4
is omitted, but astronomy is distinguished, as by Nicomachus, as a
science that treats of bodies in motion. Arithmetic is twice defined
as the science that deals with the odd and even,' and Plato distinguishes
the mathematics of the philosopher, which deals with abstract numbers
and quantities, from the arithmetic of ordinary life which manipu-
lates concrete units that are not always the same.' Among the funda-
mental ideas of mathematics which Plato discusses is the nature of
arithmetical number,S of 'one:
fo
and of the odd and even,6 together
with mention of addition,' greatness and smallness,' multitude,' and
the counting process. v In the Parmenides,JO moreover, it is demon-
strated that number must exist, and in the Theaeldus 11 there occurs
a set of three axioms which underlie all arithmetical computation.
The Platonic dialogues contain also a surprising number of references
to the classifications of number and the topics which fall under the
head of relative number in the typical ars arilhmelica; the terminology,
too, is the same as that of Nicomachus. Plato usually divides
number into odd and even,l! but a more exhaustive classification,
including even-times even, odd-times odd, even-times odd, and odd-
times even, occurs in one place. The even series is a UT{X0t;, just
as in Nieomachus ; 13 there are mentioned 'parts' (p.f111) ,14
aliquot parts (p.6pl.OV),15 'measures' Cp.erpov),t6 rationaIs and surds
(p.",.o., o.PfY'ITa.),17 powers (8",,0./L"') 18 and roots (8vvo./L<vaL),19 solid
and plane numbers E1T[1TE80,) with their varieties, squares,
cubes, and oblongs (ia-av lcrc"',,'), KVf30t;, 1TpOf':7]K7}t;) ,20 and their sides
("AEVpa.j and dimensions (ri,,6aTa.'7L'),21 addition and division (OXiu,.,
1 TMoeldus, 198 A; Gorias, 453 E. 1 PTtado, 103 E if.
t Phi/ebw, SS E ft. 1 PJuudo, Q6 E if.
Philebus, 56 D if. 1 Plkudo, 100 E.
'Parmt;nidts, 137 D. 1 144 A..
t Tlteaetetw, 198 c; to count is "to see how great a number it chances to be"
(cr"cntfirilU. ..Ocrln 'Hr 4p48j.1/,s TV'YXGnt Cw). 'G 14J If. 11 155 A.
11 Gorrias, 4SJ B i Hippias Major, JOJ B; Politicus, 262 E; Tktutetus, 198 A i Republic, 510 c.
The fourfold classification in Parmenilks, 14J F. j it should be compared to the Euclidean
subdivision (Elements, Book VII, ddinitions) into the same classes, and contrastt:d with the thrt:e-
fold classification (of the even) of Nicomacbus, Introduction, I. 8. J.
u PJuudo, 104 Bj cf, lnlroductian, n. 17. 3-4, etc.
"Tlutuutus, 204 E fJ.; 151 B. "Pa,meniJu, 151 B; Philebul, 25 A,
'I TimMus, J6 B. n HiPtMs Maior, 30J B; Republic, 546 c.
11 TluadeJus, 147 0 fI. also occurs, RejJuJJlk, 546 B.
U D_ . U' I .
.ruPIWlIC, ac. tu.
III RepuMic, 546 Ci Theaetetus, 147 Elf.; TinkUUS, A32. Note also the terminology"AM H'II""
TQl'P'Lf, :rXeor6.I!:lf, Tkaetcfus, loe. cit., which is much like that of Nicomachus in InJ,OOuc-
tWm, n. t 7, 6. Plato also uses d.:r6 as the name for a square i MeM, 83 0; Nicomachus, 1""0014-
tWm, L 9. 6, etc. 11 Republic, 546 B.
GREEK ARITHMETIC BEFORE NICOMACHUS '5
'Ir"oofJ<cn<),' and the 'pythmen' or smallest representative of any
form of ratio (mJ8iL>iv).'
With regard to relative number, the fundamental idea of equality is
often mentioned and is defined as H that which neither exceeds nor
is exceeded" (TO P.T/TE VrrEP'xOIl /L1}TE VrrEPEXP.1I01l) ,3 and the major
classes of relations between numbers, the greater and the less, occur
no less frequently.' From the multitude of examples that may be
cited, it is clear that Plato's nomenclature of the individual ratios was
the ordinary one.o He uses the notions 'greater' and 'less' to illus-
trate relativity, 6 but at the same time assigns ratios a place in the di-
vision of the finite.' Finally, if we consider that all mention of them
is purely incidental, the treatment of proportion (avaAO")'{a) is es-
pecially complete. Definitions of the arithmetic and harmonic types
occur in the form found also in Archytas and Nicomachus,
8
and the
geometric is seen in the simile of the divided line 9 and elsewhere.
We have already noted that the theorem concerning the numher of
means necessary between plane and solid numbers as extremes may
well be a contribution of Plato himself; and furthermore the use of
the so-called 'musical' proportion hy Plato in Timaeus 36 A, though
it had doubtless been employed by the Pythagoreans before him, led
the authors of aries, like Nicomachus in Introduction, n. 29, and of com-
mentaries on the Timaeus to devote much space to its discussion.
From this wealth of arithmetical material in the works of Plato later
authors might surely have borrowed. Whether or not they did so,
its presence in Plato is another link in the chain of evidence proving
the gradual development of a standard form of statement for arith-
metical matters, and shows perhaps as well that, although the arith-
metic of Plato is substantially that of Archytas, further refinement of
definition and classification was constantly going on, in which the
PIatonic school bore a share.
To prove this more definitely, we could wish to have more extensive
documents from the Academy than the scanty remains we actually
possess; for although little but the titles of books is left, yet these
1 P1u:udo, 97 A.
I ReJmblk, 546 c; d. on Introduaion, I. 19. 6.
I Plwedo. 97 A.
4 Republic, 438 B i Char",ides, 1688 i Parme1Jides, 140 c, '50 D, 151 B.
IChar",jdes, 168 D; P1u:udo, 105 Ai },fene, 83 D, 84 Ei Timatlls, 36 Ai Theaddus, 154 c;
Republi(:, 546 C
Republic, 438 8. 7 Phi/tbus, 25 A. I Timaeus. J6 A.
Republic, 509 D tJ.; Tinuuw. 31 C- J2 A (a proportion of equality).
-
,6 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
indicate that the interest in mathematics continued high after the
master's death. Speusippus's book On Pythagorean Numbers has
already been mentioned j and we may note that Xenocrates's works
included On Mathematus, On Geometry, On Numbers, and Theory of
Numbers.' Philip of Opus, the reputed author of the Platonic Epino-
mis, treated the subject of polygonal numbers in a book which is now
lost, but which may well have influenced subsequent discussions of the
polygonals; he is said to have written upon arithmetic as well, but
this work also is not now extant.
2
The celebrated astronomer and mathematician Eudoxus was also
intimately connected with the Platonic group and is known to have
made important contributions to the theory of proportion. The
treatment of this subject found in Euclid, in fact, is now regarded
as due to him, and as Heath remarks, it is "equally applicable to
geometry, arithmetic, music, and all mathematical science." 3 Since
the works of Eudoxus have unfortunately all perished, we cannot be
certain that his theory of proportion occurred in a book on arithmetic,
but the reference made by Theon, as noted above, to the school of
Eudoxus, and Iamblichus's statement that he defined number as
'limited multitude" make it somewhat probable. His success as an
astronomer has tended to obscure whatever he may have accomplished
in other fields of mathematics. We may also recall that the philosopher
Dernocritus, an older contemporary of Plato, was much interested in
mathematics, and that a book entitled Numbers (cl.pdJp.oi) is among
those which he is said to have wri tten.'
Aristotle's share in the making of the TCx.V7J was, to judge from his
influence traceable in Nicomachus, no small one; it was concerned
chiefly with the definition of the fundamental concepts of mathematics.
His antiquarian interests also led him to write an essay upon the
Pythagoreans, now lost,' and to bring into his extant works frequent
discussions of them and their theories.' He is still our best informant
,ISeep. SQ,n. I.
t cr. Vilat'um Scriptores CAaed Afinorts (e<:!. Weslennann, J845), p. 446.
lOp. ,it., val. 11, p. 1t2. The date of Eudoxus was about 408-355 H.C. See Diogenes
Laertiu!l, VIII. 86, on hi! life. See also Heath, History, vol. I, pp. 321-334
I See p. 127.
t See Bumet, 01'. rit., pp. 193 fr., and Diels, Die Fragmenh de.. Vor:okraliker, vol. 11, P' 390.
for a collection of the titles of the mathematical works of Democritus.
nu8a;yopucOr or 'Xlpl Dv9a:yoptf<.wj see Zeller, Die Philo:ophie der Griec1re,. (e<!. 5), vol.
I, part I, p. 280, note I-
1 The first book of the Metaphysics gives an extended account of them. References abound,
however, throughout the Metaphysics, Physics and other works.
I
I
about Pythagoreanism, and probably he, like the doxographers and
biographers of the philosophers,' preserved much that was of interest
to Nicomachus. Aristotle's pupil, Theophrastus, wrote hooks deal-
ing with geometry, music, and astronomy, besides one book each of
Arithmetical Inquiries and On Number5,2 but we are wholly ignorant
of the character of his work.
So great was the respect of the Greeks for the genius of Plato that
his dialogues very soon became a subject of study in their higher edu-
cation, and scholars began to write commentaries upon them. The .
Platonic commentaries undoubtedly must be taken into account in
any study of the evolution of such books as the Intraduction, for in
order to elucidate the mathematical passages of Plato it was often
necessary to set forth in detail the principles upon which the explana-
tion rested, and so, although they may not have embraced a com-
plete ars aritlmu:tica, parts of them dealing with special subjects-
for example, with ratios - were really incomplete ar/cs and were of
great use to compilators like Nicomachus. This is particularly true
of commentaries on the Timaeus, the most mathematical of all the
Platonic dialogues.
We shall see that one of these commentaries, the Platanicus of
Eratosthenes,3 was very probably a source, direct or indirect, of Theon
of Smyrna, if not of Nicomachus himself, and that another, by Adras-
tus,' was a primary source of Theon. To what extent still others may
have exercised influence it would be rash to try to say, for few of them
survive. We can form an idea of the lost commentaries only through
the extant ones, those of Plutarch,' Chalcidius, and Proclus, and by
means of the citations found in these and other authors. It is known,
however, that Cranlar, Xenocrates, Eudorus, Clearchus, Theodorus,
Panaetius and Posidonius commented on the Timaeus, besides
Plutarch, Eratosthenes, Adrastus, Chalcidius and Proclus;' and we
must grant the possibility that anyone of them may have contributed
something to the ars arithmetica.
I For the doxographers, cf. Diels's collection of texts, Do:rof:,aphi waui. Arius Didymus was
a writer of this type, and Sotion compiled Lives of the. Philosophns.
J CL Diogenes Laertius, V. 2. 50.
a Eratosthcnes, C. 275-194 R.e., was librarian at Alexandria. On the book, cf. E. HiIler,
Philologlls, vol. XXX, pp. 60 ff., who shows that it was a commentary on the Ti11UJCus.
'On this commentary, d. E. Hiller, Museum, vol. XXVI, pp. 582 tJ.; Zeller,
op. cit. (ed. 4), vol. Ill, part I, p. 806, note; Cantor, Vo-rlcmnKcn Uhcr Gc.schjchJc dc, MatllemaJik,
vo!. I (ed. 3), p. 433. Dc Animae p,ocrcatione in Timaeo .
Tb. Martin, in his edition of the Tim/Uw, has collected the names of the and
the information about them lhat we have.
Before we leave the commentaries, it must be remarked that two of
the surviving aries, those of Theon and of Nicomachus, have a very
close connection with this class in that both authors relate their dis-
cussion of mathematics to the study of Plato, Theon openly, through
the title and the introduction of his book, Nicomachus by frequently
reminding the student that certain of his chapters will be of use toward
understanding the mathematics of Plato.! That is, the two treatises
both belong to the class of the arles and are at the same time related
to the Platonic commentaries and bandbooks. It is essential that this
relationship be constantly borne in mind in order to form a correct idea
of the literary ancestry of the Introduction. Not only is it a handbook
of arithmetic, but it presupposes, like Theon's work, that its user is to
hear lectures on the Timaeus and the Republic, and is designed to assist
him. Theon's introductions to aritlunetic, geometry, astronomy and
music all have this as their avowed purpose. Remembering that
Nicomachus wrote other I introductions' also,2 we may perhaps say
that he did in four treatises what Theon did in one.
Euclid' marks an undoubted epoch in the history of the ars arith-
metica. The Elements is the first extant written work which completely
covers the ground of elementary arithmetic, definitions and proposi-
tions alike; and needless to say the Elements was likewise in many
respects a model for later compilers to follow. We cannot here pause
to show how fully the seventh, eighth and ninth books of the Ele-
ments fulfilI the requirements of the ars arithmetica, and indeed it may
be assumed that the work is too well known to require such a demon-
stration. The methods of Euclid and Nicomachus, it may be re-
marked, are very different, in that Euclid always, Nicomachus never,
offers proofs for his propositions; and in this respect the Elements
probably differed from most of the aries, for as a class they seem to
have been descriptive rather than based on demonstration.
Another mathematician who probably contributed to this tradition
IC!. [nh'odUClion, 11. 2. 3; 21. I; 24- 6; 28. I. In the!e it is stated that the
material given will be useful in the study of Platonic theorems, or the passages read and dealt
with in the schools; a similar purpose will be suspected also when Nicomachus
halts to point out the bearing of arithmetical propositions upon metaphysical theory; e.g.,
buroduditm, I. 23.4 j 11. 17. 2 j 184
I See p. 81.
I The dates of Euclid's life are not exactly known. He was later than Plato's disciples, earlier
than Eratosthenes and Archimedes, according to Proclus, 1" P,imu". EudiJis ElemetltDt'l,m
Librum Commetllarii, p. 68 (Friedlein), and is usually placed in the reigns of the first Ptolemies.
See Heath, Histury, vol. ], pp. 354-357.
was Hypsicles.' He, like Philip of Opus, is known to have worked upon
the subject of polygonal numbers, and one of his propositions bears
close resemblance to a Nicomachean passage.' The name of the book
in which this occurred, however, is unknown, and likewise we have
no information upon a treatise on arithmetic which he is reported to
have written.
Euclid, Eudoxus, Hypsicles and Eratosthenes, who has been men-
tioned in another connection, are practically the only mathematicians
whom we can specify as having very probably been concerned in the
development of the ars arithmetica from the fourth century before
Christ to the time of Nicomachus. Yet in this age the Greek science
of mathematics was in its most flourishing state, centering especially
about Alexandria, and it is hardly to be imagined that the Elements
of Euclid was the only book of the type of the artes which was
written in this period. Nesselmann has already noted this serious
lacuna in our knowledge of arithmetical history'
That the production of books upon elementary arithmetic, however,
really went on during this time is attested by many proofs, to be
drawn partly from Nicomachus and Theon of Smyrna, partly from
others, especially Philo, which by their cumulative evidence lead one
to believe that most of what Nicomachus has written was commonly
found in the books of his time, and furthermore that this elementary
mathematical knowledge existed in a form fairly well fixed and gen-
erally accepted. It was not, apparently, accompanied by Euclidean
proofs; at least the references in Nicomachus and Philo make no men-
tion of them, and, if anything, suggest the opposite. To sum up the
whole matter, it is extremely probable that the period between Euclid
and Nicomachus witnessed the final development of the ars arithmetica,
by the work of many hands, into a form greatly resembling the
I ntrodlUtion to Arithmetic itself.
Much of the evidence for this conjecture comes, as has been re-
marked, from Nicomachus, who, without names, several times
refers to arithmeticians engaged, as it would seem, in work much like
his own. He says, for example, in Introduction 11. '4. S, that he must
introduce the subject of truncated and bitruncated pyramids and the
1 Hypsides lived about ISo D.e. His work included arithmetical progressions as well as
polygonal numbers. See Cow, 01'. cit., p. 81, and Cantor, o/J. cit., vol. I, pp. 358 if., especially
p. J61; Heath, History, vol. 11. pp. 213-218.
l/ntroduclion, 11.11.4 (cf. the notes).
I der Alftlwa, \101. I, p. 219.
3
like, which may be met with' in the theoretical treatises' (lv uvyypa.p.-
p.acT/. P.a.A/"aTo, and again, touching upon scalene
numbers, he records that i certain ones' or j others' used various names
for them, i wedges, I 'wasps,' I altars.' 1
Somewhat more definite information may be derived from what is
stated in n. 22. I and 28.6 about the history of the varieties of propor-
tion. In the former passage he says that, whereas the three chief
forms and their subcontraries were known to Pythagoras, Plato and
Aristotle, the 'moderns' (0' VEWTEP0I,,) devised four more to make up
the sacred number, 10; and, furthermore, that in the latter the three
subcontraries came into use among the /writers of commentaries and
members of schools' (inrop."'If"LTOypa.<j>o<, a1pfTlCTTai) after Plato and
Aristotle, while 'certain ones' discovered the remaining four. It
could easily be inferred even on this basis alone that the immediate
successors of Plato and Aristotle, the Academics and Peripatetics
J
and the Platonic and Aristotelian commentators, were the ones who
dealt especially with the three subcontraries, and because the sacred
number 10 was taken into account that the j moderns' mentioned were
Pythagoreans.
Iamblichus' fortunately confirms this suspicion by informing us
that Eudoxus and his followers invented the three subcontraries,
which with the three original forms were in use up to the time of
Eratosthenes, and that thereafter the Pythagoreans Myonides and
Euphranor introduced the rest. Nothing further is known of these
two men other than that they flourished between the times of Eratos-
thenes and Nicomachus. It cannot be assumed that they were purely
scientific writers - the presumption is rather that they were not-
nor that they dealt with the whole subject of mathematics. The
circumstance, however, proves for Nieomachus a disposition to take
account of existing work and casts light, though feebly, on the prob-
lem of his sources.
Certain utterances of Theon of Smyrna are similar in purport to
those of Nicomachus just mentioned. We have already noted that
Theon speaks vaguely of a 'Pythagorean tradition' to which he was
deeply indebted.' In other passages he says that 'some' regarded the
1IT. 16. 2. Similarly with reference to the arithmetical proportion he writes that one of its
peculiar properties has escaped 'the majority,' whereas another is retorded by 'all previous
(lI. 23. 6). Cr. also H. 13. I,
I See on 11. u. I; 28. 6. Note also that Moderatus probably dealt with all the varieties of
propoltion. I See p. 20, n. 4

AC
- :...-' I ". _ [
3
1
m,onad as first of the ser.ies of odd numbers, [an[d ,\,.j,th reg,ard to the
,elem1ents of numbe'r he me,ntiollS, th.e opinions lof 'lat.er" w,rite-'s asl
,,'[" I' ' ....["",,,d t' l tt'h,,'.-,: ,1:"111,,, 'e'" ': ,f'" P' ,",th'
le
, 'I'C'" '" t ,,d t',h"','"",," "1'" A' .... ,.1 "d
1
oppose ',' _" e 0 I, OW.,.fS 0 I Y[,.. agoras, a,n cc' lose 0 . .re, ,yas an"
P
- h'",]' ,.' ,, , , t ', t t' , t''h' . ,. . ,ill" ill t'l " 1
. I, l.O aus ID C'Q,nlras,,'o "cc[e maJor."y. .
Th,e testimo'ny of Phi.lo Juda[eus, is eve,n more impo"rtant., for it s,hows
tha"'2' although he c;anno' have seen the 'vlorks of ... Ticoma[ch,us, or o:f
Th[eo,.n" h"e n,evertheles's k.new a surp,rising num,be-r ,of the topics \vhich
the'y employ, a:nd ,ye ,c,an hardly accou:nt for this fa[ct sa,\re on. th.'e
ground that h"e was a,c[quainte.d, \vith an ars aril/lme.lica ,,"hich pre-
sen.ted th
1
ese m[atter:s i'n practi1calIy the same form as thley did. Nothing:
1' '.' ,.,,. ,.,-']1">1'1',,' d,- ,,' :""""1: ":,,,t' .. :c['t:...:. th .. ,th, [' b"",,[,',f" .. "'.. '.',., ,t;I .. ,t"''--I'' -.. ,f" t-h,,,
WI more y ,e.m,ons rae .],..IS ... ' an a I_fie, recaplU, 0 ... ,e
arithm.eti[cal materi,alln his works. The [exa,mination of th1e Philo,nic
corpus shows tb.at h.e distinguish,ed bet\\T[een. the m,on,a[d and Q,ne; 2
t
'h,t" 'h" h,d '"'-':--""'ab'l t' t'bt "f' " h"''' .. ,,".-. ,,,.
-_.aI1e an l,e:a __ ,e 1.0, 0 .cc' lcom,ac, US CO'Dcernlog
, same'D'ess ,. ,a. ,d 'otherness' in num.ber, emb[odied i.n the m,onad [an1d
d
'.. '.' d- .. ' --. , d"d-.. " .. d' "..., , 'I 3, . d the"t h',' d'I.'IJ. t'" ". '"h
'
,, 'd' ". '- d
. y'a. or In 0: an, even, an c ..a. ,ellS, e_ even, [0 . J
and [odd numb[ers,4: prim.es I) an.d perfect 'num.hers..
"
O
"f' t',hl, -Ib-','-",'t
,
,, b'I' ..... N .. .';".'I,"h"'---'-,' ,d -:'.' h,,.. [d,
_ 1 _.' e su Jlec ,5, reae '.y . com,ac .us un e.r [ ,e genera .I" ea.
. '. b ' P'h'! lit' '. 1- d
,( '. [ " I , - " .. , .-- .', , I' -, ' , .-- ' , " 11' ':. , , ,,', " ,'" '. ., . c , " ,..' ... , ..",
relative .Dum,er " 0 mentions equa, ty, Inelqua mly, excess a.n
d
' 6'" 7: d t
llJ
.. I d- 'Iti'" 1 t-' 1 d-
, ' . . . ... ,'. . - . 1- , " . I' .1 ....,.--, '-, '. :-'-1 r -'1
1
.. , .:'
.. e_ Clency,' an ra,.l.OS" ._,nc_u.' _n,g mu.__ p_es, superpa_ an
i
._
c' ..",.--,,- ','" ' t':- t' ". ','.; th" fil' .', f' .,.-.' " ,', 8 'C: ": = ,.,c,:' , ..,.." " , fi" = . ,- t'; .
superpar _leOI S, Wl,_ ,[ell specIe. arms. oncernlng gurae num-
bers, .e t,ouch,es 'upon the di.stincti'on between, th,e dim.en,sional and
th
!Ii' d'" .-. --.] u'-pon the' four' ho- 'n' d"s' of th-l'ngs pO-"I-nt ll!li
ne
sur" '" le In" Im,enS,lona, ,".', ',_cc, ' _ . ," , ;,,[1 . " .[ t[: . I'.. ' ,. "., ,:_ !II!
f'a.ce- and- 'solid, e,ach [of '\vhicb 9 - an.d t.he numbers corre
I :Pp,. 20" 5 .ff,,;, 2'0., 19 ,ff,,; :21, 24 (Hiller) i
,Q'Ndt$,iones e' Sol'w;,ones in Gttusim. IV,t 110; cf Lydus', 11.. 5.. This is Dot iD. Nicom,achu's,
'but is treated a:t len,gth by Tbeon,.
,I Suggestions, of this occur' in 61 S,olt",f,Otl,tS in, Gmesim, 11.. 12" IV4" 110..
4 Ibid., IV,. 199;' JIuadi Opijiio'), 3; Stplena,io ,6;, De Daogo, 6
1
:; Quatstitm61
et Solr,t,;onts in Ge',rresim.. III 38. Th.e ,threefold ,classiJicali.on is found in older Pythagorean
w[orks and in. Theolog'u'rMna. A,il'/unelicae" p", 3
.- De .Decalo,go 7"
De Jl'und,j Ot,ifiio, .3-4. ftMIO' K[d t"Oi's WD&1l1M)1!1 N'icomacbus':s defini-
tion);, ibid., J; Lt(:is Allcgmiact I. 2; De De-calo'co, 7'; [Q'HUs'iones et Sol in, Ge'Ie'sim" Ill.
38;. Q,UUS"i,OIUS et ,Solulione.s' in ,Ex'od'um, 1.1.. 8'7'; De V'il", JloS'is, Ill.. S4; Phil,o m.entions only 6
a'Dd 2,8 ,as perfect nu.mbers.
11 Ik J rUlitia, 14;, Q"is Rerum 11er:es S#, 2,8..
8. specifi,c 'I'3tios, ar,e named, 3;S De J1.,...,ruJ.i Otifit,io,IIS, 30. 3'7 Q"ldcs,lionts el' SoluliOnu
;'ft Gmesim, 1'1. 5; .Ill.. 49, 56. IV.. 71 ; [Qtwd Dete,ius P[otitwi Insit/Jari SoleoJ, IQ. l\.lusical
concords,. De ,A.f'utltli Opi/Kio, ,15, 3I; Dc VikJ" Atosis
f
111,. J I; Qr4deStione's. et Sol:ut1ionts in,
Gen-eslm, IV1. 21.,
[1
1
De De,'alogtJ,., 1; De ,llu:nd'i O.pi/K'io, '10. 16, 34; De C(lfl,crC5SrI Quaer'nda6' ,E'"ll'itionia;
IGratia, 261 ; De Somniir
J
I. 5; Q,uusliones ell S,oJuti-on.es in Esodum, 11. 93..
3'
sponding to them,' triangular, square, pentagonal, hexagonal, hep-
tagonal numbers,! and heteromecic.
He knew that the addition of successive odd numbers produces
the squares, and that of even numbers the heteromecic numbers,:! and
he states more fully than Nicomachus himself the theorem concern-
ing the occurrence of squares, cubes and cube-squares in analogous
series.' Among solid numbers he mentions pyramids' and cubes'
and in the matter of proportions he is informed as to the three chief
fonns 7 and their union in the series 6,8,9, 12.
8
This brief synopsis
shows that far more of the arithmetic of Nicomachus was in the hands
of Philo than either Plato, Archytas or Philolaus possessed. This
could hardly have been so unless we imagine these doctrines to have
been written over and over again in books which were in ordinary
circulation. By Philo's time not only the topics, but even the Nicoma-
chean form of statement, must have been commonly known.
We may rest assured that activity in the production of artes arith-
metkae did not cease during the two or three centuries immediately
preceding the lifetime of Nicomachus, although we are not directly
informed about it. The part played by the Neo-Pythagorean sect,
of which Nicomachus himself was a member, remains to be discussed.
So far as the later Pythagoreans occupied themselves with mystical
and theological speculations in the realm of arithmology, they can be
conceded very little credit for the development of the arithmetical
T'x."'I upon its scientific side; yet it will be seen that even the arith-
mologicai doctrines made their way, to some extent, into the artes.
On the other hand, we have already found reason to believe that many
of the unknown writers of artes were Pythagorean.
From the titles of their books and such fragments as remain, it is
clear that the interests of the Neo-Pythagoreans were directed more
toward philosophy and mysticism than to mathematics proper.
Evidently their books were more closely related to the Theologumena
I De Mundi Oflifido, 16, 32; De Dewk1go, 7; Quautioflt:s et Solruwnu i1S EzodUM, n. 93. 94.
1 All mentioned in QlUUstwnes et Solwionu in Genuim, I. 83; d. ibid., L 91; 11. 5 i Ill. 56.
Quaestiones et Soluliones in Genesim, 11. S, 12, 14.
De Mmuli Opijicio, 30, 36.
I [bid., 16.
a De Daalogo, 7; QU4tStiones d Solulioms i" GeMsi"., 11. 5; Ill. 49, 56.
7 Philo defines them: De DWJ1ogo 6; De ,lfundi Opifido, 37.
Cf. InJrtJductwn, It. 29. Philo ca1ts this the It').1JIiJ1O' (lalerculw): De Afundi Opificiq, 37;
Quaesti(J1US et Solulionu in GeMsim, 1. 9I; Ill. 38; IV. 27. He also makes use of the similar
series 6, 9. 12, 18 (mentioned in Theol0KUme1t4 Arithmdiwe, but not in the 1I1lroducJion).
GREEK ARITHMETIC BEFORE NICOMACHUS
33
A,ithmeticae than to the lnt,odtution, although even the latter con-
tains references to some of them which prove that in the midst of
extraneous matter they may have contained topics relating to arith-
metic, or to the traditions of the early Pythagoreans which would be
of value to writers of artes. The following are of some interest, either
from their titles or because they are cited by Nicomachus: 1
Androcydes, On the Pythagorean Symbols (lltpl IIvOayop'Kwv
fTVP.{30>'O,") ,
Aristaeon, On Ha,mony (lltpl ap/LovLa<),
Butherus, On Numbers (lltpl ap,O/Lwv),
Eubulides, author of a work (title unknown) dealing with Pythag-
oras,
Hippasus,1
Kleinias,
Megillus, On Numbers (lltpl ap,O/Lwv),
Prorus, On the Hebdomad (lltpl Ti/< <{380/L480<).
Aside from the fact that Nicomachus himself was a Neo-Pythag-
orean and that the works of Philo seem to presuppose an ars a,ith-
metica of decidedly Neo-Pythagorean cast, the little that is known of
the career of Moderatus of Gades,' one of the most eminent of the
school, confirms the conjecture that this group was actively interested
in the ars a,ithmelica. The only known work of Moderatus was
called Pythagorean Lectures,' and its fragments show it to have been
less extravagant than most of the writings of the school, and to have
approached the study of certain fundamental questions of the theory
of numbers in a decidedly scientific spirit. Moderatus's treatment
1 Androcydes: InJrodu.ction, I. J. 3; Theologumma p. 40 (Ast) j Aristaeon is
usually identified with the 'Aristaeus' of ThtologunJel'l4 A,ilhmeticae, p. 41; Butherus: sce Sto-
baeus, Etlogae I, Prooemillm, 5; Eubulides: Theologumena Arithmetical, p. 40; Hippasus is
frequently cited, but the writings attributed to him are generally thought spurious; Kleinias,
Megillus, and Prorus: Theologunu:na Aritnmtliuu, pp. 17, 27, and 43. respectively. Zcllcr,
op. dt. (w.. 4), vol. Ill, part 2, pp. 115 if., and Chaignet, Pythagore d la Phi/osophie PythagoridntM
(Paris, 1873), vol. I, pp. 165 fr., may be consulted for longer lists of such works and for theQrics
of their dates and compositions.
I The real Hippasus belonged, of course, to the early school. The writings attributed to him,
however, should be dealt ",ith as products of the Nco-Pythagoreans.
l Usually assigned to the time of Nero on the ground that he was a teacher of Lucius, a
contemporary of Plutarch. Cr. also Porphyry, Vila Plo/in;, 20; Stephanus Byzantinus, s.v.
r6.NiPCI.
4nU1a.. ll"Xo),cU; cf. Porphyry, Vita Pylhagorica, 48; Simplicius, Physica, p. S0, B;
StobaCI15, Eclogeu I, Proaemil4m, 8-9 (vol. I, p. 21, cd. Wachsmuth-Hense).
34
of the monad and one influenced a chapter of Theon of Smyrna,
'
and,
like Nicomachus, he probably discussed ten forms of proportions'
Although little more is known of the scope and nature of the Pythag-
orean Lectures, it is at any rate clear that lvloderatus occupied himself
with the themes of the ars arithmetica and may well have produced
an ars of his own.
The survey of the history of the ars arithmetiea which we have just
made is in itself enough to show how hopeless is the attempt to assign
to each topic of the I ntrodu<tion to Arithmetic its precise source. The
I ntroduetion brings together the results of a gradual growth; tbere is
hardly one of its subjects but had been discussed and written about
dozens, if not hundreds, of times. One may naturally assume, of
course, that the more eminent mathematicians, who had made es-
pecially famous contributions to the art, were the real sources of
Nicomachus when he deals with the subjects of their special study,
and such probabilities can be specified with reasonable accuracy;
his general sources, however, caD only be regarded as the indeterminate
mass of previous arithmetical writing.
It cannot even be positively stated that Nicomachus used Euclid's
Elements. There can be no question of course that he knew it. But
the two works are of entirely different character, Euclid defining and
demonstrating, Nicomachus defining and laying down general prin-
ciples with abundant illustration and explanation. If in any respect
Euclid could have served as a basis for Nicomachus, we should at once
think of his definitions, but even here it will be observed that there
are many divergences between the two. In Euclid's Elements, how-
ever, there were at least a pattern of arrangement and an example show-
ing what subjects needed exposition. It is perhaps in this general
way, if at all, that we are to look for a relation between the two. It
may be confidently stated, nevertheless, that Euclid did not serve as
the only model, nor even as the principal model, for Nicomachus.
With regard to his actual sources Nicomachus himself offers small
help; the only authors he mentions by name are Androcydes, Archytas,
I Cf. Moderatus in Stobaeus,loc. NI., and Theon of Smyma, pp. 18, 3"""'9 and 19, 7-8 and
12-13 (HilIer).
2 Cl. Proclus, In Timaeum (Diehl), vol. H, p. 18, 29 I., who says, inter ali4, fila ,),Ap -ro.pi;"jl.U'
'TAS 4, 01 1rpornB-.a&, TOils NUfojl.AXWf M')',"" Mo3fpATVt>J o:al ,[
4).,).<)& 'TOWiiTat., -r,pl U TpUiw 'Td. ..v. jl.w07"iJ'TCol1' .. .Lp' w. ul 6 n"'ATWr nt..
-vxq.., O:T).. This leads to the inferences, first, that Moderatus was actively interested in arith-
metical subjects in much the same way as Nicomachus, and second, since their names &re so
coupled, that he discussed, like Nicomachus, ten forms of proportion.
Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Plato and Philolaus, besides Pythagoras, to
whom he refers in a general way.
Three of these, Androcydes, Archytas, and Philolaus, are Pythag-
oreans, and Plato is treated as practically a member of the school. The
two former are quoted in I. 3. 4-4 to substantiate the well-known
Pythagorean principle of the necessity of mathematics, and immedi-
ately thereafter Plato is cited to the same effect. But the Pythagorean
mathematicians have left their imprint upon the I ..trodudion in far
more essential matters; to say nothing of the cosmological topics
found in the introductory chapters, to them must be ascribed the
fundamental conception of number as a balanced and harmonized
fabric of 'odd' and 'even,' 'same' and 'other,' which makes itself
especially felt in certain chapters of Book H, and in the treatment of
the dyad, as well as the monad, as an element of number.
l
Less important matters are the remarks about the nomenclature of
the harmonic proportion (H. 26. 2) attributed to Philolaus, the' Pythag-
orean' definition of 'odd' and 'even' (1.7.3), and the references to
the 'sacred' decad (H. 22. r). The fact is that the whole Introduction
has a distinctly Pythagorean coloring through the underlying assump-
tion that the numbers influence their derivatives. Just what were the
books most powerful in influencing Nicomachus cannot be said;
certainly Philolaus's work, TIpl e p V U W ~ was onc, but the long list
of Neo-Pythagorean documents must not be forgotten.
That Aristotle was a source for Nicomachus cannot be doubted,
but it was not so much mathematical material as logical method that
was derived from the Stagirite. To be sure, Aristotle seems to have
been consulted upon the definition and classification of the ultimate
subjects of mathematics, number and quantitY,2 but he is also present
on nearly every page in the distinctions of genus and species and in
the formation of arguments.'
Eratosthenes, of course, makes his appearance in connection with
his famous 'sieve' (I. r3), but there are two other places where with
the aid of Theon we can detect a suggestive similarity. This is seen
most clearly in the theorem of the' three rules' for deriving the various
ratios from equality;' and there was perhaps another kindred matter
in which Eratosthenes led the way for Nieomachus. Theon reports
1 See pp. 115ft'. I See pp. I12 ff.
See on IntrodU/ion, I. 2.3-4; 3 I; 4, 2,3; 14. 2; 23.5; 11.20. 2.
I Sec on InJrodUtion, I. 23.4
much of what Eratosthenes had to say in demonstrating that equality
is the element of ratio.
l
Now one of Nicomachus's own favorite
themes is that equality is the element of relative number.' There
is doubtless no way of demonstrating a direct relation in these matters,
and in fact it is not certain that eveD for the j sieve' proposition Nicoma-
chus went to Eratosthenes himseli.
Plato is quoted many times by Nicomachus, and was most influen-
tial in the establishment of his philosophic doctrines, as we have had
occasion to observe.
3
On the mathematical side, the most important
proposition probably taken from this source is the one which states
that there must be two geometrical means between cubes and one
between squares; Plato had also been one of the first to make use of
the proportion dealt with in n. 29.
There is little further that can be definitely said about the source of
Nicomachus, but no one can doubt that our author drew from many
others who must for us remain nameless, the authors of the artes
arithmetkae for the existence of which in his day we have seen that
there is sufficient evidence. Nicomachus can hardly fail to leave the
impression with the reader that he is working over familiar ground, and
the assumption that there was an extensive literature, now lost, of the
type described in the preceding pages, is the only satisfactory explana-
tion of this fact. His task was the collection and organization of ma-
terial, not its creation j and his fame in antiquity must have been
based on the skill with which he performed this work and on the use-
fulness of the hook which he produced.
Before passing, however, from this topic to the influence of Nicoma-
chus upon later writers, we must examine his relation to Theon of
Smyrna. Concerning the personality and history of this author far
less is known than even the meager facts of the life of Nicomachus,
but his date may be confidently placed in the first quarter of the
second century of our era.' Theon was the author of a book dealing
with the mathematical matters needful for the reading of Plato,' in
the course of which he draws freely upon Thrasyllus, Eratosthenes,
and especially the Peripatetic Adrastus, and in addition seems to have
1 Theon, p. 8], :U If. (Hiller).
I See InJrodlu;titm, Il. I, and on I. 23.4.
See pp. 92, de.
See p. 72. CL Heath, History, vol. n, pp. 238-244.
Expositio Rerum MIJt!JeJn(Jlkart"" ad ugNfdum Pl4lotum Utilium, eel. E. Hiller, Leipzig,
1878 (whose paging is cited). See also]. Dupuis, TIWm de Smyrne, Paris, 1892.
37
made some reference to Moderatus of Gades' The book is interest-
ing as an illustration of the methods then in vogue of helping Platonic
students in their tasks, and inasmuch as there is evidence that Nicoma-
chus took account of such writings, a comparison of the two authors,
even though not wholly conclusive, cannot hut be enlightening.
In scope and in the selection of the topics treated, Theon and
Nicomachus are in close agreement, as the following parallel arrange-
ment shows:
TnEON ( ed. Hill.,)
On the necessity of mathematics, p. I,
I tT. Note the occurrence of the
same Platonic passages, e.g.,
p. 2, 16--19: cf. Efrinomis, 992 Bj
p. 3, 8-15: cf. Republic, 527 D;
p. S, It-13: cf. Refrubtu, 526 D
and p. 12, 10 ff.: Philolaus.
On the natural order of mathematical
studies, p. 16, 24 fJ.2
Cf. especially p. 18, 1.
On one and the monad, p. 18, 3 if.
Definitions of number,3 p. 18, 3 f.
The monad, p. 18, 5 fi.
Cf., however, this passage: KO..\e:inu.
8l /olOl'd'i v1'<K 11'11'"0 TOU p.il'CW aT(J'trTO<; Kal
JIoV U[CTTWT8cu t/uXr(W<;' wO:t'i
-yap Av 'll'"OAAa"'AaucQVWI"I' rqy
p.ovG&., P.lw, f'Ol"&i (p. 19, 7 H.).
Further discussion of one and the
monad and of the Pythagorean
doctrine of the elements of number,
pp. 19, 21 fI.
Cf. Il".AWi dpX.li dpt6p.iUy ol pAl'
4taa, njl' .,.t. P.OYClBa II.l 1"7]1'
8vetBa, p. 20, 5 fI.
'Odd' and I even,' p. 21, 20-24.
NICOMACHUS (ed. Hoche)
I. 3 5.
13 7.
I. 3. 7 (p. 8, '3-'4).
H. '9. I.
1.5. 1-2.
I. 4. I (p. 9, 7).
I. 7. I.
Not in Nicomachus.
Cl
.,."
KQ.' }WI'O'i 0: 'fI'QJ'T(K' JIhI"1
.,.oii dp,8p.oiJ la"""v 'Jr1M.M."..\aaiGauUI1
oMlv "Acov lavr-ij'i "(f.Wfj., 11. 6. 3 (p. 84,
22 f1.), and cf. H. '7.4 (p. 110,8 f1.).
Not in Nicomachus.
Cf. To\; -yap d.... ICDlKa8' awo 'll"OO'oV
p.oMli ai. 8vO.'i.,.0. d,XUl:WTa.TU <TTOl.Xt.u..,
cA., H. I. , (p. 74, 5 f.).
I. 7. 1-2.
1Cf. p. 33; also G. Borghorst, De Anawlii Ftmlibus (Berlin, 1(05), pp. I: fr.; G. Altmann,
De Positionio Timati Plattmis Commtnl<Uore (Berlin, 1()06), pp. 19 fr.; and Schmekel, Die Philt>-
JOpllie tkr mittlerelJ Stoa (Berlin, 18Q:), p. 409, n. 3, especially upon the source of the passage in
Theon, pp. 93, 16-106, IJ (HilIer).
I For a detailed comparison with Nicomachu!, see p. 113, n. 4.
tHere (p. 18, 34Ji p. 19, 7-8; 12-13) occur parallels (almost word for word) with Modera-
tU! in Stobacus (see p. 34); the other lines can be regarded as comment and explanation.
'In this pass'ge (p. 19, :1 - :0, 9) also there is agreement with Moderatus (in Stobaeus).
1'BEON NICOMACElUS
Is the monad odd or even? 1 p.:2I J
24 - 22, 16.
The natural series increases with the
constant difference I but decreasing
ratios, p. 22, 17 - 23, S.
Cl. the notion that the 'odd' is
j sameness" the' even' I difference J , , ,
p. 22, 10 ff.
Prime and Composite, p. 23, 6 ff.
Classification: '
Prime
Absolutely
Relatively
Composite
Absolutely
Relatively
Absolute primes defined, p. 23, 9.
They aTe also called ypapp.u<ol,
J"TpUCol, 'ftt.puTfTol, wid.,
12.
Odd numbers onlyare prime, ibid., 23.
Status of 2, p. 24, 5.
Relatively prime numbers, ibid., 8.
Absolutely and relatively composite
numbers, ibid., 16.
(Here are discussed the status of
I and 2; plane and solid numbers
classed here.)
Varieties of the I even'; the even-
times even, p. 25. 5.
The even-times odd, ibid., 19.
The odd-times even, p. 26, S.
LuO(. and WOl. as kin4s
of composite numbers, ibid., 14.
Not in Nicomachus.
Not in Nicomachus.
t
General agreement in 11. 17. 2 j 18. 4.
Nicomachus disagrees.
(I) His classification is as follows:
Prime
Relatively prime
Composite
(2) It refers to odd numbers only;
Theon includes all numbers in
these classes.
I. 11. 2 (different phraseology).
These terms do not occur in the In-
t,.oduc#on.
4
Agrees.
Not in Nicomachus.
I. 13. I.
1.12. 1 (absolutely composite numbers:
but the class does not include even
numbers as in Theon).
No discussion of the other topics.
I. 9. I.
I. 10. 2.
Not included in the formal classifica-
tion; the former term is used in
I. 19. 19 and for the latter. cf. note
on that section.
I Citing Aristotle's nuea:yopUl:Os (now lost), and A.rchytas.
1 Nicomachus notes, however, that in any arithmetical series the ratios are greater in the
smaller terms (Inlrodudicm, 11. 73. 6). This involves of course the general idea stated. by Theon.
I This classification agrees with Euclid (Ekmenls, VII, Drf.) aga.inst Nicomachus.
t But in Thtolofumcna Arithm<tuae, p. 44 (Ast): 'YdP r>.G.TOI' "rdeXU'1II
owa. ...1 ,.iwov ,eW buM..,un) K,X. (se. the number 7). There is some doubt
about the authorship of this portion of the Tlu:ologf.m<IJa Arithmdkae. Euclid (EJumnts VII,
39
THEON
Heteromecic numbers defined, p. 26,
21.
They are always even, p. 27, 1,
Formation by adding evens, ibid., 8.
Formation bymultiplication, ibid., IS.
Reason for the name, ibid., 20.
Parallelograms (Le., ... p. 27,
'3
Squares, p. 28, 3.
Formation by adding odd numbers,
'''0

Formation by multiplication, ibid.,
13
Make a geometrical proportion with
the heteromecic numbers as mean
terms. The converse is nol true.
Ibid., 16.
Oblong (promecic) numbers defined,
p. 30, 8.
For their classification, see on
traduction, Il, 18, 2.
Plane numbers are the product of
two factors, p. 31, 9-
Triangular numbers, p. 31, 13. (Here
follows a digression on the squares
and heteromeces,' merely repeating
previous material.)
Repetition of methods of forming
squares,1 with several new theorems,
p. 34, I.
Squares are alternately even and odd,
ibid., 3.
The gnomons of the other polyg-
onals are numbers of the natural
series occurring at intervals of
n - 2 terms, ibid., 6.
Occurrence of the squares and cubes
in the series of multiples, ibid.,
16.
NICOKACBUS
11. 17. I j 18. 2.
Cf. 11. 19. I j 17 2 i 20.3.
Cf. n. 18. ,.
CL n. 18. 3 (p. II4, I); 17.3 (p. log,
24); 18. I (p. 112, 22).
et.n. 18.2.
n. 9.
H. 9. 3, etc.
n. 18. 3 (not a direct statement).
11. 19. 4.
The converse is not stated.
11. 18. 2.
Nicomachus does not classify in Theon's
manner.
Plane numbers are mentioned, but not
this definition. CL note on 11. 7. 3.
II. 8.
Not in Nicomachus.
11. II. 4.
n. 20. 5.
Dil. I I) lI"fp&t1t1Of to denote the product of aD odd Dumber by an odd number,
not in the sense in which Theon employs it.
I Several topics, of which this is an instance, arc duplicated in Theon. The Nicomachcan
parallels are given only with the first occurrence.
TBEON NICOKACHUS
Special properties of the squares,
p. 35, 17 ff.
They are either divisible by 3 or
can be if I is subtracted; like-
wise by 4; even squares that are
divisible by 3 when I has been sub-
tracted are divisible by 4; those
that are divisible by 4 when i has
been subtracted arc divisible by 3
(Theon neglects to add "or be-
come divisible by 3 when 1 is
subtracted "); some squares are
divisible by both 3 and 4 j finally,
the square which is not divisible
by 3 or 4 admits both divisors
when I is subtracted.'
Miscellaneous matter not found in
Nicomachus: Squares and het-
eromecic and promecic numbers
are plane. Solids have three fac-
tors (a repetition). They are
called from their resemblance to
the space they measure, p. 36, 3.
Similar numbers, ibid., 12.
Polygonal numbers, p. 37. 7.
Definition of gnomons, ibid., 1I.
The side of the triangle equals the
last gnomon added, ibid., 13.
The monad potentially triangular,
ibid., 15.
Cyclic, spherical, recurrent numbers,
p. 38. 16.
Derivation of squares repeated, p. 39,
10.
Pentagons defined, p. 39, 14
Hexagons defined, p. 40, I.
Derivation of other polygonals and
rule for their gnomons, ibid.) 14
(as in p. 34. 6).
Two triangles make a square, p. 41, 3.
Solid numbers classified as to the
equality of 3, 2 or no dimensions,
ibid. 8.
None of them given by Nicomachus.
Not in Nicomachus.
Not in Nicomachus.
H. 8. 3: The side of the triangle equals
the number of gnomons taken.
H. 8. 2.
H. '7. 7
11. 10.
H. 11.
11. 12. 1-2.
Not in Nicomachus.,
11&m.blichus (see p. 129) includes this.
41
THEON
Cubes = a X a X Dj
'Altars,' = a X b X c;
'Plinths' = a X a X h, (b < a}j
'Beams' = a X a X h, (b > a).
Pyramidal numbers i truncated pyra-
mids, p. 42, 3.
(Theon reports that some called
the pyramid trapezium.)
Pleuric and diametric numbers, ibid., 10.
Perfect, superabundant, deficient num-
bers, p. 45, 9
The perfection of 3. p. 46, 14.
(Other material intervenes.)
Ratio defined, p. 73, 16.
Ratio exist between homogeneous
things only,!
'Terms' defined, p. 74. 8.
Proportion defined, ilnd., 12.
Equal, greater, and less ratios,! ibid.,
'5
The ratios of music.
The ratios of arithmetic, p. 76, t.
Multiples, ibid., 8.
Superparticulars, ibid., 21.
Superparlients, p. 78, 6.
Multiple superparticular and super-
partieDt, ibid., 23.
Ratio of number to number,' 3 p. 80, 7.
Root ratios ('7MJ8p.f.lIf.<; '\6yot), t"bid., 15.
Intervals and ratios contrasted,4 p. 81,
6.
Definitions of proportions, and of con-
tinuous and disjunct proportions,
p. 82, 6.
Eratosthenes on equality as the element
of ratio, ibid., 23.
Epinomt"s, 991 E cited, p. 84, 7.
NICOMACHUS
11. 15. 2 j 16. I.
11.16.2; 17.6.
11. 13 and 14, much fuller.
Not in Nicomachus.
Not in Nicomachus.
I. 14-16.
Not in Introductt"on, but cf. Theologu
mena ArithmeticlU, p. 15 (Ast).
11. 21. 3.
I. 17. 4-5 states that equality exists
only between homogeneous things,
but no such statement occurs re-
garding ratio.
opo'i is used, but not defined.
11.21. 2 (differsj videad/oc.).
Not formulated; but d. I. 17. 2,6,etc.
Cl. I. 5. I; 11. 26; 29 4.
I. 17. 4. (See the note on I. 17. 7.)
I. [8. I-3 (much fuller).
I. 19. 1-5 (much fuller).
I. 20 (much fuller).
I. 22-23 (much fuller).
Not in Nicomachus.
No separate treatment, but cf. I. 19.6;
20. 1; 21. I; 11.19.3, etc.
No separate treatment. CL on 11. 6. 3.
CL 11. 1. (Equality is the element of
relative number.)
Cited I. 3. 5.
I Based on Adrastus. See on I. 17 4.
l With reference to Plato, Timaeus, 36 B.
4 A passage based on the of Eratosthenes;
vol. XXX, pp. 60 If.
cf. p. 237, n. 3, and HilIer, PJriloloC145,
THEON NIOOKACBOS
tba.\oyla. and fUtT6n,t differentiated, p.
84. IS
Proportions: the three chief kinds,I
with definitions. p. 85. 8.
Here intervenes a section on the
ratios of harmony (p. 85. 22 i d. p.
15, 7). Thrasyllus's division of the
canon, and the Pythagorean aspects
of the tetraktys and of the numbers
of the first decade.'
Proportions: geometric, arithmetic,
harmonic, subcontrary, fifth, sixth,
and 6 others subcontrary to them,
p. 106, 12.
dJ'Uo.\oy"'J properly the geometric
alone.
Repetition of the short definitions.
Equality is the first and elementary
ratio (from Adrastus i {cf. p. 82, 23]),
p. 107, 10.
Citation of Eratosthenes for the
prooemium of the proposition, of
the 'three rules' and of Adrastus for
the actual rules, p. 17, IS.
Converse of the I three rules/ p. IIO,
'9
Figures: point, line, plane, solid, and
varieties, p. 1 I I J 14.
Varieties of solids (geometrical treat-
ment); parallelopipeda, rectangu-
lar parallelopipeda, p. I12, 26:
Cubes (dimensions a, a, a) j
Plinths (dimensions a, D, b where
b < a';
Beams (dimensions a, D, b where
b> a);
Scalene (dimensions D, b, c).
Proportions j general definition of
,
,uuC1f'11i, p. I13, 9
Not treated.
n. 2' (mueh fuller),
11. 22. , (but the fourth is called simply
f fourth' and the remaining kinds num-
ber 4, not 6. In n. 28. 3, the name
'subcontrary' is given for ffourtb ')
n. 24. I.
I. 23 (cf. the note on I. 23.4).
11. 2.
Not formally included.
No geometrical treatment of these.
Does not occur.
1 Citing Adrastus, who is never mentioned by Nicomachus.
1 This material can be paralleled largely in the ArithmelicM, but not in the
ImrodlUtion.
Adrastus is again cited.
43
THEON
Arithmetic proportion, ibid., 18.
Geometric proportion, p. 114, I ff.
Harmonic proportion, p. 114, 14.
'Subcontrary' proportion, p. lIS,S.
Fifth variety of proportion, p. lIS, 12.
Sixth variety of proportion, ibid., 20.
How to find the various means between
two given terms, p. II6, 8.
Arithmetic; has both methods
given by Nicomachus, and this:
II Add the halves of the extremes."
Geometric j Parallels Nicomachus,
p. 140, 4-5, but not p. 140, 6,
and adds a geometrical method.
Harmonic; gives methods for
finding the mean, first, when the
extremes are in double ratio;
second, in triple; third, in any
ratio (but this is identical with
the first method).
His first method agrees strik-
ingly with Nicornachus (who
gives this alone, p. 118, 5):
I
, .. ) ,- -' \' ,
(lV ,...Y OW O' OUrlW.Utee AO')'Cf'
808wO'"tV upcw., ora" (, t/3'
.col (, s-' n." 'rOD ,..'10""
.....,. d .. u.''I'''I'..,a. oIoy Ta '0'
cr.."," ....\ TOY s"' Ko.\ To.. ..,."',....0.. A'i'
..,. d" cri....TO.. 'K
T." b,..... ora" TrUpO. Ta. l"" .a.\ n
...Mi..,.. TcUY As-' ora" Ta. p' ...pocrt...,...
-.&
T .... "........ TOVT.aTl Tee TWV 'i,
1io1M'" ""0 ("1'"'''..........
NICOMACHUS
11. 23. (See the note on 11. 28. ] for
a general comparison of the propor-
tions used by Nicomachus and by
Theon.)
II. 24.
11.25
II. 28. 3.
II. 28. 4.
II. 28. 5.
11. 27. 7.
p. 140.8 H.: fU'I'utTt" Si, rcUI' dJ<pwv '"J"
"-+oPA... ....\ 0.,,..........\ -nW
"fI"'''''""' ,..1, ..... ril'f4TO., bt
T... '-"'" (tTQ n ...Mi..,.. 1rQp0/3o>.;;,.
.putt"o.. T. (Aa,...."" J(w IcrTaI. " 'Y''''-
...."' ....ri""".
Tbe differences between Theon and Nicomachus are easily discerned
in this summary. Tbeon omits the elaborate Pythagorean introduc-
tion and the incidental dissertations of a similar nature; unlike
Nicomachus (cf. IntrodU<tion, I. '9. 2'; H. '9. 20), he does not use
tables and point out numerical properties from them; he does not
give such elaborate illustrations and explanations, but there are really
44
few important propositions that he leaves out. We may note among
them the definitions of 1. 7.3 fI., the theorem that a ~ (a - 1)+(a + I)
2
except when a = I (1.8. 1-2); the 'sieve' of Eratosthenes (1. '3);
the discussion of the derivation of superparticulars from multiples and
of the combinations of ratios in II. 3-5; the proposition concerning the
addition of a triangular number to any sort of polygonal (H. 12. 3 fI.) ;
and certain observations upon squares and heteromecic numbers
(H. '9. 2-3; 20. I). On the other hand one may easily note the large
number of topics in Theon which Nicomachus omits. (See Theon, pp.
18,5 H. j 19, 2I ff.; 21,24 - 22,16 j 34,3 j 35,176'.; 37,11 j 42,10 H.;
73,16 fI.; 80,7 and 'S; 81,6 fI.; 82,23 fI.) It is particularly sur-
prising to see that Nicomachus does not attempt to discuss the monad
as Theon does.
But even if one takes all these differences into consideration, there
is great similarity between the two works; the most notable point
is that, notwithstanding their agreement in subjects treated, and the
fact that they say substantially the same thing about most subjects,
there is after all slight verbal likeness between them. The only pas-
sage in which verbal likeness is especially marked is that to which at-
tention is called at the very end of the table above (Theon, p. 118, 5;
Nicomachus, p. '40,8). It is justifiable to infer, therefore, that neither
writer served as the direct source of the other, and this must remain
for the present the only certain fact regarding their relationship
to each other. We may also conjecture that behind them, to some
extent, lay the same sources, a supposition supported by the verbal
parallels noted. But it does not immediately follow that Nicomachus,
like Theon, employed Adrastus; had he done so, we might have looked
for greater similarity in the texts. From the fact that the two quote
the same passages of Plato not much can be inferred; they must be
simply the usual quotations made by schoolmen to support their
statements by Platonic authority, and it chances that Theon and
Nicomachus have the same position to sustain.!
1 The Platonic passages which Theon and Nicomachus quote in common are enumerated on
pp. J7 and 41. In none of the cases does either writer agree completely with our Platonic text,
but although they sometimes agree with each other in their variations, their differences are far
more striking, and the only conclusion warranted is that each independently quotes ~ y from
memory the gist of Plato's words. They certainly cannot have used a common source, such as,
for instance, a collection of Platonic passages or a commentary which employed similar inaccurate
quotations. The most noteworthy verbal agreement is in the citation of Republk, 527 D, where
45
Whether Theon is to be treated as a successor or a predecessor of

Nicomachus is, as has been pointed out before, a difficult question.
It is most probable that their lives were contemporary in part, and
farther than that, it is useless to conjecture. In view of the fame of
Nicomachus, it seems hardly possible that Theon could have written
after the publication of the Introduction without quoting it, but we
have seen that there is no suggestion of a direct connection between the
two men. They must have been nearly contemporary.
Nicomachus (I. 3. 1) has Wf d, 6n loucClf 6t&ulfCU IpA 4XP"1C1'TQ Ta.VrCl .,.cl
FpoITT4"1'OI/JA. Tbeon (p. 3, 8) reads d, 6n louccu &t!tUCU Ion) AXP"IIJ"TCI Ta
...-poaTTTOC,ll.I, and Plato q&IX d ... a,-l IoucClf &&bT1 1'Ol15 roX"o>J, bUt 4XP!1lN'G. "diJI"ITII
ffp1T";rnll.
Nicomachus and Tbeon agree in using peculiar syntax which does not occur in the original;
but in the remainder of the passage their texts are widely divergent. The initial phrase, perhaps,
was commonly quoted in their day in the form which Lbey both used.
CHAPTER III
THE MATHEMATICAL CONTENT OF THE GREEK ARITHMETICA
IF we restrict the meaning of the term a,ithmetua so as to include
only the ars a,ithmetua, which, as is explained more fully elsewhere,
refers, when technically used, to the fundamentals of the science of
arithmetic systematically stated, we may obtain an idea of its mathe-
matical content by a comparison of three texts, Nicomachus's Int,o-
d""tion, Euclid's Elements (Books VI, VIII, and IX), and Theon's
treatise On MathMnatual Matters Useful for Reading Plato. With-
out such restriction the term, applying to the Greek science of arith-
metic in general, would include all the developments of higher mathe-
matics such as those made by Diophantus. Since, however, Nico-
machus's book is an 'arithmetic' in the narrower sense, we shall not
be forced to go so far afield in this summary.
In the first place, the differences existing between Euclid on the one
hand and Nicomachus and Theon on the other are to be observed.
The latter two are generally in agreement in their selection of topics
and in their manner of presentation; Euclid differs in both these
respects. His material is stated in the form of propositions, each sub-
jected to logical proof, a thing wholly lacking in Nicomachus and
Theon, who confine themselves to setting forth principles and
illustrating them. Euclid's material itself, moreover, is not confined
to the propositions treated by the other two, although there is much
overlapping between the two groups, but Euclid makes a far more
systematic study of the matters he introduces. In the third place,
Euclid employs the geometrical form of illustration in the proof of
his arithmetical propositions, and makes use of lines in much the
same way that modern mathematics uses its literal algebraic symbolism.
This process complicates his solutions and often involves him in long
demonstrations of matters which are more or less self-evident when
stated in algebraic terms. Nicomachus and Theon, since both avoid
any attempt at proof, do not share this habit of Euclid, but deal with
the numbers directly; only when they come to the discussion of plane
46
O Q ~ I
UNrI/RSITY Of '-'KHIGAN
CONTENT OF THE GREEK ARITHMETICA
47
and solid numbers do they make their approach through geometry.
Furthermore, Euclid does not share the philosophical proclivities, or,
more accurately, the Pythagorizing tendencies, of Nicomacbus and
Theon, and consequently holds himself continually to a more strictly
scientific level. It is for this reason that he is more successful in gen-
eral than Nicomachus in making a scientific classification of numbers.
All three mathematicians, however, agree in confining themselves,
in their arithmetic, to the use of rational numbers, although many of
the propositions of Euclid's books (notably V and X) are stated with
reference to irrational quantities. Some of these, in Book VII, are
applied to the discussion of rational numbers.
The following outlines roughly sketch the plans according to which
the work of Nicomachus, Euclid, and Theon, respectively, are arranged.
In the preceding chapter will be found an analysis of Theon's treatise,
with the parallel passages of Nicomachus indicated.'
NICOKACHUS
Philosophical introduc-
tion
I. Number per se
7. Relative number
3. Plane and solid num-
bers
4. Proportions
THEON
Philosophical introduc-
tion
Definitions
Number per se, including
plane and solid numbers
Ratios
Proportions
1 See pp. 37 ft.
EUCLID
Book VII
Definitions
Greatest common divisor
Propositions dealing with
submultiples and frac-
tions, with reference to
the propositions on pro-
portion in Book V
Prime and relatively
prime numbers
Least common multiple
Book VIII
Properties of numbers in
progression and propor-
tion
Cubes, squares, and their
relations
Book IX
Cubes and squares, con-
tinued
Geometrical series
Prime numbers
Odd and even numbers
The perfect number
S ..
:NICO:MA,CHUS OF IGERAS,A
N
- . - ..... h" .' d' Tb'" I .' ,. t .'''11 b .. '. . f' 11 '., 1-' 1 ..... -.- :_.:'1. .
.. llco.mac, us an:. -c' _eOD, 1 ,Wl.1 I .. e seen,'.o .IOW p'lans, ,cose y S'UlWar,1
a.nd tb'eir topicSI fall into a, scheme ord'ered f.rom the philosophic point
f
'E-" l"d d" t d' th Tb'
.... ".:..' .'.', . .. .1": -,", : :- ...., ' - ....- "r" ," ': :-. ::- I' ,c:- .' '., . -.' . I ' .. -. ;: -: ".' 'c . .... I' '. '.,: I' '1' ,' ..: .....
o. VIew, .. uc I.... .. ,oes no procee.. , In '.' e same way_ ,.e pnmary
s,ubd-visio,n of materlal in, tble first two is bl&'sed on the ,distin,ctionbe-
t
'W, ". ,e",e'n' ab:rs"O'I(ut.'e., anld', rela.tive 'num'b,:e,r t:h.e,:-y .. lly .. te'
,.'. ... ...', '. "':'. . , ". ..' . , . , . ., ...' ..." . ',.'.' ..' .' . ", .' . .. - .'I
E
li"d 1 th t .' t - hi hi t k- . .h 1 ti
.I.I'UC' .. ' mmg. es ", 'e ' ..wo ineXI rl.ca ,'.. ,_y,_ u' .. eeps u.ppe.rmost te re a_-oDS
betw'ee:n :numbers. In settIng' fo,rth the su'bject in detail w'e sba,
follo'w' thle ,orde;r adop,ted by Nicomac:hu.s" with the lexception of the
P
.hI)'0"so',phi :c-a:Il-'n:troduc't-lii'o..n 'whi"I ch" '. 1"'8' -ackin ti', . g" I.. m"alth -'em' latl:Cal'," ter-est
Le,.:... .... , . " ,I .1. ' "., .'c', .. '_:. '.
,I,. NUIrIBER PER. S,E,
Th,e defi'n'itions o,f 'num.be.r' given 'blY th,e Gree'k math.em.aticians
are d. scu5:sed elsewhere. ,"icomachus, in, :1. 7, limits 'him'self to defining'
numb,er ,an,d its two su,divisions, ,odd and even;, in :Euclid (VI'I,
d,ef!; 'I) we 'have also a definition of' the m,01n,a.d (un't.y), and in Theo' a,
lengthy discussi,on of this subject (p. 18, 5 -- 2
1
1, 19, Hiller). His,
reference (p. 20, 7 ft.) to th,e Pytha,gorea'D ,doctrine of the 'principl'es'
, .'-' ", (. '. n f' num--ber sh-" ----s a s;'t'W'41
an
-'ty to, th-"e
or' . orlgIll,s'mpXtJ-'''J 0 .1. ,J-::"" ,IOW 'I,' .... .'
most modern conceptioln, of numbe;r; the Pyth,agoreans, he 'Says, co:n-
sidered aD the t[e:rDlsof the oat'ural series, 'princip1les,' so that for
example: (three' (the triad) is the principle of three's a,mon,g s,ensibl,e
obJects, 3Dld c"f;o,ur' (the.etrad) of all fo,ur's," and so O,D,.
Ni.co.mach'u,s" in. I'. 8, states that any in.'teg'er iSI one half the sum ,of
th
,. h -d f''-
'... Ie two Int,e,g,ers OD eac .. Slc.'_e: 0':" I't :
'. (m I) + (m + 'I)
m',' -------- '.': .
2
S
.( d d' 'h .' 1 1 N'"
:.. In.lce zero IS 'Dot mel ,u- e_ In t. . e num
1
erlca s,ystem," unlty'l In :.... lcoma
'h ,. . - -- 14je a un".I-que PO' SI- tlO'0 and 1'S th'eref'-='ore regarded' 'by c- u,s s eyes, OCCU,p .S ">_<"., ;_: _0' , -' .:...' '., '. , '_:, . '" - .
'him as the IC' natu'rlal starting point [0::( all numb,e'rs.' Th1eoD introduces
here th.e 'problem of determ'in,iing wh'et.her un'ity s odd lor even; his
treatment ,of the: th,e form of a logical de'monstration,
which i,s all 'Ihe more: re'm,arkab,le beca'use both he. and Nic,omach,u's
us,ually avoi,d, ..his meth,od - "4 Some 'hav,e said tha,t unity is, odd. For
the odd is o'pposite to the even; u.nity IS therefore eitb.er ,odd ,or' eve'D.
It w1ould. 'not hie even; for It ca'D,n,ot be Id.iVlded i,D.t.O equal halves'I nor
e,ven divided at all., 'Therefore 'uni.ty is odd,. And if y,ou add an even.
I When he speaks phUosop'hically, NiC"omach, '1 d'enies 'that ,even and 2 are real numbers" and
b
JI; th '"' WI'"'th i!,aa pp 1.6 12
se:nes' - '. ,3; .u.
0,.
. ,.
, ,
I .
..... "'-a....... b' '1' e' "'rs;-'
I ....>
,'_e'mbeL.
, '. - t' "-'0-- deaJ-
___ .'.' .:'. ,I' .: .'.," ,.
, a-d, and even
N:l;.comachus
cU... es,
a 0 -
of
- ..
,a.JlliI:,J'.. '!Ii.... n
,e:
thal':.,l_':e SIU_ __
21), ,: _ that the sum, of 0'
-nld ,odd if the _
-1 differ'enc,cs
"h t ill 1 '1 ,Ill
- 1- :ma .ena ., curlO:U'S y'"
'I ,- e' IS l.ed tO
I
.--! ." I
l__
i
-
I
1
1
- 1
...., ,"
), 1
)
h t
:'
:e-- "a-:, ,,S,
of the 'rm ,2'
.,.,..,....,. ........" ,od,d", of the form 2 (2 k
odd tmes
.,y, those
.' + I)
,ale,
saMle
s anot'h"er class, .he
O
d 'U" "e':r a" . . - d" ....:.... .. 1_' __' _ .. __ ".'._
" 'I ' . -
'.' J
,
, .' 0'1'
, , . -'
2'
,e
,W!!IiiI!IiI
.'
1
a
ln' I - 1 ,.
't i e' ld
,
e;n'
..
.QlpoSl-'
are both
. " i
"'4 tI I 11-.
5
even-times even and even-times odd, makes it clear that Euclid rec-
ognized the possibility of a number falling in both classes.'
The arithmetic of Nicomachus includes a lengthy discussion of all
these types of the even numbers. In I. 8. 12 he notes that
I + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + ... + 2"-' = 2" - I,
and that this theorem will be useful in the discussion of perfect num-
bers,' but many of his observations are more or less self-evident.
For example, in the series
I, 2,4, '8, 16, 32, 64 "',
it is evident that in any sequence of three of these terms the square of
the mean will equal the product of the extremes, or,
(2
10
)2 = 2,,-1 . 2"+1,
and similarly, if each member of tbe series be multiplied by the same
integer, the property persists. Further, in the series,
1,3, 5, 7,9, Il, ... 2 n - I
J
evidently the middle term of any sequence of three terms equals half
the sum of the extremes, and in any sequence of four the two means
equal the two extremes.
The subdivision of the odd (1. II If.) is a matter of more difficulty
to Nicomachus. As in the former case, he sets up three classes, and
designates them as prime, composite and relatively prime; the latter
are pairs of composite numbers that are prime to each other. To
disregard 2, the primes are indeed odd, but there is no reason why
composite numbers should be treated as a class of the odd. The
classification belongs, of course, to all numbers rather than to the odd
alone, and it is so regarded by Theon and Euclid, who add to the list
another class, lrelatively composite' numbers (i.e., composite numbers
that have a common measure). Strictly speaking, none of the authors
need have specified more than the first two subdivisions, for all the
'relatively prime' and 'relatively composite' numbers are composite.
As to 2, Nicomachus is silent:' but Theon somewhat doubtfully
recognizes it as prime;' and it satisfies Euclid's definition of the prime.
I For a fuller discussion of the difficulties centering about this matter, see Heath's TM Thi,um
Books of Euclid's Elements, voL 11, pp. 281 ff.
I Theon omits this theorem, while Euclid proves it.
But he names 3 as the first prime number (I. 11. 2).
'He does not name 2 in his list of primes, which begins with 3 (p. 23, rI); he states that
only the odd are prime (ibid., 23); yet he admits that 2 shares the characteristics of the primes
(p. 24, s) and finally says that it is "called odd-like because it shares the qualities of the odd"
(ibid.). His stand in the matter is indecisive. See Heath, op. dt., vol. 11, p. 285.
51
VII. 20:
VII. 26:
VII. 22 :
VII. 21:
VII. 24:
VII. 25,27:
VII. 23:
To find the prime numbers the celebrated method of Eratosthenes,
known as his 'sieve,' is employed (I. 13. ,fI.). This involves no
mathematical principle of any difficulty, but is, notwithstanding, the
only systematic method of locating them. The odd numhers are con-
ceived as written down; then every third number beyond 3 is stricken
out, every fifth beyond 5, every seventh beyond 7, and so on, leaving
only numbers which are prime; after the multiples of n have been re-
jected, only prime numbers remain up to n'. Nicomachus makes it
clear that the process consists in discarding multiples.
In the same chapter (sections 10 fI.) he takes up the Euclidean prob-
lem of the greatest common divisor, but with the announced purpose
of determining whether any two given numbers (in practice limiting
himself to odd numbers) are prime to each other or not. The process
consists in dividing the greater by the smaller,' and then the smaller
by the remainder after the division, until, if the two numbers are prime,
the final remainder is unity, or until the remainder is found to be an
exact divisor of the preceding divisor. In this case, the remainder
is the greatest common factor of the two original numbers. Euclid
devotes VII. 1-3 to this subject, and Theon omits it.
In Euclid, the subject of prime and relatively prime numbers re-
ceives a more detailed treatment in VII. '0-3' and again in Book IX.
The matters proved in VII. 20-32, stated algebraically, are as follows,
if we always assume a and b relatively prime to each other:
ace
I j - ~ - ~ - ~ ... thenc = ka andd = kb
b d f' , .
a c
If b= d' Ihen a < c, and b < d.
Given ~ ~ ~ and given that, for any values of c and d,
a < c and b < d, then a and b are relatively prime to
each other.
If a and kb are prime to each other, then a and b are prime
10 each otlter.
Given a and c prime to b, then ac is prime to b.
Given a prime 10 b
l
then at. is prime to b
J
also a" is prime /0
b', and a' prime to 11'.
Given a and c both prime to band d, then ac is prime 10 bd.
I Nkomachus's' division' is really subtraction continued until tbe remainder is smaller than the
subtrahend.
(
.mt\lnOl ...,I,1I
5' NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
VII. 28: Given a prime to b, then a + b is prime to a and to b, and
tUSO if a + b is prime to a and b, a is prime to b.
VII. 29, 30: If a is a prime number, it is prime to any number whuh
does not contain it as a factor, and conversely.
In two propositions (3r and 3') Euclid shows that every numher is
prime, or has a prime factor. In Book IX, propositions Ir-'1 deal
with primes and relative primes in continued proportion, and IX. '0
proves that the number of primes is infinite.
The ancient arithmetua commonly divided numbers in yet a third
way, into perfect, superabundant and deficient numbers. Again
we find that Nicomachus restricts to one subdivision, the even,
a classification which properly belongs to number in general; and
although Theon speaks of 'numbers,' not specifically even numbers,
as being subject to this classification, it may be noted that all the
examples he cites are even numbers. Nicomachus and Theon define
all three classes, but Euclid touches upon only the perfect number,
defining it (VII, dei.) and subjecting to proof the method of its
discovery (IX. 36). As usual, Nicomachus and Theon state only the
method. Nicomachus mentions four perfect numbers, 6, .8, 496, and
8,128. If, in I. '1. 3 and 7, he means to imply that a perfect number
is to be found in each order of the powers of 10, he is mistaken; and
he certainly is incorrect in asserting that all perfect numbers end
alternately in 6 and 8 (ibid.). It is proved by Euclid, IX, 36, that
every number of the form 2,,-1(2" - I), if 2 - I is prime, is perfect;
the first ten, vi2.: for n = ',3, 5, 7, 13, '1, 19,31,61, and 89, have
actually been calculated.
11. RELATIVE NUMBER
The fundamental relations of number, as the Greek arithmetua
states, are equality and inequality, and the latter is further divided into
two classes, the greater and the less. Furthermore, each of these
latter has five subdivisions, those of the greater being
multiples, as, mn : n
superparticulars, as n + I : n
superpartients, as n + k: n, k > 1
multiple superparticulars, as mn + I : n, m > I
multiple superpartients, as mn + k : n, both m and k being greater
than I.
53
The suhdivisions of the less are the reciprocal ratios of these, and
are designated by the same names with sub- (Greek, .nro-) prefixed;
for example, submultiple. Each of these is described by Nicomachus
at considerable length (I. 17-'3) and more briefly by Theon; Euclid
has no parallel discussion, but it may be recalled that be gives defini-
tions (VII, defs. 3, 4) of the terms 'part' and 'parts' (JLlpo., JLlfY'/),
the former having the same meaning as submultiple (e.g. ;, :). and the
latter being equivalent to our term' proper fraction ' (With numerator
greater than unity, as =-, m). For the former term Nicomachus
3 n
prefers to substitute JL6p",., and tbe use of this word in composition,
in the term E7rtP.0Pf,Ofi, lsuperparticular,' a number which contains
another smaller number once, plus one JL6p'op of it (I. 19.1), shows
clearly the proper meaning of the word.
In I. 19.9, Nicomachus presents our ordinary multiplication table,
but not for use as such; it is rather to serve as a table of multiples.
Such tables are of common occurrence in the Introduction, but neither
Euclid nor Theon makes use of them. In his discussion of this table,
Nicomachus notes two propositions which may thus be expressed
(I. 19 9) :
(r) n' + (n + r)' + n(n + r) (. n + r)';
(.) (n - r)n + (n + r)n + n' = (. n)'.
As a fitting termination to Book I, Nicomachus states a general
principle whereby all forms of inequality of ratio may be generated
from a series of three given equal terms; it was designed to show that
equality is the 'root and mother' of all forms of inequality.' The
first number of the given series is taken as the first term of the new
series; the sum of the given first and second terms gives the new
second term; and the new third term is derived by adding the given
first and third terms plus twice the given second term. Thus, given
a, a, a, we first obtain a, 2 a, 4 a. Given a, na, n
2
a, we obtain a,
(n + r)a, (n + 1)'a, a geometric progression with the ratio (n + I).
Given n
2
a, na, a, we obtain n
2
a, n(n + l)a, (n + 1)2a, in which each
term has the ratio n + r : n to the preceding. The reverse process is
elaborated in 11. " showing that equality may finally be obtained from
IOn the history of this proposition see on t. 23 4.
54
any given series illustrating any form of inequality. Theon also gives
these rules and their converse (p. 107, 10 If.)
In Il. 3-4, Nicomachus sets forth a method for deriving from the
successive series of multiples the series of superparticulars; from the
doubles come the series with ratio 3 : 2; from the triples, those with
ratio 4: 3; and in general, if the multiple series is I, n, n
2
, n
3
, "', the
ratio is n + r : n. Algebraically expressed, the series and derivative
ratios are:
n'
n
3
+ n
2
n!+2n
2
+n
n'+3
n
'+3
n
+
r
n'
n!+n
n'+2n+I
n+I
I n
,
n ...
n' +n
l
n'+2n
3
+n
2
n'+3
n
'+3
n
'+n
n' + 4n' + 6n' + 4n + I
In his discussion Nicomachus remarks upon two facts as especially
strange and significant, first, that the number of integral superparticu-
lars arising from a given term in the series is limited, and second, that
the number of superparticulars that may be derived from a given term
can be determined, as it will agree with the exponent of the power of n
in the multiple series. With the algebraic notation it is easy to see
that the derivation of integral superparticulars must come to a halt
when an expression whose numerator is not divisible by n is reached,
for example, (n + I) (n + r), and that, given n', from it there will arise
n
a series of k numbers increasing in the ratio n + I : n, thus:
n', (n + r)n'-l, (n + I)'n'-', (n + r)'n'-', ... (n + I)'.
Tbe matter dealt with in Il. 5, the comhination of ratios, calls forth
a lengthy discussion, but in our notation the facts that
are self-evident.
Ill. PLANE AND SOLID NUMBERS
The remainder of Nicomachus's second book is devoted to the plane
and solid numbers, including a rather detailed treatment of the squares,
cubes and heteromecic numbers, followed by the general subject of
proportions.
The doctrine of plane, or polygonal, numbers set forth by both Nico-
machus and Tbeon is based upon the possibility of arranging the
component units of any number in various regular forms in a plane or
55
planes. Thus, first, the monad, unity, may be regarded as a geometri-
cal point; any greater integer, beginning with 2, if its units are arranged
along a line, may be regarded as linear; beginning with 3, the numbers
can be arranged in a plane so as to form the various plane figures;
and from 4 on, the numbers can be arranged in three dimensions, after
the fashion of solids. There is reason to believe that this was a typi-
cally Pythagorean view of the matter, and older than Aristotle's time.'
Euclid's conception of the plane and solid numbers is very dif-
ferent, and is based upon the possibility of representing numbers by
lines of lengths corresponding to the units in the number, the lines
in turn being used as the sides of rectangular plane and solid figures.
The plane number, according to his definition (VII, def. 16), is the
product of the two (linear) numbers which are used as sides; similarly,
solid numbers are the product of three numbers (def. I7). Euclid's
view, therefore, excludes triangles, pentagonals, and the like among
plane numbers, and pyramids among solids, and coincides with the-
theory held by Nicomachus and Theon only when rectangular figures
and solids are in question. Euclid's plane and solid numbers, that is,
really represent areas and volumes; those of Nicomachus and Theon
are simply arrangements of points in space.
2
Nicomachus shows in 11. 8 that the triangular numbers, thus con-
ceived, result from the summation of the terms of the natural series
1,2,3,4,5,6, ... n, giving n(n + r)
2
as the nth triangular number j squares may be derived in two ways,
by squaring the successive terms of the natural series, or by the sum-
mation of the terms of the natural series with i f f e r e n ~ 2, Le., 1,3,5,7,
9, ... (2 n - 1), giving n' as the nth square number; the pentagons
arise from the summation of the arithmetical series with difference
. () h th h . n(3 n - 1)
3, I.e., 1,4,7,10,13, ... 3 n - 2 I SO t at e nt pentagon IS .
2
To generalize, the polygonal number of the order k (k-gonal number)
is derived from the series
1,1 + (k - 2),1 + 2(k - 2),1 + 3(k - 2), ... 1 + (n - 1)(k - 2),
and the nth k-gonal number will be
n(kn - 2 n - k + 4).
2
1 See Aristotle, MeJapvma, 1092 b 10.
I Heath, op. d/., vol. 11, pp. 287 fI., gives a detailed comparison of the two theories.
Nicomachus carries the discussion up to the octagonal and indicates
that the process of derivation may be indefinitely extended. It is
noteworthy that he himself develops a generalization in this con-
nection. The terms of the arithmetical series from the summation
of which the polygonals are derived were technically called gnomons
and Nicomachus (probably following Hypsicles) states that the con-
stant difference between the gnomons will be k - 2, k being the number
of sides (or angles) of the polygon in question (Il. II. 4).
In Il. r2 there follow some theorems dealing with the polygonal
numbers. Both Nicomachus (Il. 12.2) and Theon (p. 41, 3) state
that the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is a square, and
conversely every square is the sum of two triangular numbers. That
is, taking the (n - I)st and the nth triangular numbers,
(n - I)n + n(n +1) = n'.
2 2
Nicomachus next states that any triangular number added to the
square number next after it in order in the parallel series of squares
gives a pentagonal; that is, for the (n - I)st triangle and the nth
square, n(n - I) + n' = 3 n' - n,
2 2
which is the nth pentagonal. He proceeds to put this principle in
general form, to the effect that any triangle added to the following
k-gonal number produces the (k + I)-gonal number, or in algebraic
terms, for the (n - I)st triangle and the nth k-gonal number,
n(n - I) + n [2 + (n _ I)(k _ 2)] n [2 + (k - I)(n - I)].
2 2 2
Nicomachus sets down the polygonal numbers in tabular form, and
notes what is obvious in the table, viz., that the polygonal numbers
occupying the same position in their respective series, the nth triangle,
the nth square, the nth pentagon, and so on, form an arithmetical
series with the (n - I)st triangular number as their difference, but as
usual he does not offer any proof. In algebraic form we have
n [2 + (n - I)(k - 2)], the nth k-gonal number,
2
n [2 + (n - I)(k - I)], the nth (k + I)-gonal number,

2
with the difference n(n - I), the (n - I)st triangular number.
2
57
(n + I)'
(n + I)(n + 2)
So far as the solid numbers are concerned, the pyramids and the
truncated pyramids, tile cubes, wedges, the parallelopipeds, the
heteromecic and the promecic numbers, we have here no real mathe
matical principles involved, but simply definitions. The recurrent
or spherical numbers are worthy of note; numbers which end in I, 5
and 6 when multiplied by themselves produce other numbers ending
in the same digit, and such are called spherical.
From an arrangement of the squares and the heteromecic numbers
(which have the form k(k + I)) in parallel array, Nicomachus dis-
covers, in 11. 19, certain general relationships whose proof offers no
difficulty with modern algebraic symbolism.
I 4 9 16 25 36 n'
2 6 12 20 30 42 n(n + I)
The ratio of the nth heteromecic number to the nth square is obviously
n + I : n (ll. '9. 3), and the difference is n(n + I) - n' = n. Simi-
larly the (n + I)St square less the nth heteromecic number is (n + I)'
- n(n + I) = n + r. Furthermore, the nth heteromecic number is a
mean proportional between the nth and the (n + I)st squares; and
if two successive squares be added with twice the intermediate het-
eramedc number, a square number results :
n' + (n + I)' + 2 n(n + I) = (2 n + I)'.
Nicomachus is quite amazed by the fact (ll. '9. 4) that the sums
1+ 2, 2 + 4, 4 + 6,6 + 9, 9 + 12, 12 + 16, ... give the triangular
numbers in regular sequence:
n' + n(n + I) = (2 n + I)n, or 2 n(2 n + I),
2
a triangular number; and similarly
'+( ) ( )
(2n-I)2n (2n-I)(2n-I+I)
n n - I n = 2 n - I n = = -'----'-"-__-'--'
2 2'
the triangular number which precedes the one just given.
After noting (ll. 20. I) that n' + nand n' - n give in each case a
heteromecic number, Nicomachus introduces a proposition the dis-
covery of which is commonly credited to him. He states (ll. 20. 5)
that if the odd numbers be written down in order,
1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15, [7, 19, 21, ...
the first number is the 'potential cube' (cube of unity); the second
58
two, 3 + 5, make the cube of 2; the following ~ 7 + 9 + II,
make the cube of 3, and SO on.
I, 3, S, 7, 9, Il, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, ...
1
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
53
A theorem of the first importance from the standpoint of the modern
theory of numbers, relating to the divisibility of the square numbers,
is found in Theon, but not in Nicomachus or Euclid. According to
this proposition, every square is either divisible by 3, or becomes so
when diminished by unity, and is similarly divisible by 4. Theon
gives no proof of this, of course, in accordance with his usual practice.
Any number when divided by 3 gives either I, - I (or 2), or 0, as re-
mainder; and hence it may be written either as 3 n or 3 n I, or
3 n 2; the square is of the form
9 n' or 9 n' 6 n + I or 9 n' 12 n + 4.
In the first case the square is divisible by 3, and in the second and third
cases it becomes divisible by 3 when I is subtracted. Similarly any
even number, when squared, contains the factor 4, and any odd number,
being of the form 2 n + I, when squared, may be written
4
n
'+4
n
+
I
,
which is divisible by 4 when unity is subtracted. Apparently Theon
desired to divide all square numbers into four classes, viz., those divisi-
ble by 3 and not by 4; by 4 and not by 3; by 3 and by 4; and by
neither 3 nor 4. In modern mathematical phraseology all square
numbers are termed congruent to 0 or I, modulus 3, and congruent
to 0 or I, modulus 4. This is written:
n' .. I (mod. 3),
n' .. 0 (mod. 3),
n' .. 0 or r (mod. 4).
This is the first appearance of any work on congruence which is funda-
mental in the modern theory of numbers.
Another important subject, omitted by Nicomachus, but studied
by Theon, is that of 'side and diagonal' numbers, which may be in-
troduced at this point, inasmuch as it bears some relation to the theories
about plane numbers. Theon says (p. 42, 10 fI.) :
"Even as the numbers are potentially invested with the essential
principles of triangles or quadrilaterals, of pentagons or other figures,
so also we find that the essential principles of sides and diagonals ap-
CON'T'E"N'T Q'F THE GR'EEK ARITHMETICA
59
pea'r in numbe'rs in a,ccord,an,ce with the ultimate p,rin'ciples of' their
h[eing', I for it is these which ,harmonize th'e Then
just as 'unity is. th[e s,tarting point. of all (geometrical) figures" a,ccording
tb
"1 I h f'thd
il
-
tOI le SU,p,'[eme generative pri,nCip e
J
S'O aso t'. e ratio 0 '_' __e .... i.ag,ona
t
thl . itd i. f" cl 't'J
.0 le Sle l:S o'un,' In unl.Y
A pair rOr,f side, and diagonal ,numbers 'consists of t.wo[ numbers" y and
x, so relatedthat _ 2 Y- + I,

" X"" . Y
In othe. wOI'ds,r a series olf increasing Iside an,d dia,gonal D'umbrers, ar'e
rational a:prpro'ximatio,ns to the sides and hypoten,u,ses of in,creasing
isosceles rig'ht triangles" and 'in, e'ac'h case th:e s,u,m ,of the squ,ares of
the: sides numerically fro,m the square of the hypoten,usc' 'b,y
'u.oity. Theo,n giv1e:sl th,e general rule which establlishes sUrch, a se'ries,
:sta,rting frrom any given sQ[luti[on. Takin,g '1, x, b as, an,y sol'ution, h,e
then states that anotb,er solutio;n is gi.'v'en by x + y, x + 2 y, in
the ti.rst of the, pair reprresents the side and th'e second, the d18g-
o'nal. Thus, I" I, a potential a1geb'raic solution, gives 2, 3 as a seco:n,d
solution, 2:
J
3 g,en,erates by th,e Iulres ,5, 7:J a'nd from thi.s, in, tum.[ 12, I 7
is deri'ved,j t.o thi .'point Theo[n carries the num,ericaI T'h,e'
'" I' f' x'., I 00"-' d .. t t th
succeSSlv,e vac ues 0 I are: mcreas,mg ,y ,re' .re: apprOXima 'j:ons .' :10, ': e
y
sq,urare root 0[,( 2 j thu,s"
t
.1.."1
,- --=JI .' "SJ n
difie,r in sq'ua're from 2 b,y
- I +- 1 - n
J
' +- rh'
., -:r" ': ' 'I '., '.: . ..' ., '.' ,,_....
an,d continu:ing the, seriesJI we w'ould h,ave
H't It, ill, ..
as 'further an,d cl10ser ,app[ro,ximations olf the squure 'root of 2; the'
va
l
ue tit is[ correct to the fourth decim,al plac:e,.
Zeuthen .. 'was the firs,'t tO
I
note ,thrat a, generalized state,-
ment. of this theo[ry' is, implIcit in Eu[clid 11. 9 an,d 10. In ell
r
ect Euclid
states, th,at
"

,x - y
... --m+-
A C B ,D
y
-.e.,'
A C DIB'
o
Y
-
..
I .1 , ......l.... "-.L..... 'This I . ia the te''""hm"cal t......1n 1 ,., tl..e S-"t liI'CS
. CFK 1"0VI' tl'Tfpp....,rIMUI'lJ wtOlJ!t,. . 'I _' ,I. [_ _ _oogy 0 ' '_,IL:" 0, ,:.
I Zeuthea, DU LiIw-e POll' den, Ke.gelst.l.nittm I,m All.nt:llm, 1886" pp-
or,
if C is the mid-point of AB, and D any other point in the line (internal
in H. 9, and external in H. 10), then
AD' + DB' = 2 AC' + 2 CD',
AD' - 2 AC' = 2 CD' - DB';
taking the values x and y, respectively, as indicated in the diagrams,
we have
(2 X+ y)' - 2(X + y)' = 2:x!- - 'I.
The theorem is ascribed by 7.euthen to the Pythagoreans, and confirma-
tion of its Pythagorean origin, as well as of the correspondence be-
tween the geometrical propositions and the arithmetical theory, is
found in Proclus's Commentary"" Flaw's Repuhlu,t in which Proclus
refers to this method of forming' side and diagonal numbers' as Py-
thagorean, and says that the same is proved graphically in the second
book of the Elements. Further, Proclus alludes to the Pythagorean
distinction between 'rational' and 'irrational' diameters, to which
Plato makes reference in the Repuhlu' when he contrasts the 'rational
diameter of 5' with the' irrational,' having in mind 7as opposed to the
irrational number v;;.' The discussion above touches only one of
many possible references to essentially arithmetical or algehraic
theorems which are concealed in geometrical form in the first six or
last four books of Euclid's Elements. It likewise gives evidence of the
fact that, although Theon's treatise was not pedagogically so success-
ful as the lntroductitm, yet it is much superior to that work from the
mathematician's point of view.
IV. PROPORTIONS
Nicomachus distinguishes the proportions involving four distinct
terms, called disjunct, and those involving only three terms, or con-
tinuous; there are two means in the first type and only onc in the
second. Given a, b, c, d as the terms of an arithmetical proportion,
the propositions he sets forth correspond to the following algebraic
formulations:
I Procli Diadochi, In Platotlis Re". PuClie4". ComtMtlJ4rii (Leipzig, 1(}O1), vo!. 11, cc. 23, 27;
see Heath, op. cit., vol. 11, pp. 395-401.
t 546 c. This became known during the Middle Ages as the .. Rule of Nicomachus"; thus
Q8' - (98 - 2)(98 + 2) + 2'. However, Nicomachus does not give such illustrations.
'The discussion here closely follows Heath, loc. d/.
a + c = 2 b,
a + c = b + d,
a b - a
-= =1
a c - b '
61
(4) ac b' - (c - b)', or (a - x)(a + x) +:C = a',
(5) b > c > when d > e > b > a.
a b e
The fourth of these propositions, which states that the product of
the extremes differs from the square of the mean by the square of the
common difference, came to be known in the Middle Ages as the
Regula Nuomachi.' It is more readily grasped if the terms are written
as a - k, a, a + k, when evidently
(a - k)(a + k) = a' - k'.'
The theorems stated by Nicomachus concerning four numbers,
a, b, c, d, which form a geometric proportion, are as follows:
d:b = ca;
d b d - e
,=a=c-b;
d e b 2
When - = - - = - then d - e = e and e - b = b'
c b a I' , ,
When d = e = b = 3 then d _ e = 2 e and e - b = b'
b
' , ,
e a I
When = b 4, then d - e = 3 e, ... ;
c b a I
When d = = b = 5 then d - e = 4 e ....
c b a I' , ,
a=bb'=ac'
b c' ,
a e
b d' be = ad.
Between n' and (n + I)', only one geometric mean, viz., n(n + I), is
possible; between n' and (n + I)', there are two, viz., n'(n + I) and
n(n + I)'. These propositions, which Nicomachus ascribes to Plato,
are also proved by Euclid (VIII. Il-I2). Nicomachus goes on to
1 Q'Creat, Twtlfth Cenlury. See p. 60, h. 2.
1 This formula can be used in squaring numbers near to lOO, and other numbers also; thus,
94
1
- (94 - 6)(94 + 6) + 6
1
, or 88 X 100 + 36.
c-b c 'h 'al
b = -, aru melu ,
- a c
c - be.
b - a = b' ge017Utncal,
c - be.
b = -, harmomc.
-a a
state that the product of two squares is a square, and that of two cubes
a cube, but the product of a square by a heteromecic number, or that
of a cube by a heteromecic number, can never be, respectively, either
a square or a cube.
Nicomachus says that three numbers, as a, h, e, are in harmonic
. h C c - b f h' d fi .. . filth 'f
proportIOn w en - = ; rom t IS e mtlOD It 0 OWS at)
a b - a
c - b = kc, then b - a = ka, and this is the definition given by Plato
for the harmonic progression. Nicomachus uses this result, numeri-
cally, stating also the general theorem. Further, given a, b, c in
harmonic proportion, with c > b, it follows that c > b and that
b a
b(c + a) ~ 2 ac. The particular proportion given by 6, 8, 12, the
numbers of the faces, vertices, and edges of a cube, is taken as the
type of harmonic proportion par excellence, since the three funda-
mental concords of music, the diapason (with the numerical ratio
2: 1 or 12: 6), the diatessaron (4: 3 or 8: 6), and the diapente
(3 : 2 or 12 : 8), are contained in these numbers.
The definition of these three types of proportion as given by Theon
presents an interesting variation of the Nicomachean definition. They
are:
There may also be noticed at this point the series of propositions
introduced by Euclid in Book VII, in which he applies to arithmetic
the principles of proportion already stated in Book V. They are as
follows:
a
a=-b; VII. 4
b
1 1 1( J\
If a = - b, and c = - d, then a c = - b ~
n n n
m m m ( )
If a = - b, and c = - d, then a c = - b d ;
n n n
1 1 a b
If a ~ - b, and c = - d, - = -;
n n c d
VII. 5, 7
VII. 6, 8
VII. 9
m m a b
If a ~ - b, and c ~ - d, - ~ -;
n n c d
a c a-c a
I' a > c and b > d and - = - then = -'
J I 'b d' b - db'
I ~ = !>.- ~ . : ~ d ... then a + b + c + d + .
) a' h' c' d
'l
' a' + h' + c' + d' + .
a cab
If b ~ d' then c= d;
aa' bb' cc' aa'
If b = b" and c~ c" and d ~ d" "', then d ~ d';
I m a a
If - = -, then - = -;
a ma m ma
a . b = b . a.
Given a, b, c,
b=ab andb=b.a.
, ,
c ac c ca
If: ~ ~ then ad = bc, and conversely.
VII. ID
VII.II
a
VII. 12
-
-"
a
VII. I]
VII. 14
VII. 15
VII. 16
VII. 17, 18
VII. 19
Another very important theorem of Euclid dealing with proportions
is IX. 35, in which he stops just short of determining the formula for
the summation of a geometric series. If the series be stated as
a, ar, ar, a ~ arA, ... a,,,-I, ar,
giving (n + r) terms, and if we take S. as the sum of n terms, this
proposition proves that
,
a
or, in effect, that
ar" - a
S. = .
r - r
Archimedes gives the 'sum to infinity' of a geometric series with ratio
r : 4, but Euclid nowhere takes up this type of arithmetical discussion.
Euclid utilizes IX. 35 for proving his proposition in IX. 36 concerning
the perfect number, showing that if 2 - r is prime, then 2.-
1
(2. - r)
is perfect.
Both Nicomachus and Theon give rules for inserting the different
kinds of means between two numbers; their methods differ but slightly.
Those of Nicomachus are as follows:
For the arithmetical mean, '" must be chosen so that
'" - a = b - "'.
For the harmonical mean, '" must be chosen so that
b - '" = k . b,
and ",-a=ka.
For the geometrical mean, '" must be chosen so that
b '"
- = -"
'" a
To choose", scientifically, Nicomachus adds further that for the
arithmetical mean
a+b
'" = --'-
2 '
or,
for the geometric mean,
or (incorrectly),
b-a h . b
2: = ,wereffi >a;
2
for the harmonic mean,
(b - ala
b + a, where b > a.
+a
Three other proportions are defined as follows (given c > b > a) :
c b - a
- - , the fourth type;
a c - b
b b-a
- =
, the fifth type;
a c - b
and
c b-a
- =
, the sixth type.
b c - b
In connection with the fifth type, Nicomachus gives as numerical
illustrations 2, 4, 5, and then makes the incorrect assertion that Cl to
this form of proportion it is likewise peculiar that the product of the
greater by the middle term is double that of the greater by the lesser
term," an accident due to this particular selection of numbers.
For the remaining four proportions, Nicomachus gives only the
definitions and therefore avoids further blunder; they involve no
mathematical points. In the closing chapter, however, the 'most
and
C
':ONI'T"E' :N:T' 0',F T,I:'H-E 'G'- K A' RIT''H-'M' E'TICA' .......... ,'. I,. . I 1.'.1,'. ,J. 1 ."j ':..' I.....:. .. 1_. . . '" I.. _ .' ...:.......... _ " .. _ ." ,:: .
perfect of all proport:,ons" presented, that is" su,ch ,a series 'of fo'u,r
n'um'bers a, b, C', d'that
a: b,= c: d,
'hI} , . . ., d ' f' .' ' , I'd'
W,l e at the same tlDle la:" C" an ,d "orm ,an arlthmetlca, pro,gr'esslon
a, ,b, and Id form, a, ha,rmonical progression., Nic:o,machus refers to the
'possib:ility,o, th,e end terms 'be'ID"g Icubes, but if this be the case" it would
lead to irrational me'ans; and, a,g,ain"1 hie does not note, and appare'ntly
,,s n,ot aware of the fact, th,at two of the given coditions ar'e suffiCient
to, determine the thir,d. For if 'w,e ,arle givleD
a, C
-
_ I!I!!!II!I!I
b d
d.' - c': - c'' - a' . ,'. - '.,. '.:.,
:it follows that
o,r that
d
' da da (, b t'll
t
t
ilo
f 4I.
ts
1- )'
,. - b -. b - asusLUlngor c... vaue,
h b cl fi
.... d b d f' h .,'
W1e'D,ce"y'e'. aorm R_armonlca', p,rogreSS,!'OD.
This con,eludes our review of the: cont1e'nt olf the 'G'reek a"'ithm.eticQ.,,
{r,o,m the mathematical point lof view. There can be no d'oubt that if
Ni,c'o,ma,chus is to 'be ju,dged, ,as a m,athematiclan, slID'ply with reference
t h
! /t od,u'rl''''on' to' AI,,;',hi!MIJDt";r 'he' m-ust yl-eld' -place to bot'h E -'l';d- . 0 I. IS ," '1 I' _'_ ' -. ., __ '' _' . ':.: , ,'.> '-: ,1.1 - 'e.. uc_ Jl': .
and, Tbeo'n. Eu,clid himself 'is far less s,uc'cessful in the p-ortions of the
I
E'lemenls which ,d,eal with arithm,et,ic tha'D in the strictly geom,e'trical
p,arts, a,nd ,in fact we sh,outd look rathe,r to books like the second,
fi' ft'h' .. -. 'd", f',, ,c" .. ;', ',., C,'c', '. t':, 't, d -t I' t I' b -t
I I . " an, . we, '.' .or p1ropoSllon.S gleome, I, ca y s.,a e, J )'. ls_rue,ul:
r,elale,d to, the field known as (,geomletric,al a'lgleb,ra,' - which ar'e of
funldamental impo'ltance in th,e Idev,elop1ment of' ana ysis. Tbeon's
work is disjointed in arrangement and fIar brief1er tb,an the Intro-
d'Ultion, 'Y1et in, genera,} it 'sh,o'ws a deeper app:reciation, of the
t
.. 11 't )1 d'' tb' t tt F N,. h
mai'lca P01D"S In'vo ,ve In .. -,e SUJJec o..,ma: 'e,r. we
c,an only 'say that, in spite of his, mistakes and h,is philosophica ..
p,rejudlces,1 he' giv,e,s th,e most complete discussion, of the :matters cu's-
t
"o"m""'an'-;ly'm'*' c'lu"ded t'h1e-' oI:,,f ,th':'I'e' 'Glr'e-"e"'k' 'a'o'!th""m-'Ie"'u"c"'al
l
s'C,,'l-en'c"e I." .. ' ... . ,r ,_1. I. . ,1 .. _.... .:...... I ,.. _"" .' -:-J,',.- I.... ' .. -:.' .... 1._ I :' ," ,I.-I. ,_'. '_",'" .. <. ':. " .. ;'. ,,'.... : ,'. I. ill
CHAPTER IV
GREEK ARITHMETICAL NOTATION
Tlm language of any nation undoubtedly reflects, both in its vocabu-
lary and in its structural peculiarities, the mental development of the
people. Tbe relationship is, of course, reciprocal; the mental develop-
ment influences the language, and tbe language influences the unfold-
ing of thought. Particularly in philosophy and in literature this type
of influence is apparent. Tbe French philosophy and literature are
in accord with the genius of the French language, reflecting the clarity
and gracefulness of the speech; the German philosophy and literature
are in striking contrast, reflecting obscurity, and ponderosityof the
German language possibly inevitable in profound philosophical spec-
ulation.
In mathematical development the choice of a numerical notation
might, at first thought, be supposed to be a matter of indifference so
far as progress in scientific thinking is concerned. However, even as
language influences the development of philosophy and literature,
even more does notation directly affect mathematical progress. The
Greeks were unfortunate in their choice of mathematical notation;
apparently they realized the deficiency of their early system, for about
500 B.C., a new one was adopted, radically different in principle from
the old, but even more awkward from the mathematical point of view.
l
Tbe comparative lack of progress in analysis in Greece may be at-
tributed in a large measure to the clumsy systems of notation which
were m use.
Tbe numerals employed in Greece are of three separate and dis-
tinct types, viz., the geometrical numerals, initial letter numerals,
and alphabetic numerals. Tbe oldest of these are found in the recently
discovered Minoan writings, which far antedate the classical Greek
1 Sir T. L. Heath, Bislqry Df (Auk Mal/umaIks, vol. I, pp. 37-39. has recently attempted to
show that the Greek notation did not adversely affect their arithmetic. Heath's assertion that
we reckon" with words" is not correct; computation in arithmetic and algebra is by symbols.
In looking at 1 we do not say "three times two"; we think "6" immediately.
66
GR
' ." EEK' AR' -ITH' .''1M'--:-E''TIC''AL N- --'0- N' .'. . .' ".' ...'. :... ,- '... "I ..... . ,:: . J " ". .'., '.. .! .'. , ..', ....
'. "'d ..... d .... ' :b .,.'. '. d t- th . d' .. ]11' ....'" , Tb] . - t ."
penol ,anl ..may :,e ,as,slgne. '.0 [. ,Iesecon, ml_ ennlU.m.B.C._ .. e:sys'em
;" ,1' , d.. ..-. ',. I..,' ';!I "}";' ,1 t', d' t.. ' t;'h; , t ,.[: 1."'- -.' '. fl E'I"" ' ....
empoye. IS more c ose ,y .re a, e. 0 ..e .plco.rla. sys. em 0 ,e gyp
tians than to th,e 'systems 0' later Greece,. 'Th.e forms 1 arle ,as follows ::
) or I = I,
== 10,
\ or ,I --- 100"
/\, == I 000
v,) .,
)
.. )..,'). ).:., )., o:"'r " r - 5
'< '.'" " 11 -,
[' 40
I
V '==6 (probably).
'T'"h:-' - .. b' (- f' .. , .. .. d' - .. t,, - . trik" .'. -'1 lik'" th
l
. rvil'",.
,lie sym. 0 .s, "o,r one an.. : o,r 'e:n, ar'e s, ,.'. ng ,y .. '',e ' e .mear
1 I
" d'" .' B'bl th "'ill I' k
numeras emp. ,oy[e. In anClen,t __ a ,.,y on; '; 'e semiCircular mar,' was
used th[ere also for I, and the [complete cir'cle :f[or 10.
The second system of n,ume'rals a1dopte[d in Greec.e was biased upon
th
.. .. ... 11 ' f 'h d
t41
al cl b'
.'[, I" .I . e.. - ' ,,,. -" .... , ''-'''. - .. -" , . ,. ,
.n' tla ._tters 0 t le [c.orrespon.: Ing numer worl ... . ut ,exceptlon.
was ma,de for the. unit, whi.'ch was repr,esen.te[d, as commonly' e,very
wh,ere, by a simpe: 'vertical stroke.!
f
r.,. f"C
"ram EKQ/rOIl . :or
1
-0' ill
...' ,
5; rcompare pentagon.
CrQmpa,re de,ag'Oft".
,compar,e hek"taliter,.
lcom:p,are ,kilogram.
00
corn,pare :'iI,
for
for f
8""
'"0.
fro.m 71EPTE 'D (or r)
,d
H
..
(
.. .'V)"
.M I',or
11 soon. . epla,ced n fOI' five; com.b-inations of with the symbols 'for
']:0, 100, 1,000, an.d 10',,000, were used to rep.resent 50, 500" 5,000' an,d
5:,000', thus: P', 1"',. ["l1, and flU
Tb
]' f tl
l
'" Att" 'lIi t[ d h
. ese n'um,era_S occ'ur . reque:n .. ,y In ..... :' ,e Inscn.p ,'Ions a.-n, . vie
ther,efore ""ece'iv'ed the. n,aDle Attic numera'Is.. A description. o.f them
was given by a Eyza.ntine grammarian. of the second century after
C
"h:r;:s:t[ H'-er'o,..dia'n' .. a"j'n"d-' I t'h"e: ." 'H':,, d,.... -:
.... '.. .a :, ,. :.-c __ ., [,._ c 1 c. CO" qu ce, ','. .," _' .. ' n . era anlC
numerals' b.asl frequ:ently been employed.
T
'h- A'" tt'" t '1 .. d" 'b t . ,'. - . (:'d t
..'-' . .., .' .' '., .' '. ''F ' ) . ,'" '. '- '1 .' .'. '. I ' .. :' [-". -' '. [ - ,'[ . -"1 .. .- . :'." _
. e . -c' le sys. em 'Was rep ace a ou . 500 B.C. 300 a ,e uncer
t.ai.n) b'y ,an[ot'her type of' alphab[etic num1erals in \vhic'h nin1e. letters
are used to rep'resent the nine units,., nine other l,etters to rep,resent the
d I 'h h- .
nloe t.ens, an', .nin,e m.ore .etters, to r'epresent t' e n.me Icundreds" as
follows:
'I E' ,. c:"-' '"Ji.- I." 11' "(0" . )" - '8'
Jt'1InOO._.JUor-y" 1909 ,Pi.. 2
'I Hea:th. 0p.. cit., vlol. I, .pp. 2'g-64;, the best an,d mos,t recent discu.9sion of areek arithmet.ic...
68
NICOMA,CHUS OF GERASA
I
,
10
1
P
1
1
00
fJ
'2
It.
20
a
200
y
3
A
3[0
T
3
"'00' '1.'.,
". . . - .
3
4
u
r
40
AI'V"\
5
11
,So
't/JI
SOO
F
6
E
60
X
600
"
".,' ....-.: .. -'
o
7
'" '700"
.'.:.. 1
'7J:'
, .
8
v
80
800
',
. ',.,' .
. . ,
fJ
9
9
1
[90
1
7Ja1
900
tJ. ,fj It
. "
] '1000
1
2' ,()Q() 3,,000 WI
T'hle ordinary Gree. "" alp'h,abet, included only 2'4 letters, so three
ch,aracte'rsl borrowed 'from older Greek alphabets were employed to
designate the remaining' ,numbe,rs. These. c.h,aracters
l
' called Efrltrqp,la",
.1 tb I. '[" I... ' .... a::I"e-, uS"e",d, 6"" .(:' . """ 10' "r" ldi': :-amma I'" .... ". ")"1 {I"'-:"I' :-:1'," (:./:. " . ")"1.
are ....e on.es, W le. '_. . .' 1
1
. '. QT'lYIQ, g ... .., 0 90 ICcnnra,
.- .. d f .. .. . (...,. 'i) ..;". 'T'.... di' .. t'. '. .' .. .lit .h' f,.... . .... ... 'd .'. ... ' ." .. . f' .). ..tt .. .. ' ... ". . ,.... . .'. . . .. .... . ... ,.. . . I .. . . . . '. . . 1 , .
an,. .or C)OO .'U.1t':, ,'.' 0 I... I ,rom a wor. 1 a group o. e. ers
d
.. th
l
n mertcal SJ"gn' .e' a' h'onzo .. n"tal . liil'ne was' c-mmon")y u'se:, WlIU.:.,'-,. ' .. ... :--, ;:'"
placed ov,er the 'numerals; a.n accent after ,the final numer,al letter o,f
b 1 d
,'" '. 'h' 'k
,a'Dy' num._1e'r w,as a.so a "lstln,guls 1D.g mar..
T
.. c t -d:" th:e' ['-". t DI f': ,... [000 .. .. , to, I" '999"': a" 'm..ultl-
_0 ex[_en .[. ,SySI." ,0. um] rs ram 1,__ ..... 999,1... '. .' .. '
plicatio'n by 1,000' of of the num,bers above w'as represented, by' the
c,olrr1e:sponding charac.ter with an. a-ecen,t mark p' aced bef,olre 'it an"d a
n
a> I 'b 1 tb . 1- th d b 1 .. d d
l
h
1-", . ,,". "1 .. -:-:,:-'.,., I1 .-;:-' . ':--c.- .... - .'- '.'-.' -- ......; -:- ..... [ .. ,..: .... - .
..' tt_e ,... e. "ow .. e ID.,e, '.' ,e, myrta sym.
1
o was retalne.., an.. , Wlt .'. any
f
tbf 'Is w '. dth'
" " "". "1':' "'1 .': '1 .-. . . . '1 1""""'-;' :""1',": ...., .:.. c. '. -:-
0, ... eloregolng Dumera .' wntten a ...ove It represente _.. e given, num
ber lof' myri.ads.
A multiplication example in these num,erals is, recor,ded, by EutoCIUS,
.. f th h'' :1....
a W iter 0" .. ,e siX,t] century A.D." m a commentary on t'e WO'fti:.S
of Arch.imed'es; 1 this is one of the. few eV'e'n comparati'vely an'cie'nt
"'llustrations [o,f the fundamental operations aSlperformed with Greek
numerals:
","'
'IIo':PiIP"
"f'"
pO e

f
M
,
..
,.
7
80 ,-: ': ..... " .
I.
Bo
7
c ........ :'
, .
4
l\rJ 000 +- So 000 +- 6 000 ... -.. ...... "., ' . ,,:.. -
5
'0'1000, ... ; ..... +16,0001 +6',000 +-A"'"
..... ,..:: ':'. '.
600 8 +
_ 1. _
',000 + .' ,000 ' .=-
. . ,",.' . .. n.:. ... - .--. C .. - ...,J'I," AI .L ..............I:
L
0'"ill.' , ."-_I!II. C '.'
I, EuloclUS, Comrnenl6nw ''I .,'C'wJ, m n".,JPllCVSS ..' ryra VPIfl'UI cum ..om,,,,,,,
.'F E ... .., ('ed H be- '88' .. -) ... I m'" p 2nn.
I6n" :ultKIJ, . ' .. '"el ]"1, t ve ,ill .: 'j' I' 'I 'r-
G
': AR"'IT"H",c-M'"ET:ICAL N','0:'T'A"TI O:'N' . _-'"1
1
._1 .. 1.,, ..,-, ... ,. ..1 , ..... " "" - _':-. ::,.- . ,_,",_. -".' .. ,,'l' ...._ . _
/;.,..

-,' ,he use 0' letters with nu,merical significance was ,common amo"ng
th
"e' S'"e'm''ltlC p'"e-op'le's' ';1:,:h"'o'm' ln:d"ee-d the" sy'ste:::'m" 'm"""a' "y 'ha'v:-e .'.' 'l
ii
'a1 ".', ":",,,.. , :'.,.'1'1:",1", :..... .. ",',1': ..._ 1.". I',:'. Q,r,O.i!!o1B
. d Th Ar' b t d t t"h)1 t't .' t'h
lio
1 fte
'nate,. . ,._ e ""a-s con Inue,'lo use ': -ell e 'ers In.lS ,vay ong' a 'r
our' present Hin"du..,Arabic system, became kn,own, to th,em,. A,c-
cording to this. scheme of ,representat'io1n of numbers" a numerica-
",,1,":' ":. 'tt, 'h ,d t, ,-,-, ,':"d," s:, , f "I " ""f- .. ,.' ',,":.. ,,:-,
IS ,a '_a,e e, ,0 any wor".+ -,ome lmes, . or purpose,s ,0 secrecy
or mystiCism a play U,pO'D the numerical v',alue of' ,a w,o:rd 0'1' name w,as
.. duI d '" t'h H' b- rt- 1 I h cl f f' thljl k d f' lD
C
ge- In;, :, ..e:e -,rews, paw:'lc'u ar Y1a
I
'
1
a,ancy or ,'IS IQ
jluggling, giving j,t the name gematrla. The pass,a,ge in Re:vlelation,
xiii, 18" "H'ere is wisdo'm. 'Let him that hath 'un,derstanding e,o'unt the
D'umber lof the be;ast: fo,r it is the n'umber of a man: and his .numb,er
1
. 1 b' nd'r'ed; thre
A
se'ore' a''nd' SIX'"," 'ref"'ers to t'he-' f:act that' sO'm"e nam- S s, X,UII ,=- " .' .:.,.. : I"." ',' ,'1,:.." J "':"'" ..:' '." '::'.. ." ,: :1
1
,e
,in H,ebrew, or Greek letters or' ,even R:oman, num,e,rals", has the
cal valu,e 666 (or- 616).,1
A 1 h 1
'h b ... .. ill, I' ha- 'h A' f'
'pparent_y t -e a pLa type 15 smpl.er t:< n te,ttlc type ,0,,'
nume:rals:, f.or such, a number as '725 is written mOl'e compa,ct.'y t/JKE
J
than in Attic symbols" However the gam '-n writin,g these'
",:,' "'b""" ,.'..' '",' t" ."",1, . "".' ,"b' ':1'1-.-: '..... 'd:::' b,:,....- t;h"-- .','. 11" ",:' '. I'f .. l- ... t, ... :";- tb'
num .,ers IS en Ire y over ..ance. I ,y .... e, 055 o. slm,p le).y ,n .. e,
dd
- .' d I .. 1" '. . 'bl T"h ' .. b'
.ltl,on an,-, mu
l
,tIP lcatlon . ... e, connection .,etwe,en 7, 7'0,
ao,d 700 is preserved in th,e ,form of writing these numbers, in the Attic
[i (it
h
,
-
"I "I" '. I '" . ", "',, ::' __ . ',,, .... ,:: _, _",' _, ..' ,:" _...:. I,', ,_ ' :' '.. ' ' .. .:.. '" .,'.
style,. lr 11, l14, H H, wereas .' -, 7, 0 - 70, ao:d, '" - 7'00 h,ave no
clonnectlng lin, ., so far as th,e, rep1rese'ntatio,n is con,cerned The Gree,
mu'lti'pli,cation table wi.th th1e alphab,etic numerals consisted 0' 378
b
a
th' .
com'lnatlo,ns; ID ''_15 'system 2 X 3, 2 X 3'0, 2 X ,300, 20 X ,3, 20 X 30,
- , X t' I d t'" t b
lil
2'0 X, 300, 200 X 3, 200' 30, 2'00 X 300 are, ,en 'ID'C,', ,c'om
nati.on's.:, as is evident 'wh,len these products are w'rittlen, as they' had to
. '
b
l' I: .!' rn-'" ."d'
Q
' X' .' D' X' \. Q' X' ,.. .... x: c' ,', ',.' X' ."" x.... ".,' ""1 'X' -,: ..' x \.
e ea 1 , e ., tJ y, fJ . '.' A, fJ , T, IC " y, le 1\, le T, er "1, a, , A,
a.Dd u X 'T. The co:m,plexity in additio:n IS n,ot quite as g'reat, in1cludin,g
o,nly 1,35 combinati.ons as opposed to 45 with 9 digits. In these {,acts,
W
e p''ro''b' ably' h'aye on'e- r'e-ason for t'he' lack O'f" progr'ess aI-oog' ar"-Ith' ti'" ,: ','.. :' .,1,.' .' .. ..' , .,,, '.': _ ,.', '_ '. .'.' '. I:: ........ ..' ' I"me' I -
c:allines as co,mpared WIth the attainments, o,f the Gr-eeks along other
mathematical1ines.
Th
,'e . ,n '0',f'. fra,c''t.ion,s.., 'in the a p .. e,:,f--
, .. . e... .,. ._. _._,.Y . ., was .,
fec:ted 'i,n sever-al ,di.tIe,ren ways., Probably the most commlo,n, was tlo
write the, numer.ator first with one ac,c,ent and then the d,en,ominator
'-,'" ',' ,,t ,,',d" .. "'. h t" '. .. "Ct'h- et' ,--.. '. ' :.... ,...,,' "t 'I, -k'" oil- ,t,h -" , .. "," f,," H"
repea"e. , eaC,_.lme Wit. IWO a,ccen mare-,s, ,lll,5 "\. ICe irE, L,ar
I This 'passage i:n Revela'tion is' now' known to be early (second century or ,even
,,- . ) .. ,.' I S Sa""-' d T-ilL,,.. N' _L_ "I 1.L..- B..... :D ,.-, -.;1 J --..., 1-1 B11.J .... "
uJijt D'Ot, OnglDa C!r ,'lIGAN. t. AefGHIIlmI, .m4TRW "J' .,wlrItUt
LiWtUK", Viol. XXXVII (1'91,8),1 9S-W.,
I
....;
Another device was to write the denominator as a kind of exponent
attached to the numerator, ."'. Unit fractions were represented by
the simple denominator written but once and distinguished by an
accent, usually doubled. This distinction attaching to the unit frac-
tions accords with the Egyptian practice, and the same may be said of
the representation of both i and ! by special symbols, outside the
regular system. For i the symbol is w", and for !,C" or C.'
Archimedes (250 B.C.) and Diophantus (250 A.D.) may be mentioned
among the Greek mathematicians who did not pay particular atten-
tion to unit fractions while Heron of Alexandria, the great mechanician,
was among those who did. A Greek papyrus of the eighth century
A.D., found at Akhmim, employs the unit fractions quite in the ancient
Egyptian manner and includes the separate symbols for! and i.
A further peculiar notation with alphabetic numerals was noted
by Maximus Planudes 2 in the thirteenth century, but without any
indication of the date and place of origin. This system consists in
writing the 27 letters each with two dots superimposed to represent
the corresponding number of myriads, thus ii for 20,000, yfor 30,000.
The system can be indefinitely extended, and with three tiers of dots,
..
..
for example, represents myriads of myriads of myriads; thus; for
100,000,000,000,000. Nicolas Rhabdas of Smyrna (end of thirteenth
century) explains the system and states that it can be extended even
to infinity.' The suggestion of place value is evident, and a somewhat
similar device with superposed and also with subscript dots was used
with the Hindu-Arabic numerals by the Arabs; thus, :5 for 500, .i for
5
A great mathematician like Archimedes or Diophantus could largely
overcome the difficulties created and inherent in the various Greek
mathematical notations. However for the rank and file of those who
occupied themselves with mathematical studies, the notations proved
an insurmountable barrier to progress in the development of arith-
metical and algebraical ideas.
I Hultsch, MetrologkorlH" Scriptorum Reliquiae (Leipzig, I864), voI. I, pp. 17rt74.
t Gerhardt, hulles llistoriquu ,stir l'Arithmfliqlu de Position (Programrn, Berlin, 1856),
p. 19
I P. Tannery, Notices sur les deux ttt,es A,ithmttique.s de Nicolas Rhabdas, in Notices tI &
trails des .\[U. de la Natioft41c, \'01. XXXII, p. 147-
t Smith-Karpinski, TM HitJdu-A,l1bic Numerals (Boston, 191 I), pp. 66-67.
19',"011"""
UNrYoo.ITY Of MICHIGAN
CHAPTER V
THE LIFE OF NICOMACHUS
HISTORY has been most unkind to Nicomachus of Gerasa, author
of the Introduction w Arithmetic. During his lifetime he enjoyed,
apparently, the highest reputation as a mathematician, and after his
death he continued to be studied, directly or indirectly, by genera-
tion after generation of schoolboys, yet scarcely a word has come
down to us to tell what sort of man he was, or where he lived, and
under what circumstances, or even what were the years of his birth
and death.
The period of Nicomachus can be fixed, within certain limits, by in-
direct evidence.' Nicomachus does not say much about his con-
temporaries. He does mention Thrasyllus,2 a celebrated writer on
music who lived under Tiberius, but fails to make reference either to
Theon of Smyrna or to Claudius Ptolemy; and we are told thatApuleius
of Madaura honored him by translating into Latin his book on arith-
metic.
3
Thrasyllus furnishes us with one limit, the reign of Tiberius,
and Apuleius, who lived in the time of the Antonines, the other. It
seems improbable that Nicomachus would have failed to mention
Ptolemy in his book on harmony, if the latter had already attained to
fame by the time that he wrote. As to the period of Ptolemy we have
more satisfactory data in the form of astronomical observations made
and reported by himself. The earliest and latest of these fall in 125
and Isr A.D., respectively.- About Theon of Smyrna not enough is
1 For discussions of Nicomachus's date, cr. Hoche's edition, p. iv, n., where the pertinent
citations are collected; Van Jan, Musid Scriptores Gratd 18<}5), pp. 211 I. j Nesscl
mann, Geschidk tkr Algebra (Berlin, 1842). pp. J88 fI.; Zelter, Dj,. Philosophie der GN"hul
(4th ed.), vol. HI, part 2, p. 124, n. 3 i Heath, History, vol. I, pp. 97-1 U.
1 Ma,.uak Harm<miellm, I, p. 24.
a Cassiodorus, De Artibru ae Discipli,.is Lib,ralium Littcrarum, c. IV, D, ArilhmdiaJ (Migne,
Palrologia Latina, vol. LXX, pp. 1204 fr.), p. J 208 B: ... arilhmetica discipli"a quam apud
Graecos Nicoma.chw dilig,ntu exposui'. IIutJC pri"mm Madaurc,.ris Apuldus, tkindc mag,.ijicus
t'ir Bottius lAJino scrmatu Ira1SS1alllm Romanis eonluJit lcaitandum.
I Cantor, furlesu,.,e,. tJbcr GesdidJe dcr AfatlKmatik, vol. I (3d Leipzig, 1907),
p4
1
5
"
19',"011"""
UNrYoo.ITY Of M!CNIGAN
7'
known to warrant any conclusions in relation to the date of Nicoma-
chus. Theon probably flourished in the first part of the second cen
tury,' and his book contains much matter that is parallel to Nicoma-
chus's own work, yet it is unsafe to argue for the dependence of either
of these authors upon the other.' The inconclusiveness of the ar-
gumentum ex silentio is proverbial. We are warranted, therefore,
merely in saying that the period of Nicomachus's life fell somewhere
between the middle of the first century and the middle of the second
century after Christ.
In the manuscripts of his works and in the scholia of Johannes
Philoponus upon the Introduction, Nicomachus is referred to as a
Gerasene.
3
The most prominent city having the name Gerasa was
located in Palestine, in the Decapolis, some thirty miles southeast of
the Lake of Tiberias; it was, therefore, close to the region where
Christianity had its birth. This was probably the Gerasa from which
Nicomachus came, and upon that supposition a few surmises can be
ventured about the environment of his youth. There is a tradition
to the effect that Alexander the Great, in the course of his campaign-
ing, left behind at this place a group of his veterans (r'povr), and
that from this circumstance the place got its name. Whatever may
be the truth of this story, it suggests the inference that Greeks predom-
inated in this neighborhood. .
Not far from Gerasa is placed the episode of the cure of the demoniac'
y:ha was possessed by the' Legion,' and the name Gerasa is found in
t:1is connection in some of the Biblical manuscripts." At any rate,
t:,e swine which are reported to have rushed into the lake were being
t not more than a score of miles from Gerasene territory; the
swine were not likely to be a product of a region where Jewish tradi-
1',ns held sway.
I Cl. the dates of the astronomical observations probably made by Tbeon; Cantor, 0'. dJ.,
\" J, t, p. 433,
t Von Jan, 0'. dJ., p. ::11, holds that Nicomachus refers to Theon in the M4nuoU H4rmonKum
.... calling him by name; he sets the },fanlkJJe before 170 A,D. and Nicomacbus in the middle
er second century,
, Sclwlia (ed. Hoche): rtp#'IIoOr ,n ),h'tT1U lid Tijr ..6),tWI ill Ilro,,", rip6I1' 'vn ..tpl
/llll Apa{Jla,. r/p611 >'i-yrrlll d..c) TOO TOur II'VO"TpTfWIIJ'Tllr n; . A>'tfli""'pltl y/po""'lIr
"'3,' ..... ...r Ini Ti/, ol/l'7/Tu, ..onjlr1l48111.
4 [n Mark, v. 1-10, the episode is referred to Gerasene territory, but modem critics identify
Gerasa in question with a place called Gena, or Khersa, on the shore of the lake. Cl. Mat-
1:1:'\'/, viii. ::8-34; Luke, viii. ::6-39. Westcott and Hort read in Mark and Luke,
in Matthew; but the manuscript! of Matthew and Luke vary, giving both these
r':J..:ings and ftP')'tlr'1,w,besides.
19',"011"""
LIFE OF NICOMACHUS
73
The remains of the city, moreover, monumental and written, at-

test a Greek civilization strongly colored by the Roman influence that
came with the tightening of Rome's grasp upon the Near East. Most
of the inscriptions from the place are in Greek j and there arc, besides
remains of extensive walls, an imposing Roman arch, a circus, a thea-
ter and a naumachia of a provincial city of considerable importance,
which without doubt enjoyed a varied and lively existence, including
all that the Greco-Roman civilization had to offer.
l
Furthermore,
the name Nicomachus (NLK61'4XO<) is pure Greek.
We may imagine that Nicomachus spent his early years in Gerasa
and attended the school of the grammar-master, where he would learn
to write, read and sing; to figure a little, and to enjoy to some extent
the works of the classical authors. What was the social position of
his family it is impossible to say, but there is no suggestion in his writ-
ings to warrant the conclusion that his surroundings in life were other
than comfortable. It is interesting to note that among the Gerasene
inscriptions the name Nicomachus (spelled occurs thrice,
and in each case it would appear that the bearer was a person of
affl.uence.
The Nicomachus who comes nearest in time to the author of the
Introduction is the father of a certain Demetrius, who, either in the
year r49 A.D., or 255 A.D., according to the era upon which the date is
to be based, set up an altar hearing an inscription in honor of two
Augusti - Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, or Valerian and
Gallienus, as the case may be.
2
The other Nicomachus, with the sur-
name Claudius, was a commissioner (bTl.P.EATf"il) of the city in 231 A.D,3
In view of the Greek custom of naming a child from its grandfather,
there is of course a possibility that these men may have been related to
Nicomachus the mathematician, but the name was common and the
chances are slight. Whether his family was engaged in trade, and
sent goods to Rome or to Alexandria or into the East, or was connected
with officialdom, local or imperial, or belonged to the class of landed
proprietors, they seem to have been able to give to the young Nicoma-
chus the best sort of training obtainable for the career he chose. As
1 For a description of the present remains and citation of passages dealing with Gerasa, see
Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Ent:)'!loplJdie, s.v. Gerasa.
t InscriptionH (Aaecae ad Rn Romanas Pr.rtinmlcs, vo!. Ill, No. 1343: r1'OIl1 Pt{ AQurlou / ,,',
Vrlp Till / I,ffJl141'WI' f1'WT7Jpl"r I / 'A)'dou /1'OV /l'QI Nm:"pd.
XOU / 1'lb fJw}JiJI' dl'lih, / nl'.
I Ibid., Nos. 1360-61, referring to the same person.
19',"011"""
74
Iamblichus says, "The man is great in mathematics and as instruc-
tors therein had those that were most skilled in the subject." 1
It is hardly to be assumed that Nicomachus could find in Gerasa
itself all the advantages which he seems to have enjoyed. His home
city was of course responsive to those influences which in those times
went out from the centers of culture, - Athens, Rhodes, Tarsus, and
Alexandria, among the nearest. Rome had made all parts of the em-
pire easily accessible; knowledge of what was being done in these
university cities must have been current in the Hellenistic towns of
the East, and it is easy to see how a desire may have been aroused in
Nicomachus to devote himself to the study of philosophy.
In regard to the course of his studies, we know nothing of a certainty,
but the balance of probability points to Alexandria as the place to
which Nicomachus would naturally go to acquire the training which
he sought. The choice of that center of learning would also explain
the type of his thinking, for in the first century after Christ Alexandria
was the most famous seat of Pythagoreanism in the world. There
the old doctrines were being revived, and new treatises were being put
in circulation under old names j in Alexandria, in short, the Neo-
Pythagorean movement received, if not its initial impulse, at least
its chief encouragement.
The claim of Alexandria to be the real birthplace and center of this
philosophical movement can be disputed only by Rome; but a brief
survey of the early history of Neo-Pythagoreanism is enough to prove
that the Egyptian capital has by far the better right to the distinction.
There arc, to be sure, scattered literary references to Pythagoreans
in other parts of the world during the centuries following the disaster
in Magna Graecia which brought the independent existence of the
school to an end; the New Comedy took as a butt those who followed
'the Pythagorean way of life.' 2 There were too traces of a Pythag-
orean tradition in southern Italy,' but the former certainly counted
for nothing in a philosophical way, and the latter neither deserve to
rank with the greater sects contemporary with them nor form a
sary link in the chain connecting the renascent Pythagoreanism with
I1n Nkotn(U;],i A,ithmelu:am Introdudi<num, p. 4, 14 (ed. Pistelli, Leipzig, 1894) : & Tf 'Y
drl)p ,Joy., II1TI, I. 'Tois XII/hryf,uOMl.J 'If"f ..,pi Av,.W,. 'TOUI I" Toil
p.8'!fp.f". 1 See Zeller, op. tit., vol. Ill, part 2, pp. 93 fr.
I Ibid., pp. 97 fJ. The interest of the Platonic schools and of Aristotle himself was of far more
weight in preserving Pythagorean doctrine than the influence of the obscure men who professed
to be Pythagoreans; see p. 88.
19',"011"""
LIFE OF NICOMACHUS
7S
the old. The first prominent person in the later time to be called
definitely a Pythagorean is the Roman, Nigidius Figulus.' There is
also a dim tradition about the Sextii at Rome, who were Pythagoreans,'
but the meager reports about them indicate that they made little
of the essential features of the doctrine, much more of its external
observances.
Apparently even before the interest at Rome had been awakened,
the renaissance at Alexandria' had started. Inasmuch as the begin-
nings of the movement cannot be connected with the names of noble
Romans like Figulus, we do not know much about it, but many facts
indicate how important this city was as a seat of Neo-Pythagoreanism.
With Alexandria is probably to be connected the unknown Pythagorean
of the first century before Christ quoted by Alexander Polyhistor, who
is ~ of our best sources of information. Alexandria was the home of
Arius and Eudorus, who are connected with the early history of the
movement, and of Sotion; in its neighborhood were established the
Therapeutae, who built up a system highly colored by Pythagoreanism ;
and perhaps the best evidence of all is that the Alexandrian philosophy
of Philo ]udaeus, who flourished early in the first century of the
Christian era, is deeply influenced by it.
Very probably many of the pseudonymous writings, of which loller
has collected a long list,' and the period of whose composition he would
make begin with the last half of the first century before Christ, origi-
nated in Alexandria. At no place in the ancient world could a com-
piler of such books have found a better place in which to work; for
here was the famous library, part of which was burned in 47 B.c.,
but which had been restored before Nicomachus's time through the
liberality of Antony and the transfer hither of the royal Pergamene
collection. All the written material on the early history of Pythag-
oreanism must have been available to the scholars working here, and
Nicomachus in his time would find a complete apparatus at his disposal.
Furthermore, it is absolutely certain that Alexandria had been for
a long time, and still was, the center of Greek mathematical interests.'
Nearly all of the famous mathematicians who lived after the date of
the founding of the city are associated in one way or another with
I Zeller, ibid., p. 109.
! Chaignet, PytM,t:Wr: tt la Philo$op1lk Pythaxorki,"tU: (Paris, r813), vol. 11, p. 30T, n. l.
'On the importance of Alell:andria in the history of Neo-Pylhagoreanism, see Zeller, 0'. cit.,
vol. Ill, part 1, p. 114; Chaignd, 01'. (it., p. JOI.
'Ibid., p. 115, D. 3. Sec Cantor, op. dJ" vot. I, p. 427.
19',"011"""
Alexandria- Euclid, Eratosthenes, Apollonius of Pergae, and Heron;
and their successors were continually offering instruction in the science.
Thus, the center at once of later Pythagoreanism and of mathe-
matical study, Alexandria clearly furnished the most fitting environ-
ment for the training and subsequent career of Nicomachus, but if
we picture him to ourselves as having lived and written there, it
must not be forgotten that we have no positive testimony to that
effect. Perhaps it is significant, however, that he is once referred to
as an authority upon Egyptian festivals,l but, as we shall see, we can-
not he sure that our Nicomachus is meant.
One bit of evidence regarding the life of Nicomachus he himself
gives. His Manual of Ha,nwny is dedicated to an unknown lady,
apparently of high degree, having been written at her request. Seeing
that it is the only autobiographical touch in all his extant works, it
will be worth while to quote the passage. In speaking of the treatise
that he is presenting, he says, "But I must spur on all my zeal, most
noble and august lady, since it is you that bid me.'" Again, modestly
depreciating the Manual in favor of the more scholarly work which he
plans later to substitute for it, he writes, "And, if the gods are willing,
just as soon as I shall have leisure and a rest from my journeyings, I
will compile for you a better and more detailed I nI,odudion dealing
with this very subject; ... and, so that you may the more easily
follow the argument, I will take my beginning, say, from the same
point as that at which I began your instruction when I was expounding
the subject to you.'"
How much light would be thrown on the life of Nicomachus if we
but knew the name of this lady! We cannot tell whether she was
Greek or Roman. Was Nicomachus but a 'Greekling,' a household
philosopher to noble dames, a holder of pet poodles, like the butts of
Lucian's satire?' Such a supposition makes but a sorry figure of
him; it condemns him to a career of humiliation of which there is no
suggestion in the tone of his writings. The constant mention therein
of matters that arise in the student's reading of the philosophers-
that is, in the ordinary course of higher studies - seems to indicate
that Nicomachus was engaged in educational work, and ought to
1 See p. &>.
I P. 237. IS (Von Jan's edition).
'Ibid" p. 238,6 ff. Other references to the lady and the promise to her, ibid., pp. 242, II ff.;
260,4 ff.; 261, 17; 264, I.
6 De Macuk Conducti:o
19',"011"""
LIFE OF NICOMACHUS
77
outweigh any disparaging inferences that might be made from these
references to the unknown lady.
At the same time the references show that he associated with mem-
bers of the upper classes of society and could adopt the attitude of a
man of the world. Nicomachus was called upon to give instruction
to the noble lady to whom he writes, and valued her good will so
highly as to compose a manual at her request. It would not be im-
possible for him to do this and at the same time to maintain his more
dignified position as an independent teacher of the higher subjects.
A Pythagorean would be more interesting, perhaps, to the nobility
than other philosophers; but we must not assume that the only motive
of Nicomachus's noble friend was mere curiosity. She seems to
have been serious in her inquiries; in order to use the proffered Manual
she would have to possess no mean knowledge of the theories of math-
ematics and music.
Nicomachus speaks also of journeys which necessitate a postpone-
ment of work on another and larger Harmonic Introducti..,. His
language implies a journey which he was obliged to make, the object
of which was known to his correspondent. He was, we infer, a busy
man; others besides those in his own neighborhood, perhaps, wished
to hear him lecture, although we know nothing of the errand that put
him to the inconvenience of travel. At any rate we conclude that he
was a man of affairs, and of some eminence, befriended by the mighty;
he was a man, too, who knew how to play his part successfully in such a
character, and was not content merely to cultivate learning in a COf-
ner. Lucian's remark, "You reckon like Nicomacbus 1" shows that
he did in fact achieve such fame that his name was synonymous with
mathematical skill.'
We have a bit of interesting testimony to the reputation of Nico-
machus after his death which may reflect also upon the fame that he
won in his lifetime. Proclus, who died 485 A.D., is said to have been
convinced that he himself was one of the f golden chain,' or succession
of true philosophers, who, as it were, connected men with heaven after
the fashion of the golden chain which Homer mentions. It was re-
vealed to him in a dream, we are to1d, that the soul of Nicomachus was
incarnate in him.
2
This is a clear implication that Nicomachus too
I Philo/'alris, I2: Il:al "(l\p dplfJiJ/m w, cl rfpu#'l..6,.
'Marinus, Vi/a Prtxli, 28: 61'1 Tif' fr'l Vflpi, vaC/>i:J, Ifhd4-1'o (se. Proclus) Il:l 61'1
TO; nllfJu"(opi!lolI y..IIXi,,, fxo. 61'O.p '11"01'1 i".lltTflltfH.
was regarded as a link in the 'golden chain.' That he was reckoned
among the 'illustrious men' of the Pythagorean sect we know on the
authority of Porphyry; 1 if any further evidence be needed, we have
but to point to the reputation borne by his works and to the number
of commentaries that scholars wrote upon them.
1Quoted by Eusebius, Histt>rio Eale.ti4e, VI. 9. 8: ,,1IJ'1j, T" (s,. Oriltll) 'Y4,o lid T; m,d.T"""
,.ot'. Tt NouPollmu 1 KpoJl/ov, A.. Tf 1:.1 AO')"')'boll .&1 Moa,pliTov Nuro,u4xolI Tt .d
TWJ' J. TO'! nut'Cl')'opdclI, d..-.5pw. ",d"M1 ..
The praise of lsidorc of Seville (EtYfl'OlogWe, Ill. 2. I), by whom Nicomacbus is co:upled witb
Pythagoras himself as a mathematician, shows the view of a later time. See a150 Cassiodorus
as cited, p. 71.
19',"011"""
CHAPTER VI
THE WORKS OF NICOMACHUS
Tm: fame of Nicomachus rests chiefly upon his writings. Only two
works by him are preserved to us in their entirety, the Manuale
Harmonuum 1 and the Introdzu:tion to Arithmetic.' Of a third, the
Theologumena Arithmetuae,' we have a large part, which gives us a
far more accurate judgment of Nicomachus's philosophy than we should
otherwise have had; this work, as it stands, is one of the best sources
of information about Neo-Pythagoreanism.
Besides these three works, Nicomachus was certainly the author of
several other books; modern scholars have credited him with the
authorship of additional works which he probably did not write. A
full list of them, including both those properly ascribed to him and
those that are either doubtfully or wrongly assigned to him, is as
follows:
1. An Introdzu:tion to Geometry .lCTaY"'Y'/J. - Nico-
machus certainly wrote a book with this title, for he refers to it in his
Introdzu:tion to Arithmetk.'
2. A Life of Pythagoras. - Nicomachus is quoted by both Porphyry
and Iamblichus, in their biographies of Pythagoras,' and, as a promi-
nent member of the sect, he is likely to have compiled a life of the
master.
3. Another and larger work on music. This would be the book
which, as we have seen, Nieomachus promised to write; because of
certain citations of Nicomachus by musical writers upon matters that
are not to be found in the present Manuale Harmonuum, Von Jan,
its latest editor, thinks it probable that this work was actually written.'
I Here cited in Von Jan'5 edition, Musid ScripWres G1'aui, Leipzig, 1895.
I Here cited in Hocbe's edition, Leipzig, 1866.
A fuller discussion of this work follows; see pp. 82 fI.
See 11. 6. 1.
'Porphyry, Vila PytMfDrae,20 (p. 27.3); S9 (p. 50, 12). In the second instance (the story
of DarnoD and Phintias), he says that Nicomachus followed Aristoxenus. Iambtichus, Vita
PylMforko, XXXV, 25.
f, Von Jan, 0'. tU., pp. 223 ft., collects the evidence on the matter.
7.
19',"011"""
80 NlCOMACHUS OF GERASA
4. Awork on the interpretation of Plato (IJA"T"'V'"" uvv4Vd"........
This and the following are more doubtful than those that have already
been mentioned. The evidence in the present case consists simply
of Nicomachus's words in the Introduction, II. 24. n: T"iir"
" _.I.-' I 1 ... IJ"... , , ,
O'Uo'If'"vnG.ft CU lE" TO AQ.T&lIIf.Kl} CJ"VVa.llaYVCtk1'EI. KUTa. 7'01'
ToV AeyOflvov rdfOV TWOV lv rU nOXI.TElq. a.1l'O 'TTpoutfnrov Tcdl' MoVO"wJI
",,,p<w"yol'vov. This might be taken to refer to the title of a book;
but it more likely means simply the school lectures on Plato, and in
the lack of further evidence is best so taken.
5. On Egyptwn Festivals (IJ<pl lopr;;'v Alywru.v). - The only
evidence for this is a citation in Athenaeus
J
beginning: HAnd Nicoma-
chus says in the first book On Egyptwn Festioals." 1 The objection
is, of course, that another Nicomachus may have written the book.'
There is no other reference to it, save a doubtful one in Johannes
Laurentius Lydus, De Mensil>us.'
6. A larger work on arithmetic,' besides the Introduction and the
Theologumena Arithmeticae. Only by the misconception of the mean-
ing of Iamblichus has such a book been attributed to Nicomachus. At
the beginning of his commentary Iamblichus states that he will not
write a new book on arithmetic because he finds that this has already
been done so well by Nicomachus in his Art of Arithmetk (clpoiJI'TJT'''''
T'x""'!).' As he continues, he draws freely upon the Introduction and
the Theologumena, but not, as far as can be judged, from any other
Nicomachean source. It is perfectly clear that in these words he has
referred to the Introduction by a somewhat unusual title, but onewhich
could fairly be given to it. Those who have used this passage as testi-
mony for the existence of a separate work with this title have been
misled.
I Xl. ss. 478 A: r I" TpWr/t' ..,pt A1"YV1f7C.,,, TI\
alll'6J'll" JJA" ntpo:1td" rll" 61 PXl).. ....or cltTTpoMt")'I..or wr 6 tc6tTp'" or. TW" 8t{)" Ta.
II'cd Ta. KGp1rf1HT,p.tt 'Y1,,"lt i" ')'iis' I" rMOIl nrh&tI18tu. The passage as it stand!!
seems very confused; the editor. Kaibd, says of it, "non inteUego."
1 Von Jan, op. til., p. 233, finds it uncertain.
J IV, 46. Roether (in his edition, Leipzig, 1827), tJd loc., suggests that the citation in Lydus
is to this work; it may equally well be, however, that Lydus was quoting the T1Ieol0IUmuuJ Arilll
makae, of which he certainly made use in De Mmsibw, Ill. 51 .
Ast (T1IeologumefttJ Arilhmdic4e, pp. 160, 205), Fabricius, Biblid1leca (daeca, vol. Ill, p. 632,
and others named by Nesselmann, (lp. rn., p. 217, n. 53, believe in the existence of such a work,
but Nesselmann clearly exposes the error. Cf. also Von Jan, op. cil., p. 232.
I P. 4, 12 If. (ed. Pistelli): 7&rr4 '(4T'. 'Y"':'I'-"" DlI6")'6Pf T'O, Wfpl
afT'ijr ti...c.afa.,dr" I, T'i rlx"7I. Note al!O the scholium of Philoponus on the title of
the lnlroduclion, IWl")'r,PfAwr(U eOtr 7fpOl Ta. ")'f")'pa,wJ"" dT' frOl pyti>.
"181'-".,.1':d.. This refers, of course, to the Theologumena A,ilhntdiccu.
19',"011"""
WORKS OF NICOMACHUS 81
7. A Life of Apollonius of Tyana
l
- This also may be dismissed
for lack of evidence; the only testimony regarding it has been misin-
terpreted. Sidonius Apollinaris says, "Since you urged, I have sent
you the life of the Pythagorean Apollonius, not in the form in which
the elder Nicomachus wrote it down from the account of Philostratus,
but as Tascius Victorianus set it forth from the outline of Nicomachus. "2
Now, as Philostratus certainly lived long after Nicomachus, the 'elder
Nieomachus' who is mentioned cannot be the one in whom we are at
present interested; and it is hardly possible that the name Nico-
machus, twice used in the passage quoted, does not refer to the same
person each time. Even if the Nicomachus of the second reference
is not the same as the first, there is no reason to identify him with the
Gerasene.
8. A work dealing with astronomy.' The evidence for such a
book is inconclusive, consisting merely of the following remark of
Simplicius: ". . . unless the hypothesis of eccentric circles was de-
vised by the Pythagoreans, as not only certain others recount, but also
Nicornachus, and Iamblichus following Nicomachus." A statement
such as this could easily have found a place in the life of Pythagoras
which Nicomachus seems to have written; but in case he did write
an astronomical work, it fills up for him a series of four introductions
to the four mathematical sciences, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
and music, corresponding to the four divisions of tbe book of Theon
of Smyma, and doubtless designed, as was the latter, for the use of
students about to begin their higher studies. Nicomachus certainly
called his books on arithmetic, geometry, and music'introductions,'6
and so the title of this work, if it existed, was probably [ntroduction to
Astronomy. Perhaps, as Zeller' supposes, the books written by
Nicomachus were all parts of what was called "Collection [or Collec-
tions1of Pythagorean Opinions."
In the further consideration of Nicomachus we shall not find
it necessary to make frequent reference to the Manuale Harmonicum,
I Von Jan, op. dt., p. 234, strangely this as Nicomachean.
'VIII. 3: Apollonii PylluJgorid vitam non uJ Nico1lJ(J.C/IIIS senior e PhilostraJi, sed uJ Tascius
Victonanlts e NKOmaclri schedio uscripsit, quia iltsstTas, misi.
I Von )an, op. dJ., p. 223, accepts this as Nicomachean on the evidence stated.
41n Aristotdis tU Cado, p. 227, Kar.>ten (- ScMlja BeUm, p. 503 b): d 6.pG '17 Tw"I""I,..
Tpt.I" dK;\."''' illrll6fO'If n-O TW" nv8G')'optc""" wr TI TIMlI lV'TopoiHl'"I Kat Kill
N ljl "IITIIKO;\.ollBw,, 1d.,lI,8;\t;(or.
'He applied the term ,1"",')'W)'J! to the larger work OD music which he says he intended to
write. See Alanume Harnumkum, p. 238,68'. 40p. ciJ., vol. Ill, part 2, p. 124, note 2.
19',"011"""
but it is very important to take into account the theories advanced
in the Theologumena A,ithmeticae, where there is found a treatment of
number very different from that of the Int,oduction. We must, there-
fore, determine how far the Theologumena A,ithmeticae, in its present
form, may be used as valid evidence for Nicomachus's views. A full
discussion of this question has never been presented, nor can such a
discussion be attempted here. It would involve a careful compari-
son of Iamblichus's citations of the book, in his commentary on the
Introduction, and a study of the sources, in addition to a comparison
of Photius's epitome of the Theologumena with the longer form of the
book. For the purposes of this study, however, probably the latter
alone will yield sufficiently conclusive results.
The title Theologumena A,ithmeticae,
'
as is well known, is today
applied to two different ancient works, that of Nicomachus, and an
anonymous treatise published in 1817 by Ast, and believed by many
to have been compiled by Iamblichus, an assumption which is on the
whole a likely one.' The work of Nicomachus is not known to us at
first hand, but we have an epitome of its contents by Photius,' and
Ast's Theologumena was in part derived from it, as may be deduced
from stylistic evidence, from the actual citation of Nicomachus in it,
and from comparison with Photius. Photius's account is summary
in the extreme; for the most part he simply lists the epithets which
the Pythagoreans applied to the numbers; and he seldom adds the
reasons why they were bestowed. Ast'5 text contains much more
material of the latter sort, and if it can safely be used for evidence, it
is plainly desirable to do so.
Ast himself compared the epitome given by Photius with the text
which he was editing, and stated the conclusion (p. 157) that his
Theologumena was a different work from that of Nicomachus. "Be-
sides," he says, jj Photius took much from Nicomachus's Theologumena
which you will seek here in vain; and there is the additional fact that
in this Theologumena Nicomachus's Int,oduction to Arithmetic and his
own Theologumena are often cited (as c. I, p. 4, 23; c. X, p. 42, 8).
So without doubt a philosopher of the later time compiled our Tlteolo-
gumena, taking from the mathematical works of Nicomachus, Anatolius
(cf. c. Il, p. 7, 7; Ill, p. '4, 22; VI, p. 33; VII, p. 4', 7; X, p. 63, 23),
1 I have adopted this {onn of the Latin title, rather than Theologume1f6 Aril"mdk:a, as mort:
correctly representing the Greek, T;;' 4pIBJ.''fTtll'ijl.
t Zeller holds this view. ) Bib/iolhulI, Codex 18i (..-Jition of I. Bekker, Berlin, 1824).
19',"011"""
WORKS OF NICOMACHVS
and others, whatever seemed useful to him." He then names a number
of other scholars who held a somewhat similar opinion, some of them
inclining to assign the compilation to Iamblichus. From a statement
of Iamblichus himself we know that he had in mind the composition of
such a work.
l
Ast's opinion seems, in substance, to have been adopted by most
scholars. Vet all that he says may easily be true and at the same
time the text which he published may be for the most part of Nico-
machean origin. If Iamblichus, as is very probable, was the compiler
of the Theologumena, we need only to inspect his Commentary on the
Introduction of NiCornacJ1US to be assured that in all likelihood he would
not do violence to his source. Although in the Commentary he has
added a considerable amount to the Nicomachean original, he contra-
dicts it in nothing and adds nothing essential of his own. Some of the
additions, in fact, are apparently from the Theologumena Arithmeticae,
and everything combines to show the author's respect for Nicomachus.
He makes it clear, in fact, that he does not intend to depart from the
model he has selected, because he does not think it right to deprive
Nicomachus of the honors he has won as an arithmetician and because
he himself could not in any case do better independently.' The
same motives would determine his course in making a compilation of
the Theologumena.
However much truth may be at the basis of Ast's remarks about the
Theologumena Arithmeticae, we may still see in the treatise a compila-
tion based almost entirely upon Nicomachus, aside from the obvious
citations of Anatolius. For if some of the epithets of Photius are
not found in Ast's text, this is sufficiently accounted for by the fact
that the latter has been both edited and abbreviated; conversely, if
Ast's text preserves something not mentioned in Photius, it is to be
remembered that Photius is even more summary. The writer holds
the view that the Theologumena of Ast is in fact mainly Nicomachean
in origin, and that it may be used, with due discretion, to illustrate his
opinions. It may be well to set forth briefly the grounds for such a
belief. A laborious study of the question would doubtless correct cer-
tain details, but the following statement seems to be supported by the
evidence.
I Commentary on till bd,od,U'ion of Nkomadus, p. 118, 15 (PisteUi): "TeI'lfld TW' 11">"101'
,dXPlf aliTiir dpl8pJJ, ilfdcrTOV hll""t,loUl1'1I T-tJ.
'Ibid., p. 5, 13 fr. (Pistcl1i).
19',"011"""
Ast's Theologumena Arithmeti<;ae falls into ten chapters, each dealing
with one of the numbers in the first decade; although Nicomachus's
treatise consisted of two books, according to Photius, it may have
followed much the same arrangement. The only two sources of the
compiler actually known are Nicomachus and Anatolius, if the numer-
ous slight citations are not taken into consideration; for the latter
were probably found already quoted in the original sources. Since
we possess the full text of Anatolius's On the Decad and the Numbers
within It,' it is a simple matter to extract from the whole the portions
that were taken from him. Although the compiler omitted much of
the Anatolian material at his disposal, probably because he preferred
to incorporate the same topics from other sources, and though he
has varied its order and phrasing somewhat and made a few additions,
there is on the whole no reason to think that he used a text substantially
different from the one published by Heiberg. The Anatolian sections
of the Theologumena Arithmeticae are thus distributed: 2
I c and E, p. 6: Mol 'Avuf'o.wx . .. P:'1&l'o.. dp&9p.oi;; the intervening
lence is not in Heiberg's text; then un .,.qv fWvGBa ... ll' a.lmt
dp<8"""'.
11 A, p. 1: beginning of chapter to A6yO" TO" Woa.\oy{\l'
III B, p. 14: as indicated in Ast's text.
IV C, p. 23: 1V..f:11"Q.l. & to end.
V A, p. 24: beginning of chapter to Wi 811.\0; TO &'&ypo.p.p.a..
VI A, p. 33: beginning of chapter to CTwp.arWY U.
VII A, p. 41-42: as indicated in Ast's text.
VIII D, pp. 55-56: as indicated in Ast, to 4n/u{Ji.
IX B, p. 58: d:ll"O 1f'(()UTo-aV to end.
X e, pp. 63-64: as indicated in Ast's text.
Of the rest, a great part is undoubtedly Nicomachean. In certain
sections, either because there is correspondence with the epithets
cited by Photius from Nicomachus, or because Nicomachus is actually
named, there can be no question. The passages most clearly Nico-
machean are the following:
I B: p. 4. w OTt TO" 9f.eW to the first Anatolian citation.'
I See p. 90, n. 8.
t In the following tabulation, for convenience, the sections of Ast's text are in each case referred
to by a Roman numeral showing the chapter (monad, dyad, etc.) and a letter indicating the order
of the sections.
I Beginning at this point, the first 11 epithets given by Photius occur in order; the other
18 are not mentioned. NicoDl&Chus is cited at the beginning and there is no sign of internal
breaks.
19',"011"""
WORKS OF NICOMACHUS
11 D:
III A:
III c:
IV .:
V .:
VI .:
VII .:
VIII A:
IX A:
X A:
p. 8, cln .\f.y:T'CU to end.
l
p. 12, beginning of chapler to the Anatolian section, p. 14.
p. IS. top la p. 16, end of chapter.!
p. 22, Q,-' AloAov 4nxnv to the Anatolian matter.
S
p. 24, end of Anatolian section to the end of the chapter.
p. 33, after the Anatolian section, to p. 38, OTt TWV CT<jxupWY ,",A.
1i
p. 42, after the Anatolian section, to p. 48, .;,., 11:0.1: Ta. aTCpJM1Ta. TA.'
p. 54, beginning, to the Anatolian section, p. 55.
7
p. 56, beginning, to the Anatolian section, p. 58.-
p. 58, beginning, to the reference to Speusippus, p. 61.
There can be little question of referring tbe foregoing portions to
Nicomacbus. Tbis leaves in question the following:
I A: p. 3, beginning, to the first Nicomachean section, p. 4.
ID: a few lines between the Anatolian sections on p. 6.
IF: p. 7, end of the Anatolian section to end of the chapter."
11 B: SUo yGp dp,8,.,.iiw UX('Uli' iC1T["J p. 8, at the end of the Ana-
tolian section.
11 c: d".o,Xt:{".u'tu. KTA., p. 8, to the Nicomachean section, p. 8.
IV A: p. 16, beginning, to p. 22, the Nicomachean section.
VI c: p. 38, after the Nicomachean section, to end of chapter.
VIle: p. 48, after the Nicomachean section, to end of chapter.
VIII c: p. 56, dpx1} TWI' p,611O'tKWI' AOyeow, KTA. to end of chapter.
X B: p. 61, ON ... to the Anatolian section.
I Parallels Photius; the 27th of his SI epithets for the dyad is the last cited, and, oflhe first
27,9 are omitted. This shows that there was much abbre...iation.
I Both these sections parallel Photius throughout (citing 12 of 50 epithets), but the order is
varied. About half of Photius's material relates to divinities and all such has been neglected.
Nicomachus's name heads Section C.
I A short section, but with many parallels to Photius.
& Of the epithets in Photius the first IS, and tbe 19th, 21st, 2Jrd, 24th and 25th are given.
With the mention of the 5 elements (p. 25; also in Photius) begins a list of pentadie groups in
nature v..ith another parallel with Photius (p. 26 bottom, clHU:U) at the end. The following
passage on 5 as Justice is confirmed for Nicomachus both by Photius and by its use in Iamblicbus.
In Nitoma<hi Arithmtlka", InJroducliomws, p. 16, It fl. Thence the parallelism with Photius
continues, and the last paragraph is headed by Nicomachus's name. This is probably quoted
verbatim, the rest summarized.
'Of the epithets in Photius, Nos. I, J-6, 12, 14, 15, 18-20, 24-27 are given.
Caption contains Nicomachus's name i no sign of breaks. The first two epithets of Photius
occur (p. 43, bottom) and on p. 44 the next two, nix", /(41P/!1; after which the demonstration
that 7 is effecti.... e in the working of the world and on human life (justifying 1t41P/!.) does Dot afford
quotable epithets to Photius.
'Out of Photius's 17 epithets this contains Nos. 1-3, cru, 16-17.
'Out of the 22 epithets of Photius, the 1st-4th, 7th-11th, 13th, and 20th-2md occur. There
is also a reference at the beginning of the section to the topic of 5 as Justice already met.
t Photius gives but 16 epithets; the 1St and 3rd-16th occur in the passage.
IU Chapter 11 probably should begin here.
19',"011"""
-'
Of the passages cited above, I D and F and 11 B are very short,
and VIII c, from its character, is unimportant for the present purpose.
The same may be said of X B, the quotation from Speusippus; it
makes very little difference whether Nicomachus had already cited the
passage or the compiler found it elsewhere. The other more important
sections, I A, 11 c, IV A, VI c, VII c, are set down as doubtful chiefly
because in them it is difficult to find consistent correspondence with
Photius. This is not necessarily proof that they are not Nicomachean,
either in whole or in part. At the beginning of each chapter Nicoma-
chus seems to have devoted a paragraph or two to introductory re-
marks of a general nature concerning the number in question, and
these naturally enough might not include specific epitbets. The
latter of course are what Photius was interested in citing, as a glance
at his report shows; consequently, he discovered little in the first few
paragraphs to record. This may be the reason why I A, 11 C and
IV A contain no parallels in Photius; each, if Nicomachean, must
have stood at the beginning of the chapter.
In the section I A, there is much that recalls the language of both the
Introduction and the Nicomachean sections of the Theologurnena
Arithrnetua<. One is inclined to think it Nicomachean in origin, but
subjected to the editing of lamblichus. The reference to the' Intro-
duction' could mean Iamblichus's Commentary, as well as our Intro-
duction.' When the writer says that in the Introduction the monad
was seen to be both I pleuric and diametric,' he refers to something
mentioned not by Nicomachus, but by lamblichus. Again, the ref-
erence to 'the lambdoid figure at the beginning of the Arithrnetu'
cannot mean the Introduction, but is explained by lamblichus, In
NicomacJti Arithrnetuam Introductionem, p. It, 13 ff.
Something similar may be said of 11 c, save that there are fewer signs
of editing here than in the former case. Although with the exception
of IV A, they do not come at the head of chapters, the suspected sec-
tions IV A, VI c, and VII C may be said to have failed of parallels in
Photius for a like reason; they are made up rather of accounts of the
potencies of numbers in nature than of epithets. Evidences of Nicoma-
chean origin are shown particularly in IV A. It contains on p. 22
references to Heracles and Hermes, both mentioned in Photius,' and
1Cl. Iamblichus, b. Nicomochi Aritll1"du:am l,u,odudionem, p. us. 14 H. (Pistelli).
I In Photius, however, a/In ,,10;\''' (sic); d. The.ologUmt:rfO A,ilhmdictu, ibid., AloMU j)p.-n,
after which Herades is again mentioned; and the latter is the real parallel.
19',"011"""
W
"""O"R,',,K'S'-,': 0, ",F: N'IC.",O,",'M-,'-A',IC"'Hf'Cuc-'fS',':
" ',," '_' ", - - ,I ", '--- ,,',,','"
several r'eferences to other porti.ons of the 'book wh,ich seem clearly
en,ough ,Nicom.achean,.l. ,In 'VII C,I a'fter ,a long' series of instan,ces to
show that the he'ptad IS intlu.cntial in nat.u,ral 'phenomen,a, in huma'D
b:;,.th", 'il''lln: - t,'h'Ie' e',"p,,l"'t" 'A":'"fj'7J" :a.,''r:e< g.'lv.','e,n:'
,U " ,',"" ,-- ,,' " """"" , ' ..... ,.' ." ."'1\,"'" ' . ,". ''----.:,
w'hich occu,r together in
The examination of the text, then" h,as resulted in sho;win,g
I ,B, 11 D, III A an,cl C', IV B'J 'V 'B, VI B, VII B
J
VIII A, I,X A" ,and X A
t,o h,e quite ,certain'ly' Nicom,a,chean, ,and IV A pro'bably SO;I 'whereas
of' I A, 11 C', VI c and VI I c:, it can at least 'be said that there is no
re,ason w'hy they should nOlt, 'be ascribed to :hi,m. rOnlyI IF, ,11 B
[a'D,d VIII c, with the [qu[otati:ons of Speusipp'us, are really' left UDcer'-
The c'onclusion to ble drawn seems to be that, asid,e fro,m thre
An,atolia'n 'p,assages, Ast's Theolo'gumena A,,'ithmetkae is based almost
entirely on Nicomach'us,:; at. !Ieast the mlost :wpo:rtant parts seem to,
be" and th.e portion,s of 'wh,ich less can be sa'id are chiefly en.umeratlon's
of ,groups of certain numbers in natural 'phenomena whIch D[eed Ic'on-
cern us very little because after all th,ey' are D1on-,esse'ntial in the dis-
.. - . -h h' 't' 'b-- '" t" 'd,' "'" . . . ',.. I I 'I". . . ' . .' " I .. ' .' . , . I I ' .. '. - ,: 'I I ..' 1_
CUSSlons W.1C are 0 .e upon.,
Wh
' "'I tb' . b
l
. . too'. 't'h - ,. k -f t''h' -dt' . _. b-' - ---
.... ," ,."le, '.' 0,18 may ..e gran::. ... , ., e 0 ," eel ..l .. or c,an-. e seen 'In
ma'oy .Th,e tell-ta.le 07,1, ,often shows that be has ,omitted, O'f
abbreviated" [and the:re is perh,a,ps reason to, be'liev'e that 'he h,as adlded
S
-o'm"'e""I'fh'a't' lliI'f" se'c,'tlO"'D' '1 A' b' a-s" B"" n' B"'u,,"t IliI
n
,.-, g[e"'D'e"r'a'I thle ... ',' ""f._' , _ , _. C ..., '.0;,' ..', '" " ..' 1,..... , .I.'. ...." . I,', ,: .-_ . ,,', I I_-
treatise publish[ed b:y Ast giv,es the 'Impression of 'being an inte,gral
wor'k, however mut rtlate(l.., i.n ""hich the sam,le u:nd,erlying notion,s ,a'od,
t'he same are uniformly used. Oine of the 'peculiarities
which perva,des the' enfire work is its predilecti'on for letymollogiesl -
perhaps 'puns' woud be the better word - and, as has been seen,
there are frequent C[IOSS rlefe,renc,es, from o,n[e part of the work to an,other'.
'Certainly all things point to tb,e ass,umption that the Theollogumena
A
!I!' t .' f N-' -". h d- I' 't ]1
... 0_ 1. ..u,s UD[- er lies l,' a.
I E",g"", Icl.. p.. 19: 1rf:pt66"OfI,I-qr 14p ;"p,t, 6rpfrq "q aU4., kT",,; w.ith P'F 1'1, tlpdJpAI ,31 't
av,.", nX... (sou'ree doubtful);, also p.. 20
1
, the reference to .'''''1'', x,p6vos, h,1p6t', aJpcl" \.\hich is re--
pea.'t[oo, p.. 2J (top), p,robably At p 2:I:
j
,the topic that 4 is lbe'.as,t or t'he ,initial
seri,es, of perfect numbers j (:'o,mpare ,with this p., 13 at the beginning or the chapter on the triad,,,
CHAPTER VII
THE PHIWSOPHY OF NICOMACHUS
ANY discussion of the philosophy of Nicomachus is necessarily in-
complete. The IntrOOmtion to Arithmetic gives, to be sure, more
information about the religious and philosophical doctrines of the
author than its title would lead one to expect, but this, after all, is
meager. Furthermore, in dealing with the Theologumena Arithmeticae
there is always the danger that the compiler has cited some one other
than Nicomachus, however thoroughly we may be convinced that
Nicomachus is the chief source and that the sentiments there found,
whatever their source, would be acceptable to him. But the chief
difficulty lies in the fact that Nicornachus was a Ne<>-Pythagorean.'
Modem readers find this sect hard to understand for several reasons:
they were the inheritors of a tradition already confused and compli-
cated by the most varied associations; they were mystics by tempera-
ment, satisfied to see deep meanings in the time-worn formulas that
had come down to them, and not always careful to explain all that
they felt and believed; and our information regarding them is itself
fragmentary.
We are prone to emphasize the gap that lies between the old
Pythagorean school and the new; in reality, in one way or another, a
continuous trad.ition maintained itself down to the time of Nicomachus,
and beyond. The Pythagorean school died, to be sure, in the sense
of losing its independent existence, but Pythagoreanism did not die;
and those to whom the survival of its doctrines was committed during
this interval were often sympathetic enough. This can certainly be
said of Plato and of his immediate successors, Speusippus' and Xeno-
lOn the Neo-Pythagoreans in general see Dk Philosophk dn (dieclull (4th ed.), vol.
Ill, part 2, pp. 92 ff.; Chaigncl, PytMtort, vol. 11, pp. :lIS fI.
t Speusippus was the author of a. book called repl nU8A'YOpu:W' d.pt8IAw" quoted (with this
title) in Arithmetica, pp. 61 if. (Ast). Half of this book dealt with the varieties of
the plane and solid numbers and the forms of the elementary corpuscle!!; the rest was devoted to
the decad and its virtues. The Theol0lumena Arithmetica (ibid.) speaks of Speusippus's interest
in Pythagorean lore, especially in Philolaus. Diogenes Laertius, IV. I. 5. cites among hi! works
a Cf. Chaignet, 0'. cit., vol. 11, p. :194.
88
19',"011"""
PHILOSOPHY OF NICOMACHUS
crates,1 all of whom show distinctly Pythagorizing tendencies; in a
less degree it is true of Aristotle, to whose antiquarian interest and
collections we owe a large part of our information about Pythagorean-
ism.' In this way the doctrines of Pythagoras become imbedded in
the literature which was the basis of education and the subject of
learned commentary in the Hellenistic period. The exegesis of the
Timaeus in particular led to much use of number symbolism,3
Furthermore, the doctrines of Pythagoras did not remain all this time
in a static condition j the Academics, in particular, added their own
speculations to those of the, older school. So it happens that when
men again began to claim the name of Pythagorean and to disseminate
anew the doctrines of the sect, they found the latter necessarily modi-
fied by the development to which they had been subjected. Platonism,
Aristotelianism, and Stoicism, all of which had been brought into
association with the Pythagorean doctrines, left their mark upon the
philosophy of Nicomachus and his fellows; after the advances in
thought made by these schools, the Neo-Pythagoreans must needs
state their position in the terminology that had now become universal.
An even greater modification, perhaps, was in the directing of the
activities of the new Pythagorean school into more bookish ways.
With the exception of Apollonius of Tyana, who seems to have been
a man of quite different temperament from the more easy-going
Nicomachus, they were not so much concerned with purifications and
ascetic rules as with intricate arguments about the virtues of numbers,'
One finds no mention of these things in the Theologu1Mna or the Intro-
duction. Nicomachus would be known as a Pythagorean only by his
absorbing interest in numbers, his reverence for Pythagoras, Philolaus,
Archytas and the rest, and his repetition of the things which they had
I Diogenes Laertius, IV. 2. 13. lists among his writings nu8I:1y6pt'ul, Tw. "fpl 'TA ....81fJ"l'T..
flifJ""!", nfpl 'YfW/M'Tpw" nfpl dpi8I/ow 'Ap181/ow, 8fWpC". Tw. npl UTpoM'yCll nfpl
His famous definition of the soul, ' number moving itself,' indicates his Pythagorean leanings.
er. Chaignet, op. eit., vol. 11. p. 293.
J Cl. Chaignet. op. rit., vo1. I, p. :1I.
"Plutarcb's essay, Ik Ani1lkU PrMreaJione in Timaeo (especially 12 fr.), well this
fact. There is a widespread belief that Posidonius's exegesis of the Timoeus dealt largely with
such matters, and was the source of a series of treatises on the numbers, in which a Stoic flavor is
to be distinguished; d. Schmekel, Die Pltilosophie dtr mittleren Stoo, pp. 405 if.; G. Borghorst,
Dt Anatolii Fontibus (Berlin, 1905). pp. 55 fr. i G. Altmann, De Posidonio Ti"uui Platonis Com-
(Berlin, 1906) i hut R. :M. Jones, Tlu Platonism of Plutarch, pp. 76-77 (especially n.
21), points out tbat the matter is not proved.
Cr. Zeller (4th ed.), vol. Ill, part 2, p. 161: "Doch werdeD dieselben (i.e., asceticism.
purifications) in unseren Fragmenten wooer so haUlig berUhrt, noch geben diese in ihren Anfor-
derungen so weit. als man er.....arten mOchte."
19',"011"""
,
said. His philosophy is, in fact, eclectic, with a Pythagorean back-
ground.
In Nicomachus, we clearly find that infusion of mysticism which
manifests itself in the discovery of divinity in numbers and leads to
rhapsodies over their virtues. As the author of the Theologumena,
Nieomachus takes a place in the long series of writers who compiled
treatises upon what may be called the 'theology of numbers,' to use
the name which he himself employed, or ' arithmologyI' a term revived
by M. Armand Delatte, a recent writer on Pythagorean topics,1
The beginnings of arithmology are to be found as parts of general
works in the earliest literature of the sect. In this the mathematical
properties of the first ten numbers were already likened to and iden-
tified with physical properties and sometimes with the gods.' Thus
Philolaus identified seven with 'the leader of the universe' 3 and had
established a series of identifications for the numbers above 4.' An-
other example of the most ancient form of arithmology is the identi-
fication of the odd with the male and the even with the female. After
the n'pl "'WE"" of Philolaus come the nEpl ,..". 8EK.f8o. of Archytas '
and a work by Speusippus' in which apparently arithmology was
more frankly the main theme; in the following years it is probable
that it made its way into the Platonic commentaries,' although there
is great obscurity in its history at this point.
The greatest development in arithmology took place, however, in
the period extending from the second century before Christ down to
the time of Neo-Platonism. The beginnings of this revivified interest,
which eventually gave rise to numerous treatises,
8
more or less com-
1 1!J""s sur la LillbaJure Pytlwgoridenne (Fasc. 211, Bibliothtqut. de I' &ole des Ha,fhs tJudes,
Paris, 1915). On page 139 M. Delatle defines arithmology as "ce genre de remarques sur la
formation, la valeur, et I'importance des dix premiers nombres, Oll se la saine recberche
sdentifique et Its fantaisies de la religion et de la philosophie." See ibid. on the history of the
name.
S For notices of old Pythagorean arithmology, see Aristotle, Mtla.physus, 1. 5, and XIII. 4.
1078 b u .
Philo, De Mundi Opificio, JJ; Lydu5, De Mensib,u, Il. 11.
4 TMologutl'teJfG ArilhmeticiJe, p. 55 (Ast).
'Cited by Theon of Smyma, p. lOO, 10 (HilIer). ' See p. 19. 1 See p. "7.
'This list contains three books devoted to arithmology alone: Nicomachus,
ArithmeticiJe (in Photius, Codtx 187) j the ArilhmcticiJe (Iamblichus?) edited by
Ast. and Anatolius, n.pl '''''0' ul 'l'W" b''l'OJ Cl.n-I1J dpdJlIow" (ed. Heiberg, Anna.Jes InttTJt(J-
tUmales d'Histoire, de Paris, 1900, se. sect., l1iSloire du SculKes, pp. 27 ft'.). Works
containing arithmological material incidentally: Varro, llcbdomades (or. De Origi1Jibus.. in
Gellius. Ill. 10; the beptad only); Philo Judaeu5, n,pl dpdJI/-w.. (lost, but much material of the
kind is found in De Mundi Opijido, Legis AUegoricse, Quautioms cl SolwitmtS in Genesim, etc.) ;
19',"011"""
-ILOSO'- ---- O' - - -CO' - - - --
,.'. . . I .."' .r '. . ". "'. '.: ."... .' I ".. . . .'. . I 'I :
PH ... ",,.PHY 'i.F NI
9
1
..
1
hfi cl cl fbi' b th
' . "'.' "., ".' . :' _ ..' '. '.". . - . .. '. -_ -. . I '.' . ", '1 .' .. . .' '. '. I' . .-. ..' . ,. '. '.' " ...... .c-. ' ..... . I . I .... I' ,-.... . .
p ete, ,on. t .. .. e 0
1
num" ers, are not sure .y knIOVlll, -,ut, :.ere
see'ms, to
l
have 'been an ea.rlier cOlm.pila,tion upon which bOlth Varr,o an,cl
Philo dre'w and also the ancestor of th,e' treatises, of 'Th1eon',1
An.ato'lius, and some others,. The Interrelations of thes,e: auth.ors h[a'v'e
not ,ye:t 'been fully determined, but it is cle,ar th.at on.e lay b.a,e'k, of
them all.
1
The nam1e of Posidon has b'ee.n suggested as their source,2'
a,nd very prob1ably in his commentary on the T:-'ma[efl,S Posido,nius,
used :material of the k,ind; still, inasmuch a.s, this, u.nkno\vn original
ar1os-e in the very perio,d \vhen pro,miscllo'u'S'eo--Pytha[gorean falsific,a-
Wo b '" d d h f "h" '..
lIons \ve::re .',-lng un-Ier t names, 0.' an.clent a.ut I, ors, I't IS en-
tirely 'possible tb.at P'osido,nius. n[gur-es in this tradition in som1e other
capacity.. this .ma,y be, the sleri-es, [of writi:ngs mentio;ned con-
tin.u'es the tradition [of arithmology in a.b1on.t th[e same style as be'fore,
ma.kin.g m.uch of the mathe'matical virtu.es olf Dum'hersl and their physi-
cal analog,' .'ies"

When NicomachUS'I as the author ,of the TJreolo'gumena Arithmelitae,
lenters this lite.rary s'uc1cessiIoD" it IS some\v'hat to on.le side of the usual
. d .'h t f d' -ft: d hili 'h h d
.::-.- ..- -",.. ," ,.... -. ", I' '1
1
"-' '. 1.. ,":.'. -"1' " .- .' .-'. '.' ' .. -' , .--.. . - .' .: ." '.' .-. ':., ' ..-' .
Cll.rrent ,an as t ,e r1ep,resenatlve 0 a III erent ten .ency \Vle ,I .a,
already mad.e its a,ppeara'Dce and. begun a. Idevelopme:n,t_ parallel to
t
.h,a:t. o. th--'=-: t,r;a:di'itioD- T-h.e n.rsl-t, kn [' TI"'p:r,.e.:.s"e .. .n.. tta.'t"Ie...s: 0":'" tl'h-l . _ .. ._e _ ,. _ ___ _.. _ . ., _,. ., _. ,e .. .. v .. . _S
later stye of a 'ithmolo,gy are the two docunt1entsI studied . Delatte,
the in Doric prose and the.Hymn to Number in I'onic v'erse',
.attribu.te'd to Pythago,ras ,and O:tpheus, respect.i.vely, and sup,posed by
Delatte to, hav'e arisen am.ong the Pyth.agorea:n gr'oupl i'n Italy.'
M,. Delatte: d,oes not spec.ify their date, and indeed thlSI is hardly possi-
Theon of Sm,ym'&. p.. 99, 2,4 I. (co:mpJe!te, Hille'r); Clemens, Alexandrinus, Swomala, V'IfJ 16
(heptad; based on Hermlppus or Berytus" IT pI I.{jio,ullor); Chalcidius... C,om:menla,ius i'n, 'Ti"uUlIO;
If,a-eflobius
t
, Co:mmetUariJu ,jN, Somn-iu'm lartianus lCapeUa, ,De. Nupl"iis Philolo,giae d
M",u'rii, VI.' (complete); Lydu,s, De Me.n,sibus (various chapte'lS make an almost complete
account) JI Favo'ius) C'om:mnJJ6rius: In Somnium Scitionis,' Hierocles, Commenla,.iJ4s in C(J:,men
If Furthermore, there are brief notlccs in the scho'lia upon 4' ristotle; in Plularch, Sextus
E
', ['." -., '1" 'St' 'b, . ,.' .' I' te .... Id t'i'h[ .'. ,h .t A' :. t :'. ';"'b-'I.'h, 'd' b-" :a" Dl- tt ;6,"'1 .,' '6:' ft
mplrlcusl, .0. aeus, e an . e S ,or., I'IeCu01 ,4 PUIlIS e . ..y l.VJ.,. . e ,a _.e, Or. af.;, pp", I - 7
"re kno'w oC other .lost w[orks plro'bably to be i see p. 3,3.
I ne studies ,of Borgborst and Altmann ('see p. So) touch,ed upon thisl question.. The writer
also has studied, p,hases ,or the question ID papers. POsitltml,'UI and ,',/le' SMlr:ces DJ .P)'lAafiWo.n
A ii
I
L ............,'. C'",. .. .........t ""1 I - - - 1 X'V- ('" ).,. .. . d "'J"I'1...... T .... ,I' .L A! -':,L
aNIImtnogy, . . . ' ..... ,1920',t pp...300-322, an J: M rUOHW"- DJ .d"9-
tMl'logy" ibid.. , vol. XVI (l(21) t p,p. Howev[er tbe malter is decid[ed
t
it is clear that. tbe:
same compilati1on ultimately Iies, back of Varo, .Pbilo, Anatolius, 'Theon, Clement (hence Her-
mippus), Chalcidius ,and Lydus;1 perhaps it, a'lso :in.ftu-enced some of the' oth,ers, thoug'h it wo.as not
th
... '" Of '"' h -I' .. d f ,,L . ad"'... '"' .-11...._ ,_.L.....
. . .c,elr malO source;o . ! .. course, ID t .. e VlC1SSl t.u, es 0- '(ne' tf. ....... Jhon vanous ca.m aWUt
aDd the arec"Qun.ls thus grouped are by no means identical.
I c_ Q- ..
p... Vyt n... 3-
I 'Op,,, ,it., p,p.. JI91 ft.; OD tbeir O'rllgin, see 'pp. :ZOO f." I'll.
NICOMACHUS, OF' GERA,SA,
bile, but in a probability 'they arose at about 'the same time as the
source previously :mentio'D.,e,d.
. , 'h' ",t', .",f" t",m
l
-,', ,ch- I, ,' .. f ',' t- ----:1' t" ','. ,.., d' , '. ' I' '-----:
1""lS ,c,-c_ara,c'HerlS.,IC 01. ,t. S _ran_ o ,e. ra" ..,.lon, ;0 m.,.IO', uce Dlany
further identifications of the number's with the gods, an,d that tOOl
d th
.. 1 d . k -th -thm 1 th 'b
UD,=_erl'err cut names an; stOIC an ,-_o,o,gy' _--,_usecame
t
', -,']-....-:-----: 'tb ,....-::-.e-.]-,. 'gy""" ,e-"f --','. 'an,d' gr:'ea",t g,enwc-''ty,' 'w,,,'as ",I . -:::"D'd""e=--d,, m"'- th--
,ruya I . ,eo. "..' 0 n,um_ ,., , ", ., "'., ',.' .,:. ".- ', .. e ,.' e
dev,elopment of its complicated fa,bric: It is here tb,at Nic,oma,chus,
as ,an arithmologist, belon,gs" and, M. 'Dlelatte has ,demolnlstrate,d his
use [of sources 0
1
this kind" He is not for,gletful, to be sur,e" 0'( the older
-d tifi' . t d d b
l
t dI" intl' " d 'b th t "'d f th"
l-en, .' ca lonSJI I was U,D'OU ",le . [-a, '.. Sl.e 0_ '_. e
t
"-' "",di''t-'" -,.' "'.:::- ,----:,1'1 Tb" I" h"I" .. :., .'", .', "d' .' . t--h,''' " "Id', .".:c"th"I"'C'I"-- ,'. d' I"',;', ,,'
.ra Ion as we.. _. us e succe .,[ c' . ID .... _e en In ga .. :ennlg an_ c,am
blining dozens of identification.s for ea,ch number, the heirlooms 0' the
previo,us, centuries" each, Wlthts m'ystic 'meaDln,g; an,d it is no wo,n,der
th
"'at th,e" r-e"s'ult s:- a:1p''e-::rp-"lex-mIg m::-alss':- m w,hi-,c",h lSi- blar' .. d" to' ta','ng""I-e-' _. :", . _'. I "'...:. ...:....:. :_," _ .' . ..:. I. I I' r ,..... .:.- ._ '.' "':: ' " -' , I ..., . ,I. ': - . _ ',. ... "..',. ,",.. .' ." . '_" .' " ... - " ", - .. t , " ; ".:
the many threads., But ob,sc'ure:d ,as they a,re, b'Y ,mystic formsl of
f
- .. 1'- _ : I" . . .. ".. ", .. I - I . I . . . .. '. . . '. ... I." ... .' 1 .. r : J '-. _.
. - ," . I' " . -. l" / J' . ."' - I '. . .'. ". '. " ," l[ I" I . .." . : I . ," .: '.... ,- . _. . : "1 . I' "1 ," I .
utterance ,and cODu.sed by the presence of severa types of thought,
N,'lC'0---' m'',&:'c-'h"'u-'S'"'5''' g" '( p-'h:il'0:50" 'p'hi('cal' 'p"nn
tll
", c'I'p,'I-es"" ca'.:n, S' 'till-"" b de"te""'Pr1';'ne---'d .' ' .. ': ',' 1- "._,.... ' .. _ ...:,. I", ',_. =-. '_' '_ .. '_." ..:_1. _._ . ,,' .. ,,"_.'__ ".... '_ ," !.I ," ""&Ia.&&I.t.1 . _ .
with some, degree of coh,er,eocy, alb,et only upon 'the physica, or cos-
.. .. '., ,al-d"" t, tb ., ,'. "1-" ..-'.' .' . 1
mo, .. _1 SI "e'IO' '. i: e excusloln 0,'. e
i
.. 1'CS.
F
N'" h" d 'lis' H I his .', '.'
,lrS1t, Ic,om"ac I,US IS &, : ua _:t.. I states :. .... position 'm a way
tb
,' t- r- c-ll''s P"'lato's dis:"tm -ti'OD hI. -tw-ee' -n "'tha
l
_t hi- -chi -- .. ts' 'h' I a, ea-c .. ', ,-.., ..... ". :. .' _Lel " le.' -'- . I ,", . w ,I ._. e er eX1S "av-
ing D'O beco'min,g" and "that which, is ever becoming
t
n,ev'er exis,t,ent,,:"1 2
t"h .... : the"' .. ",. 8'-10""'-" . t',:- , ..', d' .","', . ".,, ..:c .; ' .," ""'"")1',-,, 8,'- I .. , '. '" --'- .. 'd'-'
ral" ,er _,_an, ,e .' _le a,c pasSIve, pnnClp_,es" ,pwrr,f,ICOJl an
,.aJhrr 'J; -,1.\1(01'- On the O'D,e han1d the:re are the ,," real things.--:-. ,.' w " . - . ., - - - - _, - - - - - - _, - __ - , _" it. la ,_.
F. -.
e
vict, an'l m-I th-e" 'sam" way-'" m" le' c"o-'smlo-s n-'e'v'e"r de-' , ... _,' _._ ..: _ ", .._.. .. _r : '_0-.:'- .. 1.. _., .." "._ .-.: .:.. _.1,_.' : .. ' ..: .. ._. ,"_ 1,"" .i ' .. JI _.. : 1 1. ".".-----:
,(": t,n,'g .., th,[e-'ll-. e .. ,c-:e" ev::,ec-'n," f,o,-",r' :a::" 'n' f- 't' " an-I -d," I"; . tbI'" '
parI, I _' ',. ._, . ,,a. . .......' . . '.'- " "., . on, I '. e 01 ,er
'I: th'e o'rigina ete:rnal mJatter ;and s'ubstance
t
' which was e,ntirely cc sub-
tI. t to' d' Vlati on' and' ch-ange J' I 1'-S not' h-ow-'e er 0 1 cri - -( m-tte" to"- Jee. .', ,_e, 'c_ <' ... . e, - .... : . :.. I:, . - .... ", : V I J-[, '8
An
,a . la_,e r .. '....
hi
-'ch' 'N- h d t hi" t' t tt ti hi t' th- .'a!'- WI_, I'; ;\lco,maC,I,us evoes -cc S gr,ea ces a',
1 The most interesting, and almost the o,nly'" icomacbean fragment with an ethical bearing
is f:ound in the TIMol",um81UJ' A,rit1l:metk., p.. 32 (As,t), and definite'ly ascribed to him:' When
me-ore mjured, they al'e wWing tb.,t .here shouJd be gods;, but 'when they' do, an injuJy, they ,are
t rilin
"lli Tb .. " ed th f th t th I ..L, ,_...J_ to f _1_- the"
DO .. 1 __ lg.. . .cey are JI'__ereore. so ;,a . 'I. 'ey may Mm ,g1.JUii eXIst;. '01' ulUQ5 .. y
wis,h gods to e:xist tbey will Dot be cons,tan.-t; if theD the reason why men are 'CODS'tant the de--
+- tha-t ,_...In ii , t d tb - d - h - th '" --I' 'th "to b
sire __ exllS', ab: so clue w'l,enever '(-ey are lDJURu,' e 1I1.JU,ry IS ::' ,a
bad thin
,.. b t "'t f - d f t Ii hi d
,',' '.1 .. g, ,Ut.1 nature,an. aneA,tAPUlencyo, na,-
l oocI th thiD So' harm. to to man ''''th '. ,-ure,!S r-,e same - .1 I,g' .. :... I comes ',' men ID accol'.-'lcem '. provl-
d
-nce' U :,',el :. , .. '
IT" '. ... '.
. I m4e1U'" 27 D..
11-',-.J... 1".,; 1- J !I'ii" ...... ...l ,. J. .. .. ..l ,...l. .A-.I. ,:1' ;;........L"...... .I. -I ..,-T",-::....... .J. ..13' ,..,L--._'Jo
.; .,..uu,INJ,t'f"V'I', ,. ...' Viii!' I'M U'C '" III ,..... ,,11 ,g,. 0'Tg, ..... 'wV wn-.. 'WC.' Ui' .- .. ' ... To .flVP9' K'a.
1"0'9 C1NI If:,.r.,IKMI GOa'" Iwl !J'paX'; L I .. 3 = iI ,.;;, ,If "'xiis 4&t5tor ;"11 1 hoaT4-
"CM' .I I. 11).,'1' al "'-" ". .eLl ,41NN,,",,.
.'
PHILOSOPHY OF NICO'M.ACHU'S,
93
things as f:O,UD.'d in the wo['ld, that is, m,a,tter 'imp;ressed with form;
an
, .-d" 1- t 18 'I C'0'rrespondi"n'g'"1'y' ba'rd'er to' de'ternu
ti
ne hi' illS VI -ws .oncermtj'ng .. I .. ',I -<', I _.' .' .... I '_I. '. '_ '." :' ,., _ .' ..c I,. . _e,,' c' ','c-.
matte,r pe'r se. 'The investi.gator here finds Idifficulties similar '0,
those enc'ountered in the exegesis of th,e Timaeus., an.ld fewer d!ata to
W:.. :.:lo'rk, UIP"'O'.'0
' '- '-',' " ..
N'icomachus held to a theory of the elements, similar to t.hat of Plato"
including the doctrine that t.he' of the eleme'ots have the
forms of the regular so'lids, an,d .may be r'educed to t.ri,an,gles,1 b'ut
wheth
' I er t'h".e' , orl"gl-na-'I rn'a' t,ter" of 1- I 3 di' a'd or did
'
n'O' t -ons'llst' of- th:e '.11,' '1" .. 1 :,_." "',1 "[.[ it: .. _, "':.'.' .I, .. __ C.'. I .
el ts
,.. ... t' n' d" t '1 F' '. th b f' d ill t
, lemen: 'ID mlXi .ure .-.e .". oes no':. exp aln. '[Olm '-.; ene' .' leSJcrlp lo,n
'1 ", I-,te-d '.-', h"'" ' h('" ,':.',': ,=... ";'1'-;- ".C ." .=' t' tb .. tl t '-,- ,t .', I .:'. 't'- h ,=
quo '.' ,'., a ove, ,Iowever, one may suspecl .'. a,1 ll[, .no . as ye a,ve
e
"'V1e-"D et 'e'm"-'e'n'ta .ry.... 'f",o"'rm' . '. an'd- t'h'us WO"":ul1d" re'se-mb,le' thl 'e.. S"[O"I c"a"-'lie"'d' ,. sec '......... -
'. ,'" I , .. := _'.' . ' .:.c '.. C'" ...,' .,C '. _' '. <_ .,' '. _ .1 .. :--= '.- .: ,'.. .co', :.... ' . -
ondary m,atter' of the Timaeus,. The recu,rt,ence, 0;( thle same fu'nda-
.) bl' .. "h'b hN
IIII
h dP'l;-
menta, pro I" ems In ,conn,ectlon, Wlt! ,_ot
,
.'IICOlmac, ,.,us an_' ,'ato, as
w'ell as the obvious quotations and reminiscenc.es of Platonic 'phrases,
in. the 1nt,odUltion, s,u,ggests strrongly the marked influence of Plato
u'pon Nico,mach.us in these matterswg,
"f' 'iII..1 . .h hI d'" d 'b N' h
B'ut orlg.lna ,matte,r IS n10t t "OIIO'U.,g, ISCUSse, . ,y ICO'mac, I_US,
.' 1 t h ta t k th t bId' 'b t .. I
", .,"','.' . :", -I .. c , .... '.' .. 1 ',". .. .. ':. .',1 . , ...., '. t", I .. ' ," '.' .,.... : ....,.. . ',-",,= "1"""-
aL m. IS ex n .. wor s" IS more ,.0 .. e ._earn,e", a.... oul m,a.[ena
things, upon which Nic'omach.us, cen,ters, his at 'entioln in th'e I
lion" a'n,d which ,- l'ather than matter per lse ..- he comnlo:nly contrasts
Wl
',thl ,t"h,e' e,.-te:'lD":al", M'"'a'"te'rial
tIJ
.. 'thin
I
, . g"S': ar-'e a" C"'o"m,' b'na'tlo..... D 0""f': . __ I "1.... "" .., ":", :.-"C' '_, :'_'. I _ " ..
(
, . hi 1 ) J!lJth f . , '.. ' '1' ". .. ".' ';.' ',.:' : .[ ... " ".[.,-:, - ...... '[., . -.; , . '1'" ....... ,',' "-"I[ -'.::: ". ....,..... I '.' - .,.... '., .. ','
mat.ter .eVIdently matter redUCl .. e to e,em.entsl.' Wl orm,J and the
f b
-' III f d' "1 f h'
.. ' .' -. ,,". - . 1 .. I ",.. -. " I' ,._ .: ", I , - I . -, .-. I .": I" ... :'1 :. '. - - . ' .- -', -' _:'1 -. - ' ... ' ... '. :- I .', .' .' '-. ...
manner 0_ cOlm 15 re :erre. to slmp,y as la presence Wlt.1
I Fo,ur elements ar,e mentloned in lnlrod'uctitm, 11_ 'I. I, but five,. including 'ether"J in Theelog.
'.114 ,Anth.tuae,,- p" 2,5 (Ast)'" With their corpuscular 'forms,,, Nicomac:hus dec'llafies In Il. 4
that the triangle is the' element of plan[e figures ,(,cl. TlleologulPIena. Arith,"Itmae, Pi" 18) and. d,evoles
'I'll 12 to proving it the element of polygons,. CL also Theologumena p,. 8:
iJ '.p'"''1
1
;f"'J'D80J IIWa.. frp(iro_ ...).'1801 4rfTIA'd"if" crToc.X;@fo" ?'CI. 6I1TQI'I"t , I" Tp\l"6I;MJ'
,pryf8"1I 7" K.' 4,fu'Jj,W'II IIWJI4'1"IKW'P ''J'" ul "",",7'WI'.
2 On .' secondary matter l' in p' ato. cl. Zel.1er,. 0 (6th ed..), vol" 11, pa.rt I, Pi", 129;, Biumker,
Das Problemtier' Afaleru (especially pp.. 14,,2 In the course of his opening chapters or th,e In-,
I I" N' -h s - PI t thr'lilC T'1' ...n .. 27' D (:'1 2 r)" the NSAiudo-P"I'atO'n--']"c" E,,"'Mi'IIm.t:!r'
",rigllC"WJI ' lC.Q'.mac, u_ Cl,es : 80' .... : e" ,.,' .' '. .' .1' ,- .M,' . . .'
. '. I ,('1;-' '. ) R' ' ..' '6 Dl If '(I' ,. '7): r 'fe'r8' :mJi"'K!tl , .. :(tAl"'l t
n
"he' ps'y' ...... "'oy' I -"f'" thi,e" T"';"IMII..,...#-IIIr'
991 D " I. 3. 5" tYHiK, 52 '. .. ". ,e e. . U<., .0 .. """" >U 11.\. . ", ,UiIIO,o'O' . 0, , .', .....
(
.'1' . 04 .'"' II S' 6'}'" 'b t Iso t th - -- ... .''!' ". -- b' - 't t"h' R I ht'''' (II .. ')"
. .', . '.'. . "." . . .' . ".' . . I'' I '. _. ,..... .. . '.' . I.' . ..... ....' ,
.' 'It,. , UCI,-on,I,. 2",31:,. ,4, 24-.'. ,U &_ .. 0 _e mar.nage DU.m er
l
1 , e .t/u K.. .. 24... 11_.
P
,''Ia' t '.. ',:' ent'; ":Ad -1:50' "'I"D 11 ,iit; "" '-;j '28 F''0' "'f S.ft!'Iwla'r;tll! ,0' f' :t,ernun'" -o'l,ogy"" IC':f tble' d;iPCrr:'p' .t-o'"',D' ,o..f I
. , ' 10 .li:I me .OD1li!i B, .', '_ to MO ,,"to I . _'" ". ." . "'ill! .1 - '_'" .' , 10' ,I -. c.
I
_I ";",,, I' ..l. J..1. A- J., ,r - jl1'... ....J; . 1
1
.1: - or. DiP.IIil iI.1 i:L-..AIP n:l 'IiI..
In.
tl
.' ","DiI,UGIWJl" "I... 2':. 1"1" ".7"., Ta aVTg, ftCli I[CI."TW;IJ v&aT' ft _, ,"".0t'lIl'.", f' if ,:..fI.
'EUJ"T,d"",., and ,Platudo, 181 :D .;,..., " o:I1.r,. '. '. '. . dI.,aVT,wr del .X', [i(CI,TQ., -rG.'''T& _
4A,M.ts; ,also ISOpnut't 248 ,A:, etc,.; Rcpub,lit;, 380 D T' iEttTT,aJ,"TO i}, ClVr'OV lll-,mt; CrtlJ,ylus_
439 E,: .1''11,1. tilt a,w'oD l'a/a,I.. With Nicoma'chus's, t,e1fm, OIUiJvf1llu" 1,1'1',a used of mal'8-'
rial ob,jec' s, (cl. p.. :2, J4: 'I' 3, r 5, Hoche) , ef.. ,S8lfJlJiftJI 234 8"1 Op..':' PUpCl T' IWIf &rrwp; Porme:nides, 133 D,
..1..-.1 ,. "L .. !"!! . .' 1, t . ..... Ill J:. ,It' _.. Th" .-rd '.' '.' t. h-' .... .sed' .. 'tb' .... ,."
T,. vc- Tap ",'P' 11' TClU1",. UI'fI},JltlpII ,,"'CL POISI, le wo. lowever:t u' m .15, connec....
lion by Nicomachus .2,. 14; ,3,. 14J H'ocb.e) is, not Platonic, but (pi 3t 16;, Hoc'be) c'an
be freely' paralleled,; e.g.. I P:/uudo" 101 le.
94
matter or a 'sharing in' the forms.
l
Their material nature subjects
these objects to constant change - becoming, decay, growth, diminu-
tion, change in general - in which they imitate matter; 2 their only
stability, a merely relative one, comes from the formal element in
them'
The impression of form upon a given quantum of matter halts, as
it were, for a brief moment the ceaseless flow of change in which matter
is involved; of it then we can say 'It is' and call it ca thing.'" But
it follows at the same time that individual existence is possessed by
material things, not naturally nor in their own right, but due entirely
to the form which they share; they exist on sufferance, as it were.
Nicomachus describes it by calling them oPTa, 'existent under
the same names,' because both their being and the name by which
they are known belong not to them but to their forms.' The latter, in
contrast, are 'really existent' or 'properly existent' things (KVp{Wf)
. . .)
OJITa, OVTWf) OVTa
It remains to inquire more closely into the nature of the forms them-
selves. Eternal, immaterial, without beginning, these never change;
their nature is fixed' To describe them more definitely, they are
"qualities, quantities, configurations, largeness, smallness, equality,
relations, actualities, dispositions, places, times, all those things, in
a word, whereby the qualities in each body are comprehended." 7 In
listing these abstracts, Nicomachus is apparently giving random ex-
amples, with no serious attempt to cite only the higher and more gen-
l/nt,oduaion, t. I. 2 (p. 2, 13, Hoche): TQVTQ a. d., .,. .. luXQ nl KQ.,." prrowlQI' t/co.f1TO'
XOlrb TW' 6,i4WrD1U-'J ll,.,wl' KG! /CQ).oup.bw, TMI' TI XJ'YI'TQI KGI tIT'rI. and t. 2. I: /CQf &1'0' QllTw.
1U.,.IX#l
J L 2. I: T"llll''Yoll1" Tt nl </IfJoPi KQI,uTQ/kXv ,ulprroul1[G
q.o.lWTQI lli"',,*/cWt TptW'6p.t1lfJ. /Cd XlYf'TQl pi. 6,uw..vp.wl Iltdroll brQ, itDol' &1'01' QUrw, JUT1X'" II1Tllll
TV lGIITWI' q,WI'I OUIt ll,.,wr llr.,.a. oulll yOp T&\ {lpo.x(,.,.a'rO' lrl .,.a.llToO llla.p.{I'I'I. ilXA' cid 1oirrQtical,,*,
"4..,.0[1011 ilXXQf1IT6IU"', lM'X.
I This stability' is practically the 'sameness' of which Nicomachus speaks: see p. 99.
'T03I'TI in t. I. 2 (quoted in n. t, above); cl. note ad loco This is an Aristotelian formula,
but it is to be noted that Nicomacbus finds reality, not in these individual objects, but in the
ideal entities, wherein he is more a Platonist than an Aristotelian.
CL 1. 2. 1 (quoted in n. 2, above) and 1. I. 2 (quoted in n. I, above).
I L 2. I: ilXX' IKr(1IQ idl' bXa nl illll", KIU ilTt">.r(,.,.'lt'rll /CGlll'4 "4""&\1 .!lp.oUI KQI il"Gp4"-XIIlM'1l
..1''''KI' llIGTfM-i.... WI1l1Vrwr TV llVrWl' oVcrlq. lr,llI4}dro"'ca. KGl tKfl,lfTOl' KVplWJ 01' XlyfTQI. (the
rest of the section is quoted above, n. d.
7 Introduction, t. I. 3: .,.4 III "I'pl '4 lUll I1v", fJfwPOU1U1IQ 010. W'Oibnrnl,
..ocrbr'lt'rI'J, JlI"'(I9.,. p.l.ltpirr'lt'ru. ll1br",.,.u, I1Xll1l'lI, 1I'lpYl'lfl.l, llIGfJll1#lr, TOrOI, XP6""I,
..ill'TiI arXWJ oh rfpllXfTfl.1 .,.a 'I' lall.,.", I1WJAATI, kcipXl'1 KQfllilV'r4 cid"17"iI KIll ilprrd"TW'rca,
l1up.fJf{J",Kbrl>l' lllprrJXI" jl:1I1 rcapilroMwl TW' ...pl T&\ Vroul,loll'''''' I1wJA4 rcafJw
19',"011"""
9S
eral ideas; I in general they seem to represent only predicables, doubt-
less suggested by the Aristotelian categories but neither identical with
them nOf employed in the same way; Kicomachus speaks of them in
a manner that reminds one rather of the independently and eternally
existing Platonic idea' In this detail of his system he has probably
united Platonic and Aristotelian theory, but in general, hitherto,
Platonic terminology and doctrine have predominated. We shall,
however, encounter plain evidence of Stoic influence.
The Stoic influence is manifest in Nicomachus's doctrines about
God. In the dim picture of divinity which Nicomachus gives US,3 we
note resemblance to the mysterious deity of the Timacus.. it is pri-
marily a world-creating God and one kindly disposed to the world,
characterized by providence,' but clearly Stoic touches have been
laid on the portrait, and the result is not far different from what is
observed in Philo ]udaeus, upon whom similar influences worked.
God contains in himself all the ideal forms, which, as we have seen, are
the essence of things and secure them and the world in general what-
ever stability they have.
In a remarkable passage of the Theologumena Arithmeticae,' which
t If this is a genuine attempt to list categories, it is unsuttessful, for according to Nicomachus
himself some of them should fall under the head of other.; in the list; . "'0l16T", (equivalent to
.,..l ...ocr6..) belongs under pJ-'fBor (I. 2. 5); Icr6T", is a crXicru (If. 6. 3, p. 84, 17 and 21).
: The Aristotelian list is thus given in Categories,4. I b 25: TWI' ICIITa P'l6fplll"
).""01"''''1' '"l1crTO. 1ITOI olicrllll' crml.lllHI rocr.l. ,..olb ,..,,0, TI TOP "'OTl 1Cf'118111 'Xfl .. f)
"'Olf'. rcl.I1X(l
Cl. Topica, I. 9, 1036 b 21. Nicomachus differ.> from Aristotle, it may be observed, in making
these abstracts and conferring upon them eternal ideal existence independent of the material
things wilh which they are connected. It is besl to in this a fusion of Platonism wilh Aris-
totle; hut it may be remembered that Archytas, in Nicomachus's day, passed as the author of a
work on the categories. It is surprising, too, that owlo is omitted, if this is an Aristotelian list.
God is mentioned only in the Imrodlj(;tion, I. 4. 2; 6. I.
4 Plato was not the first to conceive of teleology, hut his influence in bringing this notion into
subsequent cosmological speculation was enormous. The present v.Titer has discussed this matter
in another place (Tk Heraemnal Litnatll,.e\Chicago, 1912J, p. 3, n. I, etc.). The assertion of the
Timae/IS (29 A) that God took an 'eternal,' and hence good, pattern for the world underlies the
whole dialogue and makes teleology, or providence, a leading motif. In Nicoma.chus we have the
direct statement that "the providence of the world-creating God wrought all things"
?MM Arithmeticcu, p. 43 (Ast): Toii ICOl1poroloii B(oii rp6/1OI11 T& 61'T1I rcl.1'T1I d.rflp'Ycl.croTo, -'(/I4"fW'
Id. d.pxiII' /1"01 /lira.. dt'.l Toii t'pwro-,bov ,..ol'l/flal/-i." Toii ..cl.l'Ta ftr /1"111 cl.rjJopo1WfTI"
16""0' dPWTcl.TOV ICIlI).oii. (flll/-t'""PWvflllf III T(Ml_" nl ICIlITd.c).,,,,(fI. i.IlIVrl1 TV 6f/1"d&,), and we must
certainly inrer that Nicomachus conceived it to he out or good-will for the world that God rollowed
a predetermined plan in creation. (Sce p. 107.)
'P. 4 (Ast): /1"0161'1 Th (J(6 .. f/J", ... 0 NIIC6I1-4Xo, Tl1 poJf'li!1 It/Jllpp..6ScI., (fW"fPIl-4Tt/l"Wf anrdpXol'T1lI
,..dPTIlI Ta J. TU f/JWtt'l &1'T1lI, wr 4Vrl1 I.. d.p181/-!; JI/-t'fpilXfTllIl IlvJf'li,u,u Ta 1l0.coiil'TlI J..IlI..,. .:n-IITIlI
II"IIT' 1I'/!yyfllll.. flJ'CI1 t'oi.;rl. TpO-ro<r, 11118w, dppJtTlf' Tt ..1 tplxtfl ollcrlll
'''''''' t'ClIp' n".. Till' wr &1 ollIC !HV IIWijl "lll1TIIlrII d.t').w, OVrlolf
19',"011"""
may be cited confidently because it is definitely referred to Nicomachus,
the monad is compared with God, who, it is stated, is Cl in a seminal
sense all things in nature," just as in the Introduction the monad is
observed to embody potentially all numerical forms; 1 again, "it (se.
the monad) generates itself and is generated from itself, is self-ending,
without beginning, without end, and appears to be tbe cause of endur-
ing, as God in the realm of physical actualities is in such manner con-
ceived of as a preserving and guarding agent of nature."
It is noteworthy, too, that <T1rEp!"a.r.,."o AOyo< occurs among the
epithets of the monad in the epitome of Photius. The likeness of the
Nicomachean God to the Stoic Divine Fire which contained" all the
U1TEPP.a.TtKOl. AOyoa., by which all things in accord with Fate come into
being'" must be apparent, although God, to Nicomachus, is not fire.
God sums up in himself the AOyo" the principles of all things, and we
shall probably not err in ascribing to Nicomachus, likewise, the doc-
trine that the ideal forms are the thoughts of God, eternally present
in his mind.
The monad was likened, in the passage cited above, to God's mind,
which is said to be "that thing in God which is the leader both in crea-
tion and in every art and in every reasoning," because, of course, it
contains the fonns
J
which are its thoughts; and again, in the same
passage, God is called 'artistic word' or 'reason' (nxp",oo Myoo).
This is the point of resemblance between Nicomachus and PhiJo, in
whose De Mundi Opijicio the P0'1""00 ICOcr,.,a<, the ideal world which was
the pattern of this, is definitely declared to be God's thought,' and it
xwph d.,.ifr ..,."J,pu"" o67"u'H'oil., te/&'.poO ICl1pu"..4"", "'4"'''''' i.-X"," olS.."" I(crJ ..r,XUNIIoGf
"AI l}'Yf',IAoO"II"OV. r,," lohlll "d IICII./1"'O. 7'0-""'. T';' xAI pd,).WTA, "all) ,.lIVTATI.Il:'i) ...1
TW' 1I'"0X".'""I''''' "cd 1I'"cbu &Ur.<fHIPWTOTW., wr Ini",r ov,..w, ."iJwl&r "A! I'WlI'Ar, III
"1'1 Io'lI' "1"";' lCl&! 4lp' ll&\lTilr "l'fP.iTCU, "I&! dTOTfXlIr. u! 4...pxor 111&1 AT'M61o",-or "A!
cUT11& 4>cr.iWTAI, "'Illr 0 BeGr I. TOir .puQuoi, l"mlo'..tH TOloVTOf hnHfiT"1 IIIGG'_TIIIo, IrAI
TW' .pPtT.w. T"p7JTU:OI. Xl"I'ouo... 011. T"61o". oil ho., d.XU, lC..1 .-oLl. 1I1&! .. .-oLl. "J.,
3Tc I. 'iI"I",I'O'IIIW1'QTO. ".. I I. "lW,I'01I'"0119- "tll I. "oG', d."X"'1 T/X'" Tf ....1 ),Vylf/, d ,,l 10''''
1"lt/IbolTo ".., "'"TO' 41X"" IIc' IPfnflAr, ""VI Iv"I, T"\IT'T"r T11 c). " ..I cllo'fTOTptrTOI Ill' 1..1-
WoI dT'" 11'"0".1& 1I'".pucX".pvia I. IQ\lTV KG'" hl_I&., IlKGI,,,,' 'KG'''"I' I, TOil T".II..,.""
.tlllvIr, ktl X&yOI "11 TlXrldr lourwr T lral oli "dIlrTid.." TOV K8' I.. \IT"', ).Vyou, JUII-
rT"'l&c 4Uo. "Ira 1"", clXX. 4Tpnr"01 WI d.X.,8'" lral JUlip& - ATpo1l'"0r.
I For example, cf, /nl,odudion, I. 16. 8; H, 8. 3; 9. 2; 10. 2; I I. 1-2; 13, 8 i 14. 1; IS 3.
t Placila PhiJosoplsorum, I. 7. 33 (- Diels, DOXQl,aphi Graui, 35): 01 1:Twi'1I01 _p/J. 910.
..vp T'XrI"o. IJdlto. hi ..,lnvl' ..6O'",lCO\I, .... IIT..,
X6'yoUI, lld' ov.. '''4G'T "d' .1/U&p,J"I' ..,IWTCU. The O'"fI'lpJU&TucoL X&yOl. or 'seed principles' arc the
active, formal, divine element which, acting upon material things, produce their proper natures
in the same way that seeds produce plants.
I De Mu1ldi Of1i.ficio, 5; nlJ.....p oil. iP cI,oXITIIlTO""tji fl'poIIlTV'I''''''in ,,&XII TlI. xwpa.
OilK dXfP, cl),),' IPfG'.ppOYIlrTO TV TOV TfX.lTOV tvxu, Th v,o. TpOn' oti4l 0 I" TW' lll.".
19',"011"""
97
is likewise the point of departure from the cosmology of the Timaeus,

where the eternal pattern (Traptf.S"'Y/'oa) is independent of God's mind.
The same conclusion may be inferred from the statement already
quoted to the effect that God is "the preserving and guarding agent
of natures in the realm of physical actualities," which is substantiated
by another passage that designates him as "cause of I sameness' and
unchanging persistence" and matter as the cause of change in things.'
It is of course as the source of form, that which alone gives stability to
material existence, that God is so denominated.' We shall find further
evidence when we discuss the cosmogony of Nicomachus.
Thus far, nothing has been encountered which could not have been
uttered with equal propriety by any eclectic philosopher; but we must
turn to the consideration of numbers, wherein Nicomachus's Pythag-
oreanism begins to make itself felt. In addition to the former state-
ment that the eternal things, the forms, are quantities, qualities, ar-
rangements and the like, we find Nicomachus also asserting that the
world is ordered on a numerical basis.'
The proper way to reconcile these two views seems to be by declar-
ing numbers to be a superior kind of forms, out of which the other
forms are made and under which they are classified. This appears
to be the meaning of the statement that number was' the real eternal
essence,' 4 and certain passages of the Theologumena Arithmeticae lead
to the same conclusion, that numbers are the highest forms and that
the properties seen primarily in them are also the essential properties
of things in the world, conferred upon them by number.
In one place, speakingof the hexad, Nicomachus says that the Pythag-
oreans "revered it with distinguished praises, saying that the world
is endowed with soul in accordance with it, and harmonized, and that
4>.;/0.01' !" t);OI TOrOI'. f) Tlhr 9.UI" ).6""o" To" TUv.ra. &IlU:O"'P.'!J"'''J'TCI., II"TA.; 6: d lJj Tit
xpJ!ga4t1C1.1 'TOlS oulJb 'To. d,.Cl.1 IC&rJA-O' thoD
"IlJ"
I Theol0fumena Arithmttieae, p. 8 (Ast): tlI"TIlJIIlO"nAAopj,." (se. " lJlllh) lI'ClpCl.lI'A"O"I"" 'TV 'ToO
.W1f1 U'TQ 'T1I Cl.liT". 'T"S pETCl.Jt''T';'nws ul JU'Tllf30A", 'TO,t 0/)0"1
'Tb lJi tlrll,. 'TAII'Tcl'T'l"TOt ICCl.I tlJI.fTCl.lI''T';''TOII fJ'Cl.JA-Orijr.
1 See p. 99 for further discussion of the connection between' sameness I and the ideal forms.
1 lnt,odw;/jon, I. 4. 2; 6. I.
The whole passage (I. 6. I) is so important that it may well be cited: rtll"Tll
nx.... i,I' vd 'T';; ..&rJl.lj) fJUl'Tr'Tll"(pj_ Jl,ipot 'Tf KIll 6)"CI. .1l1,,",CI.' ll:1l'Ttl
tlpt8j.lQ, tirll 'T"S lI'porolAr ICAI 'ToD All roD lJ,a.n..pll1(h", 'Tt ul
'ToD ofo,. 10.6"(0' ...poxCl.pd'YJI.!l'Tor IIC 'TOD 'Tb tlpt8j.lQ. lI'poiill'OI1'Td.I"TA
I, 'TV 'ToD 1C000JA-O",010D koD I'O'/'Tb llliTO' p.4ro, "Cl.1 lI'AJl'Td....CI..,.tr 41110..0" .{,vill, piJl'To. 'TiI'
lSJl'Twr 'Tit" tlE&"", r"", ..."os llV,O, 10.&)'." 'Trx.....b 'Ta 11(,jl.lI'llJl'TCI. 'TCl.Vrll, XpOJ'Or, tcI"'7C"U,
.upo..or, 411'TpG, 70.,.,.1'01.
19',"011"""
animals and plants get completeness and persistence and careful health
by its joining them and its share in their birth and its beauty and virtue,
and the like, and they set about it with this line of reasoning:
"The original universe, lacking order and shapeless and totally
devoid of the things that give distinction according to the cate-
gories of quality and quantity and the rest, was organized and
arranged most clearly by number as the most authoritative and
artistic form, and gained a share in a harmonious exchange and
flawless consistency in accordance with its desire for and its receiving
the impression of the peculiar properties of number." 1 From this
one judges that all categorical distinctions are based ultimately upon
number.
Other passages assert that the universe is patterned after number;
for example, in the Theologumena Arithmeticae, p. 58 (Ast), we read:
"We have often anticipated ourselves in saying that the devising Mind
wrought with reference to the resemblances and likenesses of number,
as to a pattern that was perfect, the fabric and composition of the
world and of all that is in it.'" This is confirmed as Nicomachean by
the fact that the same things are said in lntrodudion, 1. 4. 2 and 1.6. r,
whence we learn that arithmetic was preexistent as a cosmic pattern
in the mind of the creator, and that the material world was formed with
reference to this model.
3
A distinction, which is left all too vague by our sources, is made,
however, at this point. The number that preexisted in God's mind
and was the basis of creation, a wholly conceptual and immaterial
number, is not the same as that of which science treats, the num-
ber that is constantly found in connection with material things and
which measures them, their arrangements and their movements. This
number is called 'scientific' and Nicomachus
1 P. 33 (Ast): /UTa r'1l,. .. rl\,. t' tUh)1 4pl.8p4" INP"ttl!Tlpoll Ivljl.lt1IJ'O"
",').,0')'1f&jl.t1'01 oir/C 6./MP,fJO"NnI. 1ClI,,' IIliT-q,. "0, /COvIJl'I', TvXtil'
Tt o),O"JtT0' ul ,... /CId "a tr;o. /CuI Ta 'l'vTa vu..06lf' Tt Kul 1... I1'orV
4pt'TV. T{;,I' TOIO(".IoI)' "I 0;;""" l ... cl1'ol"Tu ." Tjjl It dpxjjl 4>."
dKOV,lll1ll KIIII &o, I llliTi VTlp'ID'h ,... ...clYl'IoI)' d.. ),,{;,1 1'{;," Tpca)'lol'I'IKW)', n "'0101' /ClIl
..ovb /CId "a, AOI a, cl... 4p181J1'u Wt /CIII nXI'I/CoG ,t"ov, IKplBY"
TplI.,WrQ1'4 Tt elll 1P.jl.tAOG, cLeo)"oll8lu, dK"pdTou '1'VX' Jl.fTlU'XOWII /CIIIT'
't/'tVl' 1(1I1 cL"O,l'4(II' "{;,, 4p181NJG l"IIoI,WiTIoI'.
1 ...o).,)"cl/CII 't/19'1j1.t)' tl"ol"TtI TI\)' TtX)'/XO' JOG)' ...pJn Ta, dpl8j1.-OG IlUPtpdll' /ClIl dflojl.-OllHtll W'
"'pO' "'lIIpd"fl")'p.4 TI ...1IJ'T,UI d... fP"tcLtIl48Iu T'1ll' TOG dv,u.ov /CIII TWI' Ir tclwJMt ... clrrw, ..
Tt /Cui v':V1'II4I1'.
I Nicomacbw; does not say that the plan cotuirtt4 of numbers, nor that the ideal elements of it
were numbers; it was founded on number. cr. p. 108.
19',"011"""
99
sharply distinguishes it from the divine number in the discussion of
I. 6. He deals only with scientific number in the Introdw:titm; the
divine number, which forms the pattern for the inferior variety as
well as for all mundane things, we find dealt with in the Theologumma
Arithmcticae, where are set forth the specific functions of the numbers
in the universe and the divinities with which they are identified be-
cause of fancied likeness. This divine number, we find, is decadic;
the first ten terms show all the properties found in its entire fabric
and the terms after 10 are simply a repetition'
The divine numbers influence things through their properties, con-
veying like qualities to the objects which they affect.' One might
perhaps assert that these properties are, therefore, more elementary
than the numbers themselves, and presuppose a possible analysis of
the divine number. This is true, but only to a certain extent. There
are elements even of the divine number, and fundamental properties
on which the charaders of the various terms of the decade are founded;
but these elements are themselves in the decade, and the fundamental
properties are made identical with the elements of number. The
elementary things are the monad and dyad, 'sameness' and 'other-
ness,' 'odd' and' even.'
The origins (J.PXo.[) of number, and indeed of all things, are the
'same' and the 'other,' or 'sameness' and 'otherness.' 3 They are
the formal principles, which, when they enter into the composition of
things, cause them either to persist in the same fashion, preserving
their identity, or, in the case of lotherness,' to change from their
original forms and assume others.
4
The former is characteristic of
ideas and principles (.;0'7, Myo,) because these keep uniform those
I TluologrmttlJ4 ArithmdiC(u, p. 75 (Ast): 6Te ilpXrrcH Id" cid .I'OJId"or, nXnowo., "I 6
rir ,', rpoioi:iO",,; p. SQ (they call the dttad) ..all "llln djH81J}Jf q,IIO"IIl:W, rXri","
oli"rlr IO"T.", dXX' r( "(I TU ire_Inll, Ko.TO ..ClX..'O",,1;II I..' ClvY-cS" rlllt ChCU:I1KMITo.l IK"'TO.l'T41 "(op
"ilCCl ilu4"n 'tClI X,X'41 "iK'" iK"'ToIIT4il", ICCIl ./Al1p,OI "h", X,X'4il"" KClI 4XX... " lKClO"Tor OUTwr " rir
"r(1 TIN n:;'" IIITt!r ClIiT;}r ..",X..'o"ol1"",,",r.
1 This notion of the influence of numbers on things is at the heart of Pythagoreanism.
chus, In Nuomochi AritJrmetuam Introdudiomm Liber, p. 78, 20 fr. (Pistelli), speaking of the
monad and dyad, well illustrates the point: wr 'Yolp Tt! 8rp,us,I".,,, ..1q,IIKft T4 rX'7O"id1'OIlT'"
ICCII +IIX"o" y,lixuII Kill fryplJ. ir(pcal.".,,,, oGT... r KClI III TW" 1I11T"''' 4pxClI TW" 4XX""
hJldJA.f"''' 06.111' "'4""'0. T4 JA.fT",XCljl.fj4""'TIl ",liTw" K"'TO Tor olKrlllr "1I1'4JA.flf /1II8"Jl'olH1"l.
l These principles are treated most fully in Introduction, 11. 17. I; 18. 1 and 4; IQ. I and
20. 7.
I This seems to be the significance of the terms T"'I1T6T"" brp6T"" and it might be infelTed
from Introduction, 1. 23. 4. espc<:ially ICCII &#rrp O"q,pa'Y.O"T;}pO, TU'!" " p/Tpol1 ..4".,.", TO
ijl.rtll"T'ollT'" IJ."IlX"'14J4", Ti), cljl.O,brlfTo, ICCII cI./A"'"II,ur. He is here preising' equality' especially,
but this is aligned with I SAmeness' and I inequality' with otherness!
'9',"011"""
UNrYoo.ITY Of M!CNIG.I.N
things whereon they are impressed; whereas 'othemess' inheres par-
ticularly in matter.'
Whether 'otherness' be matter itself or not, it is hard to say,' for
Nicomachus often writes as though it were; at any rate, it is repre-
sented as a tendency as old as matter and inseparable from it, bound
into it by the force of Necessity, a cosmic power that is always arrayed
against the efforts of I sameness' and the order which' sameness' repre-
sents and strives to bring about. These are by no means original
doctrines with Nicomachus, but were taken by him - as he substan-
tiallyadmits in n. 18.4- from the 'same' and the 'other' (' indivisi-
ble' and 'divisible ') of Plato, and the 'limiting' and 'unlimited' of
Philolaus.
The Timaeus is, in fact, viewed in one light, the history of the con-
test between the two forces of the Deity and Necessity, 'sameness'
and 'otherness.' So Nicomachus would have us view the constitu-
tion of the world. It is made up of opposite and warring elements,
the forces of 'sameness' and (othemess,' which enter it through its
dependence on numbers; but these have been reduced to harmony
by the operation of the mathematical principles on which the world
is constructed and governed; for the system of numbers is itself a
harmony.' Both elements are needful to make the universe, for ac-
cording to the old saying of Philolaus, harmony is .. the unification of
the diverse and the concord of the discordant," and there must, there-
fore, be opposite elements in any cosmos.
, Sameness' is further held by Nicomachus to be identical with the
monad and 'otherness' with the dyad.' An explicit statement of
this will be found in Introduction, n. 18. I; indications less clear occur
elsewhere. This was not Nieomachus's own theory, and consequently
he does not demonstrate it formally, but it is easy to see what line
of reasoning he would adopt. The fact that I multiplying itself or
I It is la be noted. that in several passages Nicomacbus uses the urms ...'pld....,.ll. 4n'Pl'.
old Pythagorean names, for ideas and matler (the' limiting' and the' unlimited '). In n. 18. 4
they are Quoted from PhilOlau5 and then used independently by Nicomac.hus. Cf. also ....p"'t.
"'""cu, I. 13 4.
I One may perhaps be misled by the identifiCAtions given by Photius in his brief summary of
the TMolo!umtM Arilhmt#clK. This is 50 brief that it cannot be that Nicomachus stated
malten in the way reported. It is much safer to observe carefully the expressions of the l'IItro-
duuio'll and of Ast's text where it is reasonably certain that Nicomachus is cited.
I Cf. Introdudion. 11. 19. I; I. 6. 2 ff.
t l'IlJroduction, 11. 18. I ; also 17. 2; 18.4. Theologumt'flQ p. 4, Ast (quoted p. 95.
D. 5) says that they call the monad Mind, and that is 'l'"CUI'TD-rlJf nl.
19',"011"""
PHILOSOPHY OF NICOMACHUS 101
another number causes no change in numerical value,l whereas 2 or
any other multiplier makes the product different from the multiplicand,
had long been regarded as significant, and is cited by Nicomachus
himself as evidence for the elementary character of the monad. But
in 'theological' language it leads to the identification of the Monad
with Prometheus: "Wherefore they also call it Prometheus, the maker
of life, from its never running forward in any way, and alone never
departing from its own principle, nor allowing other things to do so,
giving them a share in its own peculiar traits; for by however many
intervals it be increased or by however many it increases (se. others),
it prevents them from running forward." 2 There is here a charac-
teristic Pythagorean play on the name Prometheus (7TpOuW I"'? 0.,_,
'not to run forward ').
We see, then, that the reason for the identification of the monad
with 'sameness' is that the monad causes 'sameness.' Another way of
stating the principle is that 'sameness' is generically (y,"'KW<) present
in the monad; there is no difference between' sameness J and f oneness,'
and the 'same' and the 'one' are identica1.
3
Nicomachus's meaning
is admirably illustrated by a passage from Aristotle: "And these
are called 'same' in the preceding way, but other things are called
'same' absolutely, as 'one' is. For 'same' is predicated of those
things whose matter is one, either in kind or in number, as well as of
those whose essence is one j and so it is evident that 'sameness' is a
kind of 'oneness' of being, either of a plurality of objects or of one
thing when one employs it as a plurality, as for example when one
says that a thing is equal to itself, for then he employs it as two things.'"
In other words, 'one f is, like' same,' the essential quality of the things
which fall under the class' sameness,' and can, therefore, be identified
t Le., I" _ I; m X I" = m.
:I TJuologl'mena Arillcmetkae. p. S (Ast): 61e) .ttld npol-lfll1/a. 1-11I11..tiolltm 6mu.0IlpYe)"
l"wdnrrof. d".e) .,.oV 1-I1l61,,1 "'plnrftl I1f';" I-Ifl6# .,.oV 161011 ),,6-y01l 1-I1l"l..rdTfI", I-Ifll# ">..>..a.
,unoa.616oiicra." .,.w" IIIW}4TW" ia.....,.iif iWiWa.n "rap b luihBii d..O<1.,.d<7f<7l" O..6crIU A" hi"
fTp/HTw Ka.1 fif .,.b if dpxiif ia....... iil n .ttduh,.,,, >"6'yo". The text in the last few
words is doubtless corrupt.
J InJroduetion, n. 20. 2: iKa.e)" Ka.1 TOVTO TfKI-I'lSplO" TaU .,.a. ......6T1tT0r Kd inpOT'/fTor I-If.,./X" .,.A
f(611 iTfplrr"",of id" dopl<7TWf, TII ...... 6Tll'7'Of U "r..... Kwr !U" ,o(1)d.0111 Ka.! 011146a.,
v-ofJf{JllKftrWf 1# fTfp1"b id" .,........ 6.,.llTOf 6'4 Te) jOc1.011 6...."rf.... f d_., 6."""0. 01# inp6T'/fTor 01'4
.,.e) 6I1Cl.lI
MetapJrysics, IV. 8, 1018 a 4 6'.: nl '7'I:\}Ji oVrwr )"fyUa.1 .,.a.IiTd., T4 U .tta.' a.ltTcI., CMrfTfP nl
.,.e) ,.,. a.l "'fO-p w" 'il t;>"fI 1<lIa. '4 f(lfl 11 'l'a.Vrc\ >"/-Yn'a.1, nl w" +, oHIa. 1<lIa.. !lwT'f 4Jo.np/J" 37-. ;,
.,.o.lITOTllr i"'"'flf Tb i"n" '4 fT>"(l6",,, TOU fl"o.l 37-a." XPi'iTo.l wf fT)",lO<1'., olo" 37-a." ),,""'17 IIVre) o.in-ii
'l'a.1iT6,, wr 61111'1 -y4p xpij'l'a.( IIVrii. Cr. the collocation in Aristotle, CaklWUS, 4 a 10, TlIrWb nl
h dJX91-1.
19',"011"""
10'
with the class in a fundamental way. The case of the dyad and 'other-
ness' is similar; , twoness' and 'othemess' are in the last analysis
identical.'
This identification of the monad and dyad with 'sameness' and
otherness' is employed further in Nicomachus's system. The monad
and the dyad confer respectively' sameness' and' otherness' upon the
numbers in the generation of which they play a leading part, that is,
the odd numbers and squares on the one hand, and the even and
heteromecic numbers on the other.
2
But whereas the monad and
dyad partake of 'sameness' and 'otherness' directly or generically,
the latter do so in a secondary way, InrOfJEfJTJKfy,wt;, or as
species, - El8l.KWS', belonging to the genera founded on the monad and
dyad' They are characterized by additional properties, whereas the
others are pure 'sameness' and 'otherness.' And if t sameness' and
'otherness' thus enter the numbers through their elements, the monad
and dyad, it can be readily seen that they enter the constitution of
all things in general, because the world and all in it are, according to
Nicomachus, fashioned upon a numerical basis." That is, they are
cipXat 1"WV OAldV, ' elements of the universe.' 6
Upon these comparatively sane beginnings is built the complicated
structure of further identifications among the numbers, dependent
both upon these principles and others discovered among the properties
of numbers, or even upon the fancied etymologies of their names; 6
all the numbers of the decade are thus dealt with in turn. One
object of identification suggests another similar to it; the mention
of a god suggests the epithets and functions of that god; before
the end is reached Nicomachus has propounded a series of astounding
length in which hopeless confusion reigns. The same epithets are
shared by several numbers,7 the same number receives contradictory
I Aristotle does not carry out this point in the passage quoted.
'The monad is the fundamental fonn of the odd numbers (11. 17. 2) and through them of the
lQuares (11. 17. 3; 19. I); thus both partake of 'sameness' (11. 18. I; 20. 2, 5). In the same way
the dyad forms the even numbers directly, and through them the heteromecic numbers.
Cf. 11. 20. 2, already quoted. 4 See p. 108.
'Introduction, 11. 17. 2 .
The following from the TheologumeM ArilJuPlrlktu will serve as illustrations (cited by Ast's
pages): (3), (8), (12), -IO'"II..(O'"Of,
4KII J.l1rr."p, 'Pi'pWrlf (12). (IS), (14), n-rpdl-rrr}",h (23), ifls.lflf (48),
(58), llt'ICIHfxlf (59). As this was a favorite de\ice of the arithmologists, it would be
easy to cite similar examples from other Pythagorean sources.
7 E.g., in Photius, Codez 187. the foUowing epithets, among others, are assigned several num
bers: I'OOt (I, 3), U}"." (I, 2), -A:,.},,, (I, 10), 4flol'''(I, 5), 4ppo"llJ. (2, 3, 4. 6), ")'d.,IoI01 (3, 5, 6). The
19',"011"""
PHILOSOPHY OF NICOMACHUS 10
3
titles.' How far the authors of such collections believed in what

they wrote, and what good they felt they derived from their labor,
perhaps only they could say. In some cases we can see that an
identification is fairly reasonable and might have some meaning, but
far more often it seems futile.
An interesting fragment of Moderatus of Gades says that the Pythag-
oreans used the numbers for the sake of clearness in teaching about
first principles and forms, just as geometricians and schoolteachers
use diagrams and characters: "And in this way they called the idea
of 'sameness' and 'oneness' and 'equality,' and the cause of concord
and sympathy in the universe and the cause of preservation of that the
condition of which remains just the same, 'one '; for the 'one' of
sensible things is such because it is unified in its parts and concordant
by participation in the first cause. And the idea of 'otherness' and
'inequality' and of all that is divisible and in change, now in one state,
now in another, they called the double ratio and the dyad, for such is
the nature of 2 in sensible things also. And these principles do not
form part of the doctrine of these men alone and not of the others;
one may also observe that the other philosophers have handed down
the tradition of certain forces which are unifying and dominant over
the universe, and they too have certain principles of 'equality' and
'unlikeness' and' otherness.' . .. And similarly with regard to the
other numbers there is the same account j each one is arranged under
certain functions. To take another case, something exists in nature
that has a beginning, middle, and end. Of this form and nature they
predicate the number 3. Wherefore everything that involves a mean
they say is 'three-form.' And the successive numbers are embraced
by a certain single idea and power; this they called decad, as it were
'receiver.'" 2
The generalization of Moderatus was perhaps once true, and might
remain true for the simpler identifications, but another explanation
must be sought for the extreme cases. It is probably near the truth
to say that the Pythagoreans developed on the basis of early arith-
mology a pseudo-science of peculiar attractions, to which it was easy
fact that various epithets of the same gods appear complicates matters still more; e.g.,' A.. ..,
etc., of I, ACltlllf of 3, illup'YCIf of 9
I For example, in Photius, CotUr J81, the monad is both ..la and vluwwc!lL;
2, (V'I and 4l'WCIf; 4, like the hero of the Frogs, both' Heraclcs' and' Dionysus.'
'lIud.r'''fxAI, an etymology claimed by the early Pythagoreans. The passage quoted is
found in Porphyry, Vita PytlkJgorae, 49 (p. 33, 30 !I., Nauck) .
\9',"011"""
NI'COMACH,US OF' GERASA
t k
- ddi"t' -- b f -0 .. - tb t 'blish' d 1 Th'
o ,ma, a: I l'Ion,s '_ 'Y'O,O'\V1n,g " e es, a ,e-"e rues. 'were
,ca'rried a,way' by It j a,t' ic_h,e same time th..ey w[ere mft,uene:ed, by the
su 'erstitio'us re,gard f,o;r n,'uInb1e:rs, that may still be [observed in our O'WD,
time" which ,must have: bee'n still strang'er in the days w'hen b,elief ID
demons" ,astrolo,gy" and compelling magIc 'v,as not c,o,nnn!ed to th1e UD-
learned.
1
It is perha,ps, significan,t., 'in this, connecti,on," that the arith,-
1
.. I' '. flak f' 1 d th
mo ogl[c,a treatISes ,'req,uent y re ,erence to astro ogy ,an" 0:
'
'er
s,uperstiti.ons.
2
I
't
,
""""I,ldb"',,'" 11,"-':""": 'lld' - '1"1' fi,'ta'".-b,l', t""" :""t'- d'''''''' '[ h,""""," .',' ",:"",
": wOU', '" ea, ong a,D ' unpro -",,',, "" e "g" ,0 se" ,:.,:own ,ere mOire
than a brle:f outline o,f th.'e arithm,ologyof Nicolma,chus.. Of the 'mo,nad
and tb
, e d" ad som--eth' 'lng'" h'as already 'be'en sud
l
In addl- t"ts .. ... I_'"y: ."". c, '-., ,_ :...,.. ,',_< .. .. ..l::"-. .-' . ' .,' '.'_, 1 .....
i.dentification with God, Mind :and the lik,e,3 the m,onad is also lik,ened,
t
' 'th"'fi 't 'b" --, C' "h' .,' '-'f- H" ,"'C"
00
",' 'b' -- ... t- ",- th,'" ,6'" "t' 'f t'b -, ,- liIII -] .- I' " '",' 1-" , " , I I'" : '," ",' c' . i ," , ,,' ,', " "I'" ,", ' ':
1,0 .. e :.. rs .l:orn, .. aos 0 .. esl. .... , 1 IS "e, rs ... e numerlca

4
Other epithets are 'S,un' and 'Apollo,' 6 C' Zeus'ls to'wer',' a,n[d
, "t'lte:""'''' ,.- ',' ',',', ,.",,',' b-"':"I'-' 1'--'-" ,- :tch
1e
, b'" ',.-,',', -;"","'ted' ..... 't-
mal"r In a, se:nse, .ecause 2, .e num-[erconsecra '". espect, .,yo
matter, is d[eriv[e[d f,rom the dou,blin,g of I.
Th,e d,y[ad naturally derives 'm,ost of its titles f.rom its chara,cter as
4'th,," th", ,',:, ",-,,'"t" tb""" ,d" H' -,',',' '-,'"",',, th.'-' , t,'t!
,0. 'lerneSS'1 _, 'e appolsl, eo, .. e mania. : I e,n,c,e comes, 'I,e . e
(ma' ',' t'-te"'l" a:,nd thence in tU1rn 'uneqlual' 'excess.' cy.' T
... "" _'" ,',,' -" 1".'_, ., "", ':..: I,.:... _:, "
on, the oth,le'r' hand 'equality' was 5
1
een in it because 2 X' 2 == 2' + 2,,8
I Ta'nne'r:YJ P"", "'BiskJi,'" 4e [la ScWnte HtJlme, Appendix- Dj pp 3'71g:-80, suaes,ts that the
enumerations fo'und under the cap,tions of various numbers (;e,.,g.. , 4 elements a'nd seasons" s :le.,
, ," t:" .'" ':-'l
ii
'r;""),cs I!An,lIAC! e"t',.. ')" 'ted' "1 a mn' ,emon;'c' d':e;v':''"'IC'",e C'"er'tainll " 'if-; Ii., :'.-- ,-', 'tb -:'
men, s, ZOue5" "'-t .LiiJ"'.;o;;;llJ .':' ,,",'!iI :---0'- .... ......., .. ill, '- ,n, ,;,'_ ',2' '1-_ .:._ ....8 50.'15
origin WIa5 ,[orgo,tten by the time of Nicom&[chus.
I E' 11' l'n trea'tl"ng th- Due-m'" -r 7 I
l
't 'IS" PO' "J"'nted' 0''U' t ('ba't' tb"':5 n-n'm-L.-
r
goy.Ams-' -, - ,t'he cn"',u"'ca11 pe'n[od'., -'-"-IDIIlII', _1
1
.':.' ",I ," . .. 1_...:1 ...:.....: .. .._.1. __ ::.,' '," .. '".-;" ':,-':.11 ,;>:..-..:..
(<<').&I'CI'""',x') o,f human lUte according 0
1
Chaldeans' (L,ell' astrologers): Varro ID Gellius,
'In Cl Al d 'IIJ se 'VI"-.. T-il.,.- ....I A' 'L .'
I., 1'0;, lemens, ,exan. nnus, ,,'tmUJIa, " XV1!j, 143:, I ,t .MuJoBnrMMQ, " ,nt',;,mdU:'at, p;o S3
CAst:) De. Mmsibru, J1.. 3, and 7, has ref[erences to 'the Chaldea.ns" or 'the Cha'ldean .' Pbilo
doesl not fuse as,troJogy witb his arithmology, but we learn that he ,bad a deep av'ers'OD OD
cious grounds to Chaldean astrology' from, the fa,ct that he often condemns it (De Mig,.itnN
Alw41uJ.', 32, 33; De A,fwDllamo, )5; De Nobil'itale, ,S')
.' No,te that 'we 'Dowhere ,Klet an abso,_,ute identification of t'be monad ,e,the:f wi,th God ,or ,with 'the
4:,cosmic wor,d} The monad fits t o,r C,is Uke ' tbese things, or ' is caU,ed, by these names".,"
'Tb'..... ,tb' 'ts ... ,........ ,ted" f r .', tb'"r 'f'.' "'D'"",.- '., """.":'-' "h'" I tb' ' '.' ',',,' ,
I
tak"'-, "'f',, 'tb,' ,-
,e epl_,__ e... , KJLec, .... 0, m,en,uOD ID .. e o oWIng pal1lgrap, [s are ,n . ,e ma.tD 1 ,. en .ram .1 e
lists pr-eserved ,from Nic,omaehus by Photius; text. often explains the reason fOIE ,their' be-
On, the wit.b I chaos," ICf'.. Delatte" op,,, p. Ot 'er' titles perhaps
to be connected, 'with this are ,,'ut"'"'la, XAtT,.., ''''''''''
.PI-I1I11'[&" ,""lE'I_, fJapa'".r m,xtJ6.&oP,
'Probably' explained by Lydus, De Mensibtu, D.. 3: ,ANq,lpntl.( ''11' ".," ["I, ,. A.6AlwIJa"
"rOurhT'l' I,ll' 'TO," ,.' 'f>+'''JI" 'Cf<!l also, lamb!i[cbus" In N'U:IJ-mdAi A,ilA'Ntitafll I
dtlt,titmem, Pi. 13 (PisteUi) Sto'baeus. &logtU, 10 (v'ot l, pp,,, 2I,-'22,d!il
Hense)" Pll1,ta'rch,1 D, lsidc, 10;' Zetler" 0"'" w,. vot Ill, 2, p. J3'9 (4th Cbaipet,J D/J,,,
vot 11. J:09. With this, ep,ithet probably' go also TVPC!)UOIpo4tl!""I""
'C'f " f'
" pp. 99'
"C'f' T' .. , ," ...A.,.;,L ....,/', ',,: '. ' - (" 1 tI, L"'d-'I11a. h .... M" .... n 6I "
". ..' IKWfJ,UrJImIG n , .."""IoCt'Je
"
pp. I 0J ,, , UG _ . . ,;j .
... --'''"'ID'-4lJliIIIiIi..... A'. L_..,:.rj'lJ!. P I' Q'
IICWU6, ..:w#ftfil'.... " 'tJ . " .. \.,
15
It is the root of all relativity, because 2: I is the first ratio; I and a
very old epithet, repeated by Nicomachus, is 'daring,' derived from
the idea that 2 first 'dares' to separate itsell from the original unity.'
It is to be noted that neither the monad nor the dyad, the elements of
number, were regarded as numbers in the proper sense of the tenn.
a
Among deities, Elato, Phanes, Zeus, Isis, Rhea-Demeter, Artemis,
and Aphrodite were associated with the dyad.'
The triad derives its most distinctive epithets from the notion that
after the two elements of number, I and 2, which are not really num-
bers, it is a true 'combination of monads,' the first actual number,
because it has beginning, middle, and end. Hence its title' mean,'
and several others.' Leto, Hecate, Thetis, Athena and other divinities
are assigned to it,ll and this is the first number called' marriage,' as a
combination of odd and even numbers, 'male' and 'female' (I + 2).'
The tetrad is a square,' is produced from 2 + 2 and 2 X 2, and had
long been reverenced as potentially the decad, because I + 2 + 3 + 4
= 10.
'1
Nicomachus took account of all these matters. Hermes,
Hephaestus, Heracles, and Dionysus shared the tetrad: because the
musical ratios are contained in it, it was called 'harmony.' 10
I This epithet is given by Anatoliu5. Theon (p. lOO, 9 8'.) and the Theologumena A.,uhmetkae,
p. 8 ad fi".
I Photius; TJuologutlUM Arillrtneticae, 1. dJ., Lydus, Dt lrfmsihw, n. 6; Plutarch, De
lride, 75; Martianus CapeUa, p. 259, 3 (motusque primi probamelllum). Lydus refers this to
Phere<ydes.
I See p. 117. This is why the dyad is called """'C.l'X/UIU' ..J.'lt60uJ .ll:lll (cf. Tlteologume1ta
Arilhmetil4e, p. 9. Ast), '1'0(; clpTlou 011 .II:llT' lrW. "IlMl/Uf, ..Mu lrO"VlI"I"d.ll:OIl
(sil)-I""'f (?).
4 For Erato, cf. TlIeologu1Mtl4 Arilhwutirae, p. I1; Rhea, ibid., p. 12 j Isis, ibid. Etymology
probably has much to do with the epithets Rbea and !sis (piw, '",or). Matter is unstable and
may be called' fluid.'
i Probably this notion is at the bottom of the identifications lrpm-Of FfPI4"'&f,
"'(}..,.'T'f/p.a, 'Tiff d"flplllf 'Tiif III 4/UllOII, 'TllliTb, OJl.'lX01'01I, Wpl"'I'i"''', /olo'!O'o,..'f/f,
however, is explained differently in Tlteologllwutl4 A,ithmctirae; 3 stands between the greater and
the less, and hence is 'mean,' thus: 2 is greater than the preceding number, I, and 4 is less than
the prtteding numbers, 1 + 2 + 3, while 3 - 1 + 2.
'Hecate of for her three forms; !.eto possibly because 1 (Apollo) + 2 (Artemis) = 3
(their mother. Leto). Only the epithets Tpmryll'fIO'., r0P'Y"cO'. of Athena are given here.
1 CL Theologu1Mtl4 A,ithmelirae, p. 16.
TlteologuMetJ4 A,ithmelirae, p. 22, mentions this in conne<tion with the epithet Hermes; it
was also used by Anatolius, Theon, p. 101, II; Philo, De Mfmdi Opijicio, 16 j Lydus, De
Mensi/)us, IV. 44.
I That is, it was the tetraktys of the Pythagoreans, by which they swore; Thcol0IUMetJ4 A,ith-
metkae, pp. 18, 22. Perhaps to this fact are due the epithets in Photius, 'T"" 4111"'1.11:"" cllrOnJ.f-
",p,d'TWIJ nrY'lt .ll:J.,I"OIl',:(Of 'Tiif tjJ6vlWf, tjJ6vu.
10 The topic harmony appears also in Anatolius, T1u:on, 101, II 1I.; Philo, De MUMi OpiJUio,
1 ,.
09',"011"""
UNrYoo.ITY Of M!CNIG.IoN
-
The pentad gains its glory from the fact that it is one half of 10,'
the arithmetical mean between any.two numbers whose sum is 10,1
and the sum of an odd and an even number. The latter fact secures
its place as 'marriage' and' Aphrodite,' and it was of course pointed
out that there are 5 elements and 5 zones on earth and circles in the
heavens' Nicomacbus's most elaborate argument is devoted to es-
tablishing 5 as Justice.'
The hexad is the first 'perfect' number; it is the product of an odd
by an even term, and 'cyclic' or 'spherical.' Its most important
identification was with the 'soul," but it also was considered by Nico-
maehus as the marriage number par excellence, and I Aphrodite.' e
Seven was treated with peculiar veneration, largely because of its
connection with the moon and temporal periods, and hence, sup-
posedly, with physical phenomena, such as those of birth.' This
secured its titles (chance' and 'due season' (niX1J' Because
of all the numbers of the decade it alone is both prime and does not
as a factor produce any other number within the decade - neither
generates nor is generated, as the Pythagoreans said - it is called
, Athena,' the virgin goddess.
8
Eight, an unlucky number because children born in eight months
were thought not to be viable,' is the first cube and hence was ety-
mologically connected with Rhea-Cybele. Nine is a boundary, 'hori-
zon' and I ocean,' because after it there is repetition among the num-
bers j 10 it is identified with the SUD, Hephaestlls, Hera, Prometheus,
Apollo, Ares, and Artemis. The decad, since it embraces all the num-
1 Hence called by Photius: cf. TheologumtJJG Arithmetkfu, p. 32; perhaps
AI,",,, WOI' lllXIIO'u, p. 3r. for the same reason.
I Theon of Smyma mentions this fact.
I Photius mentions the elements (ra. crrolX,ill 'ToO ..11",&, II:C1Ta. T+i. cf. Tlleolog,,,,'t:na
Arilhmdialt:, p. 25; lUll'ICllll, 1l:UII:XIOOXO' in Photius refer perhaps to the zones and circles; cf. Their
logumt:JIlQ Aruhmt:licae. ibid.
4 CL Theologll11lt:n4 ArWunt:licat. pp. 27 6. I Cl. pp. 109 l.
Cf. Theologumt:na Arithmctkae. p. 38. The point is that 6, as :I X 3. is a more effective com-
bination of 'male' and' female' elements than 5, or 2 + 3.
7 The discussion of the TheologurJJt:fl(J Aritlmuticae takes the influence of 7 in gestation and in
the ages of man as its chief theme here. The fact that the perfect number :18. which measures the
lunar month, is 1 + 2 + 3 +4 + 5 + 6 + 7, was significant.
Photius cites the name Athena and several epithets of the goddess here; cf. Theologumena
Arilhmt:lkae. p. 53. This was one of the commonest identifications, found in practically all the
arithmologies. ]n fact the number 7was the one upon which most efforts were expended by these
writers.
in Photius; d. Tlseologumt:na Arithmetkae. p. 55. and Lydus. De Mmsibu.s, Ill.
5 .
10 Cf. TlKologumena Arilllmdkae. pp. 56-57.
19',"011"""
17
bers and furthermore all numerical forms, was called perfect, and for
these reasons Nicomachus gives it the epithets All, Cosmos, Universe,
Faith, Necessity, Might, Fate, Eternity, Atlas, Unwearied God,
Phanes, Sun, Urania, Memory, Mnemosyne.
1
Our data regarding the cosmogonic theories of Nicomachus consist
chiefly of two passages of the Introduction (I. 6 and I. 4. 2), and two in
the Theologumena Arith1Mticae. One of the latter, concerning the
hexad, has already been quoted; tbe other, relating to the decad,
follows:
"We have often anticipated ourselves in saying that the devising
Mind wrought with reference to the resemblances and likenesses of
number, as to a pattern that was perfect, the fabric and composition
of the world and of all that is in it. But since the whole was an un-
limited multitude, and the whole substance of number is not to be
followed out, it was not reasonable ... to use an incomprehensible
pattern, but there was need of due measure, so that the artistically
contriving God might be greater than the bounds and measures set
before him in creation and hold sway over them, and neither compress
in niggardly fashion nor unharmoniously exceed to a lesser or greater
degree than the fitting; but a natural balance, mean, and wholeness
existed above all in this (se. the deead); for embracing in principle
all things in itself, solids and surfaces, even and odd and even-times
odd ... it had of itself no peculiar or natural variance othern1se,
save in the fact that all things ran toward it and circled into it. Rea-
sonably therefore he used it as a measure for the whole, and as it were
a gnomon and a straight edge for the setting forth (se. of all), fitting
(se. them to it); wherefore things from heaven to earth are found
both as wholes and in part to have their ratios of concord based upon
it and to be ordered after it." 2 Then follow the identifications of 10,
described above.
1 CL A,itlltMt;IU, pp. 58-61, where most of them are explained.
t P. 58, Ast (the first sentence will be found on p. (}Si the rest is as follows); 4nl 61 d6pu,-
TO' 11>'o" r>''ij80, nl iJ TOV r&.(/"II tiTfWrI1", O':K t:0.ay01' o':c1' 4).).",r
lrII1TIJJM1".dl' d....fp.).,jrTlp Xpijl1/hu fc1u c1j I1VI4/UTpll:n 11'11 '1'';'1' rpoKuJjbwl' 5pwl'
Ko.I141TpwI' 0 TfX"IT,,' 8tot II' Tij a"l4<ovp-yl/i' rtp'1'/"'ITo.. Ko.l ....t/KKpaT<f,I1rJ, KI p,jTf i .. o.lITTOI' I4,jTt
/ ..1 r)'lo" TOii rpol1,jKol'TOt ilIa'';'t I1UI1Tr/).U 1I').'II4.I"').';'t ':... fpurlI1U" tPVI1'K.J) al TU I1VI1TII8JjllJ.
Kill /MTptOTIJf ul Awcrn II' Tvc1t lIo'i).lI1TII itrijPXf' ..et .... 1I sU" I""ot IlliTijr rfp'f1).."tPui,
Kill I.. /rf5, 4PTld Tt Ked Kill dpTlorlp'l1l1ll . . . 14'15f/ollp 5j lc1ldtbUl1llp
tPue"'K.J)1' 4)..)..wt "llpa)..)..1'.J)p /lt! IUT.J)I' fxovero., 6T< Ko.T IrI8poJ<.J)p Kl dO'llll"li/l)...",.lp T"I' fir
Io.lI1'ljp. fl/lbTwt ,uTP'iToWp Awl' o.itT; Kd Wi1rtp 1'pWjJ.Opl /llll fUJU.... "pllfl IXP"!I1IlTO ....pOr :Tl}'1'
..pUtl1ll' 4P/o'O.t6,ul'Ot 8l6rfP TOur KilT' VTl]" )..,ry01lf tXOl'T1I TO d.... ouparoii pJ'XP' 1'ijr
Tt nlKIlTo ,upo' fvpll1/lfTIII Ko.l '11l/lf/lOl1JJIJ,u... /lOoT' llitT,j"
19',"011"""
-
.08 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
The general doctrine here set forth 1 appears to be essentially this:
God, the supreme and original Being, has in his mind from all eternity
number, all of the forms and properties of which are epitomized in
the terms of the first decade. This is the divine or 'conceptual' num-
ber. In the process of world creation God devises an ideal plan for
the universe, and this plan was most probably not an independently
existing idea, but actually in God's mind. In it the numbers I prevail,'
that is, the' sameness' of the forms of things is conferred by the monad,
'otherness' by the dyad, their actuality as distinguished from poten-
tiality by the triad - for the peculiar property of the triad is to have
'beginning, middle and end,' and so to exist naturally and completely
- and so on, down to completeness and order, which come from the
decad.
From the language of the IntrodUltian (1. 6. r) we must certainly
understand that this pattern is not number alone, nor are the ideas
and forms in it identical with numbers; but simply that its components
are determined, arranged and governed by number j and if the forms
get I sameness' from number, they thereby take from this source what
is their essential nature. Following the outline of this plan, then,
the material world is constructed; and because there was a numerical
frame for its plan, the material world too is ordered upon the principles
of arithmetic. The number which is seen in the world, and that which
is seen in its structure, is that which must be studied by those who
desire to gain a knowledge of the truth in things,' but it is not the
divine number that existed from the first in God's mind. Although
it is like that divine number which shapes the general plan, still it is
on a lower plane, a quality of material things and associated with them;
it is what we have found Nicomachus called' scientific' number.
A problem of interest and importance is, whether in Nieomachus's
cosmogony the act of creation was performed by God himself or by an
intermediary divinity, a demiurge, according to the Platonic scheme.
Nicomachus uses both the words &ql"'cwpyo, and 11<0" but there is
very little evidence upon which to formulate a statement.' On the
1[,urodlution, I. 4. 3; 6. I, are also taken into account in the following.
1 InJrodrll:lion, T. 2. 3-5.
I Cl. Inlroducl1'on, L 4. 2; I" TU 'roil Tt"XKTOII 91'00 .. 0 6Xw.. 6'1IJ.U)IIn6s j 6. J:
TOG 1'4 6).11 c1mUOllp'Y*,"IIJOTOS 1'00 ... I .. TU -roO (hoD On the use of (hits, see
TlreologUWUM Arithmeticae, p. 4 (Ast), Tb rfpl BRIG ),4")'0.. ; 1'6.. (hil .. (22, cf. p. 5, I, 7, I1,
18, p. 8, 13); p. 43, 34. For a"jUolln6s as an epithet of the monad, see p. 5,
21. Cf. also p. 59, 2, 6 'l'lfx ..l'l''11 TU p. 58, 28, 1'6.. rlfXl'llCb KlO...
19',"011"""
,'-Ie' -.. [0."

I - . . . .
'. :-e substan-
-l'e'ologumena
........... ,:a 'Nlco,machean,
""i' t._ of the h,exad.
- ,,",e, ay add
" .,
I a'' 10"'' - '- .' ,"'
.'
,I b,
IDterp.':iretation 0,.' t'.
, .
.'h .'hl'e' cl - -trl
iiil
- e 1-' I'" h--- .'. I., ',1 ,,--," ," ',.
(, ,. ,33 ff., i\st) , i.n a con""",,,,1if1II
:. ,'.' I the world is ren,do:' e".-'t
'
-
-f th',S p,assage has ar,'ady' ....,.'tW."",.......
'.'
.... ... & ", 'a",',:Orr- I IS, cap'- . e
I, .e

.", h
' .. tl ,,'
",d
I .
'.
" IS
..... _ders, ') ,an,
.'.' .'h- ch YIeld
1_""." -.., -b n,ation". .,
b.t w:hen it
SI of
, I
. "'Ie' , .
lea,
I .
.., t<
J ,....,,}. ti ,I'll, ",.' . .V, 'RI" - ',. 1:1 -.' DIJIIGI,P,
'f . r.. .". . ,.
iJ.w.6il'D, WP ...T,l -'11,-1. .' .
.lp',-... . UTa,T ,t' RI fJ{ATIVTfJ. ,. "Ih:'-';(J""
,}I'D' .. " ,nl aul TOVrDI trYf'CIII .'p....O. W trY ,t I .
, dpat""", Ktlt Ta. louc,lwrJ, tt X dpPIJ'I.', I.:
'Y- I',. It/I' .-. '0' ''v wo I:iPf","''r,t" V'I' PII'Y'wyb a,woil ' " .).::-OUQ""1
.-, " --! " .0 .',. :, t.: 'CJ' uPllaJn:,i. The, etymology f,d..
IlO NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
number, from 5 another; 1 but the former was more suitable to soul
than the latter, because 6 (2 X 3) is male-female or even-times odd, a
comhination of the male and female numbers, whereas 5 is male only.
Of course the perfection of 6 was cited in this connection.!
The function of the world-soul is to establish harmonious working
between the discordant elements composing the world; for, since they
are constituted upon numerical principles, lsameness' and lothemess'
enter the composition of things, the former on their formal, the latter
upon their material, side, and confusion can be avoided only by the
establishment of a harmony. The doctrine that harmony prevails
in the universe is an old Pythagorean one.' There is not much ma-
terial in what we have of Nicomachus to show exactly how he worked
it out.
In the foregoing account of Nicomachus as a philosopher, the rela-
tion of his thought to Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics has been pointed
out in a general way. It has been seen, too, that his philosophy draws
very close in many respects to that of Philo Judaeus; in general he
is typical of his age. It must be granted that his achievements
as an arithmetician were more important than his philosophical tri-
umphs, and the modern reader, failing perhaps to take sufficiently
into account the fact that in Nicomachus's time the 'theology of
numbers' was a well-recognized variety of speculation, bearing with
it values which it is hard for us to comprehend, is likely to agree with
the conclusion of Photius: (j So it is necessaryJ it would seem, to spend
and expend a whole life for the sake of this theological juggling with
numbers, and to be a soher philosopher in mathematics in order to be
able to talk consummate nonsense."
I Cl. Introdu.ction, 11. 17- 7.
I TheologunltJUJ A,ithnuticat, p. 34, top (Ast). Cf. InJrodtu:lion. I. 16. ~ r h p s it is not en-
tirely fanciful to sce in the aliquot parts of 6 (1, 2, 3) a similarity to the ingredients of the world-
soul in the Timacus. Nicomachus identified 1 with tbe 'same' and 2 with the other,' as we have
seen, and 3 is the combination I and 2. Nicomachull of course does not say anything about this
likeness.
I Int,odudion, lI. 19. 1, where the note may be consulted.
19',"011"""
NI
: .'rCO' - MIA'C"H:US S p'" '. ----.:. r _ ' '.' .' 1-:.' -.:. . " 0
:-:
" '
.' .:.
'e
'00-
',:- tain matters
tOluche1d
e
-- . . .
., .. I
I .' '_" \ '.'
of the hi o'Sophy
h, his the.ory of nu'
rth.er with
as'c ma te
espe"""'"
"e" I ", :
things
hich:,
h
1
t
' .
_ [... I' ..;.,
I ,.
,
1
I
r I .J
"';;o;',"'...... 'a,a;le_, ," orgaol-
. .
.[e,an teatl.ses
.. --'h - t-
,O"i',,'" 8.'su'mp lon
.'. r't' f'"0 "
- . . . -:' ',. ,- ... _'.,.
,-:-,1, .
_. r L.. "
"8
.:e.
. _ I
J L.. .. _JIL
ill
.'1.[' '

' ..
, ..
','le' cIa si-
".',' p' 7'0'0 4pa-,'JUJ0:
'IW'[X" ...1' .. 1'"
l, '.' -rp " KT' ..
. i, Id. ).,':ot'-;('AI' 4', Te
Ii'inJDin,' ,Ii
.....'"-'.. III 1I!.J!'''II..v. . .', _ -. , IQ .. 'Rd ,1II.iI'.J' .. iIi;!\,M_
f' th S lotierpretatin ,cf
o.r oontin I ous ", >
..' I_PO: ,. pOI' a,., er:rf"f:l T" pop{ cawo'D '
I\.G.Il:J1I'.' . "1&' . :,0[' --"at " Ta ,,",plo, a o-r';;s: .'uM1, I ,I t '.' '.
..''" T ," 010' nm,1k1 JI,;t!,It:nulilaej' Pi. 4, 301 ( At): ",w" .. '.,[
- r, W' alh-Ij, av' '."'.N'.. ;0 Se:. :'b
i
\" . [I, S '
1,1
1I2 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
collection keeping their identity; perhaps this helps to an understand-
ing of what is meant by the word 'flow' (X.p.a.) in the definition of
number.
Nicomachus next tells us tnat an object in the continuous class
is called 'magnitude' (p.i-y<lJo<) and one in the discrete 'multitude'
(".XijlJo<); the two terms are used both as abstracts referring to the
quality, and, as concretes, of objects of such natures.' Though these
are mere statements and no discussion of them is found in our sources,
we see from this that Nicomachus assumes continuity and discrete-
ness to be qualities always associated with magnitude and multitude.
He has not yet arrived at the definition of number, but only a single
step further is needed. Magnitude and multitude per se are indefinite
terms, 'simply great I or 'simply many,' as Nicomachus sayS.2 \Vith-
out further limitation they are infinite; the I great I can be infinitely
subdivided and the' many' infinitely increased. With such things
science cannot deal. We can know about them and scientifically deal
with them only when it can be said' how great' and' how many' they
are. This is not to assert any new quality of magnitudes and multi-
tudes, but merely to impose a limitation upon them, to renounce deal-
ings with the 'many' and the 'great' per se and to occupy ourselves
with magnitudes and multitudes of limited and known extent.
It is in this sense, as opposed to p.ly<lJo< and ".XijlJo<, that Nicoma-
chus employs the terms TO 1f7jX{KOV (1f7jXUCOT1/<) and TO ".OCTOV ("'00"01"1)<),
whichmay be translated' quantity' and I number.' Furthermore, aswill
be seen, the latter is practically synonymous with number (&'p,lJp.o<),
since the latter is defined as 'limited multitude.' In this account of
the fundamentals of arithmetic, it is evident that Nicomachus is follow-
ing Aristotle, although the terminology of the two differs.
Aristotle's words are sufficient evidence. "The term 'quantum'
is used of that which may be divided into components, whereof either
or each is naturally one thing or this thing (Le., an individual thing).
A quantum is multitude if it can be numbered, and a magnitude if it
can be measured. And that is called a multitude which is potentially
divisible into non-continuous things; a magnitude, into continuous.
Of magnitude, that which is continuous in one direction is length;
1 Introduction,!. 2. 4; here they are individuals, but in I. 2. s. genera; d. J. 16. 2; T1Jeologu,,",",
ArithmdiclU, p. 8, 21; p. 9, 28, 34
t b>.w. ,J-yo.s would be his expression; d. A..Xw, ,J-yf90l, bXwl .. Xij80l, p. 5, 7 (Hocb.).
and I. 14. I. Vlhat follows is based on I. 2. 5.
19',"011"""
PHILOSOPHY OF NUMBER
"3
in two, breadth; in three, depth. And of these, limited multitude is
number; length, a line; breadth, a surface; depth, a body." 1
Aristotle's term TO 1J'OO'ov is used in a different sense; it is quantum,
a general term, and not limited multitude. But this is the only seri-
ous difference. Magnitude and multitude per se are p.<ydlo< and
in both autbors, and limited multitude ap,lIp.rk Aristotle
does not call limited magnitude, TO '"IA;"OV, as Nicomachus does, but
uses rather the specific names body, surface, and line, and he prefers
to mean 'continuous,' Dot These points
of variation are, however, very slight, and to offset them we can point
to parallels in Aristotle to the doctrine that magnitude and multitude
are infinite per se.' Altogether Nicomacbus's dependence on him is
obvious.
This division of objects into quantities and numbers, too, furnisbes
Nicomachus the basis for the determination of the subjects of the
sciences that treat of them, and the result is the qu<Uirivium, a term ap-
parently first used by Boethius and famous throughout the Middle
Ages.' Each half.of the field claims two sciences; numbers absolute
or per se belong to arithmetic; numbers in their mutual relations,
to music i geometry treats of quantity at rest, and astronomy of quan
tity in motion. As a matter of fact, the first two at least of these
1 Metaphysica, IV, 13, 1020 a. 7 if.: W"lW6' ),i")'fTlll,,6 lluupt'TO!>' .I, il'VrQPXoI"TCI., w. bU!Trpo.
"'UTO" II' 1'1 ..01 THr '1'1 ..I4'vlt;o ,1.-_ r>"ij80f id" oli. rCl(l"6" TI la. dplt1$J..ytrlJ" D' 1/ ib
l"TP"fTb w >'i'yrTlll U TO !UU,otTIJI' """ .$UI rlr 1; It'lI"Xii. IAry,80, crv""xij'
I"Y/80v, 'j Id. It; t. crv"'Xlr /AijlfOI. Tb " br/ ''''' ">'41'0'. I' 1..1Tpla. fJ4fJof. TcWTW. l5l
..>'ij80, Id. ..ty'p4UT,dPfJ' d,p<fJ,.4I, P.ijKO' "pI',up,j, ..>'41'01 Jj I... t;cbfl 11d,80, 6l crW,lolll.
1 Cr. following Aristotelian passages: J/ttaplrysira, IOS4 a. 22, Tb Id. ,.ap 4 "'P'JI}liIlO' f)
JICUptTo. ..>'ij,6, 1'1 >.ry.nl. CL ibid. lors b 36; Plrysita, 233 a. 11, ,J,.,Io. 4 IIfTI n"'X/r
..,.>'.; De Catlo, 268 a. 4 ff.; CaJtlrwiae, 4 b 20, "'oii 6l ..ocroii }Ii.I.n IIWJHII'JI/ Id. olo.dJH8-
Ilk K.I >.6,.0', 'lIwXl, U oln ,.,.,up,j, 1...t;d...UI, II'wp.&. . . In $utus Empiricus, Ad,"sJlS
J/atJu1PUJII'tOS, IV, J, 1''' ..ocr" is divided into ,J-yflo, in continuous things (n...xij) and dpc#-
iD discrete ("fcrTWTa.).
I Cf. J/tllJplrysiea, 1066 b 7: In .. Wi I.&ixnal Kd .liT" .1.......lpO'. rl Kal dpt,p}Jr Kd
",",10" W...,"', 1'6 4r.lpO'; loSS b 24: liTijPXf,.., ......1 "''''pI'.JI/". ..>'ijla" If 0& a.I Fn"t'.
I/'OU" ...1 TO; 1..0,' Irrl U 11"10' ab!'...>'ijlo, .tal ..>'ijh, ,bIlPD" Cf. also De Codo,
271 b J3 fJ. But no actually existent object in these can be infinite: JltltJplrynu,
Jo66 b 18: ..>.>.' """TO. 1""'MXd, o. b.lpO' .....0. ,..., ""''''''; similarly Plr,SKG,
204 a 28
Cr. Gow, Bislary DJ Grt MGlllemalia (Cambridge, 1884), p, 7J, n. I. The division of the
6tld in Tbeon of Smyma, p. 'S, IJ ff. (Hiller), is different: (a) arithmetic; (b) i.e.,
plane gtOrntUy; (c) stereometry, or solid (d) astronomy ('crT,...pJo), concerned
witb movinglOlidl. Besides these four, music deals with" the movement, order, and harmony of
the moving stars"; elerIlC'Otary harmony - the theory of the concords, etc.,-
is attacbed to arithmetic. that means astronomy, not stereometry, in Nicoma
aut; d. the further references in I. J. 7; S. 2 and Philoponw on the latter passage.
definitions are arbitrary and artificial, and in practice Nicomachus
disregards them, discussing in a long section of the I ntrodmtWn relative
number,' which should fall under music, and furthermore treating
numbers in another part of the book after the fashion of geometrical
planes and solids' Nicomachus held, and demonstrated at length,
that arithmetic is the fundamental and indispensable science, the
basis of all the others.'
Nicomachus now comes to the formal, threefold definition of num-
ber.' In the first place, he states, number is 'limited multitude,'
wptuP.VOJl; secondly, it is' a combination of monads,' p,ollclOwv
o-rXrrqp.a.; and thirdly, 'flow of number, composed of monads,' 71'00'0-
'"fT0< XV/La.lK /Lo.aS",. cnryKEi/LE.O.. The first of these is identical with
that which has already been defined as the subject of scientific study
in the realm of multitude j it is equivalent to 7TOUOV, 7Tocran,rt, and has
already been translated 'number.' Aristotle had stated his defini-
tion of number in approximately these terms,' and Eudoxus also is
reported to have adopted it.' According to this definition number is
simply a species of the genus multitude, with the differentia limitation.
Of the nature of this limitation Nicomachus has nothing to say, al-
though some explanation is really necessary.
In his second definition Nicomachus agrees with Theon of Smyma '
and if we are to regard the testimony of Iamblichus on the point, the
definition was as old as Thales and was derived by him from Egyptian
sources.
8
This, too, comes closest of the three to Euclid's definition,
TO be fLOIlcl.8wlI cnryKf.{JLEVOII
The third definition has no exact parallels; the second definition
given by Theon perhaps comes closest to it, "the advance of multi-
tude beginning with the monad and its retreat ending in the monad"
(
t''' "(J ., ., \. 'i:' "
,"P01TOOI.Up.or; 7TATJ our; Q.1TO p,ovaoor; apX0p.EVor; Ka(, alla7TOOl.up.or; E.. 1t
J4ova.8a lCaTaX7}Ywv), and this in turn was practically identical with
I I. 17 - H. S, and H. 21 to the end (the latter dealing with proportions).
t 11.6-17.
t I. 4-5.
4 Introduction, I. 7. J. Heath, Hulory, vol. I, p. 69.
I rAi}Ior . .,1I rfrfp4l1lliJ,OJl Metaphysica, IV. rJ.
lI'Ai790r wpurp.iltOIf, according to Iamblichus, In Nicumadli InlroduaiuMm, p. 10,
18 (Pistelli).
T P. 18,3 fI. (Hiller) .
Iamblichus, p. 10,8--10. Euclid's definition is found in the Ek",uus, VII, def.::. Aristoxenus
used a definition like Euclid's, according to the fragment of his nfpl in Stobaeus,
EdorlU I, Prooe",. 6, vol. I, p. ::0, I (eel. WachsmuthHense - Diels, Fragmtnk tier Vorsoh'a.-
tiktr, P, p. 346. ::) .
19',"011"""
"S
the expression used by Moderatus of Gades, the Pythagorean.' Of
the three, this is the most truly Pythagorean, and it evidently has
reference to that conception of number as a stream, moving out from
the monad, of which more will he said later.
The number which Nicomachus has just defined and which is dealt
with in the In/rodm/ion is the 'scientific' number, and not, as the
previous discussion has shown, to be identified with the conceptual
number which was the basis of creation.' It is a matter of regret that
there is nowhere a full explanation of the relation between these two
numbers, and furthermore, that Nicomachus left without discussion
here two subjects treated at some length by Theon of Smyrna,' the
monad and its counterpart, one, and the distinction between numbers
and numerable things a p d J p o ~ ap,8p..",-aj. On these subjects we
are reduced almost to conjecture.
As that of which every number is made up, and that into which it
can be reduced ultimately by analysis,' the monad and the dyad are
singled out by Nicomachus as the elements of number. This may seem
strange, for the very definition of 'element' demands that it should be
something ultimate, incapable of further analysis, and the dyad, which
is twice 1, does not, apparently, answer this requirement. Even on
Nicomachus's own statement this can be alleged, for in certain pas-
sages he clearly enough says that the dyad comes from the doubling of
the monad,' or that all numbers are made up of monads,' while on the
other hand he often refers in the Inlroduction to the dyad, as well as
to the monad, as an element of number.' Yet this must be regarded
as only a minor inconsistency, for it is certain that the dyad was ele-
mentary according to his system of numbers, and the reason can be
determined.
Stobann, Edo,at: I, Prooe"., 8, vot. I. p. 21 (00, Wachsmuth-HellSe).
1 See p. 93-
P. 18, J - 21,19 (Hiller).
This is Nicomachus's definition of . element,' 11. t. t.
See Imroduaitffl, U. 17.1 (p. 109,6 H.), and the division of 2 into :I unities, as I. 8. 4-S. Even
in the Thtologumeno Arilhmtticeu:, where for the most part the dyad is spoken of as elementary,
it is implied that the monad produces it; e.g., p. 6 (Ast): "Id !ud!Of "yap rapt"".,.ld/ !.a;oP't6t'icra;.
Cl. also the passages where the dyad and other numbers are tbought of as progressing out of the
monad; p. 116, with n. 2.
Ibid., I. 7. 1 (the definition of number); 8, 2; 10 (p. 16, 16 H.'; 11,3; 11. 6. 2-3; 7.3. Cr.
also such expressions as lha>'1I6.$(J"I)f fCl .'&OJ'Allaf, 11. 8. 1 and the following chapters. I. It. 3 is
particularly instructive.
7 Ibid., 11. r. I; 17. 2; 18. J, 4. The important passages of the Theologur7KM A,ithmetiClU will
be cited in the follo....'ing discussion.
1I6
An explanation of the matter may be sought along two similar lines
of argument which finally fuse. According to the first, one may re-
gard the monad and the dyad as the sources, origins or beginnings
(apx"t) of number, and in the second place, as its elements (<TTO'X'''')'
Nicomachus's method of approach along the first line is graphic and
depends somewhat upon the help of geometry and its fundamental
conceptions
I
In geometry we begin with the point, which is indimen-
sional. This is the beginning of the first dimensional form, the line,
and by movement the point generates the line. Now Nicomachus
had a similar idea of the nature of multitude and number; they form
a series, as it were a moving stream, which proceeds out of unity, the
monad' Just as the point is not part of the line (for it is indimensional,
and the line is defined as that which has one dimension), but is poten-
tially a line, so the monad is not a part of multitude nor of number,
though it is the beginning of both, and potentially both.' The monad
is unity,' absence of multitude, potentiality; out of it the dyad first
separates itself and' goes forward' 6 and then in succession follow the
other numbers. Now all this concerns the monad far more than the
dyad, and in fact it is the former which Nicomachus distinguishes as the
apX'1 par excellence; the dyad is rather' like a beginning,' apxo..8>j. 7
I What follows is substantially the argument of [,urodtutitm. n, 6. 3 8'.
t This, with the kindred idea that I contains all the numbers potentially, is why the monad is
identified with the chaos of Hes.iOO, l( or. .,.1\ "",rA c:., be JloO"'llor, Arithmdicae, p. 6
(Ast). Cr. ibid., p. 11, 22 ff.: 61'1 rJ/41/M'If ... IIl11ilh, w, d... ."ijr Io'O"Uor,
If,.' 4ncpoJ' ,U 1'0070 IICcd 31C1lpi!'iTCIl Irlll d'ffTI.
I It was a well-known principle in antiquity that the beginning of a thing is not the thing itself:
cf. n. 6. 3. Although here it is distinctly stated that the monad is not d,pt8iJn, and in TJti:oJ0KU-
mt'M p. 1J (cited, n. 6), that it is not r"-'i8os, still in one passage of this work,
p. J8, I I., it is called rovol'''l: 'V.,.I'Y4p rovol'.,.1 IMJI>4S nl.a.e' 1a.V1'o p.o"w"a."'OI'
"fpaillOl' n! c1J",,8ws opCl"oJ'. But it is at least certain that a special kind of rO/16l' is here referred
to, and the passage would also suggest that to Nkomachus 'l'M}80s connotes always plurality.
TluoloKUrMM Arnhmetuae, p. 8: T'iS IMJl'dllos '_1nl' IlIfMDlr!fS. Every thing is called
onc' in accordance with it, ibid. See page 103. The monad is indivisible: IttI,OOUdiOl'l, 1. 8,
4-5; 10, 2.
I The monad potential number: Tluologumt'M p. 6, 9 H.; p. 13, bottom, p. J7.
Potentially all the forms of number; ibid., p. 3; 4, 22; 5, 15.31, etc. In the 1""OOuditm, d.
1.16.8; 9.2,3; 10.2; J4.J; 153; 171
, TheologfltP"na ArillsrMlicae, p. 13; &n IJ Id" p.ol'4r .,.oii ra.l'TOs dplfJp.oii "b'yoJ' ci/lItl.TWIoITOI', 'n
1 d,/luipSpIoITol' ills II' lrrippo.rl II' i.IITD txn, IJ 11",:1.1 "u ht' d.txfJJAiJI' ..poxwPfltlu, o().
4l'TI.pl1f III TeNI'm." /luk TO d.pxon/lls, Ti0S ,n .,.lIJ' Tifs p.ol'ci/los /lDJfII,lU1' fis l"'nna.1' 1 hl..,.lIlTu
rOlfl. Cr. also the de5ignation of the dyad as 'daring,' a common arithmological
topic (see p. 15): 'Y4p if/l17 1..1.. (TluologumettG A,iJlsmetiau, p. 7)
7 Theologumena AriJhmeticac, p. IS: c1.pxll n,,' I"'nna., cl.ixfJp.ofJ IJ TPIOI p.ol"li/lw, lrlllrT'Ii,&l&.,.1
Opll"DJAil'OV' /olOI'l:l.l Idl' 'Yap Tp6'I'OJ' "1l'0 " "ds "la TO ciPXOfI"'S, ....:otTT",,", ,,# p.ol'd.llos .ca.1 lltlCl30r "
.,.puk, ..pWT-.". Cl. the preceding Dote. The monad alone mentioned. as clflx'li, [,1/'00'"#011,
1.8.2; n.63; 73.
19',"011"""
II7
For in the progress out of unity into multitude, he states, we do not
encounter an actual number until we come to the triad 1 and the dyad
is neither one thing nor the other,2
The real grounds for this notion are not easy to grasp in the frag-
mentary state of the evidence. It does not seem to be a conclusive
reason that the dyad cannot be divided, like other even numbers, into
both equal and unequal parts,3 nor that whereas I, as the element and
origin, gives a sum greater than its product (r + r > r X r), and true
numbers characteristically give a product greater than their sum (e.g.,
3 X 3 > 3 + 3), the product of 2 by 2 is equal to the sum of 2 + 2,
thus constituting 2 a middle ground between unity and multitude.'
These are both alleged; but a more fundamental reason in the eyes of
Nicomachus seems to be that real numbers must have form (.ISo,)
and arrangement Of, as he othenvise puts it, be a real' combi-
nation' (crVUTT)/'oa) of monads; and the dyad fails in all these particu-
lars, while the triad satisfies the conditions.
As Nicomachus says, U Each thing in the world is cone' in accordance
with the natural and systematizing monad in it, and again everything
is separable so far as it partakes of the dyad, connected with necessity
and matter; wherefore first their congress produced the first multi-
tude, the element of things, which would be a triangle, whether of
magnitudes or numbers, bodily or bodiless. For as rennet curdles
flowing milk by its peculiar creative and active faculty, so the unifying
force of the monad advancing upon the dyad, source of easy movement
and breaking down, infixed a bound, and a form, that is, number, upon
the triad; for this is the beginning of actual number, defined by com-
binations of monads. But the dyad too is a monad, because of its
beginning-like nature." 6
1 Cr. the preceding
'Cr. Theologll"lcmJ Arithmtficac, p. 13 (dted p. 116); p. 9: ISTI .. "'pld6a.
.,.ou T' KCl.,.a .wml.oa ou.b a" tfl1.
S Ibid., p. 11: OliK ol 11 ov,h oliU IIpTlor, 6T1 ..lir IIpTlor ut f",aKal
lI"ura 0 p.6"11 U 11 ovAr fir 1I",,,,a oli/l: ,b J.'ofp,,,,fJfl.,,, ut fir r",a /U".",thiaa
111111"0", 6JrOTipoII ..,i,.gvs atiTA ws T'f olitra.. Cr. the argument of JlurodlutiQIl, I. S. 1-2,
that the monad is the source because it is half of one number adjacent to it, whereas other num
bers are the half of the 1wo adjacent terms.
4 Theologllmena ArilhnutillJ(, p. Q. Another argument somewhat of the same character is
that of one or two objects we sa}" I"u::d, 6l1i'Kd, but of three, not Tp''''''''''d., but simply ..X'tfivI'T'Kd
(ibid., p. IS, 21 fr.).
, Ibid., p. 8 (Ast): ", id" oli" 'KaITTO" 'TI i" KOcrP.lj,l TlI" i" q.v""d",
6,alpfT,h' lil ..d.XI)- "'aITTO", K011' &'-0" Kat uX'/l:ijs olldoos lUTi"'Xf' 1i,6"fp 1) ..p'::""7J
all0'060r ClVT<;i" "PWTO" ,,"ijl9os d. ..fTi},f",t. a ff."
'Tf .fl:ClI Tf KClI dir",}J.liTIIW ws 'YAp " 'Yd},a ITII"'Tpfr/Jn KClTA
19',"011"""
,
1I8 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
The dyad has no form, and the triad has, for the dyad, as' otherness,'
is infinite: "It appears also to be the 'infinite,' since it is the lother,'
and this beginning with the next to one goes on to infinity." 1 It is
"without arrangement, for from the triangle and the triad the actual
polygonals to an infinite number of sides advance; but no plane figure
was ever composed of two straight lines or two angles j so it is in ac-
cord with this alone that we have the 'undefined' and 'without ar-
rangement.'" 2 One further factor to be taken into consideration
is that the triad is the first to show what Nicomachus calls' natural
sequence,' that is, the possession of beginning, middle, and end. As
such, it is the idea of completeness, and the dyad fails to measure up
to its standard.'
The second mode of demonstration, based on the elementary charac-
ter of the monad and the dyad, is more satisfactory, and has already
been foreshadowed in the discussion of Nicomachus's philosophy.
There it was seen that the monad and the dyad were actually identi-
fied with' sameness' and 'otherness,' 4. that is, they are not so much
numbers themselves as forms which are impressed upon numbers and
things. If we put the matter on the basis of the Aristotelian logic of
which Nicomachus is so fond, it becomes evident that they are not
true numbers (lV<fyYEI<f, lVTE>"EXE'lf) but only forms, and as the sources
of numbers, they are themselves potential numbers (avva!",,).
The frequent occurrence of these terms makes it allowable to take
this view. Furthermore, the analysis of numbers shows in them the
presence of the monad and dyad, 'sameness' and 'otherness,' as
elements. The chief instances mentioned by Nicomachus are the odd,
square, and cubic numbers, which are characterized by 'sameness,'
and the even and heteromecic numbers, which display 'otbemess.'
'l'onlTld.. Tf 11;111 JP'Ya.tTTlIC/) .. oVrwr '9 i,.WTIKlI T;jr ,uG",UOI, T'i 4todlh. fWo-.
plru ,ud }"lIn"'t O':;d!! 11''1''1'" ,UOt 61, 3np IdTIJ' d.pdJpin. Tf Tpui6. t!,oX;..,Ap II:GT'
IHnr14J' t!p4fJp.oiJ GVr'l. JO.a.a",J' d ..... oplCbpiJ'ov. poJf4t U TpOrOJ' TIJ'l\ lI:aJ 'IJ aVat 6la TO

I Ibid., p. J I: &TI 61 II:GI TO 4,..rl,OOJ' tfJcUPrTGl, rt..,r XGI TO frrpoJ', TOVTO 6i d.ro Toii rmp' h
rir r"po"
t Ibid., p. 11: &TI 'IJ avar 9'aEHTGI r(rrp 411'0 piJ' Tpl..,I11JtOv II:GI TplCUOt Ta 111"
ilrrlpClJ' ro}"t}-yWJ'G rpoxwpri, If{ ai po.a.60t 11'0.,6 iJp.oil XGTa aoJ'Q,lI.(" lord.PXtI. ;""0 6i a-too olln
rHrl':;J' rOTr ollar "'1oI"':;J' diJu..,papp.op dvl'ltrTGT1I1 dXii,lol4' XGTa }4O"'l' ilpa TO d.6PldTO' ut
UXtlj.td. TIITTOP.
IlbUJ. p. 14: ITI 61 XGI ..cidG o':""IG 'XOIldG llpovl Ix" Tprit. dpx'lf",
TrMvr'lj". olo, xa.l JAldO". 6IGO'T'Ij,lol4TG olo, f{GI tfJfJldl", WTr pJ" 61'lio301 tfJ':""IP
/l'GI TO IX4Trpo' IJU/laC...dfJGI TU Tpuial TW' ..rpdTWP. See also ibid., p. 15. top. er. the explana-
tion of this by Moderatus of Gades, p. 103.
See p. 100.
19',"011"""
119
The reason why the odd and even have these qualities, as stated by
Nicomachus,
l
is that 'their species are formed' (fl801TOl.EW8at.) by
the monad and dyad respectively,' The squares and cubes, on the
one hand, and the heteromecic numbers, on the other, receive' sameness'
and 'otherness' from the fact that their composition is dependent upon
the odd and even numbers, and, furthermore, they show it either in
the equality of their sides, aT, in the case of the heteromecic numbers,
in their inequality,' The cubes in a special sense are the product of
odd numbers, and partake of 'sameness 1 to an even greater extent:
1
The elements, then, of these series are the monad and dyad, and, as we
have seen, they are practically identified with forms.
But after all the dyad is never quite on a level with the monad as
an element; a minor indication of the feeling of Nicomachus is seen in
his rather condescending remark that it is ' a monad in a sense' and in
his designation 'beginning-like' for it.' For at bottom it is the monad
that is the real beginning of the number series. It is that which' re-
mains,' ever the same itself and in mathematical operations conferring
the same persistence upon other numbers; 6 the monad too is poten-
tially all numbers.' It has already been noted that the numerical
series is compared to a moving stream, progressing out of the monad,
which occupies the place of a point, and in the first movement going on
to the dyad, which introduces' otherness' after the absolute unity of
the monad.' The movement then extends to the triad, the first true
I See Tnt,odfldion, H. 17. 2, and lamblichus, Tn Nicomahi A,iJhmok:am Tnt,odudioMm
Lihrr, p. 12. 26 ft. Though Nicomachus does not mention the matter, it wa... an old Pythag-
orean notion that the' odd ' and' even' were finite and infinite respectively because the one re-
sists, the other admits, dichotomy: Simplicius, Physica AIt.JwltaJio, p. 105 a: Ou,.OI 61
4.. flpol' .,.b 4pnol' dp181JiJ .. I),f')'O", ,...ii. /101,. 4PTlO,.. "r ocI ftr (1T1l
al fir (1T0. a,lUpo!lJUi'Ol' 4..fipO" KIl.,.a The behavior of 'odd' and' even' in ad-
dition and multiplication was also observed.
, Int,oduction, 11. 17. 2; 18. I, 4; 20. 2. The reason why the' odd ' is' given specific form' by the
monad seems to be at least partly accounted for by definition of the' odd ' (I. 7. 2); whereas 2 is
always a factor of the 'even.' Furthermore numbers were first in the two classes, though
there was some dispute over this point, and seem to embody' oddness' and' evenness' in the same
way as ' sameness' and 'otherness.'
I Squares: [,u,odudio", n. 17. J; 18. J; heteromecic numbers, ibid., and n. 18. I.
4 Ibid., n. 20. s. 'Sec p. 116. with notes 6 and 7.
IT"t,odlldion,H. 6. J; 17.4; ThtoJoglfmcna A,j,h17U:,kar., p. J, 2 ft. It is to be noted
and were technical terms in Nco-Platonic theology to describe the unchanging existence
of God; cf. Plotinu!O. En'lfUdn, I. 7. I, and the Christian application of the same term in Augustine,
De GeneJi ad LilJeram, IV. 18. .}4. The Nco-pythagorean doctrine of the monad probably plays
a part in the development of this idea. ? See p. 116, n. 5
Thtol0tumena Arilhmdicae, p. 8, J I : dpx1S 'rf II'ctl ... Wind "11t .,00 nfpofladar
1I'a..,' fld_ iiA1I1 j Tnt,odudiMI, H. J7. 5: nfp6'r..,.,ol IUU'lIpllTlK1S.
Iq,noll"""
number, and so on to the deead, which in a sense repeats the monad.
1
That is, it has the functions in the series 10, 20, 30 . . . 100 which
the monad has in the series I, 2, 3 ... 10, and all the terms between
10 and 100 are made up of components from these two series singly or
in combination. The series goes on still further, with 100, 1,000,
and 10,000 successively assuming the position of the monad in their
respective series or courses, and because of this they were called by the
Pythagoreans umonads of the second, third, etc., courses." The
Pythagoreans, it may also be remarked, did not recognize that r2, for
example, might be made the end of the first series precisely as well as
10; they were convinced that IQ was divinely and naturally consti-
tuted as the climax of the series and that no other could vie with it.
It was an instance of the operation of 'nature' as opposed to 'human
convention' - a contrast which Nicomachus is fond of pointing out 1
- and evidenced by man's possession of ten fingers and toes, by the
ten categories and the ten forms of relative number.'
In this movement of number from the monad Nicomachus pictures
its advance by steps, or places (xwpa,), occupied by the successive
terms (opo,) or number; for number, it will be remembered, is the
property of the discrete. The number system is thus based on the
integers, and Nicomachus does not consider zero a part of it.' The
beginning of the series is I, for although I and 2 are not really num-
bers at all, they begin the numerical series, and we find Nicomachus
constantly using them in exactly the same way as the others.
Furthermore, the numerical series is 'by marvellous and divine
nature I a harmony, that is, {a unification of the diverse and a concord
of the disagreeing." All harmonies have to be constructed out of
opposites, and in number these are of course the 'same' and the 'other'
as seen especially in the odd and even numbers and in their derivatives.
The odd and the even give evidence at the very start of the harmonious
construction of the whole system by their occurrence in alternate places
in the natural series' The harmony of the numbers, which is of course
I For number as a moving stream, cf. p. 116. On the' monads of the courses' and the Pythag.
orean decimal system. d. I. 19. 17 and note ad loe.
1 CL Introduction, I. 6. 4; 23. 1; H. 3. :l; 17.::; rhco!ogu1Mtla Arithmcliau, p. 3, :lS (Ast)
The only reference in the bdroductum to the sacredness of the dttad is n. :.12. I; but compare
the ThtoloKlmuna Arithmdiau throughout the chapter on the decad.
t The only reference to zero in the Introduction is in H. 6. J, and here it is not a tenn.
This is a quotation from Philolaus cited in n. 19. J. Most of the data. upon the bannonyof
the natural series will be found in 1. 6. 2 ft.
'InJrodU(;tiQn, I. 6. 4.
19',"011"""
PHILOSOPHY OF NUMBER 12I
to Nicomachus evidence of the harmony of the universe, displays it-
self in all sorts of regularities, observed in the relations of numbers;
those which Nicomachus delights to point out as proofs of the' good
order,' 1 'friendship' and 'cooperation' 2 of numbers are for the most
part the inflexible workings of rules, and the observation that numbers
of certain specific characters occur at stated intervals either in the
natural series or in some other regularly constituted group derived from
it, as, for example, the odd numbers or the doubles.' The discovery
of other facts must have assisted the Pythagorean mathematicians
greatly in their belief in harmony, for instance, the discovery of the
musical concords in the first few numbers of the natural series and
in the numbers of the sides, edges, and angles of the cube.'
Harmony, however, must be founded not on a series of opposites
only, but upon opposites which are not irrational to one another,fi
This requirement is met by the numbers of the natural series. They
have certain fixed relations to one another, capable of expression and
definition, which Nicomachus studies under the head of relative
number.' The fundamental relation of any two terms is equality
with one another; 7 other relations will vary to one side or the other,
and numbers will exceed or be exceeded by one another according to
the various ratios. We may leave to Nicomachus himself the exposi-
tion of this subject, though it may be remarked that he gives an in-
adequate definition of ratio'
Another characteristic of numbers, which does not concern their
mutual relations so much as themselves absolutely, is their ability,
according to the ideas of Nicomachus, to conform to geometrical ar-
rangements' Fundamentally this rests upon the definition of number
as a combination of monads, and the further assumption that the
constituent monads of any term are capable of arrangement
Granting this, the arrangements may be either linear, plane or solid,
and may imitate any of the figures recognized by geometry. An ex-
I See tVrlll(llll, ffn-a.KTO' in Hochc'$ index.
I/nl,odllction, n. 19. 1.
J Instances of this sort are found in those se<:tions where Nicomachus describes the
of certain types of numbers, e.g., the multiples, I. 18. 4 H. The regular comparison of terms be-
tween two series certain types or ratio in regular order; d. I. IQ. 8 fi.
t TllfrOOl/eliolt, 11. 15.4; 26.2, on the musical concords as discovered in the cube. Arithmo-
logical writers point out that 4 includes the chief harmonies.
i Ibid., I. 6. 3. 7 Ihid., I. 23. 6; II. I. 1-2.
I Ibid., I. 17. and following: chapters. Ibid., 11. 2r. 3; see the note ad IIX,
I Ibid., H. 6 ff., treats of plane and solid numbers.
Iq,noll"""
ample of this sort of thinking has already been met, implicit in the
statement that the triad bas beginning, middle, and end, which can
have no meaning unless it implies that the triad is to be regarded as
a linear arrangement of three monads, I I 1.
1
Numbers of this sort
are called linear (ypap.p.IKoi, H. 6. I). But these three monads can be
as easily arranged in two dimensions as in one, and then they will
form a triangle, :., and the same can be done with any of the
numbers which are summations of the natural series from I to
any given term. The triangular number is the elementary form of
the plane number, just as the triangle is the element of plane figures
in general; , but the numbers are capable also of arrangements in the
form of squares, pentagons and all the regular polygons, as well as in
the form of parallelograms of all kinds. Furthermore, if a third
dimension be added, and the monads grouped in more than one plane,
all sorts of solid numbers can be constructed.
One further point remains to be emphasized, namely, that the Py-
thagoreans could not regard numbers in the cold, impartial manner of
the modern mathematician and that Nicomachus is at one with them
in this. Numbers are the sources of form and of energy in the world;
they are dynamic, active even on their own fellows; hence they con-
vey to one another qualities and sometimes take on an almost human
character in their capabilities for mutual influence. We have already
noted that the monad donates 'sameness,' equality, and permanence,
the dyad 'otherness' and inequality. In addition, the perfect numbers
are compared to good things and are therefore few, while the 'super-
abundant' and 'deficient,' like vices and bad things, are many.' The
decad possesses a different type of perfection, but one which distin-
guishes it even more.
All this is significant of a type of thinking that endows numbers
with qualities which are not in any sense mathematical, regarding some
as better or worse,' younger or older' than others, and allowing them
I See p. 105. A similar conception is implied in the definition in I. 7. 2. It may be Doted that
the dyad is called "'x1t}&llTll' 4JU1lpo,. T1uolo&umma Aritl""dkae, p. 8.
'l.uroducJion. 11. 7.4, Si 12.8; TheolofU...-a AriJhmelkae, pp. 8,18. For a rather full
sketch of the further development of polygonal numben the reader is referred to the chapter on
"Polygonal, Pyramidal and Figurate Numbers," in L. E. Dickson's HistMy DJ ,Iu TIJeDryof
NufJtbers. vol. 11 (Camegie Institution, Washington, 1920), pp. I-J9.
I IttkodudU,1J, I. cc. 14-16.
, Ibid., I. 2J." implies that equality is better' as well as older' than inequality.
In ibid., I. 19. 8, 14, the multiple is shown to be older' than the 5uperparticular. More
original' isdoubUess the fundamental idea; but by' older' the Greek also connotes' more honored.'
19',"011"""
1'3
to transmit characters, like parents to their progeny.! As a conse-
quence, there is found in the Introduction a tendency to classify in
groups of three, which has been noted by the historians of mathe-
matics; indeed we read in the Tlteologumena Aritltmeticae that the
number 3 seems to influence the science of arithmetic greatly because
of the threefold classifications found there' That such a treatment
of numbers is to be found in the Theologltmena Aritltmeticae is not at
all surprising, but the Introduction itself is not by any means free from
it, and though the modern reader may find such procedure unscien-
tific, it lends the charm of quaintness to the book.
I lntrodudion, I. 2J. 6 (equality is the 'mother and root' of inequality); I. 4. I (arithmetic is
the 'mother' of geometry, etc.).
1 The%fu11t(na Arilhmetiwe, p. IS. 23 ft. (Ast).
19',"011"""
CHAPTER IX
TRANSLATORS AND COMMENTATORS OF NICOMACHUS
JUDGED by the standards of the mathematician, Nicomachus can-
not rank with the leaders of the science even as it was known in an-
tiquity; estimated, however, by the number of his translators, scho-
liasts, commentators, and imitators, he is undoubtedly one of the most
influential. From his own day until the sixteenth century, among
the Greeks, the Latins, and the Arabs, there was scarcely a place
where he was not honored as an aritrunetician, or a time when learned
men failed to regard his work as the basis of the science.
It is the I ntroduttion to Arithmetic that won him this glory; the
Manual of Harmany helped, for the scribes of medieval times made
many copies of it, but this never became as celebrated as the other.
Nor, it should be added, was the Geometrical Introduction valued so
highly; no copies of it survive, no references are made to it by name,
1
save by Nicomachus himself. In geometry Euclid reigned supreme,
and if Nicomachus's name is coupled with his, it is with the under-
standing that the former is first in geometry, the latter in arithmetic.
Perhaps the accident of having lived just when he did is responsible
in some measure for Nicomachus's great popularity; had the Middle
Ages been so generously endowed as the time of the Alexandrian
mathematicians or the Renaissance with the spirit of independent
inquiry and the genius to carry it out, he would not have occupied his
exalted place. As it was, however, the classic arithmetica which he
represents ruled almost exclusively.
Nicomachus was introduced to the Roman world not long after his
death - perhaps even during his life - by Apuleius of Madaura,
who is said by Cassiodorus and by Isidore of Seville to have been the
first to translate the Intraduction into Latin.' This translation has
1 Introdttdion, TI. 6. 1.
I Cassiodorus, De A,tiblls ac Disdplinis LiberaJium Littcrarum, Migne, PaJrologia Latina.
val. LXX, p. 1208 A,-B j Isidore of Seville, Elymologilu, Migne, Palrologia LaJilUJ, val. LXXXII.
p. 155-
".
19',"011"""
TRANSLATORS AND COMMENTATORS
disappeared without leaving a trace, as far as we know, and the De
lnstilutitme Arithmeliea of Boethius,' which is, as the author frankly
admits, a version of the Nicomachean Introduction, became and re-
mained the source through which the Latin-speaking portion of the
world knew Nicomachus. This book is discussed in the later part of
the present chapter. The Arabs learned of Nieomachus and his arith-
metic through TMbit ibn Qorah (836-<)01 A.D.), whose translation of
parts of the Introdmtion is extant in manuscript fann.'
Another sign of the popularity of Nicomachus is the large accumu-
lation of scholia associated with the manuscripts of his lntrodw:tion
to Arithmetic. Most important of these is the collection written by
Johannes Philoponus of Caesarea, the grammarian and theologian of
the sixth century, who is best known from his Aristotelian commen-
taries and his treatise on the creation of the world. The scholia on
Book I were published by Hoche (Leipzig, 1864), together with a
scholium of Theodorus Protocensor, but those on Book 11 are not as
yet edited. This collection is reported by Hoche to exist, in two re-
censions, in the Gottingen, Hamburg, and Giessen manuscripts, which
he consulted j it also exists in an Oxford manuscript and in one pre-
served at the Escurial.' Philoponus was not enough of a mathemati-
cian to add anything of value to the subject-matter of Nicomachus,
and his scholia are by no means so important as the commentary by
Iamblichus, which will be discussed later. Other scholia, by Soterichus
and by unnamed writers, have been found in the manuscripts and pub-
lished ;' of unpublished material, the scholia of Asc1epius of Tralles,
reported to exist in a manuscript at the Escurial, promise the greatest
interest.
5
1 Ed. G. Friedlein, Leipzig, 1867.
'Hochc, p. ix; Suter, Die MafhemaJilttr und Ast,orwm.!n tier Araber und ill" Waie, in Ab-
1J41td1ungcll %141' Gcsc/rid,lc dcr malhemaJischen IVisscnsc/wflrn (LeipUg, 1900), vol. X, pp. 35. 37;
Arabic manuscript in the British MUf>eum, 426,15.
1 er. Hochc, p. viii; H. O. Caxe, CaJologr,s Codkum .uanusc"ptorllm Qlli in CoUtgiis AuJisqllt
O:umknsibus Hodit AdstrMntu" Oxford, 1852, "01. I, under Greek MSS of Lincoln College library,
No. XXXIII (a paper MS, of the beginning of the sixteenth century containing Nicomachus's
Im,odudwlI and Philoponus's scholia); MS X. I. 9 of the library of S. Lorenzo del Escurial (cf.
Charles Graux, Essai su, Its O,igiJUs du Fonds Cree de [,Escurial, Fase. 46 of BihliolhrqlU de
I' &olt MS HaIdes hUMS, Paris, 1880, p. 268) .
Hoche published the scholia of Soterichus, Elberfeld, 1871; Nobbe (Leipzig, 1828 and (862)
those of the NUmberg and Wolfenbo.ttel manuscripts, and Hoche (1863) those of the Giessen
manuscript.
Cf. Hoche, p. ix; Graux, op. cit. p. 267, on the Escurial MS numbered T. I. rl. The library
of New College, Oxford, has a 1\15 of the InJ,odudion 'cum glossulis' (cf. Coxe, op. W., \'01. I,
under No. CCXCIX of the New College MSS).
19',"011"""
NICOM,ACHUS 'OF GERASA
10f th,e co,mmentartes,1 the book [of Ianibl'ichus 1 is, the most impo,r-
tant, but oth,er w'orks olf ,a, similar nature are known to have existed.
There is still extant, fOlf example, an an"onymous Prolegromena, to' tire'
Introduction to Arithmetic of Nicomachus, \vhlch w,as publish,ed b1y
P. 'Tannery, b,ut co;nta'ins, little to interest e,ithrer the math,'e'm,atician
,or the histo'rian.
2
'It is reported that Proclus Pr,oclelus of Laodilcea
in S,yria, 'whol is ,not to be con,'fu'sed with Pr-oc'lus Diado"c'h,us, and a
certain Herona:s, of' the fourth ,o'r th'e fifth c1e'ntu,ry at latest., also wrote'
upon the, I nt,'odw;tion.,3
The list of co,mmentatorrs and sc.holiasts is, h.owever" not as long as,
that of the autho'rs infl.u1en.ced b,y Nicom,ac.hus. B,eginning 'with the
well-known names Olf Marti.anus CapeUa", Cassiod'orus, Is,idore of Seville,
land Micha,el Psellus, it in'cluldes Idozens of writers on arihmetic
the to, the sixteenth century who foll,owed him through the
me'dium IOf' Boethius. Of' th,ese som,ethi:ng will be said in the f'ollowing
chapter; fo,r the pr1esent we sh,al turn ou.r attention first to Iamblichu's"
and. then to Boeth'ius, ,the; two most not.eworthy of the f'olllowers of'
N' h '. le"0"'m- "'a' 'c us
'.' I, ;, .-,' , .. ,._
. c- .. ,.' ': _ :-'. _ ..
I
1- 'h- - 'h"-I' h .d" .. - li"fi' ,t.' . f C"'"hi 1
Pc.lOSOp_ er an, .prol 1c wrl'er" was ana' v'le 0 I." a eiS,
in 'Coele. Syria, w'hlch accounts for t'hle pride expr[essed fo,r his f.amo'us
cou.ntryman 'in his ICom,menta,y'. He lived in the fou.rth IClentury, al..
thou.gh his dates cannot be fixed exactly, and seems to have bleen
educated in Rome am,on,g Neo-Platon:ic after all.
were not far .r'lemoved from Neo-Pythagoreanism. At any rate: his
tastes led him tOI ascribe gr'eat influence the, .... orld to 'n'urn,bers, an,d
h
.. - . "hi-' h f- hi'I 'b" d b th- f
.. IlS Interest lD t.,.'sp1ase o. anCle,nt 'P I-OSOP -Iy IS Wltnesse __ .:y ,,'ac
1
that, b,es,ides writin,g on th,e .lnt,o,dtICtion, he, aso compiled a Life ,of
Py'thagora.$,. H,e is rep'uted also to be the ,author of the compilatiolD
edit.ed b1y Ast under ..he title Theologumena A"ithmeticu.,
His Comm,entary' is really a treatise on arithmetlc bas,e.d on th.e In-,
tT,odw;tion, that. is, a, work 'having the same: plan and 'Plu'rpo,se as, the
,Introduction itself j we might. perhaps call it a new edi.tion., I'D g,en-
,era] he follows the order set b,y N'i.co,machus and reproduces 'his ,ma-
tena-*'1 b
l
'ut has a"d1d,e',d" mal . 10-'y'" tb-' s .S:, "'0'm'e' ,Q"f'" t'hes' ,e a,m',''p'"li ... fj,c'a' .,' ti" -'0"n's-- ,I.' :, _.1 "I, . I .' . . '.' _.: .' I .,' . 1_ . ,'. '" '.' '_',_, '. ,-. ", ," ... _ _"._ '.
a,re merely further illu:strati.ve ,material and, ,D,ew ob':servatio'ns on the
- I N- l....! Ai .. il i1' I !L- (ed - pi!!
1' fJ ,nriI",,'setJM, "'uuudtt'lMJll, L'IUCr '.' . H,j lste. 1. 11
I ID his edi'uon of the works ,of Diop,hantus, v,o). 1'l
f
pp. 73-77-
On P'rocIUi, SUld.as Eutocius, Ad Arc .i._is S,btunJ et Cyli:rulro; 11, P'II 2,8 (at,
Bas.. ), mentions aD cl, 'T"I,. '"'"..,,,rl]. "'
Cl
liJW'V4,' by He'wnas., who is otherwise un-
kno,",,,,
T.RAl'lSLAT'ORS COl\1!vIEN'TATORS 12
7
tables, of num'hers ""hieh: icoma:chus used; som,e of th,em are disi-
ili f- .' hp.. .h-' -- - , b . 'h .. . '. . . " .. - . , . '. '-' .. 1 I .. .' -. -' , .' " . " ,'... . . .. ' _. .-
CU,SSlons 0 e, yt. a.gorea,D, \lrtU.es 0'" num,::ers, otlers lare proposI-
t
l:: . - t "k ..-. f"" - . --".-" '1' ". ' ..-' '. :", t
'
h' t, "_,:t' >-. "'. '. .' h.. d . d . . t ...., - i t-h-'"
Ions [,a\en .. rom ,ear ler m.a.em.a .. ,lClan.s \\. I .1.C.. . I, no app,ear In .'.
1
'' t d .. ...t- .' 0',; r -" - ': f' th--., I' "'. ( ...... ' t .. ,1- 'tb"1' 'f'" c.. : t-, C-, .... f' t-h'- b-.. '.."k !'" t'-h' .'.
n,.,a UC,ZOI",. '= ne 0,_ . e m.os. va u,a. e . ea ures ,Q .' =e 00 IS 'cce
-..1 , .. .' . f" .. t o ....... . .',' th h, t:' . f'" .... ,. :-'t:-:-
III
_, th-:- ..... -.', . ' .1 ',-d,,' 1 1 ' . t' '.
,In.CJUSlo,n o. no es Ion .'0 e .IS ory 0 ceraln. __ eorems an .. upon ,I,er-
mi,n,ology. In ge'ner,al
J
however, a'mblichus is not c.red.ited '\rvith the
,d: ..... ,",. ':. c. '., "'i'f' .:..... I'e "'.:. p"I'I""'" OSl"t, :nl' -f'- 'I'm" ,0"',' t,a.. , T' "'h 'fi ,]1 11 .. :. , ..
c ls.covery o. an.y nw .OP'CC .. IO.S 0 I, pr <nee.. ,e 10,O\Vlng
'Summ.ary of his Commenta." ,an.d. comp,arison with '- ..... icoma,chus ",ill
I
'11. h .' '. -.' I. _ . . .:'.. . .
I '" I, " . '. I' ' .. , '.: .
exp aiD 1t5 C ..arac.ter .
rSU'YMARY OF IAMBLICHUS"S C
I
OMM,E1VTJ.lRY
(Pa,ge ,efertn<ce.s are 10 Pistell.i's edi'tion)
3, 5 5, 2'5: I:ntroductio,n, chiefly praise' of NicomJachus.
6 N
" hI'" I I bl'" h- ..,. d-
5, 2 0', 7 -,lcomac us, ." J: - 5 In gen,era;. ' am;. le. ;us ,even gives 'In c,a....
tion of the quotatio;ns made by' _ic,oma-e:hus,.. He omits chapter 6, a,n. important
on.e from th,e :stand.point of Nicomachean philoso.phy..
'10",: :., De,cnitio'DS of numbe"r t,o Tha-.les, Ei.u,d ...Q'IX.... U S'.-",
. :J! . . u. ., -- -, . , . - ... ' .. . -, - .' -', - - , ,- , 'I
Hippasus, an,d
6 A d
' f' .h d 'Tb'" -.. ,." ill tb' .' l'nt. d ....
J I, '-,-.2': ,.' ISCUSSlon 0, t, e mona" .IS tOplC IS ID ,I_le "o,uc,',on.
But Theol:n of Smyrna s'peaks, of i,t ,at 's,o,me length..!
12, 1. - 13, t[o == Ni,co,m,a.ch'us,J. I" 7, In gener'al t th.e ,od.d ,an,d even.
13" 1,0 - :15" s. .Material probably based on the TJuolo,g'umena A,ithme,I;clJe
.. cl'ud" -g tb-I e e- of' the' I-a-mb'd'ol-cl 6'gure' w'h'I"ch 1.5-. t'here me'- ti -ned 3" ID ID..:." ,.:X ' _.. _ >,_. '........... _ .. ,':: ..:.'.'1.' .. '1. _.,:..: , .. 10,. ":C ,j ,
-., [- [.... A.. --; ,"; .' I' '. 't ....f tb,,, ..,.... : '1'-". rI .. , f t.. h' :.. " d",d .' .. d' 'tb' -, '=-" ,-. ': f'" . ,. . .- " 'I d
1$, 5 IS .,n, accoun. 0_ . e genesIs 0 ,e 0 .. an ... e even senes . ro.m ,I an,.
(
' ", N'.;; 'h-) '. '. . . : ' '. . '1' . '. j I , -=- ..'. 1- - . ,','.' - " .' " ..
2 ,not 10 . . lcomac ' U,S
6 6 k
[N'" h' I 8 'b 1 cl '" cl"
" ".-' .. ' .... "'.' '.; ""'1' .'1", 1.... ' I' ,..: I' .. 1'.. 11'. " '.
X5" I .... I. :, I I, ta. es Its sta,rtrom '., I.co.mac . us, '., .'. I 2, .. ut .ea S Into a '..IS
'. "I' .' riI' .... 1 .. f:' th - 1 .. b
l
, .. ...: '1'" t .. .(...... 6
c
." . '. 6'-")'1" ' .. hI"h ...... alI'I ,"1.. ' T "f:. .. , '11' ....
ICUSSlon 10, . e num .er 5 as JUS. lee I ... , I I . 20, ........, W le. par., ..esl . nt,OO-
A
40th t" ,-- -- -8--': - '('A' t)
- ' .', ..',' " '." 1 .', .. ." '"
gumena.. ,t .me'IClU, P.p. 2' 30. S '., I
'. '. . - 'c ... -. - N' "'. ",". .- . h .-.-;:- I 8 .-:- - .'. 6', th
rl
..... :. ",t',"I . f.' tb :'. ". ,." .... d- tb ..
20, 7 3$, IQ - .lcomac us, .'. 31 C.,t' ..'" .._e varle Je5 0 ,e even an,_ .Ie
d
-d th 'b da d ft d rf" b 'N-.. h iI
'.' : ' .' -. . .." . I . ..... I' " ,. .', ,.' '. '.' . . . ,.',' .' -.' '. . i, . '. . "1' I: . '. '. . -' '. .... I", .' "" .-. 1 - ..
o '. . .e supera.un, nt,: e ,c.Jent, an... pe .eet num,.:ers.'llcom.ac., us IS
f
'11 d- b .. 11 I b d tha ,t I '. f E litd f h'" d fi ill
:'0, ow,e S'U stantla' .y_ t may : 'It crltl.ClSm 'uc l'lor .,.ls=:e .. nl-
tions, ,a f.avorite to.pie of Iambli.c:hus,. ap,pears in several plac'es (p,p,. 20, 10-1,4;
-' -.... - "" . .'" - . 8" _..' I... " '.,. "g.: - '" 2" ').... 'T"'h"" m'.' c t t'e 'esc-1tl"n"g )"':'
20" 19 - 21, J, '" 23, I.. - 24, 1,4, 30, ,2" 3
1
, J .. " eosn.. ' r. '" 5
the last 0( th[ese passages where Iam'blich'us .maintains> in oppositio,n to Euclid
th.at .2 is not p'F.ime.
4
Another 'pas'sa.ge (PlO 34" 20 - 35 (0) deals vlith the
tues. [of 16 in the P'ytha,g,o,rean manoler" On p,.- 27, 3 is fo,un,d the statement th.at
and are ,additional, names of p, ime n.urn.bers :;1 Th,eo.n .'
also uses the' fo.r.m,er, and 'Th.'ymaridas is here cited b.y lambli.chus as
lauth.o,rity for th,e latter...
l c-.,.... P ,
'.'.. J14..
I 'Tb.eon of Smyrna. p... 18, ,5 I. ('Hiller); see p. ,37.
I TL-oI'I'll'" '......,...ITA-:,l...... .. P J (':As" "1):"
. __ 'vo'lh.,-M;I'.,u, .1:1 . . . ...., ,.
4IC' '. f .. '. "...--I' '. .1/1;":, .. .
esse manu, D.". p.
I p" 23, 12 (Hillel')"
PAGE
35, II - 43. 12 = Nicomachus, I. 17-21: the discussion of equality and in-
equality, with no essential additions.
43. 13 - SI, 20: The' three rules' of Nicomachus, I. 23. 6 I., are given, out of
order, and then Iamblichus returns to the multiple superparticular, etc., as in
Nicomachus, I. 22 and 23.1-3. The reversal of the' three rules' (Nicomachus,
n. 2) is omitted.
SI, 21 - 52, 27 = Nicomachus, 11. 3-4, but briefly. Nicomachus, 11. $, is
omitted.
52, 28 - 56, 17 contains four propositions that are not found in the Introduction.
56, 23 - 72, 2 presents the subject of plane numbers, following Nicomachus,
11.6-12, but with the important addition (pp. 62, 18 - 68, 26) of the cele-
brated epanthema' of Thymaridas.
1
72, 2 - 93. 7 = Nicomachus, n. 17-20. The parallelism exists in a general way,
but there are additions, especially that of the 'diaulos' theorem,z and Iamblichus
brings out, in the discussion of the squares and heteromecic numbers, the
Pythagorean aspects of the monad and dyad at greater length than did Nicoma-
chus. There is further criticism of Euclid (p. 74, 24 ff.). On p. 82, 13 ff., he
points out that the squares are alternately even and odd 3 and all the heteromecic
numbers even, principles which he applies to the exegesis of the Platonic ac-
count of the 'marriage number.' 4 On p. 83, 10 ff., we have the proposition
that the products of squares by squares are squares; those of heteromecic
numbers by heteromecic numbers are heteromecic numbers j and those of
p.u<Tot (promecic numbers) never squares. This principle appears in part
later, on p. 90, 20. Iamblichus then sets up the table of squares and heteromecic
numbers and discusses the properties that may be discovered therein, sometimes
agreeing with Nicomachus and sometimes adding from other sources.
The table is as follows:
a', (a + 1)', (a + .)', (a + 3)', (a + 4)' ....
a, a(a + ,), (a + I)(a + '), (a + .)(a + 3) .
Squares,
Heteromecic numbers,
or, in general terms,
Squares,
Heteromecic numbers,
I
4
6
9
"
16
.0
'5 3
6
30 42
49
56
81
90
lOO,
110,

The first set of observations, pp. 83, 27 - 87, 22, is in general agreement with
Nicomachus (ll. 19. 3-4 j 20. 3-4). It is to be noted that Iamblichus omits
I See Nessclmann, op. dt., pp. 2J2 H.; Heath, HisflWY, vol. I, pp. 94--96.
'The theorem is based on the principle stated in the Introduction, 11. 12.2, that the sum of two
consecutive triang:ular numbers is a square: 1+ 2 + ... + (a - I) +a +(a - I) +...
+ 2 + I = a
2
The progress to and from a is compared to the Greek double race-course, I n ~ ..
Mr. Cantor, op. cit., vol. I, p. 460, implies that the theorem in this fonn may be the work of
Iamblichus. This is very improbable, especially as Iamblichus designates it 'the so-called diau-
los' (p. 75, 25). It is found in Thtologlmu:"a Aruhmtticat, p. 9 (Ast). Nesselmann, op. dJ.,
p. 23i if., discusses it fully. See Heatb, HiskJry, vo!. I, p. 114
I So Theon of Smyrna, p. 34, J.
4 Republi" 546 ff.
19',"011"""
12
9
PAGE
th[e p1ro:position of NilCo:machus'I 20. I, th.at m
l
+ In is always h.eleromecic,
and he does not .P'ut in the same form the obse'rvatio.n thJat the' squares may' be
put in.t,o p:ropc).rtilons with the heteromlecic numbers as means.
1
The &Idded p ar,e these
84, 24: a(a+ 1) + 2 0.
2
+ (a + I)(a ,+ 2), and the like, glve results tb.at may be
cal ed dvop.cxoc. (unlike; tb,at IS, th[e opposite of 'like',I'" which descr,ibes num,...
bers t,'hat share In 'sa-'meness 'J '2' b'e'c'ca'""use thl'e-y a'"'re el"'ther' O'd'd O'f ar'e sum"mat'IJIlons ',' ..',' :i ."'" ':1 .,<.1. ...1,' 'c," , .. _ I . ,'.' [' .. '.: ' .. " - .. '.''''[:. ' ..... .. '..=', ,1".-,:.: ,I 1':..1:
0' the: odd series, squl\res)ll This is the co.nverse of the p1roposition. 814, 1,8)
that .0,2 +2 a(a + I) + (4 +, 1),2, a,od the like, js always a, squar[e, 'which. is
stated in passing by Nic:om,8chus (Pt :11'7,
84, 27: a(a + I) + 2(4, + .+ (a + I)(a + 2), a'nd th.e likle, always gi.ve ,a
[square.
m(m + I)'"
86,'1 IS: .,:.'.." -i ..' .is [always, a triangula:r number'. The materials in this section.
2
with the' excepti.ons noted., are found fIOf th[e mos,t part in th,e l,ntroduc"ion,. but
Iamblichus has somle'what varied their olrder and form..
881, 1,5 911 , 3: This 'sectlO,D Ico'ntains f'urthe.r[ lobserv.atio:nis b,ased upon the same
table of squares an,d heteromecic. D'umbers; to Judge from. th[e way' in which
it is fra\med in the narr,atJve, i.t w'ould seem that ..ambli.chus inte I' .dd it ,as an
on the original. As a matter o[f fa,et there is nothing
0-( g'r'eal. importance in it that can be called original with Iam'blichus; som
1
e of
the material 'he see:ms to have d[eriv'ed from the ThetJlogumena. or
similar sources,[ some f-rom th.[e I nJ,odu,'ion., and for' some o,f the remainder
[earlier parall,els can be pointed o'ut
The .pr[olpositions herle add,ed, are th.'ese:
I + :2 + 3 a .' '. + 9 + 1
1
0 + 9 t,' +. 3 + 2 + I 100 jJ 10 + 20 +, 3'0
+9
"0'--: + 1-'00 + 9:-'0" +3--'0'" + 2"'0'" + '10'" - I 000" 1100""-' +- 200- .. .. '- iil III MJ '_. . I,,'",, _:' . -' ,,' "... :.... J .. .. I _' .:.. :. .' ". -'. . . -' :..... , :'1 :..... ..:. . .' , .' .. "" ,_.
300 ;I. ;0 +900 +'t ,000 + 900. '. '.' +3'00 + ,200 + 1.00 =: ):0,000.. This
W
""l!]ll- rec''-'o:'g .. 'nli',z:,:e--d, a1t on'[c[-::e'[ a''S-'- ,a,.p.,p .... t---I'.O n' o,-If. th,e' 'd--I,a'ul0--'5" th.eo c .re,'m'
-- , . .. .,, '." ,.:- ' " '. __ .. ... .--, ..1 , " , " __ . _, . ._ ..' _. , . _.-,
-b d I f h Th I A' cl' ,:............. h h d
,ase . on ma'terlal]rO'm t'e :.,f01'ogumena, r,Jmriettcae, W_IC, a'ppeare
learlier in th.e comm
l
entary.3 It can c.erta,in,y not h[e onginal with
Iamblichus,J s[in[ce:, in addition to its proba:blle Nicomac I ean, or e:ve.n
earlier, orig:in, it involves th.e Pythagorean con[ceptio['n, of I, 10, 1,00,
1,000, ... as etc. a termi-
nology e'mp]oy[ed b1y Nico.machus himself.
4
The passa.ge is, h.owever,
consderled noteworthy by historians [of mathematics in view of its
significa,n.ce in. the de've].opment of a true decim;al,
The theor'em about s,pecial p,rope:rties of' squar[es (alr[ea.'dy' found in Theon,
35, 1[7 ::
m(m + 2) + I or m(m - 2) + I. is alwa.ys, a square,.
a X ma ::: mat. ,,,.," .,
l.1nlrlHlIlClitm, n., 191 4. t Cf. p.118. I P'. 1S
t
2.5 ff. See p 128" n.iI 2 11
" InJ,rJdru:.Jion
t
I. 19., 17 (but spelled 'lfllT,po3,ovld,l1tI, etc.)
.. I
130
PAGE
Any triangular number multiplied by 8 becomes a square when I is added.
This proposition was known to Plutarch.
1
at X lJ2 is always a square. This is stated by Nicomachus, 11. 24- 10.
In a geometrical progression beginning with I, if the term after I is a square,
so are the others, Le., the series is 1, m
2
, m
4
, mS, . . .. This occurs in
Euclid, Elements, IX. 9.
If a: b = b: C, and a is a square, c is a square also (= Euclid, Ekments,
VIII. n).
If a
2
measures 1J2, a measures b (::z Euclid, Elements, VIII. 14).
ab is the geometrical mean between at and lJ2 (cf. Euclid, Elements, VIII. I I.
and Nicomachus, 11. 24- 9)
91, 3 - 93, 7: Pleuric and diametric numbers are discussed. This is a subject
not treated by Nicomachus, but already known through Theon.'
94. 8 - 95. 15: Solid numbers in general, with their classification; this is based
upon the material in Nicomachus, 11. 13, 16. 1-2,3 and 11 6. P. 94, IS H. is
an added section upon the monad as potential surface and solid.
95,15-91.1: Pyramids; the basis of the section is Nicomachus, 11.13, 14,
but it is condensed. The description of the geometrical pyramid (Nicomachus,
II. 13. 2-5) is omitted. There are added, however, some unimportant observa-
tions on the table of pyramidal numbers (pp. 96, 6 ff. j 96, 13 ff.).
91, 1 - 98, 13: Cubes. The section is based in general on Nicomachus, H. 20. 5,
with material from other contexts (e.g., cf. p. 91,10 ff. with Nicomachus, II. IS. 2,
and p. 98, 2 f. with Nicomachus, 11.24.10). It is modeled as closely as possible
after the section on the square and so contains certain parallels with Euclid
(e.g., p. 98, 1:= Elemnts, VIII. 23; p. 98, 8 = Elements, VIII. 15; cf. also
p. 98,4 and Elements, IX. 3; and p. 91,21 with ElemenJs, IX. 8 and Theon of
Smyma, p. 34, 16 ff.). Of the other propositions there may be mentioned here
p. 98, 5: "If, in a geometrical progression beginning with I, the term after I
is a cube, the other tenns are cubes" (cf. Euclid, IX. 9) j and also the observa-
tion on p. 91, 23 that a X as = (a')2.
98, 14 ff.: Proportions. Iamblichus departs less from the Nicomachean model
in the remaining portion of the book than in the previous parts. The added
material is either unessential amplification or in the nature of historical notes
and comments on the mathematical terminology; among the latter are several
bits of information that are very valuable. He tells us, for example (pp. 100,
15 ff.; 113, 16 ff.), something about the history of the theory of proportions j ,
on p. 100, I, he remarks that TO d...a.\oyoJl was properly applied to disjunct
propositions or proportional series, whereas d.l'Q.\oyta meant the continuous "
proportion; on p. 100, IS, there is inserted a valuable note on the difference
between dvaAo')'ta and JUa6nr;;' the information about the names lO'nJltvia
and Wcvo.vrta as applied to the harmonic proportion (pp. 108, 5 ff.; lIO, 18 ft.)
is also welcome.
I PlatonWu Quaes'iones, v. 2, 10031'.
I See Cantor, op. tu., vol. I, p. 436.
See the notes on 1nlrodudioll, IT. 22. I and IT. 25. I
See the note on ltUroduditm, n. 21. 2.
19',"011"""
131
He strives for greater accuracy than Nicomachus in the definitions of pro-
portion and ratio, and adds the statement that the interval between terms may
vary while the ratio remains the same, or vice versa. The' ratio of number to
number,' which was thought not to fall under any of the specified ten species of
ratio and was classed by itself, is mentioned by both Theon (p. Bo, 7) and Iam-
blichus (p. 99. IS), but not by Nicomachus. Of the added matter, a good ex-
ample is the set of rules for producing the various proportions (pp. 101, 24 if. i
106,5 ff.; J12, I fr.). The 'three rules' given by Nicomachus (I. 23) will
produce from three monads, three dyacls, and the like, terms in geometrical
progression, as Iamblichus notes. Similarly he constructs rules to make the
arithmetical proportion. by taking the first number for the first term of
the proportion j the first plus the se<:ond for the second term; the first plus
the second plus the third for the third term.
The most important additions, besides the historical notes, include the obser-
vations of the properties of groups of three consecutive or regularly occurring
numbers taken from the natural series (102, 17 ff.). He observes that I, 2,
3 = 6 (the second triancle); I, 3, 5 = 9 (the second square); 3, 4, 5 = 12
(the second pentagon); I, 3, 5 give a square; I. 4. 7 give a pentagon; and so
forth. But since the first group. I, 2, 3, gives 6. the other groups of three
consecutive numbers from the series r are fashioned after' 1 the hexad; that is,
if 10 be taken as a unit (and the substitution made in each sum), all the sums
will be 6. Thus 4,5,6 = IS, equivalent to I + 5; 7,8,9 = 24, equivalent to
2 + 4. and so forth. This manipulation of the number 10 is of course of the
same character as that already observed in connection with the Ot:VTt'pW--
&nJftt'Mll (p. 88, IS fI.). It may be noted also that Iamblichus omits mention
of the peculiarity of the arithmetic proportion on which Nicomacbus most
prides himself (p. 125, 18-23, Hoche) and of the fact that the Pythagoreans
called the cube 'geometrical harmony' (Nicomachus, H. 26).
Iamblichus's Commentary, as the foregoing synopsis clearly enough
shows, consists of a thoroughly Nicomachean framework overlaid with
additions of various kinds. In mere extent these are quite consider-
able, but aside from the one section containing the I epanthema' of
Thymaridas and the few statements of historical interest, their worth
is very small. Many of them are merely observations based upon tbe
tables used by both Nicomachus and Iamblichus; a large number
seem to depend upon Euclid; and another portion is derived from the
Theologumena A,itltmeticae, or something similar. After sifting out
the statements obviously borrowed from these sources, nothing of
importance is left to the credit of Iamblichus himself. It is note-
worthy that he does not attempt to modify the definitions and classi-
fications of Nicomachus. In general, the Nicomachean original, in
I The word tliSOlrOlfill'8cu is used. The proposition occurs also in. T1IeologumeM AriJhmduae,
p. 34 CAst). See Heath, HisJory, vol. I, p. 114.
19',"011"""
-
'3'
Iamblichus's hands, lost much of the clearness of statement and sim-
plicity of arrangement which made it so useful and popular.
When we turn to Boethius we meet with another admirer of Nico-
machus who allowed himself to take even less liberty with his original.
BOETHIUS AND NICOMACHUS
It has long been recognized that the De Instituti<me Arithmetka
of Boethius (here cited in the paging of the edition of G. Friedlein,
Leipzig, 1867) has so little claim to originality that it may be called a
translation of the I ntrodw;tion of Nicomachus.' The judgment is a
just one. A comparison of the two books will convince the reader that
Boethius follows Nicomachus from first to last, expanding here and
condensing there, as he says in his preface that he will do,' but never
adding anything essential, either original or derived from other sources,
that departs from his model. His additions seem to be in general
mere development of the material which Nicomachus supplied-
numerical examples, or explicit enlargement of statements left by
Nicomachus in general form; and similarly his changes impress one
as being observations or deductions made by Boethius himself on the'
basis of the work before him. There is little indication that Boethius
used any other sources than the Introduction itself. It is a far more
important question whether he has omitted anything of an essential
nature in his translation, as we may tern! the De Institutione Arith-
metica.
As for this problem, a detailed comparison of the two books has
brought the writer to the conclusion that the historians of mathe-
matics, especially Cantor, have been unduly severe in dealing with
Boethius. Granting that he was not an able mathematician - that
he was content to follow Nicomachus so closely, and cannot be said to
have improved upon him in any way, shows this clearly enough - it
is nevertheless true that he presents, with certain limitations, a fairly
adequate Latin version of the original, omitting few things which might
have been included. His limitations as a translator will shortly ap-
pear, and it will be seen that he omits certain sections. But he is
not guilty of leaving out, as Cantor charges, some of the best things,
from the mathematical standpoint, in Nicomachus.
1 Nesselmann, op. eit., p. ~ l Cantor, op. rn., vol. I, pp. 573 11.
IP.4,30 fl .
19',"011"""
133
Cantor says,' specifically, that he omits the propositions that the
cubes are derived from the summation of the odd numbers (Nicoma-
chus, 11. 20. 5), and that the polygonal number with n angles and side
r and the triangular number with side r - I make together the po-
lygonal with n + 1 angles and side r (Nicomachus, 11. 12. 7). With
regard to the first proposition Cantor is simply mistaken; the prin-
ciple is amply stated in Boethius, 11. 39 (p. 136). He is more nearly
right as to the second; Boethius in fact does not, like Nicomachus,
sum up in a general statement this principle, but, aside from this, he
fully parallels Nicomachus, 11. 12. 5-7, giving specific instances of the
working of the theorem for several of the polygonal numbers' The
fairest criticism to make of Boethius is that as a mathematical writer
he displays too little originality, independence and progressiveness,
and too much prolixity.
In the composition of his treatise Boethius more often expands than
condenses. His method is to intersperse between sections literally
translated, or closely paraphrased, others in which the general prin-
ciples stated by Nicomachus are furnished with exhaustive explana-
tion and copious numerical examples. Nothing is left to the reader
to supply. Almost any chapter, compared with the original, will prove
to be of this character. Boethius also supplies data in tabular form
to a far greater extent than did Nicomachus. The order of the original
is preserved for the most part, but occasionally a rearrangement is
found.
Inasmuch as these peculiarities are of minor importance and the
omissions are rather to be considered, we may now turn to an enumera-
tion of the more important of these. It will be found that Boethius
had especial difficulty with both the logical terminology of Nicomachus
and those passages in which the Pythagorean elements of the latter's
thought come out most strongly.
The former difficulty led to no lengthy omissions, but inasmuch as
Nicomachus was in general careful to adopt the terminology of Aris-
totelian logic and to arrange his materials formally in genera and
species, using frequently, for example, such terms as yVOft,
E180t;, l8tKWs, EioI.KOS, l8lw,."a, i81.KWt;, UVP.{3{JTJK6Jt;, CTVP./3{3TJKOrlJ)(j,
uvp.(3aipfL, and the like, Boethius, finding himself at a loss to translate
1 ap. dJ., vol. I, p. 580.
I Just the reverse of this situation is sometimes seen; Nicomachus enumerates details without
making a generalization, and the latter is formulated by Boethlus. See the list of additions made
by Boethius, p. 136.
19',"011"""
[34 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
them, often omitted a word or two. No one of these omissions is
important in itself, but to lose most of the expressions of this type from
the version prevents it from truly representing the original in at least
this characteristic trait. Examples of such outright omissions are to
be found, according to Hoche's edition of Nicomachus, on p. 4Q, 5,
-6 ...
p. 59, 3 ; p. 113, 25, otOfTEp CJJp'crp.f.VqJ TOtOVTOV;
p. II4, 3, Kat ... The last two share in the
involved and difficult Pythagorean logic with which Boethius quite
naturally found difficulty.
Of the omissions of Nicomachus made by Boethius the following,
of somewhat greater extent than those already mentioned, are impor-
tant enough to list:
I. I: The distinction between IClIplfUi 0vTu. and UVTU, so characteristic
of Nicomachus.
I. 3: One of the definitions of number (...>"ij6tx wpurp.n.ov, Nicomachus, p. 13,
7)'
I. 9: pp. 16, 1-3; 5--6 i 18, Il-IS. This can be ascribed to condensation.
I. [0: 1. 9 3
I. 17: The direction to 'check off the numbers,' p. 33, 8 if.
I. 19: Part of I. 14- 2, the comparison of inequality to vices, ill health and the
like.
I. 20: The second mention of the perfect number 4,128 (p. 43, 17-20) and the
statement that I is prime per se and not by participation (p. 44, 1-3).
I. '5: 1. [9 7
I. 32: P. 64, 21-22; I. 23. 5 entire (the reference to the ethical virtues) i pp. 66,
16-191 22 - 67, 2; all of I. 23. IS, which is not unimportant; an of
section 17 (this is made up of examples, some of which Boethius re-
arranges and reports).
n. I: P. 74, 5-8 (the monad and dyad as elements).
H. 3: H. 5. I-
11.9: P. 8c), 3-5 (the arrangement of units in the geometrical number).
11. 14: The rule for determining the side of the pentagonal number (p. 92,
12-16).
11. 18: The general theorem stated in 11. 12. 7. (See above.)
11. 25: The reference to CTq,'l,u(TKc., p. 107, 15-21. Boethius excuses himseU,
however, for the omission.
It can hardly be claimed on the basis of this list that the omissions
made by Boethius seriously detract from the value of the De I nstituti<me
as a verSIOn.
Boethius never sets himseU in direct opposition to Nicomachu5,
but the statements of the two do not always agree exactly. Some-
19',"011"""
135
Nicomachus, p. 14, I :
times these differences are merely variations in the illustrations,
sometimes they seem to be formulations based upon the original j
perhaps in a few cases Boethius did not fully comprehend the inten-
tion of Nicomachus. The following instances may be considered:
1. Boethius, after defining the even
as a number that can be divided
into either two equal or two un-
equal parts, says, 1. 5, p. 14,
23 fr.: praeter so/urn paritaiis
priruipem, bina,ium numcrum,
qui in aequaJem non recipit sec-
tionem, propterea quod ex duabus
uni/atibus constat et ex prima
duorum quodammodo parilate.
Since Boethius is so plainly wrong here, it is reasonable and charitable to
suppose that the 1t.ISS are at fault and to correct his text (e.g., in fUqualem
to in inaequaJia).
2. Boethius,1. 9. p. 20, Hr-U, says with regard to the even-times even numbers
that when corresponding factors are multiplied the product equals the
major extreme (i.e., of the even-times even series in question; e.g., in
the series I, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 4 X 8 = 32). Nicomachus puts it: The
product of the means is equal to that of the extremes (1. 8. 14); but from
his examples he makes it clear that the product of any two correspond-
ing factors may be used. Boethius has chosen, apparently, to express
the matter in a different way.
3. Boethius, 1. Il, p. 26, 21, has duplices (se. disponantur): Nicomachus had
said apTl,cx.
4. The following passages are evidently meant to correspond:
Boethius, 1. Il, p. 25, 27-29, Nicomachus, I. 10, p. 22, 1<)-21,
N am et partes solvuntur et P.ly yap TOV (l... T!f fUlCOK
usque ad unitatem sceJio iUa p.ipn ix,wY opaT'D.t
J
81: TOV
non pen;enit, sed ante uniJaJem QTP.-rrra.) l ...
inveniJur teTminus, quem se-
care non possis. I
5. Boethius, 1. 15, p. 32, 14: neque habet quiequam in se prinGipalis inJeUe-
gentiae; Nicomachus, p. 28, 12, .uU OTt otJlC dpX,Of.t&;i.
6. Boethius,1. 18, p. 37, 2$, datis enim duobus numeris inaequalibus; Nicoma-
chus specified odd numbers.
7. Boethius, 1. 30, p. 64, 13-14; Nicomachus, p. 63, 8-9' Boethius in his
table directs the reader to compare the third and fifth rows j Nicornachus,
the odd rows, beginning with the fifth, to the third.
I The text of Nicomachus has here been supplemented by Hoche, and it may be questioned
whether it may yet be considered settled.
Iq,noll"""
8. B,oethius, ibid", Pi 64, I,S ff; Nicomachus, p, 6,3, I fi'. 'With refe're'nce to
the same table Nic,omachus tells us to compare th:e seco,nd and fifth, 'third
and seventh" fo'urth an[d ninth [lOWS, elc'l; BoethiusI
1
the second ro'w to
the filth" seventh, ninth"
Boethius", I' .. 48"p,., ,1:57, 13 ee rursm minor terminus ad 'medi'i C,O""''(I mino,'[eIn
mminum tompfJ,at'i differentiam triplus est; Nicomachus, p,.. 135" 3-4:
&af/Jep4 dKp.'I' "1* Tcd'l' B,oth lare working with
the series 3., 4, 6,; B,oethius takes 3 (4 ....... 3) =:' 3: I, and Nic,oma,c,hus
[derives the 'same' in a [different way, (6 - 3):' (4 ......' 3) =, 3: I,.,
It is, easy to see from, ,the unimportant character [0, these d[eviations
an
' d, fr"o-'m"'- th1e'lr" colmp-'-a['atlv'e" f'ewne-s,s' S' 'a'-;:-nl ' ec:-x t'ext- 'tb, -'a ..,t' " "[ C.' r I r.... .. I. ,.'.: , : ' ' : ,.: . " .. ,' .:!.' '._ .. ' .1.. _"._.' I.
Boethius did, not do violence t.o his
Conside:ration of the ad,lditi,ons m,ard[e b1y B,oethlus will co,nfirm this
view11 In this c'lonnectio,n no mention need be :made of the expansions
,already refer.red to, which merely weaken th,e book in lcontras,t with
the gre,ater of Nicomach,us." but ,do not im'pair its general
a1clcuracy. The f'olllo'W1D,g passages
,
of Boethius may, h01we'ver, be
n
0,', 'te .. ' d
"
.'
". '. -..... ..:... .1
I
.L:' d" 11 tl: , __J ",.:....',. 6'......t_Jr __.... , ..-_,
. I" 9: "'nu leftsm quo, jtlJ"nH,UfIJ ea: 119 StrK"iiH'14 "OfQ [CUNIgt l"Gf .",KrHB
comprehendi.,
2,t llJid., p. II. The ref'e'rence to the IDnus' does 'Dot occur in, Nicoma[chus at
this, point (but Id'. 11;0 29- 4).
3,. I. ,1,2., The whole ch,a.pter" a desc:ription of the 'table, is a,pparently addled
by B,oethiuSI
J
b,ut contains no ne'w factsl.
,4. 1;1 -'4, P 3,1, '1-8: an add,ed e.xplan.ati,on with definition of the term "mea&-
uring."
I
: ..J _........ Mi.' d' .. I_I,. (' , ., .,
S '. 23, pi' 47, 15: 'iatm IGlNenI'JCOn,tltnerUfl" quolf .1nef'':'''''''
6 l,bid.. , PlO ,48" ,8: esce'pJo .Ierna,'io' .' An add,led observatj,onI.
,. Ibid,., PlO 48, 2'4" semperque una krmi,norum inlermissi'one si cresctU' adiutio,
cwcl'inalas ,le mwtjplicis ftu",eri l'ic'es infJeni,., miraberis. Ni.c'omacbu's did
not f[or,mutate this generalization, :from, the: specific facts, whIch he had
fully enumerated.
8. 1,1 25, p. 52' , let'ldei.nce'lJJ' .' ;; .. s,tlCc,es,,,n4'. A case' like th,e last.
1
'1' Rn. ., '" I--all' Ar !! .Ai I" 1.11' *-I.@<l
19[,. ,' .. 4,P 22:: omn'"'''' tnKJ:1I1,'.. 'orum e's'se ..ne',r"lIm e:., nwura
q'uod (;,tUCI [tUomon, "oean', id est ita deminutum alque ,panJ'issimufft vl
ei:w p'ays i'nlleniri non pos,sil.
10. 11. 6, P' 9
1
1:, 9" Iduae enim lineae recUJe spaliu''''' non continen'.
'1,'" Il. 2'St p. Ill, :15 (definiti.on o'f par,al,elep;ipeds): quae'sum, quotiens' I#;er-'
fiies ctml,o S't sum, le': duclae i'n inftnil.'um nunquam cloncU"ent.
11
' ' D ft ,.. f' 1 d'
124 ,'. '. 30. .. e, Dltlons 0:
1
Clrc,e an.. squar'e are gIven,.
13 11'.33i Nicom,ac:hu,s Sh.o,ws' that two success.iv"e squares plus twic[e the D,-
clud,ed 'heteromecic numbers produ,ces 8, squ,a,rle; B,oethius addition
pomts out that two su,ccessive ..... umbers plus twice' the iD-
137
eluded square gives a square, and that the squares thus produced are
those of the odd and even numbers respectively,'
14. 11.40, p. 137, 13: 'difference' is defined.
15. 11.41, p. 139, 13-19. A note on the origin of categories.
16. 11.45. The whole chapter, a comparison of the three major types of pro--
portion to oligarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, is an addition.
None of these additions can he regarded as original with Boethius,
save perhaps the last one, and none of them is of any importance, save
the thirteenth. The fact that he was making a translation necessi-
tated some of them j and some consist of the insertion of definitions
or details that Nicomachus evidently found it not worth while to in-
clude.
The importance of the translation of Boethius lies in the fact that
it was the chief medium through which the Roman world and the
Middle Ages learned the principles of formal Greek arithmetic; the
data adduced ahove will amply show that in general Boethius faith-
fully followed his model.
I This proposition was given by Iamblichus (p. 84. 27); see p. 129.
19',"011"""
-
I
I
I
I
I
THE SUCCESSORS OF NlCOMACHUS
CHAPTER X
I
I
I
I
I
CASSIODORUS
1204 B--e: The priority of
Arithmetic (I ntroduc-
lion, I. 4-5)
Enumeration of the four
mathematical sciences
(cf. Jnlroduclion, I. 3) i
notice of ancient au-
thors on mathematics
EVEN in the time of Nicomachus Greek mathematics was in its
decline; the golden age of the science had long passed. For more
than a thousand years after Nicomachus we find few noteworthy con-
trihutions to the scientific theory of numbers anywhere in the world.
One of these notahle exceptions is Diophantus of Alexandria
(c. 250 A.D.), who stands out as the greatest Greek contributor in the
field of analysis. His A,ithmetua includes material which we treat
under algebra, and also suhjects related to the theory of numhers.
Furthermore Diophantus wrote a treatise, On PolygOMl Numbers,' in
which he adds several important theorems relating to polygonal num-
bers. The proofs are Euclidean in form and the whole work reveals
the hand of the master mathematician.
The writers of the early Middle Ages who show the influence of
Nicomachus were, like other writers of their day, not inclined to break
away from the beaten path. The most prominent of these writers
on arithmetic are Martianus Capella (fifth cen'ury after Christ), Cassi-
odorus (c. 4go--c. 580 A.D.) and Isidorus of Seville (c. 570-636A.D.). If
anyone of these men had mathematical ahility, the fact is not revealed
by his discussion of arithmetic. We present an epitome of the content
of the three works in question, in parallel columns and with references
to Nicomachus, taking as the chief exponent of the group Martianus
Capella, whose account is the most voluminous:
CAPELLA, BOOK VII ISIDORUS
t
(e<!. Eyssenhardl)
First comes a discussion
of the virtues of the
numbers 1-10 (cf. TJuo-
logumeM Arithmdicae).
1204 c: Discrete quantity
(Jnlrodtu:tion, I. 2. 4)
IT. L. Heath, DioplUJnlus of Alerandria, A Sludy in lhe HistDry of Gred Algebra (second edi.
dOD, Cambridge, 1910), pp. :147-259. I Migne, Patrol. LaJ" vol. LXXXn, pp. 154-161.
,,8
19',".11"""
UNrYoo.ITY Of M!(NIGAN
SUCCESSORS OF N1COMACHUS
139
CAPELLA
P. 265, 4: Number de-
fined (lntrodru:tion, I. 7)
Ibid., 6: Classification,L
a paribus par
a paribus impar
ab imparibus par
ab imparibus impar
Ibid., 9: Prime numbers
(Introdudion, I. IJ)
Ibid., 13: Numbers 1-10
classified
Ibid., 25: First series of
numbers to 9,
second to go,
third to <)00.
fourth to 9,000
P. 266, 14. The addition
of odd numbers gives
squares (Jntroduction,
H. 9 3, etc.).
P. 26" I: Definition of
even and odd (l ntraduc-
tion, 1. 7)
Ibid., 4: Definitions of
subclasses (Introduc-
tion, I. 8 ff.)
P. :268, 8: Another classi-
fication, with definitions
(of all numbers) :
per se incomposiJi
per se compositi
inter se incomposUi
inter se compositi
(Introduction, I. Il tT.;
as a classification of
odd numbers only; the
last type omittedp
ISIOORUS
Cbap3
Cbap. 5
pariJet' par
pariJer impar
impariJer par
impariter impaT
Cbap. 5
Ibid.
Ibid.
primus et simplex
secundus et compositus
mediocrjs
(This classification is
confined to odd Dum-
bers.)
CASSIODORUS
1204 D
1205 A(like 1sidorus)
1205 B (agrees with Isi-
dOlus)
I This is unlike Euclid's classification of even numbers, but agrees with Nicomachus and
Theon; the tenninology used by Capella, who gives a fe..... Greek terms, is, however, rather that
of Euclid, but following the other scheme of classification. Capella does not appear to under-
stand either system of classification.
! This is rather Euclidean than Nicomachean. Isidore and Cassiodorus, however, follow
Nicomachus.
19',"011"""
CAPELLA
P. 26<), 24: Another classi-
fication i perfecti, am-
pliores perfectis, imper-
feelP (Introduction, J.
14 ff., of even numbers
only)
P. 210, IS: Plane and
solid numbers (IntrodU-
lion, H. 6 ff.)
P. 271, 5: Kinds of plane
numbers; triangular,
square, heteromedc (In-
trodudion, H. 7, 3)
Ibid., 26: Similar plane
numbers!
P. 272, 8: Relative num-
ber (Introdudion, I. 17.
6 ff.)
multipluaJi ('ll'"o.U.a'll'"M-

replicaJi (Wmro>.AarAa:-

mtmbro munbristJe an-
tecedentes (CWtp.Opux,
crrl.p.f./X&")
membro membrisvt in-
feriores (WelrtJL6pux,
Vn.7rlpof.iH&r; )
binis nominibus usi (11"0.\.
A.a",AaUW:'Wlp.OpUX, etc.)
ISIDORUS
Ibid.: supet'jlui, diminwi,
perfeeli (confined to
even numbers)
Chap. 7: discreti, con-
tinentes,' continentes =
linear, plane and solid;
circular and spherical
numbers
Chap. 6: first division into
equal, unequal; the lat-
ter into greater, less;
the subspecies in agree-
ment with Nicomachus
CASSIOOORUS
1206 A: suPet'jluw, indi-
gem, perfectw
1207 D (agrees with Isi-

1205 e-D, 1206 C - 1207 A
(agrees with lsidorus)
From this point on, there is no correspondence between the subjects
treated by our three authors. Capella takes up, in order, equality
(p. 272, 21; cf. Introduction, I. '7. 1-5), difference (dislantw, ibid., 26;
a,cf.CTTT/p.a would represent the idea in Greek, and Nicomachus has no
treatment of this subject), and the proposition that there may be the
same difference between two tenns, but a different ratio, depending
upon their order (ibid., 30; cf. I nlroduction, H. 23. 1, although Nico-
machus gives this no separate attention). He then takes up ratios
(p. 273, 5 ff.) in much the same way as Nicomachus (Introduction,
1 Euclid does not give these classes the perfect numbers alone).
t An Euclidea.n topic.
19',"011"""
I'A 18 fi.)_ T'he supe:rpar'ticul,ar" ,tt m,ay be. o'b:served:, is called mem-
th t II!I' .. h th .' mbr ( Ii--
uiMIt'm ,;wso, a( IS, a r,atlo W ,ere -I.e excess, IS a la Iquot
pa
'" [It-) 0:('" th'le" s'ml'la'Ue'''-'r' m'-be-:r as
cc
,.- '9 6" a'nd' tbe' , Ip'e....---::-a t'lct IS!!! .' '111d'
c...":' . - .,.' .... ,. .' - --... ...'.. ' ... , " 1...1.. , " .' .... [.::. '., .'_.' SU" ..' :rp r .. en. .1.. ca. e .
P
.. '11 t . t _. f h th ... 'h' I
arl'um ra,'w, orere'e ,excess 15 elt er one pars', o:r severa", partes
(that is, what Nicomachu.8' ca'IIs the "paronymous part" of e'very Dum-
ber, alw'ays u.nity" as o,f 4.),. Capella even enumerates the
root ratios, usm,g the Greek wor,d.
Tow'ar,d the end C'apella inserts certain material 'w'hicb dloes not
IiI N- ch b" h''. h f" cl - h . '. .h
I' '. :".... . I'', ',: .-".,. -: .' ,.... . .' ..... .' ': . "1'::- '. '.'1. - .' . ,'. I , ":';". :':. J .' '- ". ,F I I - .. : . -', " . ,:-'.
occur ID r. lC,Ol11a ", U,S, ut W_ le IS ,oun , thoU"g I, not. In t" e same
d
.. E 'li'd C', 11 f 11 ... .. b th '.
or,_,er, m . I .. a'pea ,.0.
1
, ow,s prOposltlo,ns_'ut n'ot .:,e pr'oofs las
,f'" 1-' 'd'I' E-" .,-ld: E' -')i-d" h-,- : d.. . t ...'.. .' thm .t ]1
,oun. . ID . -<UC,.I. .. ,- .. uc ... , ."Iowever:, '._ oes no give: a,ny al.. '.1 . e. 1ca .
ill'ustration" but confines 'himself to the logical plroof, em,ployin"g lin..es
as illustr,ati,ve mate'riaI, while Capella gives alwa,ys the n.'umerlcal
:Uustrati,on. Thus Capella states, (p. 278, 17), without proof, that the
- d" t f' - - - b 'b odd' b '. d f'- dd
'.' . . I" , .. . . , , ," . -;. . '. I'" .., ,. .'. . . . .' .-- '..
,P'['O,_,u.c 0_ an eve.n. n.um,.er .. y ,an, '.' .' __ num.er IS even" an. 0' an. 0,,
.'. , ". 'b .', 'b'" - d' d" , '. b .. 11'.. did" (p:...... . "8"" 8:)" '_I E"" "'d . '... th'-"- .'
num,e,r ',y a,n num,.er IS 0 1,.27, I'J ,-U'C.l
l
. glvesl"es1e
s,tatemen.ts. as pr;opositi.ons" IX. 28, and IX. SbmI,ar 'pr'opos,itions,
0:0 the ,ad,dition lof a seri.es of ,odd numbers or even n.umbels, are g"..i'v'en,
I '.
by Capella (p., 2'7,8, 24 279, 3) and by Euclid i,n 21, 22
1
;, an,d 23"
theore.ms, inv1olvin"g subtra.c .ion of odd or even from even or odd num.-
'hers :appear in Euclid (IX,. 24, 25"1 2,6) and in Capel.la (p 279, 18-'26).
M
:' 'an--- o. .. ,t,h,.e' ..'I. 's'1D1
7
'-illar:c; ... r"a"'ll'e=-II's: IllId". be- p.re.c."s:'.e-n-- t.e-.d . hi'U.tl th'.-llS. de,,taIl-.e .. d"
. , .. .. ..." . .. . ..1. . .', . , '. . . ..' . .,. . ... _. . ., . '
cc)] .'C ]" - lS h'ard1ly n"e'ce'ss'ary-
an,a yS,.S , .. I . " ,_ .
I,D gen,e:ra , we may sa,y that Capel1a presents th[e numerical sid.e o'f
:It, ' .. artl" ,'.-. f-= the p-.' .'., 11'" -'1"'t" .'. n'--, ".' 'f th: ' ..,:,' .' '," 't,hi! b.. 'k '-':f E.. 1 'f'-'
.. e grea _er p ,0 c..._' ropos, 10 SOl ',c...e seven . 00 0 "C.c ,an 0_
th
.. 1 ". t" f' th' ,. h-th" d" .. th- b- - -k b- t
l
, - - t - th
' ." ., I' '.. . .' ..... .. I ,"". .. , . '.' . . ' . .'. " . . . ". . '. .' .', .' ... I I . I' .'.
.Ie sunp er propoS,llons 0, '.' e elg, .' lan ,OOS, ,u nO
I
In ..e
same order as, in Euclid,.. He a,dds little that is ne:w, ,and apparently
sometimes does n,ot compreh'end the text of Euclid; co,rnJ,ptions due
t
... t, ",'j :. .... !lib' "',. m". I" t 'b' .".', "d- d- -,', .. . ._', '-ble e lan-a:: t)-n [of'-: .-hi
1.0 . ranSCIl,ers, _.e conSl.. ,ere. as ,a pOSS,l ...... :.xp,., '.. ' .C 0 .... ,
.' th . 't!, ds I '... b . d't'h t
A
h'
err,ors In text as 1t sta.D .. 'n. pass:lng, It IS tO
I
cc'e note. I' .a_ In ) IS
dj
" "' ....-.- ... -':, f I' ":.' _1iI .. 'C': 1' ,'.' .. th
l
.,. ,t'-hI,' '-.' t-: '1- t . t ,f
: : ,SCU.SSlon 0 m.USIC .. :apea. ,aVOll S .e ma ... ,ema lc,a,rlea ..en.. 0,
num,e:rical ratios which is. commonly fou,n.d in, t.he e;arly 'works in mu.s,ic..,
I
"'d d ,ill th ,. I 11 '. f E l'd '"
Sl_o'-re.' oes not give: -.e: n,ume:nca i ,I ustratlo,ns 0:1, . "U'C-'1' ea.n propOSl.-
tiolns" but follows ,more closely passages in NicomtLchus re'lating to th.e
li
t' d' b f' t '. h' '. h d' cl b him C' : 1'1' - _.. .
. -'.. \' .' . '.' ," :',,' C..:--."--"''" -; ' .."c, .C ' ".'. . ....,.,.: .. :. ',':".
,lmI'e Dum;er 0 IOpICS W.cICc- . are' lscusse,y _ape ,a opens
with an exten.d,ed ,and mysticalrd'iscu:ssio1n of the numbers from one to
ten, while Isi,do:re d.iscusses the etym,ology of the Latin 'words from one
't-- .. t ,.. .... d: f _ : '1 , " .. [' .. '" h '. . I 't h
ill
I'" ,th ''1' .. ' t':" '11 ."1 ' ...c --I tt'
o .en, an .or ,so'me larger num_ers" onlY, oue . mg . .ce mys. l.ca. elemen .'.
wi.th .,eference to the Di,stin,ctly different 0 Isidore ,is
h f
th infin' ..... 'iII'
l
f b (. III '. tG .,. -) h ,ill, th
t,.e re' eren,ce to' e 0 num'ers,1&'umers tnJ,.nsll, , s-I,owmg "at
if 'you cone,ei.ve [of any ntlD1b
l
er [as terminating th[e series of numbers,
adding:ne would another ];rg' ,er --,umb,er, This 'slug""':g" .. lests, E'uclid's,
" .. ",0, .. ,'.' ,[_,ve. ". ,,&:_. D."."" .. ". ,.. >_." , ..'.
f
,, th lb .- b f[ infin" ,: .' ."-, , .-. ':--. ' .' I' '.",., , ..-::,: '-,- . '. . - , ',', " '''" _. '1
proo .ate, num .e,r 0 ,prunes IS. ... I,te
Isidor1e follo'ws closely the text, of C'assodo,rus, employing frequently
th
- . 1 h I f" C"'oo I d b nl
' " .. : " . 'I ,. ' ., .. ",,' :': ','." :"', 1 .:-:. ,," ... ',' .,. [':-:-, .,.' ,:- ." I, ..':-., ',' ,'-:., ''''',' I','" "; -:":--, :,,,,
. ,,e actu,a p raseo ogy 0 '.'. asSl. .,orus. . SI,. [ore", ' lowever, e_ 8,rges oc-
c'asional1y, depa,:rtin,g from ,th,e mlaterial of Boethi'us, while C'assiodorus
does not. Isidolre inclu,des a brief ,diSCUSS,l[on of arithm,etl[cal" geoimle,tri-
cal and harmonical means which is not giv'en b1y
'I)t'h[, ':"d' ,,,.,:;', d':"" ','., NI"; ....
D,OI ".' cSII. 'Q,re an[. .&SSI .... OnJ,S were u ,llDla e y .. epen, en. on .' "ICo-
mach'us, un,doubtedly thrall,g'b, Boethius, whom th"e:y ,cite;, Capena
also depen1ded on Nico.xnachus, 'possibly' through th,e translation of
Apu ,eius, and used fu'rthe'r lDaterial,. including clas[smc,ati[ons fo'und in
E
", 'l-"'d b" ,h,,,t " ,,di''ti,1 f", ,,'LI"""-: ,',. ,d", ':I,'t'kn' I ":--'
ue,1 'JU .lrou,gJ w_a me,_a,.OD,l any" we ,0 DO . _,ow.
ContempOI,ra,ry with Martianus Capella a'n1d with Proclus was the
G
- ::- -:k D"',- ";- ,,,,,.'-.. ,,.'c: ......{.- L', .,..,,:. ,,'h':",'." ,.,' u",, ,'t,,, .,." :':" ,'" ,.. ".'. ts_" .. '-,'
'_' [lee ". .omnln10S 0
1
, ,,ans.sa, W oSle __ ea.:lSJe ID, m,any pom... IS sU,g-
gestive of the larger work, by' C'apella. Domninos h,as been, cited 2 las an
. f 'f N-" h' E lid
-, , ., ....,,'._,.. .'. -',:-- :: -..-c c"." '.' '.'-: ", ";1': ,.', "I' ...'..... ,1 ," -,.' :.-_., I" 'C", " '.,
exponent o. a movement ,away ro,m .'. l,co-mac ,us to retu,ID to .. uc, .
Partlcula,rly no'teworthy is 'his of the theory 0' polygolnal
b
. 1 d lid bl b "h- th h- cl b
. -, '.', .. ", '...... , ,'.' ,,'. _ ....' ." ' .. ":',.' ....- ,,",,[ , -:-,:. ,:, I" .. 'I' '.'. " .... "",-, '--;' .. I, ""
num,ers, ,exclept p ,an,le an. so .. " pOSSl.'.y ecause t. IS ,eory 8,)'" een
abused to th,e e,xtent ,of attempting to calculate, areas, 0' polygo,n:s, by
f
'" tb,, " fi -" ... t ,. - 'b - ". "it' ." ,tb' . dl f .-- -'. t" ., ., " . t ,,}
mea'DS 0_. '. e .gu,ra,.e nwners. " IS me .10,,: ,0" expoSl[ .Ion IS en[.. ,lre, ,y
., ,'1- t
c
." tb,1 It -, -, ch: 1' 'T'h[''," ',.,'... , ", -,t ,. ,,,- 'I" , d'".. [. ,'... ... t,t',, ", t'
SlDll.aro 0, lcomaus an, nO
I
, mc",u, ID,g any a
l
" .:emp -
a
t p'r"oo' , ,fs' ,o,SC-; t:o-:'u'-c,,,"e's' u--'p"'o:n-", :th"'e" ;-rnp- '0"'f' 'th:' 'e" d:'e:"cInla
l
. . :: ':" ..::,., ,.', " . I, ....: "" "I, '" ,_-:: . . .':" . ..!,", u.,1,1,,', ,.... . [,I:, . :' "," . ' _ ,).:. I, ,,: _I.
. {"b b d- f' ,. d) ":'1 '1"-" ,".' ' I'' '., ... , "'.:'-:,'.', :", '1"1 ,,', "-,": I","',:: ',[ ..'i"-:':', '",'. ,.:':'-,
nature o te num .e,r system an. re en to ,a proJect.e..... e, emen,tary
trea
' ",,"'ti 'se'' 0""nl W,h'lC'h '''1''(' Ico"m':'p"'le't-ed"" hLa"s", n"'o-t" 's'urv'"'v"ed-
I
.... [I- ,I. - .--.::.1 I .. _ ,,: '_ .:.....', _.""_1 1".'..:,,....'_ ," I ..' ",,' ", .....
R
'b M' tb' - th ' .. hit D C'17 l' II
lau,rus ,0[, ,-I,e nm" century'n-_ls " [e.,eTUtWum"nstslu-
3 )11 . .] b" f- ti f' I itd b h d ....
tume' 10 .. t1extua,. y por_,lons 0' "Sl"o"re, .ut .,_lS."l'SCU,SSlon IS
h tt ted th th f t
t'h' .' t tit d' 'I ." ",' ,,'" ,,:' """:', 'I" - 1 ' I , " [ ::.. ' ,.' -= " ": I . '. ,- " " " 'I . .
muc .. 1, more, a". .... 1 _ an ., ose o. .,e . ree men JU,S .-. men _Ion,e.
HuglQ ,of St. Victo:r of the tw,elfth century also includesl a few 'Im,es on,
arithmetic (fro1m Boethius) in his Ertul'it:io' Didascalica,.' 'N:either
of thes,e men cou,ld be said to, ,give real mstruction in ari,thmetlc.
A trleatise' in Greek on aritbm,eti[c::, which Ico,mpares fa'vior,ably in
poverty of content with th,e Latin works that. ha've been menti,[oned,
:l Paul t ,lA MtJnuel [d' I nJ,odtle'"", Ari,"maiqlUJ' iu Philos(J,;he DD:m",i,." Itle lArisstJ..
BePue dt's bulle! GreCf14t:s, 'vol 19 (I: 006
1
) 't pp.. 315
1
91 ,38,2. t T[annery" ,it
I Mign,e,. PaI,o.ltlfia LoJina'l val ICVIIp De 1nsli'IU';Dne, chap. xxii, ,De AriI"me'iaJ.
co,, Is 3nn-4
'
.-u."'L
. '- ',. :1":1''-'
.. M'"' p' ... ' ..,.' ., .-1 .. ] C-L-:'v'''vVI'' E'" l' 'ft:...J.-, I'"' L"be 1- ....It. JI!Ii ft, '"' ijjoi I
'lgn,e, w.JN4
t
'V[O t .... [I.f_,,, VIU" co 75'5'.
D,d cha'p. :10, col. 756) De AriI,hmdic4.
SUCCESSORS OF NICOMACHUS
143
is that commonly ascribed to Michael Psellus (1020-1105 A.D. ?)l
This work, certainly of the eleventh century, presents the Nicoma-
chean arithmetic again in the original tongue, but possibly through
the mediation of the Latin translation. The discussion of the classes
of numbers and progressions includes nothing new; the only varia-
tion from the Nicomachean material appears to be the definition of
multiplication as "taking the multiplicand as many times as there
are units in the multiplier."
In the eleventh century appeared also treatises on an ancient arith-
metical game, rith11UJ1'1UJ<hia.' The rules of the game are fundamentally
dependent upon the Nicomachean classifications of numbers; the game
continued to be popular for several centuries and possibly aided to
revive for a time the arithmetic which was being supplanted as a dis-
cipline by the Hindu-Arabic system of computation.
There is abundant evidence to show that the study of the mystical
arithmetic and of the arithmetic as taught by Boethius continued in
the church schools for more than a thousand years after Boethius.
True contributions to the science of numbers, however, do not appear
to have emanated from these institutions. For such contributions at
this time to the progress of all science, we must look rather to the
Arabs, to whom civilization is greatly indebted for the continued ad-
vance of learning during the period when Europe was in darkness.
The Arabic writers on arithmetic, from the eighth century through
the fifteenth, were undoubtedly more or less familiar with the general
content of Nicomachus and more certainly with Euclid, but their
scientific inclinations led them fortunately to stress the new Hindu
arithmetic) an instrument essential to scientific progress in many
lines.
It is not at all probable, as Cantor asserts,' that the famous Arabic
mathematician, AI-Khowarizmi (c. 825 A.D.), wrote a speculative
arithmetic along Greek lines. No work of Al-Khowarizmi suggests
t Mk/wt/is Psd/i Com/J'tndium },{aJlrrnuJli,um (Leyden, 164;), containing the Qlladrivium
ascribed to Michael Psellus and translated by Xylanderj S(:e P. Tannery, Zeitschrift fur
AfaJh.tmaJik un<! Physik, llislorischlilcrariscne Abthdlung, \'01. XXX\1I, p. 41,
'Wappler, Buntrkllllgtn ::llr Rltylhmomachic, in Zeilschrift fUr }.fcUnemalik und Physik, IJis-
t",isch-filerarischc AblMilllng, vol. XXXVH, pp. 1-17; see Smith and Ealon, Rithmomachia,
'M Grca' Medieval Number Gaml, in American MatntmalkaJ MOIIlMy, vol. XVIII, pp. 73-80.
'Gtschkhlt dcr Mllthtmafik, vol. I (3d edition), pp. 715-716; the error is due to a misinterpre-
tation of a passage in AI-Khowarizmi's arithmetic. AI-Khowarizmi refer.; to his 'aljebr w'al-
muqabala,' as' another book in arithmetic' (i.e., in alio libro arithmetico '), and Canlor bases the
speculative arithmetic on this phrase.
\9',"011"""
. .-
144
more than casual interest in this field. Another Arab, TMbit ibn
Qorah (826--<)01), refers to the generation of perfect numbers and of
, amicable numbers,' a pair of numbers such that each equals the sum.
of the factors of the other; he makes also direct reference to Nico-
machus. Among his works is included Extnuts from the Two Books
of Nicoma.chus.'
Ibn Khaldun, in his encyclopedic work, takes up briefly the discus-
sion of the arithmelua, mentioning the three types of even numbers
and thus showing acquaintance with other Greek authorities than
Euclid. He states, however, that while some ancient Mohanrmedans
did treat this subject, modem writers were inclined to reject this type
of work as serving no practical purpose.'
Many treatises touching mystical arithmetic are still preserved in
Arabic, Ethiopic, and related languages, although few of these have
as yet received the serious attention of scholars.
3
The revival of learning in Europe, particularly scientific learning,
was stimulated by the translation into Latin of Arabic works of science.
The schools of the Arabs in Spain were open to the Christians, and the
translations came largely from such students, resident in Spain. Not
only works of Arabic origin, but also works ultimately Greek or Hindu
in origin, were translated into Latin from the Arabic. The twelfth
century was notably the period during which the making of such trans-
lations was in active progress,' while the period from the thirteenth to
the fifteenth century witnessed the popularization of the material
given in the translations.
Coincident with the study of the Greek geometry and the Hindu-
Arabic arithmetic and the algebra of the Arabs was a European
revival of interest in the Greek arithmetic. Such writers as Pope Syl-
vester 11 of the tenth century' and Johannes de Muris' of the four-
teenth century touched upon the Nicomachean arithmetic. The early
I Suter, Die MaJMmaJiker"nil Astronomm der Araber, pp. 35-37; the Arabic version is extant
in the British Museum (426, ISO).
I MacGuckin de Slane, ProUfombtes Hiskwiques d'lbn K/wJdQun, in Notiees eJ ExtraiJs des
ManwcriLs tk la Biblwthique NalionoJe, val. 21, 1868, pp. 12Q-132.
aPersonal communication of my colleague, Professor Worrell, formerly director of the
American School of Oriental Studies in Jerusalem.
4 See Karpinski, Robert of Cheskr's TramlaJwn of lhe Algt/wo of Al-Khou,arizmi, in Biblwllu:ca
MatJlemajiaJ, 3d Series, vol. XI, pp. 125-131.
'Gerberli postea SiltleS'ri II ~ Opera MaJ!lewuUua (ed.. Bubnov, Berlin, 1899), pp. 29-
35
I See Karpinski, The" Quadripartilum NutMrOf"Um" of Joltn of Meut's, in BibliolheCG MaiM-
matica, 3d Series, vol. XIII, pp. 99"""I104.
Iq,noll"""
SUCCESSORS OF NICOMACHUS
145
printed works on arithmetic were, of course, largely devoted to the
new system of arithmetic, popularizing the use of the Hindu-Arabic
numerals. However, in the compendiums of aritlunetic and in the
encyclopedic works we find frequently extensive treatment of the
speculative arithmetic, the Greek, as opposed to the practical compu-
tations communicated by tbe Arabs. Thus, the Italian, Lucas de
Burgo San Sepulchri, in his Summa de Arithmetica of 1494,' devoted
folios 1-19 (38 pages) to the speculative arithmetic. Similarly the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Bradwardin (c.
wrote a treatise, based on Boethius, called Arithmetica Speculativa,
which was printed many tintes 2 and which formed the basis of a work
on arithmetic 3 by the Spaniard, Pedro Sanchez Ciruelo (c. r470-
15
60
). ,
Jordanus Nemorarius, head of a Teutonic monastic order (who
perished in 1236 in a shipwreck), wrote a thoroughly Greek arithmetic
in ten books to which Faber Stapulensis added demonstrations. In
the 1514 edition' are included the Arithmetica Decem Libris Deman-
strata, a work on music after Greek models, by Faber Stapulensis, also
an epitome of the arithmetic of Boethius, and a work on the game
rithmomachia.
Among the encyclopedias which treated the arithmetica may be
mentioned the popular Margharita Philosophica of Gregorius Reisch
(who died in 1525) and the Speculum Doctrinale of Vincent of Beauvais

This list of writers on the arithmetica could be extended most
materially. Briefly it may be said that the works which we have
cited showing the continued use throughout Europe of the arithmetic
of Nicomachus, as translated by Boethius, are typical of the period
from the tenth to the sixteenth century. The extent of time and terri-
tory included within the influence of Nicomachus and Boethius amply
justifies the study of arithmetic of Nicomachus as a notable document
in the history of learning.
1 Copy in the University of Michigan Library.
'See Smith, Rara Aruhmetica (Boston, 1908), \'01. I, p.61.
'Cursus Quatuor' Afalhtmaluarlfm Artillm Librralium appeared in numerous editions; the
A1cala, 1526 edition, is in the University of Michigan Library. Ciruelo .....as the author, also, of
a work on the Hindu-Arabic art of reckoning.
I am indebted to Mr. John G. White of Cleveland, Ohio, for the use of his copy of the ISI4
edition.
19',"011"""
CHAPTER XI
THE MANUSCRIPTS AND TEXT OF TIlE INTRODUCTION TO
ARITHMETIC
IT would be gratifying indeed to print a fresh text of the Introduc-
tion to Arithmetic, based upon a complete examination of the manu-
scripts, and to supplement this by an adequate account of the
manuscripts and their relationships. Unfortunately, this has proved
impossible; the writer has not been able to devote the necessary
time and travel to the task. Consequently Hoche's text has been
made the basis of the translation and commentary, and the remarks
made in this chapter on the manuscripts and text are to be regarded
as tentative, based as they are on fragmentary information.
The editions of the Inlroduction to Arithmetic have been as follows:
r. The first edition was that of Wechel (Paris, 1538). Wechel
probably used a single manuscript, now lost, referred to as P in the
following pages.
2. The second was that of Friedrich Ast (Leipzig, 1817), containing
also the Tlteologumeno Arithmeticae. Ast used, besides the first edi-
tion, the three Munich manuscripts, /'-, m, and S, but failed to realize
the relative value of his sources and relied too much upon emenda-
tion.
3. Gottfried Miiller (Particula Nova Nolitiae et Recensionis Codicum
Manuscriptorum Qui in Bibliotheca Episcopalae Numburgo-Cizensis
AsseMlantur, Leipzig, r818) brought forward the Giessen codex, C,
and published a collation of it with Ast's edition.
4. C. F. A. Nobbe (Specimen Arithmeticae Nicomackeae e Duobus
Codicibus Manuscriptis, Leipzig, 1828) issued a brief notice of the
Niirnberg and Wolfenbiittel manuscripts, Nand r, with a text of the
Introduction to Arithmetic, T. 1-3, and critical notes.
5. Richard Hoche (Nicomachi Geraseni Pytkagorei Introductionis
Arithmeticae Libri ll, Teubner, Leipzig, 1866), using for the first time
the Gottingen and Hamburg manuscripts, G and H, and to some ex-
tent all those previously mentioned, produced the edition which is
,,6
19',"011"""
MANUSCRIPTS AND TEXT
147
still standard. He had preceded this with an article in a program of the
gymnasium at Wetzlar (1862) in which G was for the first time used.
The manuscripts mentioned and used by Hoche are the following:
I. G, Codex Gottingensis philol. 66, a parchment manuscript of
the tenth century, iii + 266 leaves, lIt by 'S cm., with columns 13t
by 10 cm. and 20 lines to the page in the text, 39 in the scholia. This
contains the text of the Introduction, the commentary of Johannes
Philoponus, and a scholium of Theodorus Protocensor. Corrections
have been made throughout by a much later hand which Hoche calls
G,.
2. rn, Codex Monacensis 238, paper, of the fourteenth century, con-
taining only the first part of the Introduction as far as the words ""po.
Tq; O)..,/" I. '9 4, p. 50, 2Hoche.
3. P, the first edition by Wechel (Paris, 1538). This deserves to
be reckoned among the manuscripts, since the manuscript upon which
it was hased, apparently an ancient and a good one, has disappeared.
4. C, Codex Cizensis, paper, of the last of the fourteenth or the
early fifteenth century, containing the Introduction, another version
of Philoponus's commentary, and the problems printed upon pages
148-154 of Hoche's edition.
5. 1'-, Codex Monacensis 76, paper, of the sixteenth century, which
Hoche thinks a copy of C.
6. S, Codex Monacensis 482, of the thirteenth or fourteenth cen-
tury.
7. H, Codex Hamburgensis, of the sixteenth century.'
8. N, Codex Norimbergensis, of the last of the fourteenth or the
beginning of the fifteenth century.
9. r. Codex Guellerbytanus, of the early sixteenth century'
The following manuscripts in addition are known to the writer
through photographic or photostatic reproductions of a few pages of
each, or through collations of typical passages made by friends:
10. A, Codex Atheniensis IllS, of tbe fifteenth century, in the
National Library at Athens.' Paper; 138 pages at present, four hav-
ing been lost at the beginning. It contains anonymous prolegomena
I H. Omont, Malnucrits Crus des Villts ll(HlSiGliqucS, Hamburg, No. 48.
10. von Heinemann, Handschriflcn dtr h":lJgluMn Biblwthd :14 Wolju,bUlkJ, Wolfenbuuel,
1913-
I Cf. the catalogof the manuscripts of the National Library or Greece by J. and A. I. Sakkcliou,
18<)2, Through the kindness of Professor F. W. Kelsey the writer has of the
first 26 pages, carrying the text to p. 29, fJ Hoche.
h I d
!l!l A .. 'h' .. 'h th b k f- th [' od-'
to t-;I,entro:,uctwn to ,,' t_,en "-e tW'OI'OO.,S 0 '-;-e'
t
lit
t If" d 1 th t' 'IOn l'se ' , an,l, Isev,era 'realses
11. B, Codex Atheniensis 123,8" th,e Nation,al Library a't Athens,.1
13'6 leaves, on ,o,:rdinary pape:r '22 by 17 CID., o:f about th,e b,e,ginning of
tb
""', ,-,.. 'h',teie"," th-- t'UI'ry' '" Thj'" . I!!!'s';:--n"ta",.-m'!!I,s, th"",'e'" tex'"'t o"f" B'" '-:-"k-" I .. thl" 'tb''.''
_e elg "".D _,C,' ','., ..,C-C,'_. ',',' ,00, "Wl "e
co,mmentary as-cribed to .P,roclus intervening between sections.!
12, J, in the Gr,e:ek P,atriarchal Libra'ry ,at ]eru,salem, number 5
"f' tb' "'.'" ,., " '. b" th':,',' P' "'t:-' I" 'h d:o' ,'.,' . '-'tt -- b' th' .. ',' -b""
101 ,-, o-s'e glv,eny '. e ,a ,rl,arC,I,C,O: em.us" wn - eny scn._,e
Maxim,us in 1801.
3
3,9 paper leaves, 39 by' 2,3 cm., ID single, column, 2,3
lines, t.OI a pa,ge. J' js not 8, comp' I ete text, 'but. a series ,o,f exe,erpts,.,
.'., V IC"""':d',c, MI':- O' - O'"tt',, b' "-1'''''''''' Gi--.-., V'IU
Il
', , .,
13.. .. ,,0 ex ,', .... ,0 _o,Dlanl."raec.,!, 10 e'ca,e .'. a,1 ,canae
3
'IO- 160:'' le"a'v"'e"s' g'"'ra"'y--]"'sh":'"-b,o'w;--::n'-" p"a"'pe"r ab"'o'ut' 17" b'y 10'- cm'" 10"'if'" th '. "e'
"'",--,, ,.",'. ",:"',"'_". ,.:.=.,,1._,,11.', " .. '- -"."" , -.' - '." '-, ",',' .'J" .",'
fi
' "ft.. written., in a co.m:.Pi,act hand. I in v,',"e,.',ry,---:-b:!a ..c,,'k---:: ink' :.. 1 .... an" ,':d".Wl',-,".th',
_ een. ce _. ...' __, _.. ,_ _'. __ ____ _ . _. _. .. __ ___._ _.
many' abbr'eviatio,ns, 2'7' or 28 Ilnes to a page. The lnt,oduct:ion 'is
,on f'oll. '12.4.....160 'r.
4
14. D" Codex Va'tilcanus Gr. 17091, of perhapsl 'the :fifteenth century;1
ft
', "h' .,., 'h-t, ,.'. ,",','.". , be, ,,' ,-th ,--, b'" t ' ., " ' -,.,"', ," . ' I .. , .' . ','., ,. I . I '. ' I . ' .". .- " " .. " " . ..'. ," -
, ne ,eavy W 1 e paper 29Y ,2 I cm" Wl . . very wl.e marg,IDs,1 a.:ou ..
26 lines to ,a, page,. Tb,ere are several t.reatises, besid,es 'the 1nt,oduc,lum,
whi.ch oe'eupies f'on. 203-2' 1 '0; the en,d is, 'no1t ex:tan,t.
E
C'" d V tot, . G' 6" f' 'ha th fi'fit th' ,
-, ., I ' ' '., .. ,' .. , ----- - " ' .- ' -,' . '-,',' . ' . . ,', , ' , ' " ' . , . ." 'I' . " . , ', 'I" " , , ' I" ,,-' . . , , " ." ': . , ' 1 . " .
IS,. ,f 0 ex ,alcan,us< r,. 19" 0, per, .ps_" ,e .... _e,en _cenury,
on, 've'ry fin,e heavy 'pape:l' 29.5 by 2.1 cm. NicoDlachu:s occupies fall,.
I 30.
F ,C- V" .. '..... 'G", '8",16, ,,,"-,'-'tl' ,., th'-' t,,,, t'h . ',',' .. ,'.
I". ., o.ex ,a, lc,anUS'lr. I:., 'I 0 apparen.y., e SIXeen,. cen
tury;, beau,tlfully written Ion both, :sldes of thi,c'k gr'ay paper 6i by
A '.",.' ,:,",--h'" ,,' 1 LI" --:-'an"'y', ,th',e" te", ,t "'f' B," ".-,k, I h,,:, t ,' .. 't B',,( ",,'k:' I'
41r Inc es, se ,Q"a accomp .... ... ',.. ,x 0 ,00__" DO : . 00 ..
, -'" . 11 (' ) c' - iIi '.. In''. 11 .-,
I. 7.. L" Linlc. Co ...:c Gr. 33, In the library of LID,CO '.. Co. eg[e" Ox-
ford &
1 The writer has fromb,e sam,e source' photographs, as, far' as p, 11" 5 H[oche.
t H h .' h- _...1.':' - f h h li f' J 'L_, Phi' -'I (Le -6 ') rd th
' o--ee, ID liS roatlon 0 t e seo a, 0< , olli:i.nnes. . (oponus I 4,', rega-s' 'e cam..
.', " ta,, ," 'f p:: ":1 ,- .,'., ".{'. ",. '." "f' tb-I I't b--:- Phil"'" ,"'. "",- . H:'" 'th"------', ,_1.,.....,. ',' f" A'tb'""
men__,ryo rocusasa,recens,lono. .B. y .... oponuSI! ,_,e -IS ,. e-
m
-an m' 'Ulli'hl"'C-h he- n'0''t an-'d:' "C'Q:rp,..,.,t:-ly' "inl', '-rLa't, l-t c,ootain' "'S' M"uch', tb"e same,' tom'.. I,. _,I I ,. __. "-:I" - __ ' 1CIt'.:1 ...:' .... , ,J' .. -_ . ,".-.' 1 _." ',' .... 11 -.: I, ',Ir _:-_ -
mentary as the Gi,essen manuscript, C'l' .
I See [t'he catal-og 0':( this lib.ra.ry by A., Petrograd,,. 189'1-901' vol. I It
p_ 1:81_. A considerable porllQ'D of J :is ['<.DOwn tlo the wn'ter through photographs secured, by Pr0-
fessor K.elsey. Its s,u-perscripti,on is,: 41t ,.. N,lOI"'XOll rfpct1'J'oD '601 fJ4J'Alw, 14p"J&:",.urijI'1Il
.I ... "" . ,',." A',t' t'h--' , 'd " ", " t'h (",'11' .. - . ."., '. ""': .I '. A .....1:," .," ,',,""" N' ." ....1.', -
c. TOlU IPUTtOV", ..... ". e en occurs . e 0 OWing DO Ice ", Tl',I\US' TWr: cl:' "VS ap& .. P.""'I&,'II' . &a-O,..XOII
r p&a&,N,Oii' .-t'-. '.,'; cl,wry"." '"" ,G1TtI,xft' ,a.w" l, 70AcI 'TOO BtoO'IA"I' "4
dPAflou ,"otSAou TOV e..O ltl'Clf1aUOuii
" C' f Fer'a"! , and B-ttag' .', ",1'"'m'1' CI.,..",,;,. ',Jfi' I,'"" ....1. 'O""'O''-IWiIJnoM': B ---:.l..l::",'L........n y.....'i.;,.n.-.n-..
_.' '" ' .. '.' .. 1,.. ' . .' I .... '- ,J' _ JJtI. 'U.,.""SIIl;o' .. 'r; '.' ..,.,J..,u",..iI'U",.... . .W;, ,tiVl'ftG(..-1oM:o'
Rome" 1893, 'p,. 166., Descripti,oD5 and partiallcollations ,of 'this an,d the three loUo,wing maDU,
scripts have been fumished, by tbe writer's co Professo[r John G.. Winter.
H
' '0 C''O"f! C:-.. ...... ........ M"'"'a IQ:'u'; ; .. C' 'oU.-",,"';', ... H
1- I. . ill ". .. _.va,",""" ..".. '..n IL!;,.,'.v, ... " . ..... fI,. -: I. .'.. n .....v .:", . fIlUM
A .. '8','' ".--'1 I' Lin' .. .. ,'lnC.. , ,ll" ": --,' "-"-,8' N::o XXXI,':'-"','"':,"U
nuServa,...,. 'v.u.O .' J' VD" J '. 100 0 ege
J
p. I 1, .. ,._..., ... '.
'49
,8. 0, New College B 299, at Oxford. Fifteenth century; the
text of Nicomachus occurs on foll. 52-60.'
'9. e" at the Escurial, numbered T-I-n. A folio manuscript
of 222 leaves in several fifteenth-century bands, from the library of
Hurtado de Mendoza. The I ntrodu<titm to Arithmetu occupies foll.
206r-21of, with marginal scholia.
2
20. e" number T-I1-6 of the Escurial collection, a paper folio of
n4 leaves 30 by 20.5 cm., containing the Introduction with scholia;
the two books are in different hands. Book I runs to fol. 97v, and
Book 11 occupies foll. '03r-1I4V. Columns 22.5 by '5.5 cm.'
21. e" number of the Escurial collection; a paper folio of
266 leaves, 33.5 by 22.5 cm., written in one column 2' by '3.5 cm.,
'9 lines to the column, in a sixteenth-century band. Contains the
Introduction with Philoponus's commentary; from the collection of
Hurtado de Mendoza. Book I on foll. 4r-48r, Book 11 on foll.
22. e" number of the Escurial collection; fourteenth cen-
tury, paper, '79 leaves 28 by 2' cm., with one column of writing 21.5
by '4.5 cm., 36 lines to the column; worm-eaten. The Introductitm
begins with fol. ,oor and continues through I7'v,'
23. e., number T-III-, 2 of the Escurial collection; paper quarto of
the fourteenth century, 8r leaves 21.8 by 14.2 cm., in one colunm 17
by '0.5 cm., 3' lines to a column. Book I on foll. Ir-2Ir, Book 11
on foIl. 2rr-42r.6
24. pI, Ancien Fonds Grec, No. 2483. This and the ten following
manuscripts are in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. Fourteenth
century, 3,8 leaves, containing the Introduction with Philoponus's
commentary.7
25. Pt, Ancien Fonds Grec, No. 2481. A fifteenth-century quarto
of '47 leaves, paper, with the Introduction on foll. '-52V, followed by
Euclid.'
I H. O. COllet op. tit., val. I, New College, p. 107. Dr. Charles Singer, of Oxford, has furnished
a note on this manuscript.
I E. Miller, CakJ10gul des ltfanuscrUs Grrcs de la Bihliolhrqlll de l'EscllriaJ, Paris, 18.$8, p. IOQ.
The descriptions of this and other Escurial manuscripts are supplemented by notes and photo-
graphs of specimen pages furnished by the writer's colleague, Professor Henry Arthur Sanders.
I Miller, op. ,it., pp. 125-126.
'01'. til., p. 294
'0 .
1'. cil., p. 90
501'. ,U., p. 253.
1 Professor Sanders has also furnished descriptions of the Parisian manuscripts. H. Omont,
Sommaire des Marll4Sc,;ts GruqtUs de la Bibliotht\que NalWtwJe, vot. Ill, p. 267.
Om ..,>
ont,
19',"011"""
N'ICOMACHU'S OF GE,.RA,SA
26. PiS" Ancie'D 'Fonds Grec, No. 2480. Paper q,uarto, o,f the eight-
h
' ..'.. + 6' + 1 .. 'h 1" od'
eent century, 31[9 eaves" containing te ,.ntruc"UJn
wt
" Phi'I,Q.,p,O,Duis "s. C'O' . I
J.. - 1..:....-. " _ ":'" . '" ". -'. "I :........;. _ _,':. '..
27. p.., Anci.en Flon.ds 'Grec,1 No. 2479, thi.rteenth-cent.ury parch-
ment (mostly sh,ee'pskln, but partly goat), 2'01 leaves,; th.e ['nt,oduc-
,tion with margin..al sc,h,olia of Soterichu,s.
2
28 PSI' ,An,cien FaD, s Gre,c, No. 2,376. 'Paper:, 251 leaves 32 b'y
21.,5 cm." ,in lone column of 30 lines t.o ,a page, c10pied by V'aleriano Al-
'bino in 1539; Book I on foIl., Book 11 ,on fo11.
F'!i
g
r'e'" - .d' ta',bIe'S l"'n t'he' m'"a"'ra-in :I _I,U,S a,n .,.,.... :,,:- - ' .'
. Fd - - P 1
-.' - . . . ,
.', ,',' " c', :c,_" ,-- I) .. C", .... '::- .. ''':, .. . I ,,'....1 .. ' ..
29. P6, Anc,len ,_on.s Glee, No".. 23175,. .. aper, 4s eaves ,31.,5 by
20.5 c'm., o'f the sixteenth century, copied by Constantine Palae-Ocappa ,;
,contains Book I, ,c'hapte,IS 1-17., 5 with PhiIoponus"s co:mmentary.
,30. Pi, ,Ancien Fonds, No., 2374. Pap1er'J of the sixteen'l_h cen-
t,ury", ,copied b,y ]ea'n d'Ortrante; 42 leav1es, 3,2 'by 22.8, cm., in si.ngle
. "''1" ".' "'f'" I]',, ,.... , B''' k' -I .:...... f",: 11 ,...... , B .... 'k 1'1 .... -.., f-n '. '.-,- I
co umn 0_, '24 IDes, . '.00 '.. , o,no...,Ir-2IV, .. 00 ..... on 0 '1 ..
3'1. Ps, A'D..cien Fond'S [Grec', N,o. 2373,. Paper, of the fou.rte,enth
centu.ry, '124 leaves
21
51 3 by 17 cm., Olne column o:f 3S lin,es to theplag1e ,;
"0' k 'I --- f' .111'1 - - B'" 'k 11 ' f" 11 .. -6'-" [
.000, ". '. o,n, '011 'I Ir........ I7rt:oo_. ono i.
32., Pg, ICoislin., No. 174 Paper, fifteenth century', 441 leaves, 31
b S
' ,.,. 1 1 f I- 'b B k -.
... y 19. ... cm""I 'ID, sIng' e COl ,umn 0" 3.3 In,es 2'0 ,'y 11.5 cm. :.00' __ OCC,Uples
foil. Book 11 foIl. 59-79v. Philoponus's commentary ac-
co:mpaniesl the text&
7
- 1 G N fif
: .. , ..... I "1, ,". ,_: I" : ," : ':' ,'. .','.," ". '.' c' . , 1,-. I I... 'c'. '. 1,-', ...-:'.
33. pI.a, SU,pp ement .... ree" . 0,. 450, paper" .teenth century, 183
Iea:v:es' .... 23::' 2.... b'-' y".' 116"': 8,','" 'w:,:"lthll C"O",' -Im', , 'n:' o:f!': IAn'e,'-'s',J 5 b'y": IS,' c-'m", N']"':. ".-.
.... . .. .. '.' . ".", ..' . ....:' . '.: .... . IJ '. '.,' ."'.. . C<l-
mac'hus, occupies fall. 6:r-68,v', with no B
34. PJ1, An,cien Fonds Grec, No,. 2372 ; sheepskin p,archment, of
the fifteenth century; 109 leaves 2S b,y 18 cm." with 'single c,olumn
of 27 lin,es 18 by 'I I cm.; formerly 2,657,. N'icomach'u's,
without CO,mmentary, appears on foIl. 1-,53, f.ollowed by othler trea-
tises 9
T
"h I!!Il'l' b 1- d .' .. k 'h" 1
. 'ere 'Wl" next lste_ manuscnpts to t. e, 'wnter' o'n y
f th
'. d- . t- tb' I t I f ill li'b 'I!!I.
. .', . ,,', - I'" - , ".':" ..',' .' . ' ' ' '. , . . " ' -' ". ". '......... '.
.,rom ... elr .escnp. l'O.ns ID 1 .. e c.a,.a, ogues o. variOUS, _,mn,es "
3,5:. At the Esc.urial, Number 2
1
'1 ,0,( the manuscripts of 'Cardin,a
. ,-,Jilld 00- 'C'. ta- E'-,l,d fII'--:',d: b'''-- th .. - :t :cf' 'th ".
.' _ ' . I I .' '. I I'. , '," .'." .' . ". '. . .' . ," L J ,- ". '.- J '", J'
,Ill e,. IS sal ..... con :lnUCI1 .. 0 ,owe, I.y .e ex 0_ .e, rO'UC.JtJn
to A,'akmetic 1
0
10' ... 1 III 6'
.mont, 0'. cU.. V01.. ,. ... Pil 2'7,.,
1':Ll...J
. U'lrtrf.t
l' Omo'Dt, ,0'.. cUI" v,ol.. In" 'Pi :148.
, Omant, ,0''1 vol.. 1.
1
p.., ,248,a
.l6id. I Omont, 'vol,,, 11. ,2,:&
. l',1..::..1 I
I lIJIJ 11 '. DJCl-..
:1: Omont, vol. .11jl p. 264.
I MillerJ tI'Il,. cb.JP,. 324...
36. At the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Ancien Fonds Grec, No.
2377, contains Nicomachus with commentary; lines and part lines
are in red, with much commentary intervening. Book I on foll.
rr-88v, Book II on foil. 89r-I6Iv.'
37. At Hamburg, Mathematici Graeci, in folio, IV a. A paper
manuscript of the fourteenth century; 55 leaves 25.2 by 16.5 cm.,
bound in parchment; the Introduction on foIl. I-53r, followed by Aris-
totle's Nicomachean Ethics.'
38. At Erlangen, a defective sixteenth-century manuscript.'
39. At Leyden, a paper codex of the fourteenth century, 40 leaves
in large quarto, which belonged to Meibom and later to P. Burmann
the second.'
40. At Moscow, a paper codex of 101 leaves, of the fourteenth cen-
tury, containing the Introduction with scholia on foil. 66 fI.
41. Cambridge University Library, Gg. I (ii), foil. 21-22, fifteenth
century; apparently a brief series of excerpts from Nicomachus.'
42. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Selden Greek '9, of the fourteenth
century; U Nicomachi Geraseni Arithmetieae libri duo imperfecti."
43. Cambridge University Library, Kk. V, 28, foil. I-II9V., fifteenth
century. Foll. 1-88 contain the Introduction to Arithmetic and foil.
89 fI. the Manuale Harmonicum.
44. Vaticanus Graec. '99, consisting of one leaf only, fifteenth cen-
tury.'
As the writer has already indicated, the following remarks are to
be understood as in no sense constituting a formal attempt to classify
the manuscripts of the Introduction to Arithmetic. They are based
on three sources of infonnation, Hoche's apparatus criticus, photo-
graphic reproductions of specimen pages, and partial collations made
by friends. The first is avowedly not exhaustive, except for the first
1 Nott u m i s ~ by Professor H. A. Sanders.
t H. Omont, Manuscrils Crus des VUles lIa1JShJJiI[ues, number 41.
1 Johann Conrad IrmM:her, Handschriften-KaJaJog dn 191. Univcrm!JJsBibliotlJei tu Erlangm,
Frankfurt-a,M. and Erlangen, 1852, number 94.
4 Geel, CaJal0lllS Lwrurum Afanusujplurum Qui inde ab Anno 1741 Bibliothmu: Lug4u'ID
BaJa'WU Accrsseru1U, p. 3', number 126.
Chr. F. de Matthaei, AccuraJa Codicum Grauorum Alanuscriptorum Bihliotlucarum Mos-
qumsium Sanaissiwuu Synodi No/ilia d Rra:nsio, Leipzig, 1805. p. 147, Number CCXXIII.
Dr. Charles Singer. of Oxford, furnished the writer notes on numbers 41, 42, and 43.
1 Professor John C. Winter's note. Professor Winter informs me also that entries in the C/UQ.-
10lus Valkanw G,aecus indicate that the following Vatican codices contain the InJ,oduditm 10
Arilhmdk in whole or in part: Codd. Vat. Cr., 199, 1040, 1051, 1411, 195. 197. 256, 1026, 1<}8;
Book I only. Codd. Vat. Cr. 199.256; excerpts. Cod. Pal. Gr. 129.
19',"011"""
1
,NICOMACH"US OF GERAS,A
three chapters of Book I, an,d the, informatio'n derived fro,m photo,..
gr,aphs an,d collatio SI has been in, eve'ry mstanc,e f'ragmenta,'ry.., Frlom
a1 thr'ee the most tha't might be claim,ed a, fa-irly accurate report
of 'the ,readings of th,e' majrority 0' the manu'scrip,ts in th,e first three
chap,ters of the I nt,otluc'ion. Obv.iou'sly this is not a sufficient basis
faI' con,c1u,s,)ons ofl perman,ent. v,alu,e, a'n,d the followmg paragrap'hs are
ve'D,tured only b,ecause nothing' has pr'eviously been said o,f thle ch:arac-
tier' of the manuscripts
,
wh'ich 'Hoche did not emp1oly,.
It. was, n,o't esp,ecially""" hard :for Hoche, using"- ,olnly' nine man'uscrip,''ts",
, - , , - , '" - , " - -- -, - - -- -- -, - --', - - - - '" ,
t
"" -",' "th'I"",tG:":mP"" -f:.... ",- """f"" ,--"',il- : "I S""'HN-'-'I"r"':-' ,"tb,--"'" ,-:,.',." tb'-""
o see :_,Ia-"" c--,orm on,e ,aJn Yan ' '-lA 2,>1 _ givIng _-,e
foUowin,g stemma : I
Ar'chetype
;&.
,-
Family I
rfL' ..
'Family I
Glm P C,# G
2
SHNr
'Wer,e these th,e only man,uscripts in eXls,tenc,e thei 'relationsh,ips W'O _d,
thus be represe'D,ted with s'ubstantial ac1curacy'l and indeed, even ?lith
added info,rmati,o'D, these, g,roupings ar,e in the main correct. 'W,h,en
other manuscripts, ho,wevrer" are taken into the rec'koni:ng" it beclomes
e'viden,t that the text of Nicomac,hus, was an ,exceedingly mixed OIDe,
a'od that clear-cut grou,plin,gs, a're DOlt so easy' t,o make as per'baps
Hoche tho'ught,. In pa'rticula,r', m.anusc:ripts exist which exhibit to
a g
-re-"R't"e'r d-e'g"ree'-" tha'D" 'S""HN:: 'rG"'-' 0"[-- eve'n tha-" - n- IC- -- c'h'a-'['a'c'terlst'IC ,<_-_ I:_! _'; .. '. . ...... .. ... ... _ " ,I: 2" :' ' .: ,I 1'1'1,,::1', ..... ....
readings of the group G1mP, or in oth,e:r words, the di.ff'eren,tiation
t
H h" t f 1 tb' d t .hi
wee,n "QC. e'swo ma,'m I.,amlllles IS ra,- -'Ier a gra,alo-,' tla"n a senes
of 'clear-cut
To illustrate what m,ay be said, on these points, th,ere follows a, selec-,
tion ,olf th,e thirty'-se'ven readings, in the first t'hree' c'hapters of the, tex,t
which, appea'r' to thle write,r partic'ularly :signifi,cant. 'Th,'ese are, the
pas'sag'es on w'hich the 'm,anusc,ripts seem to divide; the in,dividual.
'peculia,'rities of SIngle manuscri:pts" nuss,pellin,gs, and minor chang',es
in the oI,drer- of wor,ds are nOlt in,clu,ded
Page 10 a, T'ixnIr TtVOt
J
Gm PF:Pa
d1r,A,o..s 0 'TLVI.K", CIB,S HN'fIAD,E,LO'Vel-i PI-
'Pag'e 2' J I CTVCTTUAa'C' ,",'JlrlDV TO 'dtJlOp4t GmP HVp?
D"UdT,dAaf OIlO;/JA" C'/ABS,N r ADE}';'Olel-5 P:1-2 4-1.8.... t,1
I G ,will, be used rOrdiDarily to indica'te 'the first hand in, G, 'Unless it becomes necessary to 'dis-
tin,gujrsh more clearly!!
153
Page 2, 2'
";'1' iv ToVT't' 'll'c1VTWV yvWall', SH N r A D E F 0 eH PH. 1-11
4 ICW. T1,v ope:ttv, Gm PCp.B AVE Fel. 3-10 ps, 7, 11
t:lICOT/Ui TY]V T'(U'7'''7'" 5 H Nr D0 eu. PI-2. 4-e,
5 P3,6-7
uo4Ha.. :4KUIJI, SH N r A V 0 EOcH PI-i, 4-5. 8-11
1 KW Ta"",,, 81: ""'1' Gmpep' BS Fei Pa. 8. 7, 'i
Kat Sf: "'V H N r A D E avel, N PI-S, <I-f>, 8. 10-11
12 GmPCp.BHAVEFeH PH,lt
d..pwTc1,uMJ., SNfOOe2 PH,H.8-10
13 ro.lmJ. (or TUVr') Av GmPFps.a
TUWa. r; Av, Cp.BSHNfADEOVel_r. PI-2.4-r.,7-11
13 Ta. avM. KW. ICUTG.. GmPF (om. KW. F) pe
TQ duM. ICUl (-1'0.) di&a WY KaTB., 5 H Nr AD EO VeH P 1-6. ',IQ-n (7'&... Pa)
Ta. av.\a KM &:&a I(W WJI KaTa., CP.BP7,9
14 TWV op.ovvp.w<> OVTWV 0.1: lCaAOVp.vWV, Cl mBS H N D F es. ps, 8, 10
TeUV {,pnvVJIoW'" OVTWV ll:aAoVP.WWV, pCp.G
2
r AEOVet_2 .... PH, H. 7-8,11
15 Aty.n-cu, GtmPSNfCp.BPe
(lJltU, G
2
H AOEFOVel_6 pt-6. 7-11
19 ".y;. Ta. v.w.:a Kat add. SHAFVOeH PI-1.t-6.7.1G-1l. om.
GmPCjABNfEe... PI. 8-9
20 ftpl. Gm PCjABS H N fDA PI-2.
, ., FV
"'(P' aVT'a., el-a P7-11
20 aVt.-airrV, CmPCp.BSHNfOEOVeH Pt-2.H.I-IO
a-W AFel_3 P7.11 PI (sup. lin.)
Page 3. I p.lKp6r7,T<;,GmPCp.SHNAVFel.a-.Pt .. u
O'jAlKpOr'fn<;, BfOEOe2.6 P2.r.-IO
I om. GmPCiLBSet.4 P. IO, add. HNrAOEFOVel,l.5
PI-2. "'1.11
3 Ta i." lKcaTCfl O'Wp.a.T&, GmPCiLBSHNAFVeU_5 PH.4-'., (a add.
AVei,H P4)
Ta iv IKcl7TCfl O'wp.a.Ta, fOE f1 P7, '-11 Ca add, E Pi, 11)
I I i,n&o.plvoVTa, Gm PB A F Vet. 1-4 Pi, 5-a, 11
ScaiLlVOl'Tl1, CiLS H N fO E e6 1>2.4-6. i-lO
12 Ta Sf: i}l y(VlO'lt, Gm P F VPI
TUiiT'll. 8C iv ylVlO'U, CiLB 5 H N fAD E eH PH.4-a.IOon
18 I"TafJw.w.L, GmPCpoN AFet Pl, 11
fUTafJ&.>.>..(1., B V
I"T'OfJpt:l. 5 H rOE PI-2.5-I,1-10
I"Tapplj, Kat I"Taf:3u1V(1., e5 Ast.
19 T!ToAv4ll,GmPFeHPl
Tt TO Av,av d,((, CiLBSHN fADEVet Pt-2,H,l-lt
Page 4, 9 ;polV,G (;p./I//) mPAVEFel,HP2,.,7_S,1l
cerr!v, CpoBSNfDPI,i-IO
om. H
19',"011"""
154
Page 4, 12 &.t:'\f:lV, G rn pep' BH ND
S (Su>..t:lV in marg.) AFvel P7.10-11
8,.\lMI', marg.) !h.6,8-9
16 /cOOfUX oivopov, GmPCp.BFp2.7
SivOpol' K.Wp.oIO, 5 HN r A D E 8-11
19 uwpo.., xopo.., I>.!.7-9
xopck. uwpck. Cp.B 5 H N r A D V e4 ps, 10-11
20 (1SW.. TOVrUII', Gmpep' nH AF VP7. 11
TOVrWl'dSWv, SNrOEe. P6,8-10
roVrwy 000 t:iouw, ef PI
Page 5. 4 &.0. TaVro., GmP BHFp,
&a Cp.SAEVeH P7, 10-11
St' a:mj.., NrDIh.!>
&a Pg
8 'l'fOT( l1rl.CTTT/I-'1}. GmFVEHe, Pt,5,7.9,ll
f1f'urnlfl.TJ Cp. Be4
om. '!rOT(, P SN r A (add. supra lin.) DPI0
15 arm. apTuw, GmPC,..,Bp7
oIoy TlTpaywVOJ' apnov. 5 H Nr ADEFVe. P2.5, 8-11
17 fUt(OV lAa:rTOV .qp.uro, G mPp.S H AE FV PI, 6, 7-8, 11)-11
';PUrt.l p.t:i.{ov WTTOV, BeNr D P9
- -, -
1JjLU1'lJ (/\aTTOY, e4
19 apa, GmPFet 1>2.6,9-10, om. Cp.BSHNfADEVPY-a,u
19 G
1
rnPBp1
&a.\.#OI"TtU, Cp.S HNr ACiDEFV PI, 6, 8-11
Page 6, 18 8o.oc:oVvT(., G H
&.oc:OVVTl TO, P BS
Oo.oc:oWr{TOl, mC,....NrADEFVPt ....
TO"', e.
Page 7, 6 npw.oc:OlNl.oc:al &opi{uo.l., Gm
&opi{mu, H
u.oc:07l'f.i' .oc:W &Op[{(1"Q.l, S Nr ADEF Ye. P2.H
_pur.oc:O'Jrci', PC,.... B
7 XP11 dlo'lU, GmSNrADEVe4 Ih.8-9
&t ctl'lU, PC,....BH
8 .. GmBF
..po)..cx(Jw.ra. .oc:al {1f.{3w.wfJivro.. e4
."poAcx(Jivro, .oc:al Sw.{1f.{3a.u8ivru, S H Nr
."pOAf.x!JWra. .oc:al1rpo{1f.{1o.".JJivro., AVEP8
8w.>.cx8ivro.., p.
frpo{3f.{1a.LW8ivra., C
8uz>..cx8w.ro, ICal Sw.fJf.{km8f.V'J'O., P
7fpoACX(Jf.VT'o., DP2. ,
I I cll'Q.l\oyi4.... Gm PF
ap.o>..oyw.l', Cp.BS HNrADEVe4 P2, H
19',"011"""
ISS
As far as this limited list of readings is at all significant, it shows,
first, that the manuscripts may be roughly grouped. The most im-
portant group is that composed of G, m, and P, which are nearly always
(30 out of 37 times) associated and are clearly close relatives. G and
m are even closer to each other than P is to either or both of them;
they agree in 3S of the 37 cases. Other manuscripts, such as F, P3J P6,
and Ph sometimes one, sometimes another, from time to time agree
with GmP, but the latter combination is the one most often found to
have the same reading. Another trio which similarly evidences re-
lationship is C, p., and B. Among the rest it is not so easy to demon-
strate close kinship.
G is the oldest of the manuscripts, and one may safely agree with
Hoche in thinking it the best representative of the primitive text,
although it is not infallible. Though very like G, m cannot be a copy
of it, and P, as Hoche noticed, is characterized by numerous blunders
which may be the fault of an illiterate scribe or perhaps of Wechel or
his typesetter. P, furthermore, shows a rather noticeable tendency
to agree with Cp.B, possibly because of some contamination in its
ancestry with manuscripts of that type.
Although these two groups, GmP and Cp.B, stand out quite clearlyby
themselves, the tradition is in general a very mixed one, and it would
be folly to attempt, on so meager information, to unravel all these
tangled threads. The evidence seems to point to a series of revisions
or recensions, more or less general, which has affected the later manu-
scripts. The readings in pages 2. r3 (first example), 3. r 2, r9, and 7. II,
among those cited above, are examples of the changes in the text
that found their way into nearly all but GmP. Sometimes these are
attempts at correction, often ill-advised and superficial, like the change
so commonly introduced into the manuscripts in page 2. r3, the first
of the passages just cited; this is an obvious effort to supply a balance
that the scribe thought was needed, but it really mars the sense and
can hardly have been the original text.
In other cases the variant is the result of the introduction into the
text of a marginal or interlinear gloss, or even a caption. Without
much doubt the latter mischance has occurred at page 2. r9 in many
manuscripts outside of the groups GmP and Cp.B. Perhaps the vari-
ants in pages 2. 5, r3 (second example) and 7. II were originally glosses.
Still others, and these are very characteristic of the group in which
Hoche put SHNr, are in the nature of additions to the text, either
19',"011"""
-
of words easily understood, as in page 2. I S, or of extra terms in a series
of Nicomachus's examples, as in pages 3. , (second example) and 5. '5.
Simple corruptions have come in and have been perpetuated in many
manuscripts; see, for example, pages 4. '2 ; 7. 6, 8. It is to be observed
that GmP generally stand aloof from these apparent tamperings with
the text.
There is certainly evidence in plenty that two or more readings
were known in very many passages. It is entirely possible that a
single manuscript or a whole series of them would retain both the
primitive reading and the gloss, and in subsequent copyings from such
manuscripts sometimes one and, sometimes the other reading would be
reproduced. This may explain why the large group embracing
SHNrADEFOLV, the Escurial manuscripts and most of the Parisian
ones, is seldom unanimous, and sometimes one, sometimes another,
agrees with GmP, thougb as a whole they are characterized by the
presence of the sort of variants that have just been described. Con-
sequently it is difficult to discern clearly defined subfamilies among
them, and together with C,.B one may venture to designate them as
representing the vulgate text of the I ntrod1Utian to Arithrnetk.
It must also be observed that manuscripts were frequently compared
with one another and variant readings noted down, which doubtless
were taken into the text as time went on. Evidence of this is easily
discovered. Hoche's apparatus shows clearly that the second hand
in G introduced a number of readings from a manuscript of thevulgate
type, and in the margin of A, referring to page 10. 13, is
found the note, TOVrO EfT' btUuv ov H, in fact, omits the words
referred to. Possibly comparison with other manuscripts explains the
reading of m in page 6. 23, where it parts company with G and P and
sides with the vulgate. The same explanation may explain the notable
peculiarity of P already mentioned, its tendency to agree with C,.B.
C and ,., as Hoche observed, are very much alike, but it is not prob-
able that either is the direct source of the other. Of the additional
manuscripts with which the writer is acquainted, B is to be associated
with this pair and the three make up a subfamily characterized on the
one hand by peculiar readings of their own - as, the addition of
<3 AWC7T< BC, AWC7T<,. in page 8. '9, and the elaborated reading 8,,,,Ac.
001.01' TPL1TAd.u'OIl TETpa:rrAOntOV, page 10. 12 - and on the other by
less frequently modifying the text in the manner of the vulgate and
hence more nearly approaching the text of GmP. In illustration of the
'57
latter point such passages as pages 2. 2, 5, 7, '5, 3. I (first example), 18,
4.12, 16, 20, and 5. '5 may be noted. Yet in many cases CI4B are
aligned with the vulgateagainst GmP; for example,pages I. 10 j 2. It 13;
3 12; 4 9, '9; 5.8 and 7.11. Sometimes these three disagree among
themselves; B agrees with GmP somewhat more frequently than do
the other two.
In the following table will be found the percentages of agreement
with G in the selected readings given above, for each of the manu-
scripts:
m
94
B
5'
e.
3
2
p"
28 p, 18
P
9
'
C
4
6 e,
3
1 S 27 Pg 18
p,
75 14
46 e,
3
N 27 e.
18
F 62 V
37
A 29 E 27
PlO
'5
P. 54
H
35 P. 29
p,
24
r
'3
p,
53
e,
35 P. 29 P, 23 D
'3
As far as these statistics are significant they confirm the observation
that GmP and CI4B form well-defined subfamilies and suggest that
F, p" p., and p, form a class intermediate between GmP and the
vulgate. These four, however, do not by any means show the kinship
evidenced by GmP and CI4B; in this sense they are not a family.
The relations between the many representatives of the vulgate are
so complicated that is is hardly possible to consider them seriously on
the basis of the available data. Tbeir percentages of agreement with
G give a general idea of their interest and value for textual study.
The likeness of some of them to one another is quite noticeable. To
show a few of these relationships the following percentages of agree-
ment among certain pairs and groups may be observed. They are
reckoned on the data furnished by 35 of the selected readings already
cited:
====;====;=======
SNrD
62.7
rDE 65.6 SH,HA,AVE,HN
627
SND 65. 6 rE
74.
1 HV 68.4
SNr 68.4 rn 88.4 AE 71.2
sr 71.2 AV
827
SN
n
NrD
79. 8
ND,Nr
855
c 1
-
l-iICOMACHUS OF GERASA
Of the new manuscripts, J is in some respects the most interesting.
It has not been possible to compare it with the others in the paragraphs
above, because it does not contain the first three chapters of Book I.
It does, however, agree ,vith P in such a remarkable manner that only
two alternatives are open; it must be copied either from the lost source
of P (or a manuscript of exactly the same nature), or from the printed
first edition. While the former alternative is alluring, the writer is
inclined to think the latter the more probahle. Its extremely late date
and the fact that it is only a collection of excerpts are important
points. Furthermore, P seldom differs from the other manuscripts
importantly without J differing in the same way; in other words,
J shares the peculiarities of P. The most notable instance is the omis-
sion byboth of page 24. 2-4. Again, J disagrees with P in a fair number
of instances, "but never radically. The differences are slight omissions
or transpositions which could easily be made in copying from the
printed book, and variations of spelling or inflectional endings which
might represent the efforts of a scribe, well versed in Greek, to correct
the text of P, with its many blunders. There are in J practically no
additions to the text of P, and such as occur may readily be explained
in the manner just suggested.' Altogether it is easier to believe J
copied from, or is descended from, the printed first edition, with a
number of arbitrary changes due to the copyist, than an almost mirac-
ulously recovered representative of the manuscript text used by
WecheI.
A few remarks on certain readings in Hoche's printed text are in-
cluded at this point, and at the end of the chapter will be found an
apparatus criticus for the first three chapters of Book I, based on
Hoche's, but enlarged and revised so as to report for this limited portion
of the text upon all the manuscripts known in any way to the writer.
P. 2, 13. - Read TClWCl &1' Er." Ta etVAct (Hoche omits 8' with
GmP). Thismaybeoneof the cases to which Hultsch refers' where
something has been lost in G which the others have preserved. The
word here supplied is found in the other manuscripts and removes the
asyndeton.
I The only notable onc is Inw, added by Jin page IS. Il, where C alone of the other manu-
scripts (according to Hoche) agrees with J. This, however, is not a hard interpolation in a mathe-
matical context, and the agreement with C may be only a coincidence, as there is little evidence
of a special relationship between C and J.
t In his review of Hoche's edition, NtIU JahTbiklJer jar Plrilologie uJtd PiAAJgogik. vol. XCVII
(1868), pp. 762-770, especially p. 763.
'59
P. 5, s. - Hultsch (op. cit., p. 763) points out that the correct text
is a[ Si 1TETTEpaup.e,wv Elull' bneTTijp.ac., since the reading of
G (ai OE at l1Tc,crrijp.ac. K'TA.) shows clearly that at bn,eTTijfLac. is a
gloss.
P. 6, 17-18. - Read J.LOI. SOKoVvrL 'TO, 1rf.p. Hoche, with
G (and H I) omits TO'; but the unanimous testimony of the other
manuscripts makes it probable that a word has dropped out between
SOIcovvn and TrEp', for in all the others something is inserted, and TOL
seems to be best attested. Even ID and P oppose G here, and it is
easier to suppose that a word dropped out of G only, and was preserved
in the rest, than that all the others were interpolated.
P. 7, I. - Read P.W(T<Ka.< (Cp.BNr p" 9, Nobbe), instead of Hoche's
p.oVCTl.Kal; (P.OVCTI.K(;W, P) GmSH. The two forms are easily confused,
but P.W(]"'Ka.< is the correct dialectic form and it is improbable that it
would be restored by emendation.
P. 9, r9 and p. 'S, I. - These are similar cases, both discussed by
Hultsch (loe. cit., p. 764). In both these passages G omits the article,
and av8pW7Tor; and apn.o.".ipLrTOV, respectively, are to be read.
P. 16, 5. - Read 1TavrM, which is found in G,SHA (although
H in the margin has the other reading, fila!), which does not neces-
sarily occur in all the other manuscripts, for Hoche's apparatus is
not exhaustive). can mean only' from unity,' but Nieomachus
regularly says a1To in this sense, as in the sentence immediately
following. A corruption must have come into the family GmP.
P. 19, IQ. - Read for This is simply a matter of
spelling; the adverb is to be connected with ft&< (not i'S,o<), but
in late Greek it is sometimes spelled 18'Kw<. In p. SS, 20 GmP them-
selves use the better spelling d8'KW< and to avoid confusion it is better
to use that form here also.
P. 19,8. - Omit, as a gloss, p.6vov Il-ECTOV . . . 1l"OAAa.1TAa.Uta.'OP.EvOV,
for the reasons stated by Hultsch (1oc. cit., p. 763).
P. 20, 1. - Nicomachus is stating that in the class of even-times odd
numbers no factor can have a value of the same kind (even or odd)
with its name, and to avoid a meaningless text it is necessary to read
Ea.VTOV ov6p.a.TI. with C, or to suppose that the original had a.v.rov
(cf. the reading of S, aUro;;) , of which the unintelligible Tcii aUrcii
ov6p.a.TI., which appears in the others, is a corruption easily made.
P. 20, 4. - We may accept Hultsch's arguments for the doubly
reduplicated form wvop.aTo1Tf1To,"'IP.<VOv of G (loc. cit., p. 764).
P. 23, 20. - a;"'.,v, not a;"'.,v, is doubtless the proper reading. It
improves the Greek, and may easily have suffered corruption in GmP.
CSHA have lCaTet ~ EUvrWV TcUW here, with order changed, but
probably preserving the proper form of the pronoun.
P. 24, 5. - Hultsch (loc. cit., p. 765) suggests that &'1rO'J'Evr/CTOvrlU,
with GP, be read here instead of &'1rC''Y<vvr/CTovra" on the ground that
Q,Wo-ylvEu(Jaf. should be the passive of a:7T0'YEvvciv in mathematical
language, just as r'lIECT8w. is the passive of -yEvpav in common speech.
Nicomachus, however, is quite free to use the passive of ')'Evllav.
P. 25, 9 - In favor of retaining Hoche's 1TOAV7TAaUI.UfovS-, against
1rOA1IlTAaCT'aCTl'0V PCSH, it can be urged that the word means' result
of multiplication' in p. 133, 7, although Theon of Smyrna, who uses
it frequently, seems always to employ it to designate the operation of
multiplication itself (e.g., pp. 23, 18; 26, 5 j 27, 7, 14 j 28, 13; 29,
18, etc., Hiller).
P. 27,6. - Read 8';va,vro (omitting av) with GP. This is Hultsch's
suggestion, who calls attention to the use of the same unusual con-
struction in p. 66, 22, where the manuscripts all agree (loc. cit., p. 766).
P. 31, 5 - Hultsch (1oc. cit., p. 765) would omit av with GPJ and
read lINA0I'EV with P. Hoche's text, however, should probably be
retained, since Nicomachus's usage in such constructions, where the
subjunctive occurs, seems uniformly to employ av. Only in GPJ here,
in S in 11. 2. 2, and in SH in 11. 11. 2, is the word omitted, of the in-
stances collected on p. '73.
P. 33, 19 - Read Eawov for Eavrwv. This is an excellent opportu-
nity to restore an evidently correct text on the best authority, G,.
The only possible meaning of what Hoche prints is "those that are
measured by unity alone in accordance with their own quantity,"
that is, prime numbers, but this is not the correct sense. Of such
numbers disposition has already been made; here he speaks of "those
that are measured by one (measure) alone in accordance with its own
quantity," that is, the squares of odd prime numbers. The comma
after 1ToCT&rr,ra (line '9, Hoche) should be deleted.
P. 35, 5. - JPCSH here have kept the better text, &'1T""'aivov for
&'1r""'aivov<T<. Cl. p. 36, 3.
P. 35, 10. - Read 1rPOfJATjlJfJ with PCSH for the syntactical reasons
discussed elsewhere (p. 175).
P. 35, 20. - We may agree with Hultsch (loc. cit., p. 766) that
KaraAE[1TETat is corrupt, KaTa- being a dittography from the numeral
MANUSCRIPTS AND TEXT 161
KO.; but AEl1TETCU fits better than his favored suggestion, AOL1Ta. TCJ..
P. 42, 1. - Omit T" &.p,(J/LO' l'T" with Hultsch (loc. cit., p. 764).
P. 42, 2. - Hultscb's restoration of 1TpOKaTTJx";0TJ from G1's 1TpOKO,
rr/X(J'I is worthy of adoption (loc. cit., p. 766).
P. 44, 21. - ..; is unnecessary, and, as the variation in
the manuscripts shows, is probably a gloss.
P. 54, '7 - Read &'.'0"0 (G,CS) for a.,O"o,. The expression
I unequal heteromeces' is meaningless, but referring to
TrAEVpa'" yields good sense. (I have considered the possibility that
has here been lost from all the manuscripts. The words
allW'cucn rcrOl. would correctly characterize the 'heteromeces,' and
would balance iCTor. above; it would also explain the retention
of the senseless alll.uol. in Cl' The change adopted, however, is less
violent, and though H. '7.6 offers similar expressions, Nicomachus
h "') now ere uses
P. 120, 6. - Perhaps TrO'd. should be inserted in this line; in the
explanatory note on the passage I have stated reasons for thinking
that the word may have fallen out.
P. 125, 10-13. - Hoche reads ;atOv oE inrapxEt rijuoe rijr; ILeuOn]Tor;
"'(J "' .. tot',
.. . TO KaTa (TVV ecnv TWV aKpCJW V1TOO(.1TA(1(T(.OV TJ a-OV TO fLea-ov eLva(.
(" it is the peculiarity of this proportion ... that the sum of the
mean terms is half or the mean term is equal "), which certainly is
corrupt, for the sum of the extremes is never half the mean term. Ast,
without using C, emended, reading OL1TAaa-(.ov TOV ILla-ov ia-ov
/L<0"0, which is exactly the text of C. This gives good sense, for
the sum of the extremes is "double the mean term or equal to
the mean terms" (if there are two), and it must be substantially
what Nicomachus really said. Unfortunately V1ToOL1TAauLov (inrOOL-
TrAaO",o., G) is attested by all the manuscripts but C, and we can
hardly reject it. The simplest remedy is to read Toil KUTcI. U"flV8f.a-LV TWV
.. t' ", to .. " ., "th . h If f h
al<pwv V1TOO(.1T'J\aa-LOV TJ (.(TOV TO ILea-ov ewaL e mean IS a 0 t e
sum of the extremes, or equal to it," interpreting I the mean' to refer
both to the single mean in the continuous proportion and to the sum
of the two means in the disjunct. I am not sure that this is satis-
factory, and suspect that the original text was more explicit; but for the
present this suggestion is the best that I can make.
P. IIO, 5. - Omit TOWVTO', which has the support only of CSH,
and can be dispensed with.
P. 137, 22. - (ipa, found in GP, is preferable to Jpa.
A CRITICAL APPARATUS COVERING CHAPTERS 1-3 OF BOOK I OF
THE INTRODUCTlON TO ARITHMETIC
PAGE I (GmPCfl.BSHNrAVDEFLOet.,pl_l1)l
Line I ft:fJllO'lVov PO
2 nv8a:yopUl:cru GmHVOeH.4 nv6a.')'OfKlov NrFe,. nv6myoptov D.
llv6a:ywpiOv E, om. PCp.BJLpl-1
3 Q.p&8f'lJT1Kijr;; V PS-i, dauywyq dpc8".'P'uc9'O E, t:lauywyij.. om. P N
Boethius, f:iouywy1, T// / dpJ8".']TueJj.. Cl' l' in .. mut. G" t:lauycuri ri]f
dp1l9..... rn, 4p,8jJ-vrucij.. f:WuYW11 S, Toii ft:pclO"tp'Oii &.,x8JL'l"ucij.. (lua-
ywylj.. 1rpWTOV f3tf3JUov f'
4 .. d.. 000 D, TWY (l.. 1'Q. OUO m HEPt, "'pUrrov d.. Ta 800 F, rij.. 11.. 800 TO
'ff"piMoy 1., It.. 1/// 800 G
,
5 'fI'pWT'W'i PI
6 "'1XMW.TWvrOi Eel_, PH".,- Wpiauvro H, e,-n,v
Le, (Ti}v supra lino e,)
7 4xJUav .. el
8 ,royrIllJl] e, Pt
9 CTVVKf:XVP.w" r - otU om. CL
10 'Ira... add. Cp.BSHNfADELOVel_5 pt-I, HI (Ps supra lin.)-
, .
lW' om. P2
1 I '''''"-'/'Of VS7}pwupyw.'i B, &,,...,.ovp-yw.. lp.'flcpoi A
PAGE 2 (GmPCI1BSHNfAVDEFOel_5 Pl-I.t-U PI [11. 4-9, 13-17])
Line 1 CJlX7Tl'1MS A-'lfaYTu",Offi. Cp.BSNrADEFOet_a PI-t. 4-t. 1-11
2 K.a:r&.A.Wu] IUTM.fJl/f&" A - 'lfcllfT'CW add. S H Nr ADE F 0 el-6
Pl-t.4..... IHI
3 supra lino PI
4 KUipost mo.,.Wi om. SHNrOOeJ.a PI-t ....... D-IO
5 ."poerrryOpwvo] 'rpot:nT'fOpcunv E, OpttlV]
it/>f.CTlV SHNrAVDEOet_t PI-t .-i ..... U (OpctIV Iamblichus p. 5, Zt/lrCTIV
ibid. p. 10)
6 1.C1'f'{ supra lino PI -llilUs-] .LUQIt' P, - codd. -
add. r(>9-lo-OuOJl] OuCIW et
7 BVrq.- HNrADEOVel,l_i PI-t.4-i.8.1D-11
8 oFi'r.,.o A- rlvw post J'Jr'ICT'njp.7p' add. Aet-t PID-U - riis] .,.oi's e,
9 d:A:rfJrtAs om. et
10 U7M"l:UC:I'TOJl 1tU.,.&.A..,.,ptv P2
II Ta. flCU,Ta.] .,.a om. e" 1W..,.a. u,lrrcl r, 1(0."'4 TaVn.. PlO-KW wmurrWi Iall
""
et - &a..,.MrllfT'B G
12 UWTap,n'U] f1c#KoTclP.(VQ, SNrDOei PI-t,t-i.&-IO
I The manuscripts reported upon for a given page are thus note-cl. Page and line references
are to Hoche's edition.
13 TUW' cill Pm, TaVru S' av CfA.BSHNrADEOVel_6 PI-I.4-6,7-1I-ct'1] J
wv] KC (Ta: AH) Q(Oca, PI-5.8-Il,
KW &l&a. Kal wvCp.BP7.t-.o1om. F, cf. lamblichus p. S-wv]
TWI' P3
14 A0&1'I"01l 'I(ClCTTOY Nr DPD, AOUrulY P7 IJP.WIIVP.WV m D,
Mw KaAovp-f.VfJJV HBp. - Kal om. PC,...G'1r AE 0 VCI_2. 4 PI-2,4-6. 7-9. 1I
IS KWpost Tt add. Oespl_t.4.s-t:1VlU post >..(ymu add. G,HADEFOVel_6,
PI-S, 7-11
16 &f,rov KUl VAutci in marg. Cs - /Cat post pWfl om. p.
17 fern 8J.. A VCs, 4, PlI-(O"Tl] dut r - eras. ps
18 supra lin. ps-1OW1"17T'a) wOuTr77Ta e,
19 supra lino c, - cLU.ownj B. A-,",pt 1'4 {,.w.:a. ml O"Wp.aTUCa. add.
S H AFVO CI-3 PI-S, 4-5. 7. ID-U
20 1rCpl] 1r( p,-aln-f]v] aVra FVel_3P7.II-l(a{om. NrADEVe,-awvl
supra lino Ps)
.2 I 'lI'OO'On,rfS' 1!"O&Ot-J1T'CS' Veu pu - p.(yc8ot. Pt - fT)(TJp4TUT,uK W-Onrrf.S'
om. p, (add. supra lino manus secunda)
PAGE 3 (GmPC,u.B S NrAVEDFeles (to line 3] e,[to line 131e.-r;Pl-:p. [to
line I7l pr;-H)
Line I ujJ.u(p6T-qre'> nrDEOe2.r; 10. Philoponus t - lUOn,re,>] in marg.
e3, d.I'IO'Onrre'i add. HNrADEFOVel.l. r; PH.H.lI, 10. Philoponus l
2 a1l''\w,.] el-lre!1' add. 0 - 1reP'lxwnu E
3 UWfUlTI] O'WfUlTU rDEesP7. "11, ;;, add. AEVeI,HP. 7.1l-I(a,{f aUT"
CAD, &i add. et
4,7 fTU,u.{Je{JfJ/!Co.,.W'O G: his corr. ex fTUjJ.f3efjrpcOro.; fTUjJ.f1e{JfJ/!CMwt' B-1rOpll.
1roNi{Jn er;
7 rnJpofJel3fJKOTW'i &:] f1'f.XU KW. 1'W," f1'exOVTIoW /!C1'.\. 1>:, rnJjJ.{Je{JfJKrWOi er; - .l]
00a PBpe
7-8 om. E, add. supra lino j om. pa, add. in marg.
8 uwp.o.'f'll P7
9 /!Cut add. NrOf.t P: .-e - QuM. di&a. C
10 d,1f'I1pc1.\tucTa A PI. 10
II callTwl' C,u.SrDPI_: .. -Ilt' supra lino er; (manus secunda)
- &o.p.ivovra Cp.SHNrOEer;P:.I-S.ll-IO
12 aUTwl'] UUTOV 1'oVrCIW PO-1'u] orolrra. CpoBSHNrADE et,l-6
PI-:, .a. 10-11
I31'com.HNrAV
14 A
15 p.(v] G
t
COTT. ex - 1190001' codd.
16 nj," cawwl' P - callTwl'] aUTwl' jJ.S e.plo -OVTW'i] oVrW'i el
17 l",lToV aVroV C,u.S P7 - ota.pow-a m
18 l"1'a/3il'n] f1'l1.f1&.>.J..u BV, SH r 0 Ee4-r; PI-:, 8-10, fT'llPfH'i
fTU{3oiJlCt er; Ast - 1fl1VToi"", G, corr. ex W'ttVToW. - cLU.a.uOI'QU. APH,
cLUauuOfl'Ot' S - KtU KaT'cl A Pit
19 llM.1'WKl S - 01'] p.(t' add. CpoB SHNrAD EVet Pt-s. H. 1I-1l
N
ile' ' A"C'"::8""V"'S O':pl: G"E.'RA'"S-'A' ..;" _.. ' _ .. : .. ' .._. ,'_ >I:.. . I. ,I .". 1
1
" " ",...
PAGE ,4 (G,m,PC,/&BS H,NrAVD,EFe,l [to lio,e 12] e.-a PI, (to line ,3 PlII.'7 11 PI
[to !'Ine Ill)
Line, I OOIC] #Aol SN' 1', DVIC in r - yaOj"vosr 1ft '-110 olm. ,Bet, dJ add. P'l
2 3i [o,m" PI
3 al" F' P,8 - KCJ1 om.. SDEVPI - ICaT4] ,...TA B ClW p', ",wa D-
Wvni et
4, Gm - ',.. om.. H Nr'DE
J
supra fin. ,el, (manus secunda)
5 M&K] &'ve, (corr;o sup,ra fin.. man. 5eC'unda) -'0.] IMyc nltm[Q TlpalOl
'\ U\.t ad-'[d
7rU.pa. -,' J\O.TWl'l lA
7
- .'d. ,.l2L -1\_ B'" ,J I'
" rl.,.,.:vo, TUuiur ,,-QvrJllA'
8 1If/11 o,m,. S,AVe,l.,1 PtO-I.I, add,.. slup,ra lin et (manus secunda)
9 ',pir] ."pr.,i / I /G, om. H, Cp.Bs,NrD P9-10 - ch ,'.",,] c,.", ,A pi,
...,.. e _......J., ' ] I , ad"d' A,..
'-'1 cOTC.,'" ,:, _. "'D'
10 '4tunt: H, r in marg,., PI . - riir] A Pt', III (",. in, margi' ptl)
I1 d:VTa BC] BC om. P7
12 &1;\(,.] ,S (&Mtv in m,arg..) AFVel 1>7.1'0.1'1, &tA8tt.. rEe:4
(If in. marg. ee) P2. -. ,.1, 1"le ,add.. r" n '"" a[ddll Ptl-
1
c!p6pUwnu P-
,.0. om.pr - crop.fJ(p."lCarwr m
,; r \, - LP fl -. " '
13 wv TOt'1'1J11 [," -Kat KelP' - - Tat}' TilE ."fMoJI' om. Pi
., J '\ - Ii [If " '\ '-dd"
1.4 07tCp ',OT,"] DVI( ovrwr KUptU7C IU 0"01'11' ICVptlltl a" ,,' .' e"
I 5 A
16 Bw&pov 1COO-;p,OC SHNrADEV'e4-' ol:m" D. r PI
- mllCvplfJJf BI
'11 ft om.. H
18, "a.A1I:iTCU] lCoI rG,m,
19' o-mpfi] ,om. Pt,,. O"opOi A PII, X
1
OP6c:, C/A'BSHN'r AD'Ve'oI Pi,l[D-II,,,
Boeth,,us, aTp4TtK a,dd. [S PI10 - ,Kal om. slupra lini e,
2[0 BUo ,d..po. C- 'T'OlfrWl" Il[&d1p SNr D E e,&, P,r. t 8-1.0t nntrw'v ow 1l8W1' et ,PI
2 I l'op.u1Tlov] S Nr e:i p,'. 1:0 ,A P11 ........... 1ClIl, 7r411 pk,(9orr ". ,), I
7rAijBor om. D
:2 2' ,d,7rC&pGV r
l
- - ' br.v G
1
.p', cavrwv It' SNrEVe6. Pt-l101
PAGE 5 et (through lin,e' 8]
Ll
in"',e- I1 lil;f...... B' [c' - om C-', - A,' p-r", 1'1i
. 11;. -. '. "IT I 1. . - !v,........ ,.,......... .. ' - '"'I-:.A
2 1ftltH:rf:T(U, E ps, A
"
3 0P"'fI',/LEY.",. p,fj III
4 ,&0; CIAS,A.E,Ve4i' Ii PI. &" Nrn P2. I) &4 Gwijc Ptl
'wpoXC&Jf:i] X<aJpC 'V'", wpoX'wpf:ill P7, PlO
I' "'.. oi"I!! G '. if''- 'I ,ft d-'" t'\ '8" " iI-: ,.1 \. 'It,
5 cu. DC QC. fftftaTTJIJAI'- " at C1tUFn1p.lJA[ ","('&PutI' oe ov, (1r0f'f: tu\J\(I
,I.. JlPw...t u.Ju'd,p .,.1':. -. :t:::" '.'..u i!W!"C' '\ " " I; - P"
"'0,,-. 'w'.. ." r ... IW' V[I/ADP oc: 0.-., ,r' ....pr. '8
('ai,V" "OTt. P
6, 4-{Vf.Tf; corr.. :in 4xJ.,UlU A" 4-ll'OVrw" et - 39 PI
1 ,ad init..] oU V Ptl" ,ad,d,. s,upra lin. A
8 '_ cw. o,m. ,f SN r A (supra D PIIO ". Cp. Be, -1t'TlfPOV]
lCo1add. mPCIS eras'urn in G
9

\, J ,., - , , A' Ii - I"\n, ,\,. 'HN- ro" F- 'n".
_[' (I'., fQ;VTO !(ICClr,(por ' Ifnl.'V' CO'TCIl - WACOV -', ' .', r'II,.[ 1.1
10 d:II"] (7r' p. [>2. 11, om. B - d.q,wPWJA.ivov] wpwp.ivoJl E, ps
II p,tv] yap add. 5 P7.IO-1I'0aOVG
2
12 mY-LKOV] 7r0lKcAoV pu ('II"1}hiKOI' in marg.)
14 opO.,,( A-avTo PDA P2
15 orov] T(TpaywVOV add. P2.f>.&-U, BoethiuS-,npwO'"ov
N
" " G ' ,
- IW,I TO. 2 - m
16 (XOV '1 CD
17 17JUCTU fU'i{ov u..aTTOV CB Nro pg, l7fUU\I (AaHOV -lAQ.(TO'oJl H, l.Ua.TOV A
18 ;fUfTtJ A- /lcU Ta G
2
- 8J],\OVOT.l codd.
19 apa om. Cp.BSH Nr ADEV P7-l1. 11 - &aA"#WTo., Cp.G
2
SHNf ADEFV
e4 8-11 -11l'urrTJJLovut.cU p.i8o&x
PAGE 6 (GmPCp.BSHNfAVDEFe4 1>: PI> [through line IZ] P7 [through lineS]
Pa-9 PlO {through line s1 pu [through line 17])
Line I &fVKptnlaCl.crt D- TOV om. P7 - 1rOeTOV C
t
2 awo CNfADEVP2,lh O:VTOP9-TO post Siam. r
3 (1I"f.l] ;'1ri PS
4 Jo'O"'?1l 11TtM Ae. pn
5 q,olXf APl!,6.II-TO a{,,-o] T& om. PV,TUVT'Q BS ps, Tai'rru A
PIO-ll - &aKP'l3oooveTl H EV, &aKpt!1wat A
6 ow post IA-Cv add. E V - PH, IJJKp.oW G
1
7 AEV Pa
8 OV1'fII'i: B
9 8vvo:ro.. dxPlfJWao.l PCP. BE, b.ptfJf;xrcu 8\WQTOv AV PI. 11 - dKplfJ!IxraeT8aJ. H
10 aO<jKo. HAE !>s.lI
I I -I S Cwypa.4Ua. . . (JfWpfo... fTlnIfP')'WV S
12 {JaJlO.Vucu" pu (carr. supra lin. man. sec.) -1rpM] It.. E PS.11- (J,optf'{'i
A, 8,wp/A.. - 1'01 om. m, tU F, Tal. A, K.aI add. H. Tf pn
14 ;\o-yov P A
IS avw.pytl1'JJI B
16 cL\,\Q om. A -KW] 87j E
, ., H
17 TOalJTOom. Pt ...
18 8weOWrI] TO add. PSB. Toe. rnCpoNrADEFV P2.H,d. 10. Philop:mus
Ka, TOV - p.aBr,p.aTlKrI. P
19 &p6W.. om. C,.,., in marg. dpBw.. aUTo\.,. .-T' 71'1P[ V, dpBw.. awov.. E-
ota] Ol supra lino add. A - H - A e4 PI
20 Ta.. G rn, Ta.. P, Tij.. cetL - lliwJI rn, 1111U"'1f G, OVTwt' D (om. T(;W)
-</iu"" B
22 1'1] Tt GIP, Toe. E Pa-ytwp.upW." GtCp.HNrAe,-Ta... yt"'/UTpta.. KW
p.OUO'O(a.. KW dpt8p..",uca.. S - Kat om. F
23 KW a4>mpuca... om. G
1
P - 'lI"Upf8ol7a.. Pt - ap.fU H, W7JV B, ;P.IJI AVel PI
(ap. supra lin. A, manus secunda) - aa4> A
PAGE 7 (G mPCp. BS H Nr AVD [to line 20] E [to line 21] F [to line I s}e,P2.a)
Line I Kutom. FPt-p,ouuuc(;w P, p.wfTUCa.. Cp.BNrp,:.t. P.WfTUC'1" A-Tawa SiP
:2 8ooVvr" flp.n- A (MU supra lino man. 2)P.-njM rG.P d&A4KQ, om. G
1
,66 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
'] ,
3 '1"0.1' "Ul e4
4 TPf.ili..w &KGTOU H. Tpwll:t:8u:.'f'OV A, 13&/3).[011 add. r
5 oVfnp CNrADEVe4 !h.'
6 'lI'lp&D'ICO'II'rt] om. H, O'll:orci SNr ADEFVe. Pt.... -ml Sc.opl<<<T1U om.
PCp.B, &...pt{uw A
7 XP'J] Sti pep,BH, (1",,( post madd. om. peR
8 Ta C
t
ex '1"0// / I (TIM?) -'frpoAlX9Mo. W 'JI'po)..rx6ivro W
&afJrf3<uw8t.JfTU, SHNf, 'rpoMx6ivra KW. rpo{3c{Jcuo18l.VT'a AVEp,
(wo r.\novwv wpo)uX(Nvra. Kai. add. man. 2 supra lino A). &aAf.}(8ivra. p.,
1rpofJf.f3au"(Jmv. C, 1rpCK &a.\,x'Mu KW &af3rf3<uw8:'vn1, P, 'JrpOJu.X8n..ro,
(om. tU ",pOOcof3rfJo.ulJ8mo,) 01'2.1
11 Tl,Vom. A-clva>.oylav] .. Cp,BSHNI'ADEVetP2...... Io.Pbilo-
ponus c. 1(( - p,w.y om. H, rtJllU p.W.Y Km &..a.cf-:1vijMU p.
I2 ICaTCl TOY TpOwOll TOv,.OJl A -'I"pOrOJl] TO rM"ov ps
13 b om. De. P2,'- A).CyOflMK p.- (}(OV add. A, 'Xftv add. e.p.-
Ta. 'lI"cll'TU 5 H A E V Ps. a'/l'QVTU NI'D
14 1'4v6Q."1J N r, ,..,av8civOI. 0 pg-ToVrWV anVl"wt' SH N ADEV Pt, TO .,.ou,., d". r
IS meA - .1r4X(tpui1'lU Pt- TT,.. Nf0Pt.t, F
17 d:AA,' om. V - TQv,.a. //11/'1"0. Cl' Tav,.a -rdP TO. m
19 '1l'"1iJ'Tll "ClVra A V Pt
20 .,aUTOV &j S Nr D Pt - rov HA E Ve
4
:2 I rt] Q,J14 S - 8;j..\ov Sf art ..01 V E
22 yap] H-.,IOW lj SND, .,wu'';; ICOlr-loUcClcnNrDpg-
TClv"CI Ta.] Ta. TOUlv"a. Ih
PAGE 8
Line I ;,u-W"""')I &a"OUI.V S
3 OVYTpOq,WJI] crvvJj9wv Pt - ;fA4J1] - IT, add. SN r Af4 P2. B-1
4 OYTWV In H, OYTWV om. A
5 .,t] om. Nr, floC)I Cp.SAP2. S-i
1 1(';;"'0)1 p - .,&" ... voq-rucwv P, r'i ... vovr'i Nr,"lfi ill (ClV supr.- lin.)
A, &.a.JI017TUCcfl B- Tcfl] TO
10 ,-{hjJl4CTl NP2
I 2 "Ill Nr pg
"
13 Sf om. PI - CTTpaTTnr / / j&vu G - ICOl add. CflS
14 A- P. avy"iam S Nr
16 Sf] 'i add. pg - IIl4CTTpovop.fA om. S
17 /Yla'i G, -QV SNrJ)a.,- JlUV'Twa'i CPt
18 Gm, IIIV)(ptla'i P (in marg., yp. IIIVKlUpUx'i), IIIVlCI:UfJla'i cett.-
P G2' SNr
19 lilY] .\WoTIII add. CB, .\WcrTt p., p, om. e. (....\,p.-
TW)I supra lin.) -10Ut.1II &&'1111'11' P
20 dX,P'flCTTOJI P- -ra.Vra om. p. -.,a. pa9J/JI4TC1 "ClVrCl N rpu
22 rik: om. C
CHAPTER XII
THE LANGUAGE AND STILE OF NICOMACHUS
AN elementary treatise on arithmetic is hardly the vehicle best
fitted to exhibit the talents of a stylist. The requisites are the simple,
natural excellences of clarity, accuracy, and purity of diction j rhetori-
cal ornaments are out of place. Such a style is what one would ex-
pect, and what, in general, one finds, in the Arithmetical I ntroductwn.
Nicomachus maintains throughout a tone of earnestness, which he does
not lose in attempted I fine writing' even in those portions, like the
first six chapters and a few others, where he is not for the moment en-
gaged in actual mathematical demonstration. Even here there are
few rhetorical figures, although these are not entirely lacking even in
the strictly mathematical sections. The rhetorical questions 1 are
few but effective; the similes' not far-fetched and usually of real
value for the exposition of the subject in hand.
That Nicomachus was no mere amateur writer can be easily seen
when the structure of his sentences and paragraphs is taken into ac-
count. Clarity is usually present, and on the whole there are few ob-
scure passages. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the author
had a clear idea of what he wanted to say and a decided knack for
logical exposition, so that his materials meet the eye in the order in
which they are most easily understood. And it must also be allowed
that he knew how to turn a good period; 3 for even in the most techni-
cal sections the periodic structure is frequently found, joined, to be
sure, to sentences more loosely put together, since the subject is not
one that easily is adapted to the periodic form.
Join to what has already been said the observation that Nicomachus
throughout preserves a decided enthusiasm for his subject,' and that
he constantly puts himself, by little touches, sometimes attractively
naive, into a personal relation with his readers, but without the sacri-
11.4.1.
tl. 14.
3
; 15.1; 16.1; 23.4,6; 11.27.1.
I CL I. 6. I; 11. 21. I, etc.; for a technical section, see 11. 19. I.
4 Note the zest in I. 23.4; IQ. 20.
,6,
fice of dignity,' and one has a fair idea of his merits as a writer. The
faults into which he could easily be betrayed - dryness and excessive
pedanticism- he has thus in large measure avoided. We may not
claim for him superlative excellence, nor assert that his book has the
liveliness or interest of a novel or a history, for the extended considera-
tion of such a subject as arithmetic is apt to suffer from moments of
aridity; but it is just, I believe, to assert that Nicomachus,as a scientific
writer, possessed assets which not all could claim, and that the Ari/h-
me/kat In/roduction on its own merits will engage the reader's interest
to a degree that is decidedly creditable for a book of its class.
To the student of antiquity, however, Nicomachus's language will
be .a matter of greater interest than his style. Contemporary with,
or only a generation later than, the latest books of the New Testament,
his writings may be expected to manifest certain of the non-classical
peculiarities that are observed both in the New Testament, in the
papyri, and in Greco-Roman writers generally. It is most just to
compare Nieomachus with such writers as Lucian, for, like him, Nico-
machus adopted the literary, not the contemporary spoken, style;
that is, both are Atticists. But it must be recognized that his subject
strongly influences Nicomachus's language. He does not, like Lucian,
employ the dialogue, but confines himself to sober exposition, so that
his syntax of necessity shows less variety; there is, for example, little
occasion for oratia obliqua. Still no late writer succeeded in sup-
pressing entirely the marks of Hellenistic idiom, and there are many
traces in the Introduction, which we shall proceed to review.
One of the surest tests of Hellenistic Greek is its tendency to use f'>/
instead of ov.' M>/ came to be used with participles indiscriminately,'
and in the New Testament the older usage is so far abandoned that
ov is quite regularly found in protases with the indicative.' This
last usage we cannot attribute to Nicomachus; he always uses f'>/ in
protases and in conditional relative clauses, but with participles he
l E.g., 11. 14. 5; 28. 1,6.
S On this in general, cf. MoultoD, Proltg<ff/1eft4 to a Grommar of New Tul6f1Unl Greek (Edin-
burgh, 1908), Index, s.v. NegaJiws; Burton, Moods and Temts of New Tesklmnsl (ded (Chicago,
1(03), pp. 178 ft. j Gildersleeve's fundamental article in AmM'con Journal of PJti1ology, I (1880);
and E. L. Green. in Studies in BaIlOr of B. L. GiJdersluw, pp. 471 I.
'Burton, sec. 485; "In the New Testament participles in all relations usually take ~ t as the
negative." Ct. Gildenleeve, Ameriron JourfUZl of Plrilol0IY, I, SS. Examples are given by
W. Scbmid, Der Attidsmus (Stuttgart, ]887), from Dio Chrysostom (vol. I, p. ]00), Lucian
(I, p. 246), Aristides (11, p. 61), etc.
Burton, 469; Moulton, p. 171.
LANGUAGE AND STYLE
sometimes follows, sometimes abandons, the syntactical standards of
classical Greek. By far the greatest number of times when 1'-" is
found with the participle it is correctly used; 1 in several more it will
probably pass muster; 2 but in a few cases it is incorrect
on classical standards. Such are 1. 3. I: (TTEL TOV 1TOCTOV TO JLV
" (J'" , .. \\ ,.. '\ I 8
opaTal KO. EaVTo, JLTJOEJLlav '"po') Q.J\J\O UXf<TlY EXOJl KTI\.; 23. :
", "' ..... '\ 0" 'f3 .l;,','
OtOV V0P-0VI) all) 1Taa-a. 7J -rrPOI\EX {l<Ta TTpO 0.0"1.') ElJOOCtXTEt p.TJ
, '3 11 , , .. \ '\ ...
AELTTOTaKiovfLEVTJ; 22. I: at DE TaVTalS tnrVaVTlal Q.J\.I\a.L TpElS,
l8iwv TTEVXVLal lJvofLaTwv, KTA.
Sometimes fL-rj is joined in this way to a genitive absolute,as in T. 16. 4 :
'\" .'
TrapaTTI\7JCTUJJ,) 1TaVTar; Q.TT0'YEVVfJCTELI) fLYJOEVOf) TTapaAElTTo-
'18' , ,""" ....
JL&OV; . 23. : yevolTo yap . . . Ta TOU 1TOJ\J\a.1TJ\a.<1'lOU a1TaVTa. ElOrJ
... uou P.rJOEV p.7JOt CTVAx'ap.{3avOVTOt;; 11. 22. 3:
1TapaAEt1Top.VOU p.rJf) cf. also I. I!. I. The
use of p."1 in 1. 7. 2, fun SE apnov p.iv, aorov TE Elt; oVa Tua olalpEOiivat
p.ovdSot; p.iuov p.'" 1TapEp.1TI.TrTOVUT'jt;, may be regarded as justified in
view of the generalizing and characterizing nature of the clause in
which it stands, and there are many instances where Nicomachus
negatives a participle with p."1 because it is equivalent to such a clause.
But to sum up, there are only seven instances of the loose use of p."1 in
the Introduction, over against about twenty-four where the participle
is correctly used, and about eleven where ov is correctly used with
the participle.
4
With other constructions, too - the infinitive,S WCTTE,6
El and lav 7 clauses - his usage ordinarily agrees with the classic
standard. But I note TO Iltv 'Yap 1Tpw-rU:TTOV o.lnb.w ... CTVJL{3a.{VI.
TOUt; p.Ev inrOAOyOUt; EXEl.V TOUt; ap1'{OUt;, aAAov SE ovSallWt; otiSiva
KT),.. (1. '9. 2), where I''1S"l'W< would be naturally called for; and a simi-
lar instance where OtiSi1TOTE, not fLrJ0i1TOTE, is used with an accusative
11.4_ 2lHs, 41; 6.3; 7.2,3; 10.2,sbisi 13.1,8 bis; 16.4; 23.8,11,12; 11.11.1;
16.1; 22.3; 271.
t A peculiar case in 11. 6. I: '1'4 "'(dp ... ri1r6XOtr" ilta}"tr6n-wp -#JJAWP
I{"! rpon:poXO"Y'!l1dYTwP lTfp4 'TI"a Jrpo"'/yy.aITlpap TiJ" ITIC;';'"' "XO"" . '1'';; 1{4' ai>'Ti> I{al
JAiJ T4i Jrp/ls 'np6p rwr The participle "xo""" can doubtless be regarded as characteriz-
ing. In I. 10.2; 13. I (cited in preccding note), thc participles are in 6>-"" clauses.
et I. 16. 4: "'(/"'1111 U "VTw"'Y}"a.4wpd. 'TtlC,,1 dl1.pa}"iJr OtM-f Jrapa.XdJrovl1d. '1'1"" TW" Tf}"dw"" KTA.,
a very sentence where OV appears.
4 I. 16.4; IQ. 16; n. 6. 1 bis; 22. J bis .. 28. I, 6; in the genitive absolute, add I. IQ. 8; 11. 9 3;
17.2. It may be added that adjecth'cs that are equivalent to conditional relati\'cs are cor-
rectly negatived with by Nieom3.chus: e.g., I. 16.4; 11. J. 1 &i.f.
with infiniti\'e: n. 2.4, 14. 5, L 8. 2,6, 1 I; 9. 2; TO. J; G#Tf with infinitive, T. 8. 8,
oli with infinith-e in direct discourse, n. 20. 5.
I "I1Tf 0 ... with present indicative, n. 17. I; with infinitive, I. 8. 8.
f These always have e.g., 11. 14. 5.
and infinitive with rrop.{3..,, (I. 12. 1). There is one instance of 1"1
in a relative clause which is apparently not generalizing or charac-
terizing: Si iXE' 1} 'YEClJP-ETPLlC-q f"f.u6rrlr;, 8 fL7J8f./Lta TWI'
!<TA. (11. 24. 3). This is a Hellenistic trait.' The construction of p.>f
with the indicative in cautious assertions, however, is classical j it
occurs in Introduction, I. 8. 7 and I. 9 3.'
To come next to the question of the use of the moods, it is most
important to inquire whether in Nicomachus, as in Hellenistic Greek
in general,' the optative shows signs of obsolescence. My count
shows twenty-six examples of the potential optative (twenty-five with
0:.) and twenty-four of the optative in dependent constructions.'
Perhaps the nature of the subject matter precludes the occurrence of
the real optative in wishes; but there are a few additional circum-
stances that betray the fact that Nicomachus, too, was beginning to
forsake this mood. For one thing, in most cases where a protasis has
the optative, its apodosis will show some construction other than the
normal potential optative, either a future or a present indicative, or
an imperative, or there may be no conclusion at all. Out of twenty-
one optative protases there are only three followed by the potential
optative in the apodosis.' It is also noteworthy that the optative
occurs only three times in any other construction than these two, the
potential and the optative protasis; it is found twice in final clauses
and once after a verb of fearing.
Among these examples of the optative there are a few that are note-
werthy for their violation of ordinary classical syntax, although inall
these cases the manuscript tradition must be taken into account, and
at best we cannot be absolutely sure what Nicomachus wrote. One,
1 See Gildersleeve, Amerkan Journal of Philology, I, 54. Many examples given by Schmid,
op. . from Philostratu5 (vo!. IV, p. 92), Dio Chrysostom (I, I(X), Lucian (I, 245), and others.
I Nicomachus uses the perfect each time. Cf. Moulton, op. dJ., pp. 192 f. (with citations of
papyri).
a Moulton, op. dJ., 194 fr.
'Potenti&loptative withlb,I. 1.2; 2.5;4.2; 9.4; n.3; 12.2; 14.2; 15.1; 19.20; 23.
3; nSS; 6.2bis; 7.4; 12.1; 13.1; 18.3; 21.1; 22.2; 23.3; 24.6; 27. 2; 27. 7 (with
en); 29. 1; in indirect question, 11. 27. 2; without 4" I. 23.8 (perhaps here should be added the
optatives in protases with 16... or d ... 4.., I. 8. 9; 12. 2; 11. 12. 3; 24. 1).
Optatives in dependent constructions: with fl, I. 9. 6; 10. 10 bis; 13. 9 bis, 11, 13; 14.3 MS;
n.4.3; 6.3; 12.4; 17.5,7; 23.3; n.23.2; I.IS.lbis. Withr,,n.27.1; 29.1. With
U .., tl ... 4", as above.
Of the conditions cited in the previous note, only three, I. IS. [ bis, n. 23. 2, have the optati\'e
in both clauses. Moulton, op. dJ., p. 106. states, "Neither in LXX nor in NT is there an ezample
of d with the optative answered with the optative with 4.., nor has one been quoted from the
papyri."
LANGUAGE AND STYLE,
and per-haps two, cOlntain potential optativ'es without. iv.!
Thi
h d f H 11 G-' k- alth h ..
.' " ,'_,S IS a p. :.en,Q1men01n a.tteste ' ::Ior e. le.n:lsttc_ ree .-." ',. I.' "O'ug' -I It was
t ok I" th '1 H d
. .. ;. . . ". . .. ,-.'..... '- '. . .-" ._ .' '. 'I':" -: . . . " .-, . '.. ". '. . ,,-.-. "., - '. .. .-. ":. ,'." ' . '1 ,. ." . . .' ' c ..
no,. u ..n,own, rea,r ler, :ere ,are many ,examp es, .' n " lomer an., cases
-.-- .'n' . -- tb.. _. .t b.-t . ,b -bI
I
' - - t-' t f -It- t b' .' ' . -.". . '.' .'., ' ..", . , . . . I ','. . , ..' .'. '.' .: I . I' ' .' , " .'c . '.. . ' ' ..
crontmu,a__ y occur m poes, :' U pro, .al ..y 1, was no e lo,e a
g'ood p'l,ose use in times.t Anoth.er peculiar usage, of which
th
"'1ere- a-'re r
o
._..
ur
" e'vam-c-'-p:les lS of' t:h-'e u's'e of Q'r' E'&'II il
Wl
-th
r
'. th,e . _'. '.' ,:,1. .11:': .A.I .', ,........ , .:.- :.1,. 'C" ,.... .... ..' . '" ' _ 1 .'
optative, 11'. 12'. ,3: Ie,AII oI -rpy&JI:JlO& "':P,0aTf,(JO''LIIT'O
" 0'''''
., \ (- 11 ,,, (J".jIi\ 'S' .' ,
'" 'YElI'.V'JlUOV(7'll11"ItTA. I EL 'Tp'''y61'U "POCITE' ". O'I'T'O' I . J EL TpllyOJJlO'L, "'pocr-
'(J ... : H) I 8 t I .. '. I "\ 9" "
T,' EVTa.," . 1.
1
; ' . ,'::',. 9: Elt ClV OVTCdq; . 12. 2 OT&, O&,mAV'
au E' dip 'E;fTEp at ,ferp'l(J'E.l'1 &)1 inr
l
' a.,lrr&;p
(
"CS'H) 11 I " 8\ \' "t C' t C-SH') om. 1_.' .. ..1 . ; 24.. I': ErCW:'E OPOIl, Et,E'1' '. (f, .c'.. '11 .'
It is very possible that these cases are all dU.e to ,al ,ate: scribe, .for
tb,ere ar'e no in'stances of such a co,ns,t:ruction in the, N,ew' Testam,en,t.
and Moulto:n can find b:u,t on.e, a Cyzicene inscriptio:n, e.lsewh'ere.3,
There &r1e a nunlbe'r of nstances in Hom,er an,d oth,e'r class,lcal litera
t
- h" e J' (. ) ;thth- -pt'at"l"v- .- - - - -t- nmtl!d"lr- t e
lurew'11er, eClP.a& I(,E W.l
il
'. ,e 01; '.'de represeO'I.SI,11 ec
, I b-" ""b f h' h .. d' '1
an o,rtg'na sU,"Junctlve:, lut,som.e 0 I t 'emlave receive specJa exp ana-
tion an,d in the great majority of ,cases 'he ed'ito:rs 'have em.enrded the
te
"-.ts- 4 I -, :": '-"-:''',-'.-:.,'1 th- ..- .. ," t .-.,' .-..... ..,t- '.. -:,t ....--ffi:i . - ; t- d'-, "',':" ..,.. ,-. to l -'
n genera ere IS a preseDI no __Clen. CVl ence ..... IIA.
upon. this as ,a, 'co.mm,on p,rose constru,ctio:n of Hellenistic Greek. Per-
'ha' '.. '. - -, .. 'f" th- . - -_. cc .. , - -, i. -. t- - .. 1- . .' '- ... " b - .. ... d'- th" . " . ." .. '," . '. I"'" .' ". .... . . . '.-' .,. . ,. . '. . . " .. "
.I_.-PS Qlne IQ '. e orego ,n.g ],ns.. ances., .. 2,. 2, may. e exp aln,e_, on e
I '1' .-. .'- d- t,ht th '. 'la'l ' se: .'. . :Itb" .'.- .,.. : (It, .. - .'.-. '11- . .t'h -,., ,r ) th-' '[ ..-. dii-
.gro1un,__ ._' a, _ e, c... ' U.-, W ',E,'/rEp IS a,. er a ..ra.cer causa ,an ,c,on '
tion,al. B,efo.re leavln,g the optativ,e, it may ble re.m.arkred that" with
his, evident fondness for the pot.ential c'onstru.ctio'n, Nicom,ac'hus
often, employs, ,it ,,,here an Indic.ative wOiuld serve as well.
- A"' 'HII- "'G k .. 1 h'
: .. JR.." ,:"' '1" : .. : . [ , . ", :,:1: ,,- ".,'. I:", . '1.-, .. :- :1 '1' ',: .. -," l'" '.-- ' ' "
In non .' ttlclzlng . e .. eOls,tlC .... ree ,. consecu.tmve c a,uses Wit I lDOTE
tend to 'Show th.e :infinitive more than, the i'ndicative, an:d wbe,n the
'indicativ'e i,s used, thre clause, is u'sually' coordinated ,vith the ma,in
I
1 . _. . f th' _.. -t' _.. . .. .., d" ,,' th
l
-- - f - '. '.. th' t
cause .. le sen .ence, rtIJaTE m1ean.,mg an.", so" 'ere' ore , '..erue
,colnsecutive clause with the indicative. is rare.
6
:F'urthermore.:, the d:is,-
"
1 .,'POt/ro
t
I. 2Joi' ,8. Here Ast added .r, but the MSS, 'folloed by Hoche, agree iD omi,ttiDg'it.
In I.. Illi.3 (p. 2'7 6 Hoch-e),. I. is, to be omitted; see p. 160..
... S" . yt"h Cr" -. 1. 'G"'" . -.-. '8' 8: - K" ". h-- ., 'Ge"rth.
,
I ... f' ....... "u1""";" . S.I Ra'-"t...--.,..,..,
..-x;e ,m: ., . . tt.g rammdr, 1,21..... 1',22.; ,- 22'S .' J1 . Iw:D, 19 j .1 UCl"I::lU'D,
,GnJmmar DJ,Ibe Greek It/nu Tes'amenl .. 937-03,8.,
'ICited P. third paragraph.. Scb'mid,o./J. cit . cites ,examples f:rom. Luw (vol. I. 2:44),
,Aristides (11. 5'9,), Pbiloslratus (on,e rease" vol., IV,
, See t.he list i'n Koh.ner-Gerlh. (ed. 18gB)! 11.. 549, 4
' This iSI illustrated by lfoullon's statistics O,D the New Tes,tam1ent (PI' 209;, cl. 235)
'1f.'I" "'ht th '{ '. f" h .. fi t'" .. sed' f th ... lb rt
D,e' .lllI S elg ,".y"" .. Iree exampl:es 0 'CiNTT;, In ._>t,y-one. t- e in n'li 'Ive ts u .; 0' ',e.. _' IcY'
. h'l' b ha h" d" 1 f ('h Ii! b I ). 'bo dE
t.wo 'W ',IC. ' v'e an, lcative. OD._Y a ve.ry' Ie'W' 'le Cites ; ut two C.ear cases" a.te true Inate
m:nsecu.ti.v,e clauses and iD the oth, IS 'the 'particle meaDS I and 'so)Ji " t.herefore,.t
1)2 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
tinction between the infinitive, which nonnally expresses the result
that the action of the main verb tends to produce, and the indicative,
expressing the actual result, seems to be more and more ignored, and
the infinitive comes to be used where the indicative would be more
natura1.
1
In Nicomachus the use of WCTTE conforms much more nearly to the
classical usage than does that of the New Testament, where the in-
dicative has all but disappeared from the real subordinate clause, for
there are at least five cases where the indicative is clearly consecutive; 2
but the infinitive is used nine times, and in most of these it would be
diflicult to insist that the result expressed is the tendency and not the
actuality; 3 in fact, in most of them the latter interpretation is the
natural one. This is the only mark of looseness in Nicomachus's
usage, unless we include the fact that all the passages with the real
subordinate indicative (save one where the quasi-future 7TpOEUTI.
occurs) employ the future tense." As noted above, cdU'TE, meaning
'and so,' {therefore,' occurs several times.
5
As one would expect of an author of his period, Nicomachus almost
always uses the subjunctive with LV" in final clauses. 1 have noted
but two cases where the optative is found, strangely enough both after
verbs in primary tenses, n. 27. I: WCT7rEp ... aUov E aAAov Tporrov
'\.0" , ..
a 7TOTEAEW" at OVVG.VTal. a, 1T'POI\EX E&.(TaL JJ-ECTOTTJTEt; UlG. lea'
., \" \. 11 ".
ETVp.CIJTaTG. KG.AOUITO OVTCcJ'i' ICT'A.; 29. I: KVpUJJr; yap aVT7J
... o.pp,ovta &.V ACX8E/;YJ P.OIl7J 11'apo. Tl:lt; aAAar;, Ei1TEp br1TEOO'i
P,1JOE p,tq. P.OVlJ JA-ECTcYn]Tt CTVVOEOp,il"'l, ciAAa OVUtV, iv' OWed Ott-
CTTavOtTO, W'i 0 KUIJO'i, KTA. To this may be joined the instance, re-
ferred to above, of an optative after a verb of fearing, I. 3. 7: W'i 7]OV'i El,
C'C" ,.. ..., It.! ' 6
on EOtKa8 OEOtlldt, P,TJ dpd d)(JY'lCTTd TdWd TO. p,a.v ,/p.drd1TpoCTTdrrOtp,'.
I Smyth, 2260 if., and Goodwin, Moods and Terucs, 582 if" leave no chance for the infinitive
to express the idea. normally conveyed by the indicative. But cf. Burton, 235: "Since, however,
an actual result may always be conceh'ed of as that which the cause in qUe5tion is calculated
or adapted to produce, the infinitive may be used when the result is obviously actual."
I. 8. I2; 13. 6; 19. 2 (rp6f"",); n. 15 3; 22.3. .
J I. 8.8,10; 18.6; 19.17, 19; 20.2; 22.2; n. 8. 3; 29. 2. Save perhaps the first case, these
may all be regarded as expressing real results. A good illustration of this type is I. 18.6.
'See the examples cited in note 2. Gildersleeve, American JOlU'naJ of PhUology, VII, 173.
remarks that the future indicative is common enough in this construction.
11.10.10; 19.20; 20. I; 11.17.1,7; 21.3; 24.11
This is an inaccurate quotation of Plato, Republic, 527 D: .qllth d, it. !' ryw, 5T1 'OIlClU
lid'OTI 'Toj}r /A% lioA'V' 4XPTJf1'T ./Af1081i/A4'T<< rpoG"ni.,..,."r. It is noteworthy that Theon of
Smyrna, p. 3, 8, quotes it in almost the same form as does Nicomachus: 1,111>1 fT, hi '/ll.A'I
IJIG. /A'I 4xp11/T'T 'TO ./Af108/jp.q.'T<< rporf'Td,'T'TOlp,l.
LANGUAGE AND STYLE
173
These final clauses can be explained, to be sure, as presenting the
purpose as a mere conception of the mind, without regard for its ful-
filment, a notion which sometimes justifies the use of an optative
after a primary tense in classical Greek; I but Moulton 2 has very
acutely observed that such an employment of the optative is a sign
of a desire to Atticize, and they are perhaps best understood in that
light, along with the object clause in I. 3 7.
After all, the most significant thing about Nicomachus's use of the
final clause is that no examples of the so-called I ecbatic ilia' 3 - in-
troducing clauses that are not purposive at all, but are used as sub-
stantives where the classical Greek would employ the infinitive - are
to be found. In this he is quite classical. But sometimes his final
clauses seem to express an idea very close to that of result, instead of
purpose, as this example may suffice to illustrate: oo-all ToivVII Suo
.. ,., ... , "".
OpWJI aKpWII TptXTJ Ol.aOTaTWV ap.'f'OTEpWlI, EtTE tUWII wa
KV!30t; n, KTA., H. 29. 2. It is worth noting that in one case, 11. 2. I,
,.,..ovoJ/ iva with the subjunctive means 'provided only that' and in-
troduces a proviso.
In clauses meaning 'as long as,' 'as far as,' there are many combi-
nations: with the present indicative, p.'xpl.t; 12 cases;" ILWtt;
.. 6 '.I..' .. 8 .. 7' 8 'th
Do-WII, I case j fop O<TOII, I case; EW'i, I case; p.xpt, I case; Wl
th b
t" ,.. 9' T .. 10 'A-' .. or
e su June lve, a.v, 9 cases j ov av, I case j E'f" O(1"OVa.v,
I ease; 11 E(JJ') av, I ease.
12
This variation between the indicative and the subjunctive might
I See the list of optatives after primary verbs in KUhner-Gerth, 11, 383 h, .. wenn die Handlung
des Finalsatzes, ohne Rucksicht au! ihre Verwirklichung, als bloss gedacht, als reine Vorstellung
erscheinen soil." Goodwin, Greek Moads and TlnSts, 321-23, regards the optative in final clauses
after a primary verb as very rare and to be viewed as a mere irregularity of construction, unless the
leading verb implies a reference to the past as well as the present; but he has ooly the classical
writef'ii in mind.
s P. 197. Cr. also Robertson, P.983. The optative with 1,,(1. after a secondary tense is not
found in the New Testament. There are two examples of it after a primary verb (EphcsiaM,
i. J 7; If Thcssalonians, ii. 25), but the text is uncertain in both places and the former can be re-
garded as a volitive optative (Robertson,lIH:. dt.).
, Sce Moulton, p. 206.
-1.94; IO.i,8,9j 16.4; 18.1; 19.6; 237; 11.8.1; 9.1; 12.6; 13.5; 20S
Ill. 2. 3: &,w
eI. 18. 5: I<p' &'0. 1'1' '-l'pc:u:o>'oLl8(i".
T 11. 5. 5: lw, rpoxwpt';" e/>'m (lw, <b ... 8/..... '0" SH)
Ill. 14. 5: ,uXPI {JotlAU.
9.4; 10.8; 16.7; 23.7; 11.2.2; n.l.
16 I. 13. 3: }dxp" or. a. IiU>'WP.flI'.
11 I. 18. 6: '<p' &10.4" fVrO,,"U 'TU 'rf".8I'I.
u 11. 13.9: lfllf ob '" p.oNS ... 4'1'"U.
174
give rise to the suspicion that Nicomachus is less rigidly bound by
the usual canons than a classical writer would be, and to a limited
extent this is possibly so. But if closer attention is paid to the clauses
themselves, his usage will be seen to conform fairly well to the recog-
nized standards, which demand an indicative if the action is marked
as a fact referring to a definite present or past occasion and the sub-
junctive to refer to future or indefinite present time.' It may be ob-
served that every one of the examples with the indicative is of the type
/LW' {Jov>.... 'as far as (up to the point that) you desire,' 2 and the
period of time during which this desire lasts is, in these clauses, con-
sidered definite, so that their construction is normal. But the same
interval may be also regarded as of indefinite extent, so that in a few
clauses of a very similar nature the subjunctive is llSed.
3
This inconsistency, which is easily explicable and after all very slight,
is really the only one present; for most of the examples are of a differ-
ent kind and do not introduce the notion of desire at all. 'Until (it)
reaches the monad" may be taken as typical of them; the subjunc-
tive is obviously proper. It may be remarked that /L<XP' <I'-<xP") is
Nicomachus's favorite word of this group,' and that he uses it freely
as a preposition in phrases like P.W' P.Wl.fj d.1Tf.[pOV, in con-
formity with the general Hellenistic liking for the prepositional use
of this and similar adverbs. In one phrase, thrice repeated, /LW"
aEt, he shows an interesting parallel to the (CUr; ?TOTE of Revelation,
vi. 10, which may be taken as additional evidence for Moulton's
contention that this is not a Hebraism.'
A few expressions also show peculiarity in the use of av, namely:
I. 13- 1, Mall C, JLUpOVP.EJIOfj, H); I. 13. 12, fall
(.<iv, tmI. H. 1Tpo{J>..."lJiJ, PCSH); I. 8. 7.8 .a.l)((J (so GP,
av c<It.); I. 9. 2, 8 .av dip.lJiJ /L<po< lxwv (av, CSH). Although all
these expressions have the support of the oldest and best manuscript
1 See Smyth, Gruk Grammar, 1943, 2383. In the New Testament there are three examples
of iUVI Vd'XP" in two of them) followed by the subjunctive without b. See Robertson,
975- As a preposition it is common.
t I. 10.8 has JJxP' 'XfU, 'as far as you ca.n'; cf. also 11. 2.3; but all thc othcn are of the
type indicated.
E.g., J. 9. 4: pJXpu A,. ..poxwpci,. 180.111; 11. 11. I: ,uXpu b .,." 81>.11 and cf, I. 13.3; lB. 6
as cited above.
4 I. B. 4: pJ)'.p41 A,. fil .,.f,,. ... 1(1'"".
It OCCUIS in 23 of the '7 C&56 cited above, besides many where it is prepositional; 'xp(
is attested by but one MS (H) twice; 'W'I twice; ..pl,. not at all.
Ittt,odudion, I. 23.8; 11.4. 3; 12. s Cf. Moulton, 107 n. Nicomachus also uses I1 ckt,
I. 10. 6 his, eI possim.
LANGUAGE AND STYLE

175
authorities, there must remain some question whether Nicomachus
actually wrote them. But those which show a confusion of U" and
a... are types of a very common Hellenistic phenomenon,I and must have
come into the manuscript tradition very early. It is even possible
that Nieomachus so wrote them. But the other two cases are more
complicated. The instance in I. 13. I is generalizing; ,in I. 13. 12, par-
ticular.
The former is easy to parallel in the papyri 2 and the New Testament,'
and similar clauses even admit the past tenses of the indicative with
ci....
4
It is but a single instance of the "weakening of the connexion
between compounds of r'f." and the subjunctive" which Moulton dis-
cusses on pp. 167 1I. The second example, if genuine, would have to
be explained in a similar way, but though there are instances of U"
with the present indicative in the New Testament expressing, as Burton
thinks,fi simple present suppositions, and many of Ea.... with the future
indicative,6 those where the past tenses are found with "av are so feebly
attested that such usages, conceivable though they may be, are prob-
ably best regarded as confined to the more illiterate.' Nicomachus
is much more likely to have written "po{3AT/lJfI, which is the reading
of four MSS.
The use of periphrastic forms of the verb, which is more frequent
in late than in classical Greek, is not very conunon in Nicomachus.
I have noted only a few instances' It may be remarked that Nico-
machus is fond of employing the perfect tense in the normal way, to
indicate an action completed but continuing in force in the present.
There are also marks of his post-classical usages in Nieomachus's
selection of words. Some, of course, which are purely mathematical
terms, might well fail to appear elsewhere, even though they were
known to earlier writers; but there are a considerable number among
the less strictly arithmetical words which are not credited by the lexica
I Cl. Moulton, especially pp. 42 f.
t See Moulton, p. 168, for examples.
I See Burton, 309.
BUTton, 315. There are no instances of this common New Testament construction in
Nicomachus.
BUTton, 247.
Moulton, p. 168; Burton, 254.
7 Moulton, p. 168.
I I. S. I. fill' h I#J'OII.411' pi,.. as a present j I. 14. I. fill'h . . . a J'O'; H. 6. 3, I ;
H. 6. 7, But it may be noted, in addition, that Nicomachus is very apt to use
with fil/o' such words as "'toJr11T11I:61, or hlaU:T1dl in the sense of a slmple verb j this
is virtual periphrasis.
to other writers, and still more used by Nicomachus that are found only
in post-Aristotelian literature. As a test of this, Nicomachus's vocabu-
lary may first be compared with two of the lists printed at the end of
Thayer's lexicon of New Testament Greek, one giving New Testa-
ment words found in post-classical writers generally, and the other, his
'Biblical' list, consisting of words that do not occur until 150 H.C.
In common with the first group Nicomachus has 0PTJCTKEta,
(for 1TpOK01T'T}, and CT'7JJl.fLOVV; with the second he has
aVTa.1ToKp{vEu{)al., {3o.0p.o't
J
E1TLCTVllayc.ryri, E1TtUClJPWEtV, Ka-Tav-
Tav. The lists as given by Thayer overlap, and some of the words
last cited are to be found in both of them.
Most of the late words introduced hy Nicomachus may be classed,
however, as new or uncommon compounds, not a few of which are
possibly innovations of his own; many of them too are doubly or
trebly compounded. Words assigned to Nicomachus only, or to the
group embracing him together with the Theologumena Arithmetuae
and Iamblichus's Cammentary, include &'VTt1Tap6JVvp.or;, a double
compound; also Q.lITt7TE7TOv8"1ULt;, a.p1'taKi:Jr;, a.pnoouvap.or;, d.PTLOTayrfr;,
8VTEpo8Ew(}al., 8Etl'TEpOTa:yrjr;,8nrAautaO"I.S', EJL'7TAEY&r,V,
JlaJlnwvvp-0f), 1nKop1XpWCnf), lCop1Xpwcnr;, /LE"OVcU"r;,
p.ovaOUTTt, 1TpCXTCTwpwcnr; and cnjp-avcnr;.
Other post-classical words that may be mentioned are the follow-
. ' ... " '. '" .. ", ,
mg: avap-o/"\EKTWr;, aVTl.o(.aUTEAf\E(.V, avr(.o(.aUTOATJ, aVTl.1Tapwvvp.E'-
uOa', a.vr'CTV)'lCptVE(.V, a.1TCtpo.{3aTor;, a.1TCtpciAAalCTor;, a.1TCtpEyICA(.TOf), a.1Tap-
, .' \. "'y
EjL1TOO(.UTOJl, Q.1T(.UWU(.f), Ct1TOUC,f\Of), a1J'OKaTCtCTTaTU<Of), a1Top.E,oVP''::JE(.V,
a.PT('01J'Ep(.TTor;, a.VAW., yap-p.o,8wf), S,a/",WO'T'ICOr;, 8'XOTop-'r]p.a, Eloo-
1TO'EI.UOa(., Eloo1To['r]u(.r;, p.c/JaVTo.'Eu(}a" p.q,aV'T(.Kor;, Evap(}p0f), VaTWl.-
r 'r .<, , ,< , , ' (J ,
'J:,E(.V, EV011TP(.'J:,E(.V, a1TJ\.WO'"Lt;, EJ\'yp-Ot;, E1Tw(.aJLWEtV, E'lT'UVVT(. wa"
bnuwpE[a, f.1J'I,UWpE1JCTlt;, E'lT(.TpOXo.'E'V, ErEpOyEVWf), ErEpWvvp.ot;, EWe-
p!A'r]11TOt;, OVJL'r]8[a, lOUCWf), lCaniA'Tf1/J't; (as a Stoic term),
KaTaAA'r]A{a, ICQ.TapICTl.ICOt;, JLEYE(}VVE(.V, fLEUEJL{30AEI.JI, P-EU(.TE{a, JLETa-
Op-WVVp-EI.V, 1TapaKOAovOTJJLa, 1Tapa1ToAaVE(.V, 'lTpOE'rn-
UK01J'EI.V, 1TpOCTUWpWE(.V, 1TP0lmOOE'lCvVva" 'lTPOtJ1TOICE'iu(}a(., 1TpOxo.payp.a,
uvvavayvwu,r;, 'TEXVOAoyta, VrrEPEIC1T[11TE(.V, VrrEpEIC11TWU't;, 4nAaAATJA[a,
<p'AaAATjAo<, XPT/CT'P.<';<W, I/roxo-yovia.
To these may be added a few which are cited by W. Schmid 1 as
late formations used by the Atticists and found also in Nicomachus:
a.vo.yvClJCTlJoa, a.vrac/Ja(.pEI.V, cLvr,cNp'c/JEW, 1T'c/Jo.vE,a,
'0 " 1 I' " p. Cl., \0.. .":",'.' ..
LANGUAGE AND STYLE
177
., IIJ' \ ... ;
EVV1TapXfl.ll, 1f'apaUEUl.fj, 1rEPI.CTTa,UI.t;, 1TEptICV/CI\(W, 1TPOUCTWPWELV, 1TpOEK-
nBivo.l., CTVVVWEl.V, q,VULO>"oyEtV, multiples in -I.((IV (Ot1TA.au{wlI, etc.)
and word-groups written together with but a single accent, like
, ill nt:.::. "d"
TOVTE(TTI., KaUo., '/'i, wo-aI/Et, an OtOPE'.
In matters of orthography and accidence Nicomachus does not
depart so far from the literary standard; yet there are a few instances
worthy of noticing, e.g., the non-Attic forms -yLVf.u(}ar. and 'YLJlWUKEW,
with their compounds, are usual with him instead of the classical spell-
ings, and we may mention the forms &..rrooELleJ/vEw, n. I. 2; OLL<TTaVEW
(OtLO"'TetVOLTO), H. 29. I j OJlop.aTo1TE1Tol:Yjp-ivOll, I. 9. 2,1 and 7TaplowKCJ.V,
I. 3. 4. (This, however, is in a quotation of Archytas.) He uses the
forms ?TAEiovE< (I. 10. 3) and ?TAEiova. (I. 10. 4; 20. 1) instead of the
contracted forms which were more common in Attic Greek, and varies
between the forms ?TAELOV and ?TA<ov' The spelling <T<T usually ap-
pears instead of TT} contrary to the Attic rule, but in a few words,
notably a.PT't1rlp.. 8,rrwc;, KCJ.TOPVTTOP.EIIOII, EAa:rrwv, ICpEI.TTOII, and
TaTTElII, 'TT is found, sometimes alternating with eTU. Among the
words which occur more than once in the I ntrodzu:tion, TT is used
exclusively only in EAaTTwv.
I See, however, the critical note, p. 159.
t See W. Schmid, op. dJ., vol. Ill, p. 24...X/o" was usual in the neuter.
t See W. Schmid, op. dJ., vol. IV, p. 579. Some of the words cited above are quoted by
Nicomacbus, and it is perfectly evident that he preferred tTtT.
PART IT'
TRANSLATION OF THE, TO ARlTHME'TIC Q,F
,NIC10M,ACHU,S QIF GERASA. THE P'YTHAIGOREAN
oil
BOOK I
CHAPTER I
The ancients, who under the leadership of Pythagoras first made I
science systematic, defined philosophy 1 as the love of wisdom. In-
deed the name itself means this, and before Pythagoras all who had
knowledge were called I wise' indiscriminately - a carpenter, for
example, a cobbler, a helmsman, and in a word anyone who was versed
in any art or handicraft. Pythagoras, however, restricting the title
so as to apply to the knowledge and comprehension of reality, and
calling the knowledge of the truth in this the only wisdom, naturally
designated the desire and pursuit of this knowledge philosophy, as
being desire for wisdom.
He is more worthy of credence than those who have given other 2
definitions, since he makes clear the sense of the term and the thing
defined. This' wisdom' he defined as the knowledge, or science, of
the truth in real things, conceiving 'science' to be a steadfast and firm
apprehension of the underlying substance, and' real things' to be those
which continue uniformly and the same in the universe and never de-
part even briefly from their existence; these real things 2 would be
things immaterial, by sharing in the substance of which everything
else that exists under the same name and is so called is said to be ' this
particular thing,' 3 and exists.
t In his introductory statements Nicomachus does not run counter to widespread beliefs of
ancient limes. The origin of the names' philosophy," philosopher' (,pIAOCI"04Jlcl, .p,>..6trOrp,of) was
commonly ascribed to Pythagoras; compare the citations given by Ritter and Preller, Hisl.
Phil. Grau., 3, and (Plut.) Epit., I. 3. 8 ('"' Diels, Doxographi G1'lUc., 280-281). As to the belief
that Pythagoras corrccted a wrong use of the terms, compare the following parallel with Nicoma-
chus's statt:mt:nts fumisht:d by Ammonius (In Porphyrii Prootm., p. 9, 7): "Pythagoras,
however, says,' Philosophy is the love of wisdom,' and he was the first to assail the error found
among the ancients; for whereas they would call I wise , a man who pursued any art whatsoever
... he shifted this epithelto God, so as to call him alone wise (God, I mean) and endowed \\;th
wisdom and knowledge of those things that are eternal" (0 qn,fTl, 1nl
1"1/ ...lI.pa hU/Tar -yap IlC,il'Ol votiJO.
iI""'l'lloii. T1x"! jlE8lvTfJtH rflOllfT'roplfl.p Tfl.6'TfJP ir1 9f/)p wr
p.611O. 1IC""O. ICfl.Mi'.18IU 8,6. tPfJJA', tro4Jlap n T"W./I""wPlitllCw. "Y.WIP).
t See Part I, p. 92.
Toa, TI: in Aristotle the tt:Chnical CKpression for the particular thing of which being is pred-
icated. The principles which Nicomachus calls Pythagorean are here expressed in Platonic and
,8,
'. , -OMACHUS- O""F GERA' -S '
r< '. 1[".1,:,
F
' b dil'" tal thin.. t' hi f ., 1 ed-
3 ,or' J 0 I .y" 'maen _,' are, l:e sure, ,orev,er mvo i:V,>
in flo,w and change - in imitati.on o,f th.e natu're anld pe-
I
- 'li-t f th t t al tt, cl b tan hi'" h h b ell lar qual -i,.y' 0 ,a. el'ern ma,er an, W -C;' I; as
f
' th b" d h' h '11 h hI' d .' hi
'. '.', .'. . . . ". '. . . . ':-. .' '.. I C .:- ' ,.'. - '.' -: I ' .:- .. '. .. .' I . I' ' .. .. '1 ..., ..
.rom ' e I::eglnnlng, an.! W le. w,as a .. IC.I. an,gea_ e ,a.n .. var,ia,_:. e
thr'oughout. The bodiless thin,gs." however, of whi1ch 'we concei've in
th
l
tb '" h h 1"' '. .
conne,ction WIt c or toge.:
1
'er Wit.. matter, [suC' [as qU.&'ltles, quanti
ties,,2 CQ,nfi,gur-ations, larg'eness" smallness" equality" .relations" a,ctuali
d' .'. 1 IIi 11 th th d h b
tIes" ... lSpOsltlo,ns, pi ac,es" times'I a. ... Iose .-j'mgsr., n a wo,r .... " w 'ere 'y
'tb, .'. f-'" 'd- ,'-.- ,.;- .. 'h b d"-'';- '.'--: '. -"'hl dI-d .. ' "n tb ' .. '. f
. e: Iqua lilies lou,n. ID leac 1,_ 0 ... y ,are en le .- [a ._ .esle are 0
t.hemselves immovable and 'unchangeable, but ,accidentally the.y share
in and pa'rtak.e of th,e affec:tions of the: body to which. they belon,g.
4 Now it is with sUlch things that 'wis[dom' particularly' c.oncerned,
bu_ accl,dentally also, with things that'sharle in them, th,a't is" bodiesl.
'C'HAPTER 11
11' Tho's'e t"h"'l-'n'g's h1olwe ..v"e'r-- 'a"re'" nnm-':-'" 'Ia,t'e'I'fI/ila1 e-ter:''-'n'a'l) Wt th"o:'ut le''Dd and-
'. ,I ... ,-" _ "" .' .' ..'" ',< ,_.' '. ..,' ' .. , '._
it is the'ir nature to :persist ever ',he same and unchanging, ab[ding by
thei. . own. essential being", an1d each ODle of theDl is called 'e'al i'n, the
prope'l' sense:., B,u,t what. a e in'volved in birth an.,d ,destructilon, grow'tb,
a'nd, diminu,tion", all kin,dsl [Ol{ cha'nge and pa.rti,ci,pation, are seen t,o
vary Ic.ontinually, and while th[ey are called real things, by the samle
'term. as th.e former', so far as they p,artake of them" they are not actually
real by their own nature, fo,r th.e:y do not abid[e for eV1en the shortes't
di" b 1 .. 11
moment m the [sa,me con." .'tlo,n, ...u't are a,lways passmg over ID, all .
.
2 so,rts, of changes"., To quo,te the wo,rds [of'Tlmaeus, 'in 'P'lato
,
,3 '(CWha,t
t-hat wh- 'I' h a"l'wa'y's IS a'od' h-as no" btrth' an"d' w''h"at- lS that --hi"' 'Oh-I.' - : .. ' _" '.' :c .['. " >' , _:':, [". . ." .' .' , . - '" " 11 __", I,:, I 1 I., ....., w Ie, 15
a1
' b .' T-h .. . ed b h
... .' ways beco,DUn.g' ',ut never 15 c' '_,', .c.,e one IS app:r'ehend,,'. I .. Y '1
1
., 'e men.'
Aristotelian terminology. ,Late Pythagoreans tb'lIs ascribed to their founder m.u,ch that he never
could have: said..
Philoponus (scholia i" Nk., 00. Hoc,'be) on tb-is, passage says tha't Ammonius criticized,
Nicomach.us for 'saying tha,t matteT is XCII clA).ou.I'T'1i.. U He rougnt t,o have said TpEIIT&..dJ m
14).Aouft'l.Pt, fa,r the changes and va.riations take 'place abou,t it:; it it'self does 'Dot change D,or vary' ;
for if it itself changed, the,re wou'ld hav[e to be stiU &'n,other matter wh,ere'init woul[d vary and
cban,ge And so i,t is, itself uDlchangiog and unvarying, but its forms vary; I mean quantities.
qualities, n Philopo,D.us, reto,rts t.hat wh[en change and variation 'take plaoe, it, 'really ,is t",e s'u,b..
st,rate wbleb e say changes; th.e 10111l8, etc.) pred:"cated of it do not Ichan,ge;. they' pass
away and, c{)me ibto 'bei:ng.. It is to be not,ed tha't:. as in ,the case of PIatol " the ques,tion of 'primary"
d
' d- 'tte b sed .. , iIi h N" ch 'I' d t"
&'n. secon ,ary . :ma'., :. r am, "e lal ..... m co-nnection Wlt_ I. lcoma' . us 5 '. 'OC'nD'es; see p.. 9311
I C,A.,_ P-art l .' I 'p 941
.',1, ... :.. _".' <ii
'. Tinuuus, 27 ,D. Nicomachus closely follows the original, 'wi.th o,nly m'iu[OI' variations ,His
quotalions 0,( Plato are not. 'usually so exact ,; [cfiIi I" JiF ,S. 7"
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
tal processes, with reasoning, and is ever the same; the other can be
guessed at by opinion in company with unreasoning sense, a thing
which becomes and passes away, but never really is."
Therefore, if we crave for the goal that is worthy and fitting for man, 3
namely, happiness of life I - and this is accomplished by philosophy
alone and by nothing else, and philosophy, as I said, means for us de-
sire for wisdom, and wisdom the science of the truth in things, and of
things some are properly so called, others merely share the name-
it is reasonable and most necessary to distinguish and systematize
the accidental qualities of things.
Things, then, both those properly so called and those that simply 4
have the name, are some of them unified and continuous, for example,
an animal, the universe, a tree, and the like, which are properly and
peculiarly called 'magnitudes';
2
others afe discontinuous, in a side-
by-side arrangement, and, as it were, in heaps, which are called I multi-
tudes,' a flock, for instance, a people, a heap, a chorus, and the like.
Wisdom, then, must be considered to be the knowledge of these 5
two forms. Since, however, all multitude and magnitude' are by
their own nature of necessity infinite - for multitude starts from a
definite root and never ceases increasing; and magnitude, when
division beginning with a limited whole is carried on, cannot bring
the dividing process to an end, but proceeds therefore to infinity-
and since sciences" are always sciences of limited things, and never
of infinites, it is accordingly evident that a science dealing either with
I The word used by Nicomachus, is once employed by Aristotle in the Ethica Nicoma-
chuJ, I. 8. 10C)8 b 20 ff.: T4i ).6"yIojlKlld TO ,(, 11'111 TO & ,lollll/po",'
,lotwtll TIf '(P.,.,.II. Jl:II1 ni...pIICII. The' happy life,' in a certain definite sense, is the goal
that is becoming a man, according to Aristotle. See ibid., 1. 10.1101 a 14 fr., 1.6. 10<}7 b 25-
10C)8 a 20.
t On this and the following definitions, and their parallels in Aristotle, set: p. 112 and notes.
J That is, multitude and magnitude per se and unqualified. This point is noted by Proclus,
I", Prim. Eud. Elem. Lib. CONm., p. 6, 15 Friedl.: 11 Tf dpdllJ.Or lid p.ol'lilloJ dp4,lo1t'lIOf
4 ... rXfll clfl cl ),w8flr 11'11I1 'iI I ...' 4 ...npoJ'
xwpfi, 1'4 Ill- ll.atpeWp.ulI ...4J'T1I Jl:1I1 Jl:ll1" 1'4 pJptll TOU 1lA01J. In
the Theologl4mena Arilhrru:tklU, p. J Ast, also there is reference to this matter in the same
nology: ,. And it [Sf. the monad] is evidently beginning, middle, and end of all, since it bounds the
infinite division of the continuous in the direction of the smaller than itself, and in the diJ'C(;tion of
the greater it cuts oH a similar increase in the discrete, and this not by our decree. but by that
divine nature." This passage is probably Nicomachean. Hero of Alexandria (Dejinilhm 119,
in Hultsch's Htr01lis AJuandrini Geometrkorum et Sltreometricorum Rtliquiae, Berlin, J 864, p. 33)
speaks of magnitude as "that which is increased and divided to infinity" (p./'y,fJl!t idn TO
o.l Tfp,I1/)J,UIIOJ' fir 4....
The matter included in the rest of this section is touched on by Proclus, op. cit., p. 36. 3
Fried!.: ....jJ' 11' /1(, Tll).llCIIIJ' ...1 ... ocrb otlTt ".ry.fJof a... ).w. 0,,"' ... ).-ijfJor a).).4 Jl:llfJ
magnitude, per se, or with multitude, per se, could never be formulated,
for each of them is limitless in itself, multitude in the direction of the
more, and magnitude in the direction of the less. A science, however,
would arise to deal with something separated from each of them, with
quantity, set off from multitude, and size, set off from magnitude.
CHAPTER III
I Again, to start afresh, since of quantity one kind is viewed by it-
self, having no relation to anything else, as 'even,' 'odd,' 'perfect,'
and the like, and the other is relative to something else and is conceived
of together with its relationship to another thing, like' double,' , greater,'
'smaller,' 'half,' 'one and one-half times,' 'one and one-third times,'
and so forth, it is clear that two scientific methods will lay hold of
and deal with the whole investigation 1 of quantity; arithmetic, ab-
solute quantity, and music, relative quantity.!
2 And once more, inasmuch as part of 'size' is in a state of rest and
stability, and another part in motion and revolution, two other sciences
in the same way will accurately treat of 'size,' geometry the part that
abides and is at rest, astronomy that which moves and revolves.
3 Without the aid of these, then, it is not possible to deal accurately
with the forms of being nor to discover the truth in things, knowledge
of which is wisdom, and evidently not even to philosophize properly,
for H just as painting contributes to the menial arts toward correctness
of theory, so in truth lines, numbers, harmonic intervals, and the
revolutions of circles bear aid to the learning of the doctrines of wis-
IKdTfpor WpUlpiJ'OJ" TOWO 'Yap d.1H').MCU 'l"W. artlp",. nh 1rl'1'cuooci., Wr 0(,,.
irA(/' Ilrd.'Tf/X'. drflpCl'. 'Y.w.rn rfpl"Al&/ki.. This he states with regard to Pythagorean mathe-
matics, and in view of the agreement of terminology to be seen here and in the passage cited in
the preceding note, it is probable that he used the work of Nicomachus as his authority.
1 Nicomachus thus subdivides the subject matter and assigns the special fields of the four
mathematical sciences: I, treating number (1'3 r0l10.) (I) as such, absolutely (lro.9' I!l'VT.s), Arith-
metic; and (2) relative number (rpllr 4).).0), Music; 11, treating quantity (.,..3 r'l).ll(o.) (I) at
rest, Geometry; (2) in motion, Astronomy Proclus, op. cit" P,ol., p. 35. 21 ff., Friedl.,
gives the same division of the field of the mathematical sciences, using the same terms, in his re-
port of the Pythagorean mathematics, probably drawing upon this work. It is to be noted that
Nicomachus does not in fact adhere strictly to his classification, for he treats in this work of rel-
ative number, which falls in the domain of Music, and in the discussion of linear, plane and solid
numbers he comes close to Geometry. The classification of Theon of Smyma (cf. Part I, p. 113,
n. 4) includes Music (Le., the mathematical consideration of barmony) under Arithmetic and
avoids this inconsistency.
2 To illustrate what is meant by relative things Aristotle uses the example of double and hall
(Met., IV. IS. 1020 b 26).
I
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
dom," says the Pythagorean Androcydes.' Likewise Archytas of 4
Tarentum
J
2
at the beginning of his treatise On Harmony, says the same
thing, in about these words: "It seems to me that they do well to
study mathematics, and it is not at all strange that they have correct
knowledge about each thing, what it is. For if they knew rightly the
nature of the whole, they were also likely to see well what is the nature
of the parts. About geometry, indeed, and arithmetic and astronomy,
they have handed down to us a clear understanding, and not least also
about music. For these seem to be sister sciences; for they deal
with sister subjects, the first two forms of being."
Plato, too, at the end of the thirteenth book of the Laws,' to which 5
I is as a writer On Symbols (npllTupf16>.w.) in the TMol. ANt"., p. 40 Ast.
I The passage here quoted is found also, at greater length, in Porphyry, In Pto/em. Harm.,
p. 236; a few words of the same passage appear in Iamblichus, In Nkom.tU:Jti Arithmeticam
InJrodudioncm Liher, p. 9.1 Pistelli; d. Dids, Die Fragmenk tkr Vorsokraliktr. vol. P, pp. 330
H" and Blass, in M/1anftS Graur, pp. 574 fr. On Archytas, and the problem of the title of this
work, see pp. 20 I .
The Epinom, from which Nicomachus here quotes 991 DfI., is now recogniz.ed as not genu.
inely Platonic. Nicomachus doubtless cited the passage from memory, for he does not give it
exactly; but he can bardly have distorted it as Hoche would make him. The portion of Hoche's
text that seems to demand correction is t ob a )"ryOIU" dp8Cn, er I'll ch ",
rlbTa. ,wlll'6d.vn. This reading introduces a future indicative with b, a construction not else-
where found in Nicomachus, and one which a writer of his class would not be likely to use, although
it occurs in late Greek. Certainly he would not thrust such a palpable modernism into a quo-
tation of Plato. Hoche perhaps has not reported the manuscripts correctly on this passage; his
apparatus sometimes is faulty (see Hultsch, in NeJU Jahrbikher fur Phil(}l(}gk urld PlJda,(},i1e,
vol. XCVII, 1868, pp. 162 ft.). I have not had access to the manuscripts, but I note that C. F.
Nobbe (Specimen Arilhmttiau Nieomachtae, Leipzig, 1828, p. 19), who used the NUmburg and
Wolfenbtittel manuscripts (N and r), omits tl here, and that Hoche does not report the fact.
Now this word cl is the cause of all the difficulty with the text. It did not occur in the original,
but it could easily have been inserted by a scribe who misunderstood the preceding 41'. The
familiarity of the phrase c( TU would be another motive; 61'81:., Tn, on the other hand, is unusual.
The introduction of cl, also, might bring in ,l'..ed.1'f1 for .IoCa.J'8d"l1. ] therefore read O'/llIMSIrTa..
l! 41', a )"ryoIUV, 6p81:., TU cif II' {J'Afrw" rcb-TA .IoCAv6d"l1. The change of the last word is supported
by Nobbe's manuscripts, but is not so necessary as the omission of cl.
The original passage reads: "Every geometrical figure, system of numbers, composition of har-
many and the regularity in the revolution of the stars must appear to onc, who properly learns,
to be one in principle in all cases; and it \\;'11 so appear, if, as we say, one learns correctly, looking
to one thing. For it will appear to them on consideration that there naturally exists one bond of
all these things; and if anyone will pursue these matters in another way, he must call to his aid
Fortune, a... we say. For without these sciences there will never arise a fortunate being in the
cities; but this is the mode, this the nurture, these the lessons, whether hard or easy; this way
must one proceed, and to neglect them is impious before the gods. . .. And the man that has
apprehended all this in this war, this man I call most truly ....ise, and so I also maintain both
in jest and in earnest" (ra" dpc8J.UJ1; TC O"I1VTTf.loCa. Jl"a.i 4pJ.UJ"llu IrrX1TAIrI" IrCllra." Tif'
Tf 1'1:." UTpl:." rtpUpopa, 1';" oD".a." .IoCla." a.lI'"d".,.wv dl'CllPa.,.jjJ'Cll UT! TpOrov
.IoClIved.""""'I, I", a )"ryOj.'CI', 6p81:.r TU dr Iv {JX/rw" .IoC4"ed"l1 yap rrtpllJl"w,
r.t".,.wlo' TOlfT...V cr, .tJ<t(>Q*TAt ,J,a.""ollJ.l/l'Olr t{ l/ rwr Ta.iiTa. J.lCTAXtlpuiTlIl TI', TliXTf"
.Jti lfA'Aci". :xrrcp "AI 'AryO.loCC". 011 "ylJ.p IVCl! yt TOIiTW" IAlIroTI Tlr II' r6)"tlr'" ..,/"'11'111 opv.,.u,
some give the title Tlte Philosoplter, because he investigates and de-
fines in it what sort of man the real philosopher should be, in the
course of his summary of what had previously been fully set forth and
established, adds: "Every diagram, system of numbers, every scheme
of harmony, and every law of the movement of the stars, ought to
appear one to him who studies rightly; and what we say will prop-
erly appear if one studies all things looking to one principle, for there
will be seen to be one bond for all these things, and if anyone attempts
philosophy in any other way he must call on Fortune to assist him.
For there is never a path without these; this is the way, these the
studies, be they hard or easy j by this course must one go, and not
neglect it. The one who has attained all these things in the way I
describe, him I for my part call wisest, and this I maintain through
6 thick and thin." For it is clear that these studies are like ladders
and bridges that carry our minds from things apprehended by sense
and opinion to those comprehended by the mind and understanding,
and from those material, physical things, our foster-brethren known to
us from childhood, to the things with which we are unacquainted,
foreign to our senses, but in their immateriality and eternity more
akin to our souls, and above all to the reason 1 which is in our souls.
7 And likewise in Plato's Republic, when the interlocutor of Socrates
appears to bring certain plausible reasons to bear upon the mathemati-
cal sciences, to show that they are useful to human life, arithmetic
for reckoning, distributions, contributions, exchanges, and partner-
ships, geometry for sieges, the founding of cities and sanctuaries, and
the partition of land, music for festivals, entertainment, and the
worship of the gods, and the doctrine of the spheres, or astronomy,
for farming, navigation and other undertakings, revealing beforehand
the proper procedure and suitable season, Socrates, reproaching hinI,
says: U You amuse me, because you seem to fear that these are use-
less studies that I recommend; but that is very difficult, nay, impos-
sible. For the eye of the soul, blinded and buried by other pursuits,
is rekindled and aroused again by these and these alone, and it is
d)")'" 3 'l'"pO...or, o""'''! ." 'l'"pocPtj, TOih-O T4. po'tiJ.l&TIIl, .(n xo),,",4. .tTf pt!5Ia, 'l'"IIlVrV
4IWMll1Ul 5j ou fhp.!Tb IIITI 8.Wr ... 1'b fLlprlll",..a 1'IIlVTa ov,.wr 'l'"oVrop )"i-y", rip
cI.)""Bill1'U1'a IIOtjJtlrr'oTor, b Kol 51111XvpC!"opal rul,,,,,, Il:IIlI O'roIl5d,,,,, 4p4 . .).
Theon of Smyrna quotes the first part of this passage, p. 84, 7 fI. Hiller, and the last part,
p. 2, 16 fI.
t A reference to the J'Oiir as the highest part of the soul in accordance with the ancient view that
the soul is made up of parts.
etter tha this be saved tha,:n th'Qus,ands of bo,diIy ey'es, for by it
alone IS th,e truth of the univ'erse beh'eld_'I' 1
CH.AFTER I,V
W
,:,h,lh t'he'-'-'n'" 0'f' th' 'f'o": 1 'f '-, .. ,2 m"UI-,tl: 'I
1
r-'e' 'fi-r's,t le"'a"'r"n' ?:' E,"V'I-' '. le, ...I! ,. I " ,_-, .. D,. m-I. ,0 _IS'e.-' ,.5. ,,\.. " "< -' ". I
,dently', the one which naturally ex:ists 'before th,e'm, ,all, is superior
and tak'e's th.e place of ,origin and root an,d, as it of mother to
the An.d th'is, is arithm'etic,t
3
not solely' because ,v,e sai,d tha't 2
'iI .. t cl b r 11 th th th d f th t G" . d' 1- '"'k It eXlSI.e,:_:e'.or,e a. ... 'e Oilers. ID "le m,ID Q,...e cre'a'''lng .. o.
,
1!I,e
fI!' I' d 1 1 1 11 h" h cl"
some UDlvers,a an' exempary p an" re ym,g 'upon w[ le'. ,as a;eslgn
an.d ar'chetyp'al exam'ple the cr,eator of the u'niv,e'rs,e s,ets in o'rder his
material creation's and makes them attain to their proper ends; b'ut
also becau'se it is, n.aturally 'p,rior ,in b,irth" i,n"asmuch as, it ab'olishes
other s"c'-,en,ceswith itself,4 b'ut is not, a'b,o-lished t.ogetheI' witb them.
I The original passa,ge (RepJlblic
J
, 5',27' D :6..) reads: U c. You amuse me,:' said 1',," because' you are
1
.. k' h r h ..JI I ... I d I" 'b )'
_l,:e one I ears C'rolYy est ,you seem to enJOlD use ess s,tu .tes, ,t ls, -Io'wev'er', not .at a. I a
tri8in,g matter" but a di.Bicult. one t.o believe that in these studies some instrument 01 every man"s,
soul. is, cleansed .and re'kindled, which lV'as bein.g des,troyed and blinded by his. O'lber pursuits, a.
thing'more worthy to than countless eyes: for by it alone '90 truth beheld,. !'t", (1i5vr "p
-- ";A-le"''' !t.. .1._,. .0":\" ... - '\. '\. Ai.J_, ;,;J.. 't.- - ...;. " .. tI.'Iii....... ;J'nilJ,.,J. ... .... .... - ..1" ., -. A,
,., C' IIW" (n'"1 ':iV'l :wa; gi 0 il.V'T'. ,'11' " OA,(\YUt ;.", 1010"';1'" ill. xr: Flu' t' ii.lI" "'''''. t 'CI, ..-po" T'CI '., 0 ,e a 11' I pi 0 IV
;a.u"o,' di\Aa, xuA,..JJ" W\IQ.'T,Va&1 IT" I", 'TOIWOlS TO"i, p.tJiJ'p;a"t,p iK,ri4TTOt' "'". Tt 1jt",x'ijr
..EPf'T&' 7'f ,,,.1, JtG,tWYl"pf,r,.CI,t d,.. Ktll u1",b 'T "I" 1>\,AwJ1 I .t7"''I'''U;U4:TIWt'"
.,Mif'7. It- OP ',wlij 1, I]iUAIw. du 1"611'1 ,i!y A. A t:.t_'\. . ''!'Io_. "'). 'Th-eo ".D .' o.f S,:m"'''''mI "Ia- (p" '.,' J... 8," Itfl'
,..- - _. v - - r- r, , ,,...,-.. .. ,., T .' 'Ylf' .1fT' T" K v a;.. ,I..!i _ I"J . !I. it _ U '!11
HiUer) quotes this passage,.
I: This group 0' studies, mU'sic" ,arithmeti,c" geometry;, and astrono,m,y, make up the 'quadri-
'Vlum,' ort as Boethius). who apparently fin't used tbe lle'rm, ca led it, ' I' Tri:vium,'
'to d:esignate the study' of' grammar, rheto,ric, ,and dialecti,c, may also go ba'e'k to his ti.me. See
Go

,< W, 0'. cu., p. 72, note..
I Plato, also sai,d that. arit.hm.etic sbould be first leamed and 'that it is the basis. o'f ,all other arts
R
':It'A 5' "'" 2 C Are" TA'UTO TO ......, .,1' .. JP,., --IWI-'; ...... .. 1'.", u..il ... jj!'Gi' 'i" 1. . . . ..... ..
,.""r" t .. '1 '" '':'' ... 'i"lr .. ,. ' .. v .", ""'IJ!I!"'t ''f'' .. M' '.- -', r""': .'" iJ f !JII".I, I .' . 'f ol."':a., Ka., c...- &.. T",""", 0
,1:,.1 I -rp"c:".O11 Aid,."..... ..0'''''0: '. I! T l ...-U..... \.,O.;IIlI .. :-. r..
o
. .I:....- 1"',1. Ill., Tf. ,d
_ .. ;11"""-''''''' " '" I. . It V" PI" U ...... "'.... ,Qv, ,,,, u " ,.. 'I g .
.,. ario JUll TA l'pl..., 1,1,..\111 al .UTa I., K'fla.'Nll' d.,PC.',JJIP Tt: G,1 "'0-,7''&&''''" "', 06,;(
0";""'" .fpl 't'OIWWI!' ''.If'i t .,U. TIX", T" ,1 hrUJ'1"'tflltJ &iN"'.'!""'I.' G",""" pho'x.o, ,l.."",,8eu.; It
is interesting '0 observ'e parallels, 'to many of the tOPiCS, of ,this chapler in C'axton's, Mirr(:tu, ,of
,he 11 'lWld (,Publ'ieations of ,the &,1y Eng!.,sh TeD' Sockly, extra series, v'ol. ex; pp.. 36-31): .' Tbe
fourth SCyleDce is called, This science co,metha[ter ande is selte in the
dd
'l f th - . - ncit:le' A' nd -u't- he'r ma'..r n-ne -f' to, 'he V';" C
Ae
parf'yght1y ne -" ..... -..'1 and my.. e o"_.e 'v . e' '. ,", 'n11, 0' .... ,. I. :'il"1 0 I QI' i, '.. _,ill " : ..' I. " ,', 1 11,.','.: W1etI" .'"
entierl.y be kn:owen,. ll': herfor it is expedyent, tbat it be" weet knowen an,d conned; :Ior aUe the
sciences tak,e 0" it t: ei,r '-ubs,launce in s,uc.be wise that wit" out her they :may not be.. And fOil this
'reson w,as she sette in the 'myddle of t.be 'vii sciences, ,and there hold.eth herno'mb're, ffor fro b,er
proc:ede alle maners o.f' nom.blres,. and ID aUe thynges renne, come and goo,. And no thyng)8 without.
mombrei But :fewe perc,eyu,e, how,this may be" 'but, yf h,e haue be :mai'stre of the vii artes so Jonge
that he can truly save, 'th,e troughe:.. "
I Cf. below 11.. 2'2' .. 3,. N1comachU's of course efen merely 'to aboUshmel1.'t in thought. A'nth--
.- .. t' t t f L..,_ d 11 ........ 1 I ..z..... f d tal t th th !I' -li!
metle, Sln1c,e IIFeaS 0 an numeni;i.a re.&iuu'DSUD' amen' '0' 1- e o. :,er SCIences, 18
logically 'prior to l.b-e,m, and '!f it did 'o,ot exis,t they could not exist. :Nicomachus uses bot.h W',PO-

For example, 'animal' is naturally antecedent to 'man,' for abolish
'animal' and 'man' is abolished j but if 'man) be abolished, it no
longer follows that 'animal' is abolished at the same time. And
again, 'man' is antecedent to 'schoolteacher' j for if 'man' does not
exist, neither does 'schoolteacher,' but if 'schoolteacher' is nonex-
istent, it is still possible for' man' to be. Thus since it has the prop-
erty of abolishing the other ideas with itself, it is likewise the older.
3 Conversely, that is called younger and posterior which implies
the other thing with itself,! but is not implied by it, like' musician,'
for this always implies 'man.' Again, take 'horse'; 'animal' is
always implied along with' horse,' but not the reverse; for if ' animal'
exists, it is not necessary that 'horse' should exist, nor if 'man'
exists, must' musician' also be implied.
4 So it is with the foregoing sciences; if geometry exists, arithmetic
must also needs be implied, for it is with the help of this latter that we
can speak of triangle, quadrilateral, octahedron, icosahedron, double,
eightfold, or one and one-half times, or anything else of the sort which
is used as a term by geometry, and such things cannot be conceived
of without the numbers that are implied with e!lch one. For how can
'triple' exist, or be spoken of, unless the number 3 exists beforehand, or
'eightfold' without 8? Buton the contrary 3, 4, and the rest might be
5 without the figures existing to which they give names. Hence arith-
metic abolishes geometry along with itself, but is not abolished by
it, and while it is implied by geometry, it does not itself imply geometry.
CHAPTER V
I And once more is this true in the case of music; not only because
the absolute is prior to the relative, as 'great' to 'greater' and crich'
and frpOTfPO' in this passage with the meaning' prior.' Aristotle uses the term frponpo,
and his logic forms the basis for Nicomachus's present argument. For instance, in Jfd., 1019 a 1 ft.,
after discussing several forms of rp/TTfpt!l and WTfpCl., he has the following: pi. 6i) 0"'"
)"foyfTlU frpO-rfp8 ul wnpCl., t!JWrI. ".1 owl, &1. frNI 4_ 4),),011., loiN
6l 4ft'1I Inl_. I'lf' i Iv'qTO llXOT/c/.. He also uses the verb ..lpt'ilf8.1 (' abolish ')
as does Nicomachus: e.g., Md., 10$9 b 39: ; Il'II.a_ipfiT.I "ril'tIl'I T4 ,(6", "rl.." 1"ai,
dpx.i, 'OIU lipxi)"rap 1"b n.1U'lLipOu.. Cf. also Iamblicbu!I b. NKD1K., p. 10, 2 Pistelli.
1 This form of argument also is Aristotelian, e.g., Top., VI. 6. 11: hlt/>lpcl "rlp I.M1"" n;i.
6cCl.t/J<Opw" 'Tb olrrio. "rl.o" ra.8chrrp Tb frrfb .a.l Tb 6lrOIl" 'Tb No. ITllw,nt/>lptl. Logically exhausted
it stands in Top., n. 4. 111 a 25 ff. thus: o(,"rlp dN"rreaio" &1a. 1" '}'1ft'llnrdpXfl "Cl.he;; rtat"! v..opx,.c,,
&:r. 311"';; ,.r6f1 irrrdpXt"! dN"rutOJ' real 1"';; '}'ift'c' &1. "rap 'T';; '}'/JlfI OVx v,-dPXfI, olloU 'Te;; ,.r6f1 hCl.
U T';; .r3f1 I't, irrdPXfI, 0(,. dN"r"'to.. 'T';; '}'11f'fI1 /01; il"..opX".
TR
- ','AN' .. S'LAI ... 'T' B:''OO'" '..,K: I
. . ... :, . ". ," . "-'. . --: ." . . '" ..... '. .. ..' ": ,
189
to 'richer' and 'man.' '-0 '.father,' but also b,ecause t.be musical har,
't' d' di d' di'" d' f b
-. ".. .'. .., . cc .. " .'...... '.' '. . '. 'C,.,;.. ,., '.- . " .' - . . ',' "., . -, : ," . -. . .. .' '.- '. '-.. I" .. ". ..
monIes, 'latessaron, I .apente, an,. I.apaso'n, are n,ame:_ or D.wn _ers,
.' ,111,1 11: 'f" t'h' '" h" '. ,- .'.. ' tII! ." .. thm".. t'.. 1 f"' - t'h' . . .', 1 -: . ,." . I' .'. . . '. ,. '.' .' .' ., .. I " . ..' ".... , " '. '.' .. ' . ..' .
S,Iml ar y a. 0 I", err . armonllC r.a., .105 are arl .... ' e... lc,a ones,. .o,r I.. _e
diatessaron. is the ratio of 4 3, th'e diapen.t.e that of 3 ': 2', and the'
IdI': ....: .. "'1' ,th" d'I...,. b"}'I' . .,It:'IIiI, .... ill '," -d th . ".' ", t ',-" ,f" '1 t'h' ". di , d'1 ':,"" ..
lapas,on.... e .' ou,.,e r.a 10, an. ... mos pe.r , .. e .-,.' ""l.apason"
.' h cl 1 jj
1.S t ,',e qU.a-
1
rup e ratio..
"ljr , . "d ') -11 '. h h .. "hm - h
J.V.lore e'Vl ent y s,t _: ,ast.ronomy attams t . roug . ar t '_" j,etlc t'_e In- 2
vesti,gatioD's that pertain to, it, not alone b,ec,ause it is late, th,an geom-
, loll '. f '. 11 f b
,etry In orl.gJn "olr motlo'n comes aliter r,est _. :nor .,Iecause
th
e 'm"'0"":' l,on'S 0
'
f .' h'e s"'tars
'
-'.' ha"'-" :e a' ri'""C" ,,t-l'y ... ,". -1 d,'-1' "-"1 ." h :' : .; , ". 2 'b' '. t', .. } ... ".-..
.'..."" __" ".' ..... ...c . ,'. ,.'. '.' ',V-., p. .ec ... _' me,_o. ,iOUS armon.y, ..:U a so
beca'use risings", settin,gs, 'pr-ogressions." retr,ogI'eSSiO'D'S, ID,cr-eas,es, and
all sorts of' phases are go,verned by 'n.um"erical,cycles an,d quantities".
S
'1 h h- 'It h l' cl'- k fi' h .
:0 \ve,a've rIg :t'y un,,'erta,en. ,_rst t e: systematic treatm,ent 3
O
'f'-' t'h"I'S as the' S' '1- 'e"n'" .' '.. '. at" '. - 11' ..: '111'... ' -. e- h' '. ". b''l" . . d .e' .
,I '..:.':,' . n.',1 ura ,y pl[IOr,. mOl, 1.,oD,D.ra.
1
e
J
an.m.ore VD-,
erable, and., as it \vere, mother an.d nurse of the rest.; an:d here we will
t
. ", f' "h' 'k f" 1 .', -e < '.1" [. '1" ,-; - ,-,.- .. .....'. "1' " "';' ',.-".' . '
a :__ our Istartor te a e 0 cearn,ess.
All that h;as, by' natur'e with systematic method been .arranged in, I
the' 3 se',ems b'oth 'l
l11
n' art -nd as a hole" to ha e b-' e'n' dt . U. c _, .c-,.. .' p: '. a.-I' .<' W' ,,_c, I' 1>,v".e:'O:! eer-
mined. and. ord'e.red in ,accordan.ce with nu:mb,e-r" by th,e forethought
'an,d th1e mind. of hint that. created all things; :for the patt.ern was fixed"
al p---"'r-"e'''}'tm
ti
'm a'lry..'; do:-mll
l1i
natl:on
,
'0'" 4
[', . ," . .'. _.. :- - '. :........f. ," _ ,:,' [. L', ."..., '. ':. .. .r '.:...:' .',:.( ')" .' 1,'_, .... .' _ --= . '".". .1-"1 '. "L ,' . ',.'l " ;". - ,'.,
i.n the mind of th,e world.-creatin,g God, num.be;r concept.ual ,o'nly a,'nd
immaterial in ev,e'ry way" blu't at th,e same 'tIme th..e true and the eterna,
essenc.e, so that with r'e-feren.ce t.o it, as to an. artisti,c p,)an, sholulld be
t d
th th" t . th h th'l t '11 t
crea,e_ mot_on, . e_ea,vens,'e Slars" ai_ sor's
of revolution.'s,.
It must needs h,e', then:, that scientific. nu,mber, being set o'ver such 2

's as th'e' -e' should h-e h'larm'O 1' -I' - , ---t1t tea Jll
n
' - - e
l:log..,). ':'Se, , .......... /.' ," ,..n_ous y cons,-.' :.UI. -'. , . ' accor I
th "t :If t b t-h b' t b oIIts If' E' t-'h" tb' t I!I h'
:',' ,.,. "..' '. .,...... I" . . -" ,. " I -' " , '.. ,,- "
'T " . , ,-' . "1,' '.' '. ". " - . ,I 1 r I . .. . , :....... . , ... :. I:,' '," .... . .:
'\\1 1 no __ ., y any 0 ."eru .y l.e ..very. lng .a IS , ar 3
I. Piato in. Rep.. "528 .A, - B 'poin'ts out fha.t. it, -is a mi5take to, siud.y bodies (tr'r in motion be-
f,ore studying t:he.m per', (aUra, ka,8' '''';'',&)..
2: The mo-si,c of' t -e sphe're.s,,, Boethiu.s, 16 ]" par.aphr,ases: IJtlDtl 6'imonitis modwtJtioxiJus motus
ilJ:se c as/r",-r.lm..
J T'h"l"C! C' 'hap'::te'r-: I 4 2 th'
JiD
:f'u'llles"-"I' m"' 'fo':'rma' .- W"",c-' h''3'l"-v"le 'aC'bo''u,t'; N":co'- -"'ma- ,- "hus-'s tboo' ."nlies'- ..,' . ""'.1. " :.. " .... "", ,I ..'" I .:.c. _. ' ..... ,.:.:- " "," ,.'._ ' .&, ...... ........ ',_:..' ... _.-'." '. 1
of CQs,mogony See 'Part I" p.., J07.,
4 Th- ,is the etema'l nu' mL.""'r' to :be dl'"'S .-In'llJ'ul-:sh'ed If'ro''m' the' 4: sc;enl'Ji!fic 'nurnbe"f ' m':en' , -' -1-'n the' -.:.: ,IL" -I... , ;-:"_'_'1 11 "'1" -1[,. -,l1C' it ';.- "..... I.: -:-1"1,',, I' -', ',11 __ I .. .. '--.' 1 1'1.1 ... 1: ... 1.... -. - J'.
next section.. Cf. P'art I!, p,.. 98
190
NICO)I,ACHUS IO'F G,ERASA
mOlllolusly c,onstituted is k,nit togethe:r Olut a,f opposites 1 and, of cou.rsle,
out of real thin,gs; fOf' ,neither can non.-existent things be set in ha,r-
mon,'y, nor' can thin,gs that exist, b'ut are like o,n,e another:
J
Do'r y,et
things th,at are different, but h,a,ve no r,elation, one to anothe,r. It
mains, acc,ordin,gly, that those 'hin,gs OIUt of which a harmo;ny is made
b tb
, 1 d"ff d h- h 1 I th
. ' ._.-:_ .' 1. . 1"'::=-" ".', .'1'1 .. -'. "- ,.. -,' :7
J
-.- ," I ,-" :'. r . I. :'"', .. '-.,-- .:. "I]" :-'. ,', :"-".---:-, ,":' "." .-j- " "., ""
,are,,0 ' t Iln,gs WIt some re ,atlo,n to one ana er
4 Of su,c'h things'I therefor,e, scientifi,c numb1er cOlnsists; for the m,ost
fUD,da,menta'I species in it are two, embracin,g th,e essen,ce of quantity,,!
...
di
l'fI-' t f' th d- t f h' 11 d-ff" t d-d - 'd
','. - lie I'" .. - .- .. '''C, ':1_ ',' ,..':: I
1
", .. ' . .... ... , .1 I
.... - I,rom one an,o '", e . ,an... no ,0" a W, .. IO. Y._l ..,-eren... genus, o. an
ev'en, an,d,th,ey are rec'iproc,ally 3, wo,v'e'n, into harmo,:ny with each other,
inseparably and, u,niformly" b,y a wo:n,derf'ul and divine Na.t.ure, as
straightway' we shall Sloe.,
I
..
C'HAPTER VII
'I Number t, is lim,'ite,d multitude, or :a co,mbination of un,itsl or' a 'flow I
'of quantity mad,e 'up of units; and th,e first ,divlS,i,on 0:1 number is ev,en
and, odd.
2 T'he even 81 is, that, which can b,e divided into two, equ:al pa'rts without
a unit in,tervening ID th,e mi,ddle; '7 and the od,d :s that which cannot
b,e divided moo two equal ,parts b,eca'use of the afo,resaid, interventi,on
of a unit.
3
,
Now is the de:finition after th,e ordinary concqJtion ,; b'y t.he
Pytha,gorean ,doctrine, h,o'w,ever', the even, nunibe' is that whic:h ,ad-
m'its, of division into gr,ea,test :and the slllalles't parts ,at. the 'samle
oper,&'.'lon" greatest in siz,e and 'smallest in quantity, in accor,dance
IN'.''ote t"'h"at th.' led-'&nil ,;,:""ti' IQn 'f ha- ," nb" n q ,,."t' 'f'.. -, 'hoilll-' -la' "i!i, 11 -, ,.'" " H', I' , .' , . "d'
.', _ _ .. e, .. 0,.. " OLy . UQL ,ro,m .. ,0 us iD . 1 imp 'e! as mu ., an
,compare Part I, pp.., ,roo,. J20,. on t.he gener,al subject ,of 'harm(JD,y in the numerical syst,em"
t T'hat is, they are eementa,ry, fo,r they are formed, 'by the two elements of number, 'he monad
and dyad res,pecli.,'ely, and, emboo)' by reason of this origin , samen,ess .. an,d Cothem,ess,,:' tbe'
mental cosmic: Cf.. Part I, p.. 99.
I Cf" Tbeon 'Of Smyma
t
p" 2'3.. 3 Biller: t.f And the eve'D. and the odd num:bers altemate" bein,g'
,"". -lie111'';'81:'. n ('", ,,"\. 1 '" ..J, ,,\, '\.,..&,'.- - .. r ,-,,", ,I', " , , '. '1 I,
o In a .. ,-".,. a ... .... p' eWI. ."'I\,yI\OII' n . PTIIJI XII, VI "pIT-rG' "lap ,,.
"..
11 ICf. Part I, p" 114, on, these defini'tions.,
I,' 'Tb .. '4',' w" Z ,r' .,J.. '!' .. ' tha-'t ad ' a.ed .. : b" ',' tb' (,'E.. IT'" ,80)1 h" '-, not'' ,," d-J!!.
.. . !VIol uo .... JO Xtt-p4J5, - .. OPLi. y. _.2 ...:,w__O&e _ co
ni-tion .of number may be consulted" ... elsewhere in Nicomachus is used 'to mean ' :series "(see
,tbe G,lossary),J but probably the metapholrical idea is, present ev'en in those cases.,
I Theon of Smyrna, p.. 2 J:; 22 Hi11er' : .al,""1III ,...4. 01 W&"'X6p;e-POI .,+,., fir. t'tr. 'aa.lpc,t,
...'&....01. '.
1
At .1, 1!l - - a - J:. '''\ E'UCI-ld
1
defi'D'es tb'US'" uA'D ev'e
ft
number ;. on- !Ii '"' .. 'R r'"" 'v.... '." vS '11:" ''&6"a:,&i.CPO"l"PO&II ItT -:,' '.. ,.,.I, ... .. II - - .. ': , &.iJ I
tha,t i halved U ('Flol' f1:PCJ'IJ.&1 '".,.ul i I'lx. PJemcrtI&. VII, Del., 6.,
? 'Seec', , , p-., rt I -. -, -"" t' h t-
" a_- , 11 I 2' 2 \V1 nOI ,e I
'TRAl1"SLAIO.. ,: BOOK I
with th,e natural con'trariety of th,ese t\VO genem; and the [o,dd iSI
'h' h
ii
'h- d' t 11 th- t b d- t"t b t" d 'd d 't
, . ,' ".",., ,,-. ,.,[ .... , .... , "" ':', '.' 1'1, 1'1 ",', .""','. "','" I '[-'''' "., ". I"'"
t at \v, le. . oes no[_ a, O\V .. IS :0 [ce ,. one _0 I." U, IS 1. e ID 0
two u,nequlal
I
:t'l)I', -e'I' t'h"il "I ,.:', ,,". 'b:,th'I" -I t"h,",;,,, '. t"h,,t" ,h h,,' .
. n SI. ano.c. er ,vay, c) ,e ,anCIen '. even IS \, 1, le ' 4
C
'an' h"e d'l'vl"ded '2 aI'ltlke l"ot"I,o' t''1:1:'0 e'q'ual and 't'wo' une"q'ua"l pa"r'ts e"'xc'ept '. '.. _ ''.c" ' , , ,I,:, ,I, I, YlI' "I" " ' .,,', "<,, .,-,:_ " ',' ,.,. -".. ._ ',' ,
th
' -t- t'he d' -a'd 3 ',I"hich ,il
l
-
S
115 ele'men't
Q
ry f"or'm a elm--,'l"ts but: .- n' e' dt"'v:s:on ',a' tt' ,I I,' ",- .:b '.1 I, :. et, '.' I ,_',:-: . ' 0, :", "" I >,1'1,["
tb
, t-t It cl' d'' ht t'b t
';a, 'inlo par,s;1 aJl_. In, ,any,l.l\'lSlOn 'w-',a ;soe:v'er l,rlogs ..O
light only one speci,les of number, h,o\vever i.t may be in,de-,
pe:ndent of the ,other. T'he od,d 4 is, a num,b,e'f\vhich in an'y dIvision
h t
hI! h tt d""'" III tit h
' .'.' ",,"",'C' ." " " ',',,"-",,- . ,- "'I.,."'" " . ,',' ,,,' - .. " '- .... ,. -', .
WI a soever, W. le necessarl.Y IS a . I\llS10n In 0
1
u,nequa par s, S IOIWS
'both th,e species of numbler toget.h,er, nevler \\ itho'ut in,termixtu,re'
one vtith another" 'but al\vays in Qlne another"s company.
By the. definition :in ter,ms of' each other, the o,d,d ,is that 5
ldiffers 'by a unit from t'he eve:n in either direc,tion, that is, tow,ard, thle
tb
, 1 d h h h'" h d'lI-ff" b
great.er or :.. le ess, an,'I .. ;,e even 15 t 'wl, le,' . l-"ers, a un1.t In
"'th di t th dd th t '. t b 't 1 b et :1 er [e' ,roro ,le ,0/:, . "a ISI
J
IS gr'e'a a u,m, . ,o'-r,es,sc.'y a
unIt.,
I 'That is" halves are the g'rea,test poss.ible parts of a te'rm in an,d there is a s'maller
Dumber of them, than of any o'ther fr,actio-naJ pa'rt. Thus- greater magnitud,e Oil factors, is ,associ..
ated \vi,th a, smaller n.umber of th.em; this, .is tbe ' na.turallco,ntrarlet)" of magnitude and, quantity,.
Cf. 'Boetbius" I .. ,4. (,or a discussion 0 th.is, notion, and Ia:mblic'hus; p. J 2, ,3 ff,. PLlelli.. This
prin.ciple may be illustrated by what, was ca led the "lambdoid diag'ra,m U (see Part I." p. [27')
from i.ts likeness to the' IGree'k lambda, J\.. This Idlagram se'ts f:orth the form 0,'( the
lambda
J
,con:ver-ging ,a.t unity" the se'ries a,f IU1.lural numbers &DId the :series of "ractions, thus,:
I
2 i
5
and so O'D,. It will 'be noted that the ,corresponding integlers and ('ractions sbolwtbe I' natura') con-
tr
-a 'n"'e"'ty" to, 'Tb''e" d'I=a-ra",m oc .. '"curs' -In I-a'rn.-b,);ch-us"e '0'0'"mm' ,6n18'ry' ('-p 14 J t::t fo"I ... ' I : [-. ut:a _ IF ..._;-. . 11 C' . , .".::. '.' :..r,.: I " .' 1:1. -I I iJJ '. '. [ I -:- .. ,". . ('I."' -3,1:-". 11 ," .,"
.. h d'" f b d 1::. ..... iO, ... d" f ed !!i T A !Ii L (bo )
lowin,g OD t. e tstusslon ,0. tese .. mdtloDS, an' I't ls 1.0 tD ' 'IIWI .. P 3,,;
Ast.
I Wh,en an even number is divided 'into two whefber equal or uneq'ual. these' parts are
BlwaifS leither both od.d lor bot h eveJD (C onlyone speci,es of 'DumberJ!' ,as. Nicomacbus 51;Y5) lambD-,
chus, p. J 2, 14 ff. PistelU., See Heath
t
II'islory', vol," I, p., 70.,
Iambllchus, ('p" 1,3, 7 H'" notes that tbe monad, is, d,istinguished fr.om all the' odld num-
bers by not, even admitting di\1Sion into uneq'ual parts" and the' dyad from the even numbers, by
a'd' ""tt""'l'n'g' 'd';'Vire'I"O""n ')n'to' eq'.,ual 'p"arts', O'"R"ly, 'T'"h:co"n dl',o no:'t'l n' 'Lis pro":pe. : rty' o'f' the d;'ya,.-Id,' b"':ut'
,Ill ..,...:-, I, .... , '.' ' .. ' ' .... "," .. ",,,c' ".'."",,,",UII.,."'," "',' ' .. - ',J'"
diSCUSses at some length ';he ques,tion wbeth,[e'r the monad is odd or even I(p.. ,21, 24 1[.. Hiller)..
IOn Nicomachusts that the monad ,and dyad are both elements 'of' number 8D[d not l'he'm-
,selves nu.mbers but.lts fl 'beginnin,&s,,' compare Part t" PPI.. 116 ft'.
4,' f an odd number is divided into two part's these will, always, be unequal and one odd, the
other even (' the t,wo sped,es 0:1 D'umber '),.
..._d
I Every number is at once half the sum of the two on either side of
itself,' and similarly half the sum of those next but one in either direc-
tion, and of those next beyond them, and so on as far as it is possible
:2 to go. .Unity alone, because it not have two numbers on either
side of it, is half merely of the adjoining number; hence unity is the
natural starting point of all number.
3 By subdivision of the even,2 there are the even-times even, the
odd-times even, and the even-times odd. The even-times even and
the even-times odd are opposite to one another, like extremes, and
the odd-times even is common to them both like a mean term.
4 Now the even-times even 3 is a number which is itself capable of
being divided into two equal parts, in accordance with the proper-
ties of its genus,' and with each of its parts similarly capable of divi-
sion, and again in the same way each of their parts divisible into two
equals until the division of the successive subdivisions reaches the
5 naturally indivisible unit. Take for example 64; one half of this is
32, and of this ,6, and of this the half is 8, and of this 4, and of this 2,
and then finally unity is half of the latter, and this is naturally in-
divisible and will not admit of a half.
6 It is a property of the even-times even that, whatever part of it
be taken, it is always even-times even in designation, and at the same
time, by the quantity of the units in it, even-times even in value;
'9'
CHAPTER VIII
1Thus Sis half the sum of 4 +6,3 +7, :2 +8, etc. For a typically Pythagorean application
of this principle cf. Theol. ANlh., p. 28 f. Ast.
J Euclid, among the definitions of Fiem., VII, defines the even-times even, even-times odd,
odd-times even and odd-times odd (the latter is "one which is measured by an odd number an
odd of times "). Nicomachus confines himself to a tripartite division of the even only;
Euclid's classification applies to all numbers. The' odd-times odd' of Euclid is not found in
Nicomachus's Imrodwion at all, and in defining the three classes given by both Nicomachus and
Euclid the fonner uses somewhat different formulas, which arc consistently praised by lamblicbul
in his commentary. (See the notes on I. 8. 7, abo\'e p. 127, and Nesselmann. p. 192.) Theon
(p. 25.5 ff. HilIer) gives the same classification as Nicomachus here, and like him refers to even
numbers alone. His definitions are compared to those of Nicomachus in the following notes. It
may be noted that' odd-times odd' occurs in Thron as another name for the prime number
(p. 23. 14 HiUer). See Heath. HiskJry, vol. I, pp. 70 fr. on the classification of numbers.
I Thron of Smyrna, p. 2S, 7 tr. HilIer, gives the definition of the even-times even substantially
as follows: It is a number that has three characteristics: (I) It is produced by the multiplication
of two even numbers; (2) all its parts are even. down to unity; (3) none of its parls has its desig-
nation in terms of an odd number. Euclid's definition is: "The even-times even number is that
which is measured by an even number an even number of times" (dpTldJl:lf /lpTIO'
IITTIP 0 inrb dprlou /JETpoVp.OOI UTcl. /lfWIOP FJemmts, VII, Def. 8.
I Its genus' is the even; d. I. 7. 2. So too Philoponus notes (ed. Hoche, p. 15).
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
'93
e
r
and that neither of these 1 two things will ever share in the other class.
Doubtless it is because of this that it is called even-times even, be- 7
cause it is itself even and always has its parts,' and the parts of its
parts down to unity, even both in name and in value; in other words,
every part that it has is even-times even in name and even-times even
in value.
3
I The specific things meant by 'neither of these' (IK4npo. TOUTW') are the 'name' (ff'f"W'I'f"Iopl."
p. 15. 17 Hoche, or better implied in lip,, ibid.) and the' value I (U""J'l1
implied in p. 15, 18, dpT,G.Jrt' olpT'OaU'Cl#4O") of any part of the even-times even number.
These "never share in another variety"; i.e., another variety of number, or of even numben,
than the even-times even. They are called hah'es, fourths, eighths, etc. (even-times even names),
and their values are always 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. (even-times even numbers), On the use of
and d,lWlolhil'a/o'01 here, cf. on I. 8. 7.
t Philoponus writes the following scholium upon tbis: "Here then Euclid is convicted of mak
ing a poor definition of the even-times even number in his Seventh Book; for be says that an even-
times even number is one that is measured by an even number an even number of times (6 w&
dpTCOIl dPl811-00 IIonpov/Ul'Of cmk 4plor For by this definition the merely even numbers
also that are not even-times even. will be found to be even-times even; e.g., 24 is not even
times even, for it is not subdivided to the monad; but according to Euclid it will be found to
be even-times e\'en; for, look you, it is measured by 4. an even number, an even number of
times, 6; for 4 X 6 = 24. So his was a bad definition."
I Cr. the note on I. 8. 6 for the meaning of this statement. The word translated' value' is
aVl'l1,lUt, which as a mathematical term usually means 'square' or 'square root,' but in non-tech-
nical Greek may bear the meaning assigned (e.g., Thuc" VI, 46, 3). The word is again similarly
employed in section 10 of this chapter and in I. 9. 2; 10. 5; besides which the phrase dpndIf
dPIOMl'l1j.1Ot seems to have the corresponding sense of "even-times even in value" (I. 8. 6).
This interpretation has the support of Boethius, while Philoponus understands the passage differ-
ently. Boethius, I. 9, says, Sed ideo mihi vide/I" hie numerus pari/er par lJOCatus, quod tius omnes
paries e/ nomine et quanti/ate pares pari!" inunian!ur. 'Quantity,' howe,'er, does not represent
atll'l11101l as well as 'value,' since it is strictly a case of number rather than of quantity. T. L. Heath
understands atlru,lUt in the sense proposed, and commenting on this passage of Nicomachus (Eudid,
I1, 282) says: "He says .. that any part, Le., any submultiple, of an even-times even number is
called by an even-times even designation, while it also has an even-times even "alue . , . when ex
pressed as so many actual units. That is, the ...!..th part of 2" (where m is less than n) is called after
,"
the even-times even number 2.... while its actual value (86rQlUt) in units is 2
11
- .... which is also an
even-times even number."
On the other hand Philoponus (schol. S6 on r. 8. 6, p. IS Hoche) says: "Since he does not employ
the ordinary language of the usage of most people, I think it reasonable first to impart the mean-
ing of the various terms and then to interpret the whole sense of what is said here. Now he calls
olll'liIlofIJ the numbers from which the parts of nny number take their names, e.g., the half from
2, etc. . .. Now he says that all the parts of the e"en-times even are themseh-es even-times e\'en
in name (dp'Tldll;"1J and the OIlN/UU, from which their names are taken, are even-
times even powered (lipndlt For example, the even-times even number 16 has
as its se<:ond part 8, 4 as its fourth, 2 as its eighth; each of these parts is even-times even, ..
So reasonably the parts are called even-times even in name beuuse they take their names from
even-times even numbers.. " And the 'powers,' from which the parts are names. areeven-times
even powered (lip.d... r , . Similarly the expression' and in the number of their
monads dprlli" for -l of 16, named from 4, has the number of monads of 4, from
which it is named, dPldKl1 dpr,o"tll'l1I1-O.. So the expression 'in the number of monads in it' is to
be taken either as applying to the designation of the fraction (,u.6PIO.) or as applying to the part
(jdpor) itself" (but he immediately states that he prefers the former explanation). What Philo
...
19: N
:... A:,C-H:' O''F' G,E-RA:"'S",A"
. . ',"_ ....." ..".' ';",._ .... _' " ..:.:..: ',' ',:...-." : _ .','", :: I _. '.
8 There is a method of produ,eing' the even... tim,es even, so that none
will esc'ape" but all sUClces[siv'ely 1 fall under it, if Y'OU do a's follows:
9 As you proceed frolm unity', as from a fOOt
J
[ b[y the double atio to
infinity,[ as man'y te::rms as there ar,e will all hie eve,n-times even, [and it
'lDl i . 0'" s'b'l'e"" t",'-.' fi''nd-[ otb- -:- e,"rs' b-'e-S'ld-,:e"-s-' th'>1"es[e' f--o--r m--''-s-tan--,I -.- co,-e- --: 2 .' 8" . 6
IS , '_0 [1',,',1., 1:[-:. _,."':,., ,1- ''', I, ',t 4, ','[
32, 64, 'I28, 25[6'1 5;' 2'.
. N,'-", .- "-I-'h ,',f th-'" . - , .'b '-; : -.'--:-'t-- ,f-"'I thi ". -.'._'" 'od-:':, "."c-d-- b-;-, ",' tb-, -',' d'-' Ib'll"
10 'IOW leac . 0 :.e numers, se . or _ w,as pr .... uc,e_.y .Ie OU[ le
ratio, beginning with, unity[, and is in every I'espect eve:n-tim,es even,
_._-., .-- d: -:-" .. --I . ,--., , ."- - t 2 th: t ltt .- . 'b' 1-:- ,d'-- t- "-" h-c .' .'. '">_- '-"}. '.'-,'. ;- ' ,"C
II
. I c:d'[' f-'" - .--,' -
an,-. every plarl. . a 1 ,may :,eoun. 0 I;ave IS, a w[ays nam.e I,rom
128
,,' .- .
. -' .
32 16
ponus by 14I""ui&! 'may be seen from ,his ,statement in this 'same scho-
lium: And 1:6 would be' "",4:C11 .""elu...IID' if f'fom it tb.et,e 'should. be D&.med some part, olf a'D
even... tim.es [even number.. '"
"'t is qui-tie temptU1[g to consider the quoti.ent '0" a factor when. th,e latt[e.r' is [divided ,m'to
the Du,m,ber UDder consideration, but the :rend,ering adopted, seems to fit 'the context better" while
OD the other bao[d Philoponus himself 'virtually aJn'(essesthat his interpr,elation of "IS"Ju' does not
hold :m I;; 2: I(To lal', (J ri".gle. e'xo:m,tle", ./M' n"mber 18,t etc.)t when, he' says" "If be meant lad,,",
to :' 'b'e 'tb""e .um,.ber, fro"m wm ch t"h,'e part' .' C!/';ets, I'" 'b':' 'na i m-e a"D'd' 'tb, I,e ha''-.'''- ge't!- D1am'e f'l!'\o"-"m" ..... bo' ' -, . - " ,. ',' - .. " "-, : '.'" .. - -' .1_ C' '. '. . , .. ' '. ., .. ,. -=',- .. . . . __;' - - ',' - .. .., ,. "I,!' .. """"-'
:is lit that be says, here: that 'the half is odd. in '6,N,,,"I? We must therefore read. with hyperbaton,
i,.,[e..... "the half, 91) evenly named. in I..."" (that is, 2" for the half :tsl the seco,D[d 'part) 'I lS odd in
its 'number t 11' That is, in the text, T'" piI' dpcf'&...wr WN,...pJ", ,u.,apx i. 8' .'PUJ'[.". 'f";
he :proposes 1.0 ,connect "i' Ilh,.ap&. with a h,yperbaton too viol,ent to 'be
probable.. In I. 2 li6ft11"l' seems certaJLol.y to mean C valuc,;' and it is hardly :possible that. it
'would be used. in diiIerent senses in suc'b similar contexts. A furthe.r- question suggestled by this
'" h th N'"-[I, Id th d b t .., t'l . . .-1, .',' ," . :--. _ ') : ': ... . .... " I" -"': "" 'j-.':' '". . .' _. >,' I . 1 . ". '. ..' ,,',! _ I I ,:.'. 1'-' I : '", . _ - 1." I, - I . '. 11 . I: . I .... '[ . ,._
passage IS w e ..,er. .Icomae, us WOUJ. C ass .e mona. as, an. even .Dum er, sn.c.c,y spea 109"
:is j,mplied .here" In the Tlttol. A,j"},:;j,:P J Ast,1 we; find the :statlement lhat theonad ,.femb:races
t' 1 ings ,in potentiality"'" ,a'Dd among the' specific state'.men'ts foUowin,g .it is satd that U it is even
d odd
ft,nd - n U"mes- od'd n e m' Dad as call' _....J M' al-e an' - d thi' 5 d- l"'anaU B la an, .. '...... G&!I" evel ,.... _[_.' .'. I ,0 __ ._1 .UJ!iU" '._ 'I '_'> '_0" NI!
perhaps. co,nnected ,with the notion that it is, both ,even, and odd. See Part I ,and on. section 13
'b '
eow.
I Reading 1nl' {found 'ID several lISS) ,fo:r HoChe's,
I Boethius, I. 9: III'1Id
1
allUm,"u.' mini",. tontUlIt,atione di'''tt,l, pod[riMS om.,is i"J',! db MM
. .,. . .-..JI. !ii! -
/HJrle' t}'IUUU''''fIU" ,u.tU I,NlrlJ "sum 'N#'mertlm ":', uenom,rtalur Idnld""lll6 sum,mam iJ"d""tm.r
"" ." .. . .... ,' A .,.... ill "11 '. "" '_.." - Mo 1' i:
,,",la ,'a'3 cs', ,tJi,ltr :nu.m.erus rd,rsKi' ,i'tJrl'$ t .JW, pi eum coml,-..", qlUUU"aJ',,Jii "tlflMr ;'.'"
Nl ribl i,pstJe ,resJHmlk,a1ll, ut 9UDltJ /N1I3 "na e.st" laIIIaM, Mbeat alterG. qusnliUJUm
t
e' ruota, ;a:"
uta est. 'a,uam i", "we S'",mmcJ 'nBUSse si,1 _Iilutlj.is JIJucairi. This ror.respond,encre of' fact,ors
"': " th, ...' . [a"ra hi'"...._1:1
y
.,. sho .. 'UJ!'li!i1 0"n-e [of- the' M:'-5-S ."
s .. ,us O._PI .'. . nu . .... . I ..... .....' ..
1 :2 4 8
and ... ,th an odd Dumbel of

1 Z ,4 8 '16 32
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
195
some one of the numbers before it in the series,1 and the sum of units
in this part is the same as one of the numbers before it, by a system
of mutual correspondence, indeed, and interchange. If there is an
even number of terms of the double ratio (rom unity, not one mean
term can be found, but always two, from which the correspondence
and interchange of factors and values, values and factors, will pro-
ceed in order, going first to the two on either side of the means, then to
the next on either side, until it comes to the extreme terms, so that
the whole will correspond in value to unity and unity to the whole. For
example, if we set down 128 as the largest term, the number of terms
will be even, for there are eight in all up to this number; and they
will not have one mean term, for this is impossible with an even number,
but of necessity two, 8 and 16. These will correspond to each other as
factoIS; for of the whole, 128, 16 is one eighth and conveISely 8 is
one sixteenth. Thence proceeding in either direction, we find that
32 is one fourth, and 4 one thirty-second, and again 64 is one half,
and 2 one sixty-fourth, and finally at the extremes unity is one one-
hundred-twenty-eighth, and conveISely 128 is the whole, to correspond
with unity.
If, however, the series consists of an odd number of terms, seven XI
for example, and we deal with 64, there will be of necessity one mean
tcon in accordance with the nature of the odd; 2 the mean term will
correspond to itself because it has no partner; and those on either side
of it in turn will correspond to one another until this correspondence
ends in the extremes. Unity, for example, will be one sixty-fourth,
and 64 the whole, corresponding to unity; 32 is one half, and 2 one
thirty-second; 16 is one fourth, and 4 one sixteenth; and 8 the eighth
part, with nothing else to correspond to it.
lt is the property of all these terms when they are added together I2
successively to be equal to the next in the series, lacking one unit, so
1.-pW""p.o, ... i.of TW' liroii. l.-rOf in this means' up to,' as, also in
I. 16.3, and refercnce is made to the series of cven-times cven numbers abovc. If any
number of this series be selected (e.g., 64), its factors will all be numbers that havc occurred in the
series before 64; each factor contains as many units as one of numbers (e.g., the fourth part
contains 16 units), receives a name, as a factor, from onc of them (e.g., 16 is called fourth from
4) and reciprocally gives a name to another factor (e.g., 16 gives the name si:r:leenJn to 4), J[.Tot.
cl"".-fplcrT<1" .:.1 4,"01,81\.. It will facilitate the understanding of this and the following sections
to note that when Nicomachus selects for his any specific even-times even number
he it as the end of a series; e.g., 64 must be thought of as the series I, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32 ,64.
I That is, in accordance with definition of' odd.' A unit always' intervenes' to prevent the
division of the odd number into halves; see J. 7. 2.
196
that of necessity their summation in any way whatsoever will he an
odd number,' for that which fails by a unit of being equal to an even
'3 number is odd. This observation will be of use to us very shortly
in the construction of perfect numbers.' But to take an example,
the terms from unity preceding 256 in the series, when added together,
are within' of equating 256, and all the terms before r28, the term
immediately preceding, are similarly equal to ,28 save for one unit;
and to the next terms the sums of those below them are similarly
related. Thus unity itself' is within one. unit of equaling the next
term, which is 2, and these two together fail by , of equaling the next,
and the three together are within 1 of the next in order, and you will
find that this goes on without interruption to infinity.
'4 This too it is very needful to recall: If the number of terms of the
even-times even secies dealt with is even, the product of the extremes
will always be equal to the product of the means; if there is an odd
number of terms, the product of the extremes will be equal to the square
of the mean. For, in the case of an even number of terms, I times 128
is equal to 8 times 16 and further to 2 times 64 and again to 4 times 32,
and this is so in every case i and with an odd number of terms, I
times 64 equals 2 times 32, and this equals 4 times 16, and this again
equals 8 times 8, the mean term alone multiplied by itself.
CHAPTER IX
I The even-times odd" number is one which is by its genus itself even,
but is specifically6 opposed to the aforesaid even-times even. It is a
number of which, though it admits of the division into two equal
I Substituting in the formula S = rl - IJI the sum of n terms of this series is 21 - 1. The
, - 1 I
(,. + 1)51 tenn is 21, and 21 - I is one less, as Nicomachus says.
1 See chapter 16.
J Here treated as a member of the even-times even series. Cl. on I. 8. 7.
'Theon of Smyrna, p. 25, 19 ft. HiUcr, thus defines: "The even-times odd numbe'rs are
measured by the dyad and some odd number; upon division into equal halves, they always have
odd halves" (41"Iorlpl#tlo, al el.,l. of '1I4'Of "'Ill 'repur.,oli oVrll'lltlolip OlTUon i'"
repl,.,a id"" 'XOIIVI Ta 4IJAlvfa ",aTQ T+JP rlf (n. alalpt'tlIP). Euclid (Elemellls, VII, Def. 9)
has "An even-times odd number is one that is measured by an even number an odd number of
times" (cll"lIbu U n/X.,tlln ItlTlP 0 lid cll"oll G./XI/UJli prrpo/lJUNf "'IUa .
Read with Codd. Cizensis, Monacensis 482 and Hamburgensis, instead of
(Hoche, following G). The word is evidently to be contrasted with ,.,;; "'(IN' and both are logical
terms.
o
b'e
I
th.,.
be in
2
',', -
L.. '.' J.
-e
,
,
...... -
5
_,_ I
t:".e'

od
[
0
_', ,,--
I,
3
_'Lll!iiJLll-ilIo__ ,
e n.,
'h .Ie
,I

on.
o
it
2,
..
to t t )'
I.
.,
to
i. I'
le,
I
, I
11
e
iIIi
10
s
I ..
1
0,
Ac:c;'ealJ:
ill
NICQIMACH,US OF GERASA
num'hers will be fOlund fifth 1from ,Q'D,e another. ,exceeding: o;ne an[other "',C'." . -' ......'. -'- ' . .'-- . . . ..,.... . '.. - "'..' , .... . - ". .. .. > '. ".'. .'. .' . - ,
'by a differe'D[ce [of 4, passing ,ove,r three terms, and p[rod'uced 'b,y the'
I
t'" li t- f th dd 'b b mUJ.'-lp Jca' Ion 0" num '[Iers ,'y 2.
6
TIh"" .-; 'd .., to 'b, .... , ':.' .. :. "-'/"'l-te" m-' p"r'o ....pe'r't'l:"e:'s 2 to' t'h"e-' e-c- .. - 't'w' e - :.. '
.. ' eyare sal_ .' .. e 0PpOlS '."_ _1
1
.,- .. _c 1[_., '. .ven,- 1_ lesven,
b
l
f' th th
'
t t t' tal" d- hl hi! o. '.' ese '__ "e gT'ea' es' ex:reme ,Ierm "._one IS ' ..,'lVlSl'e, W:'_. e: 0'
thes,e f,o,rm,er the smallest o,nly p"roved tal be indivisible j an,d m par-
,t'h,-fo''rm-e:'rcas'eth'' ",-,,,,,,1-""'1""["""" ,t[:f,, .-ts' 3

.Ien ar ,ecausen I" e ,I:, . .:.c. I. ., .. ' _ .. , ,e reClproca. arrangemen 0, 1 ..
from extremes to mean term or terms ,makes, the product [of the former
equal t[o the square olr p,rodu,ct of t'he atter;. bu,t in this case by the:
B,ame co,rresponden[ce and comparison the mean term is OD[e half the,
,." I . -""f' th''.-::: [-;t' ".: 4,;-: -f th,' .-',' 'h ,.- 'l[d" b -- t .".'. -.. ".',".'. "". th-'----' [" ." ''- ". . ,15 ',.
sum 0 I ." e ex remes, or 1 _.ere, S . ou. .e IWO means" .. ,ell sum equa. .
th t
-f'" th
l
. t . tr' ..' .
.'. a', 0 .. Ie '-wo exlemes
C'HAPTER X
I The odd,-tinles ev,en number is the one 'which disp,lays th,e thirld
form of the ev,en, belongmg in c,ommon to both th,e previo,usly' m,en-
d - like,; .' lb' '.'
tl[oner-
,
'speCIes a single mean, ,'"ei-ween 'two extremes" for In 'Q'ne
_espect. It 'res,embles the [even-times even" and in another the: e'ven-
times 'Q[dd, ,an,d that property wherein it. varies frolm the one it shar',es
,with the: other, and, by that 'property' i,t shares wth the one it
differs from the, other,.
2 The odd-timesl ,ev,en 'numbler a is ,an e:ven n'umber w'hlch can be
I That is, in 'the G'reek ma'OD,er' ,counting: in bo,tb ,the termfr,om Whiich one :starts an,d the last.
,sO' -th .[Ol,ynlpic which we would say ca'me every fourth yea"r, 'to 'the: Greeks ,a C fifth,
yea'r festiv:al."
I E..g.. 10 ,can, be [dj,vided into two parts (5', 5), but d,i'visibJe by 2:; wh:i'e in the even-
'. '"' h- L .... _ be d-' ''''ded d ""ts ts' d- ded d' . -he 11: 'I It
times ev-en senes, numuec can IV) .... , ",an, 1 ,,! par . lVI, , ,own to t ,... ,I,east :part,
I,., 'The grule'r' speakIng of the ev'en,,times, odd
J
wo,Uld be ,the even...times odd, number
itself under consid-era,tion.
I Cf. I. 8. wbe're ':he reciprocal relation of the fac,tors 0,' . e ev,eo-'Ii.mes e:ven numbers, was
'tr,eated.., Each factor of such a number ,is itself term i.n the ,e'ven--times ev,en series, ,of which I
and t'b,e gi,ven, nu.mber are regar-ded as th[e ex'tr,em.es (d.pbrtp"fl) '!! For th,e reiation between 'the
product. of th,e extre:mes ,and the' sq'llare o,f ,tbe mean (or th,e product of two means)., ,d, I, 8", 1,4.
Thus in th,e od,d series
6, 10, 14, I: 8, 'I
the meaD term (14) ,is, i the sum of' the extremes (16
1
+22 == 28);, and i'B the series
6, la, 14, :[8, 22" 26,
,tbe 'sum 0' the means 1(14 + 1:,8 32) equals the sum o,f 'th1e lex'tremes '(6 +:26 : ' 3,2)1
Theon of Sm;yma" 26, .s ,Killer, defines the odd ti'mes even ,as a nu'mber produced by the
Iu
!! 1'''''' .;.... of' an 00'-d' 'by an' AI . n nu"'mbe''r' which '.......... eve'n halves" w' he'n '11It ':'a dliV 'by . bu't mu I ,'P lC8.\wvD' I' '. ' ,...,vC,', ._', ', . "',: '.. ,.' , ' .. ' '. , ,',. :..' _ ' -.0' !I;I' ' ... 2". .I[
on f'u'ftber' division, as some: odd, others eveD (r.pu1CJ',clt:", ,3" .{"lol .U,U/
t
l;,p 6 .. .,-,
"&(1"p.Ol' lie 'vrc" IIC1i";IIO'VV wrpl-er...ii ,.-&1 i",.10UI 'l'l.,wa". ,K.l "",,lA.,r"'U"",61FT'" .lr (trCl p.I" IFlA
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
'99
divided into two equal parts, whose parts also can so be divided, and
sometimes even the parts of its parts, but it cannot carry the division
of its parts as far as unity. Such numbers are 24, 28, 40 j for each of
these has its own balf and indeed the half of its half, and sometimes
one is found among them that will allow the halving to be carried
even farther among its parts. There is none, however, that will
have its parts divisible into halves as far as the naturally indivisible
unit.
Now in admitting more than one division, the odd-times even is 3
like the even-times even and unlike the even-times odd; but in that
its subdivision never ends with unity, it is like the even-times odd and
unlike the even-times even.
It alone has at once the proper qualities of each of the former two,' 4
and then again properties which belong to neither of them; for of
them one had only the highest term divisible, and the other only the
smallest indivisible, but this neither; for it is observed to have more
divisions than one in the greater tenn, and more than one indivisible
in the lesser.
Furthermore, there are in it certain parts whose names are not S
opposed to their values nor of the opposite genus,' after the fashion of
the even-times even; and there are also always other parts of a name
opposite and contrary in kind to their values, after the fashion of the
even-times odd. For example, in 24, there are parts not opposed in
name to their values, the fourth part, 6, the half, 12, the sixth, 4, and
the twelfth, 2; but the third part, 8, the eighth, 3, and the twenty-
fourth, I, are opposed; and so it is with the rest.
This number is produced by a somewhat complicated method, 6
and shows, after a fashion, even in its manner of production, that it
is a mixture of both other kinds. For whereas the even-times even is
made from even numbers, the doubles from unity to infinity, and the
even-times odd from the odd numbers from 3, progressing to infinity,
this must be woven together out of both classes, as being common to
pip" &cupoii,.,.cu, KQl"l\ 1",h .. Xdour et ,ult 4pl"C(l, pip,!. et 'xouvu,).
Euclid's definition (E1tmenJs, VII, Drf. 10) is: "The even number is one that is meas-
ured by an oc.Id number an even number of times" clpno, Iv-n. 1\ 'lrrpcvvoii clPI{lj.lOU
1{(I,1"4 4p1"lolt
I Cf. 1. 9. 6. It is to be observed that Nicomachus in speaking of these numbers conceives of
them serially; e.g., to him the even-limes even number 16 carries with it the series I. 2, 4. 8, 16;
and so of the others; as 3, 6 (even-times odd), 3. 6, u, 24 (odd-times even).
t Cl. I. 8. 7; 9. 2. Of the opposite genus' refers to even and odd. The name is 'contrary to
its value' if, e.g., the denominator of the fraction is odd and its value, or amount, even.
7 both. Let us then set forth the odd numbers from 3 by themselves
in due order in one series:
3, S, 7, 9, Il, 13, IS, 17, 19, ...
and the even-times even, beginning with 4, again one after another in
a second series after their own order:
4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, ...
8 as far as you please. Now multiply by the first number of either
series - it makes no difference which - from the beginning and in
order all those in the .remaining series and .note down the resulting
numbers; then again multiply by the second number of the same series
the sa:'Jle numbers once more, as far as you can, and write down the
results; then with the third number again multiply the same terms
anew, and however far you go you will get nothing but the odd-times
even numbers.
9 For the sake of illustration let us use the first term of the series of
odd numbers and multiply by it all the terms in the second series in
order, thus: 3 X 4, 3 X 8, 3 X 16, 3 X 32, and so on to infinity.
The results will be 12, 24,48,96, which we must note down in onc line.
Then taking a new start do the same thing with the second number,
5 X 4, 5 X 8, 5 X 16, 5 X 32. The results will be 20, 40, 80, 160.
Then do the same thing once more with 7, the third number, 7 X 4,
7 X 8, 7 X 16, 7 >< 32. The results are 28, 56, 112, 224; and in
the same way as far as you care to go, you will get similar results.
Odd numbers
3 5 7 9
11
13 15
Even-times even
4
8 16
3
2 64 128
256
16 24 48
9
6
'9
2
3
8
4 7
68
.s 20
40 80 160 320 640 1280
"0
28
56
112 224 448 896
'79
2
Odd-times
II
even

3
6
72
144 288
57
6
II5
2
234
numbers

44
88
11
6
35
2
74
1408 2816
Length
10 Now when you arrange the products of multiplication by each term
in its proper line, making the lines parallel, in marvelous fashion there
will appear along the breadth of the table the peculiar property of the
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
'0'
even-times odd, that the mean term is always half the sum of the ex-
tremes, if there should be one mean, and the sum of the means equals
the sum of the extremes if two. But along the length of the table
the property of the even-times even will appear; for the product of the
extremes is equal to the square of the mean, should there be one mean
term, or their product, should there be two. Thus this one species
has the peculiar properties of them hoth, because it is a natural mix-
ture of them both.
CHAPTER XI
Again, while the odd is distinguished over against the even in classi- I
fication and has nothing in common with it, since the latter is divis-
ible into equal halves and the former is not thus divisible, neverthe-
less there are found three species of the odd, I differing from one another,
of which the first is called the prime and incomposite,' that which is
1 There is great disagreement among the ancient authorities upon this classification. In the
first place, Nicomachus confines these species to odd numbers, thus securing a threefold classifica-
tion to balance that of the even numbers (see above). He is followed in this by Iamblichus
(p. 16, 18), but Euclid (EJem., VII, Dei,., 11-14) and Theon (p. 23,6 I. Hiller) make it a classifica-
tion of both the even and the odd. Nicomachus then divides into (0) prime and incomposite;
(b) secondary and composite; (c) that which is ahsolutely composite but relatively prime. Nessel-
mann, op. cit., p. 194, points out that the latter two classes are not mutually exclusive, for
b includes c. The dilliculty is overcome by Iamblichus, who thus classifies: (a) the absolutely
prime, .....hich is a priori relatively prime as well; (b) the absolutely secondary, which includes as
subclasses the relath'c1y prime and relatively secondary; the two sub-classes are dependent upon
the association of terms in specific instances. Euclid (loc. ciJ.) gives definitions of primes, rela-
tive primes, composite, and relatively composite numbers. This need not of course imply a strict
classification along these lines. Theon, however, seems to understand it as such, and to establish
his classification after this model, mak.ing his definitions agree with those of Euclid: (a) abso-
lutely prime; (b) relatively prime; (c) absolutely composite; (d) relatively composite. The
last class does not correspond to any set up by Nicomachus; it consists of numbers like 8 and 9
tak.en in connection with 6. CL T. L. Heath on Euclid,loc. ,it., for an extended discussion; also
his History, vol. I, pp. 72 fI.
t Euclid defines a prime number as 'one measured by unity alone' (& ,I'O>'lilh /16'7/ j!l!Tpotlj!('J'Ol),
Elem" VII, D,f. 11. The number :2 satisfies his definition and is also called prime by Aristotle
(Top., VIII. 2. r57 a 39). But in Nicomachus prime numbers are a class of odd numbers, not of
number in general. See Heath on the matter, E/ldid, 11, 284-85. Theon of Smyrna (p. 23, 9
Hilter) defines the 'absolutely prime and incomposite' number as one 'measured by no number but
by unity alone' (ol vd dp,8/Ulv, vrb !JhIJ"If j!Ol'lioos ,It.fTPOtl.'if"/lQ4). He states
that these numbers were sometimes called' linear' and 'rectilinear' ('YP"/1.'WKOI, rV8Uj.IofTplKOI)
'because lengths and lines are viewed in one dimension,' and that they are also called' odd-times
odd' (rrpTlI"dKlf rrplll"O'ot). Theon leaves it vague whether he regards the dyad as prime; for
after stating that the e\'en numbers are not prime because they are measured by other numbers
than unity alone, he sa.rs that the dyad is an exception and is therefore called' odd-like' {KlIl 01
).(urol 4pT10I I(Q;T4 Tit l1lff4 w6 TU'toI .. Pfltb/IW)' "'11S ,wll'lioos dpc8/1w)' Kl1ToJUrpoV)'7"Q;1 r1\lI' TijS
lIud/lol' TQ;ih''!1 'Ydp JoI6"!1 brp KQ;1 hlolf TW/I rrplll"lI"r;,IJ, TO WO ,I'O,d60f I/<Tptill"8l14 !Jh1lO)',
4raE 'Ydp {j', (1" 01,) Kal rrp"Inu TOih'O Toil rrpcO'lI"ois rrro,,8viCl).
opposed to it the secondary and composite, and that which is midway
between both of these and is viewed as a mean among extremes, namely,
the variety which, in itself, is secondary and composite, but relatively
is prime and incomposite.
2 Now the first species, the prime and incomposite, is found when-
ever an odd number admits of no other factor save the one witb the
number itself as denominator,1 which is always unity j for example,
3, 5, 7, II, 13, 17,19,23,29,31. None of these numbers will by any
chance be found to have a fractional part with a denominator different
from the number itself, but only the one with this as denominator, and
this part will be unity in each case; for 3 has only a third part, which
has the same denominator as the number and is of course unity, 5 a
fifth, 7 a seventh, and II only an eleventh part, and in all of them
these parts are unity.
3 It has received this name because it can be measured only by the
number which is first and common to all, unity, and by no other;
moreover, because it is produced by no other number combined with
itself save unity alone; for 5 is 5 X I, and 7 is 7 X I, and the others
in accordance with their own quantity. To be sure, when they are
combined with themselves, other numbers might be produced, origi-
nating from them as from a fountain and a root, wherefore they are
called 'prime,' because they exist beforehand as the beginnings of
the others. For every origin 2 is elementary and incomposite, into
which everything is resolved and out of which everything is made, but
the origin itself cannot be resolved into anything or constituted out of
anything.
CHAPTER XII
I The secondary, composite. number 3 is an odd number, indeed, be-
cause it is distinguished as a member of this same class, but it has no
I As i in the case of J.
I d p x ~ Cf. the discussion of element (VTOIXfio,), n. I.
I Nicomachus does not admit even numbers into the class of composites, doubtless because he
has already exhausted their classification. Theon of Smyma, however, makes the composite a
division of number in general and gives even numbers among his examples. As noted above, he
distinguishes the 'absolute composite' numbers that can be measured by some smaller numbers
and 'relative composites,' those which are measured by some measure, but are prime to each other,
as 8, 6, 9. with the measures ;2 and 3. In this connection I is not considered a common measure,
for, as he states, it is not itself a number but the beginning of number. Euclid, Elements, VII,
Def. 14, defines a composite number as' one measured by some number' (O'"Ilr8rrot d p 8 ~ 40'",t'" 1\
4 p 8 ~ TU'I JAErpov/UJIOt).
,
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
23
elementary quality, for it gets its origin by the combination of some-
thing else. For this reason it is characteristic of the secondary number
to have, in addition to the fractional part with the number itself as
denominator, yet another part or parts with different denominators,
the former always, as in all cases, unity, the latter never unity,
but always either that number or those numbers by the combination
of which it was produced. For example, 9, IS, 21, 25, 27, 33, 35, 39 j
each one of these is measured by unity, as other numbers arc,
l
and like
them has a fractional part with the same denominator as the number
itself, by the nature of the class common to them all; but by exception
and more peculiarly they also employ a part, or parts, with a different
denominator; 9, in addition to the ninth part, has a third part besides;
IS a third and a fifth besides a fifteenth; 21 a seventh and a third
besides a twenty-first, and 25, in addition to the twenty-fifth, which has
as a denominator 25 itself, also a fifth, with a different denominator.
It is called secondary, then, because it can employ yet another meas- 2
ure along with unity, and because it is not elementary, but is produced
by some other number combined with itself or with something else;
in the case of 9, 3; in the case of IS, 5 or, by Zeus, 3; and those fol-
lowing in the same fashion. And it is called composite for this, or
some such, reason: that it may be resolved into those numbers out
of which it was made, since it can also be measured by them. For
nothing that can be broken down is incomposite, but by all means
composite.
CHAPTER XIII
Now while these two species of the odd are opposed to each other a I
third one 2 is conceived of between them, deriving, as it were, its
specific form from them both, namely the number which is in itself
secondary and composite, but relatively to another number is prime
and incomposite. This exists when a number, in addition to the com-
mon measure, unity, is measured by some other number and is there-
fore able to admit of a fractional part, or parts, with denominator other
than the number itself, as well as the one with itself as denominator.
1 That is, the primes.
2Theon of Smyma (p. 24. 8 ff.) has this class, which he calls' prime to one another and not
absolutely prime,' and he points out that 8, 9, and 10 are prime to the' absolute primes.' Euclid
dehnes relatively prime Dumbers as those that are measured only by unity as the common meas.-
ure' (7rp"'f"Ol 7rpOf dpl8/o'O' fl,m' oZ I-'ON"I p./-rp'fl), E1tmt'1l's, VII,
Def. 13
When this is compared with another numher of similar properties, it
is found that it cannot be measured by a measure common to the
other, nor does it have a fractional part with the same denominator
as those in the other. As an illustration, let 9 be compared with 25.
Each in itself is secondary and composite, but relatively to each
other they have only unity as a common measure, and no factors in
them have the same denominator, for the third part in the former
does not exist in the latter nor is the fifth part in the latter found in
the former.
2 The production of these numbers is called by Eratosthenes the
sieve,' because we take the odd numbers mingled together and indis-
criminate and out of them by this method of production separate, as
by a kind of instrument or sieve, the prime and incomposite by them-
selves, and the secondary and composite by themselves, and find the
mixed class by themselves.
3 The method of the' sieve' is as follows. I set forth all the odd num-
bers in order, beginning with 3, in as long a s r ~ as possible, and
then starting with the first I observe what ones it can measure, and I
:find that it can measure the terms two places apart, as far as we care
to proceed. And I find that it measures not as it chances and at
random, but that it will measure the first one, that is, the ODe two
places removed, by the quantity of the one that stands first in the series,
that is, by its own quantity, for it measures it 3 times; an" the one
two places from this by the quantity of the second in order, for this it
will measure 5 times; and again the one two places further on by the
quantity of the third in order, or 7 times, and the one two places still
farther on by the quantity of the fourth ill order, or 9 times, and so ad
infinitum in the same way.
4 Then taking a fresh start I come to the second number and observe
what it can measure, and find that it measures all the terms four
places apart, the first by the quantity of the first in order, or 3 times;
the second by that of the second, or 5 times; the third by that of the
third, or 7 times; and in this order ad infinitum.
5 Again, as before, the third term 7, taking over the measuring func-
tion, will measure terms six places apart, and the first by the quantity
of 3, the first of the series, the second by that of 5, for this is the second
number, and the third by that of 7, for this has the third position in
the series.
6 And analogously throughout, this process will go on without in-
TRANSLATION: BOOK I 2
5
terruption, SO that the numbers 1 will succeed to the measuring func-
tion in accordance with their fixed position in the series j the interval
separating terms measured is determined by the orderly progress of
the even numbers from 2 to infinity, or by the doubling of the position
in the series occupied by the measuring term, and the number of times
a term is measured is fixed by the orderly advance of the odd numbers
in series from 3.
Now if you mark the numbers with certain signs, you will find that 7
the terms which succeed one another in the measuring function neither
measure all the same number - and sometimes not even two will
measure the same one - nor do absolutely all of the numbers set
forth submit themselves to a measure, but some entirely avoid being
measured by any number whatsoever, some are measured by one only,
and some by t\\'O or even more. Now these that are not measured at 8
all, but avoid it, are primes and incomposites, sifted out as it were by
a sieve; those measured by only onc measure in accordance with its
own quantity 2 will have but one fractional part with denominator
different from the number itself, in addition to the part with the same
denominator; and those which are measured by one measure only,
but in accordance with the quantity of some other number than the
measure and not its O'WI1, or are measured by two measures at the
same time, will have several fractional parts 3 with other denominators
besides the one with the same as the number itself; these will be sec-
ondary and composite.
The third division,' the one common to both the former, which is 9
in itself secondary and composite but primary and incomposite in
relation to another, will consist of the numbers produced when some
prime and incomposite number measures them in accordance with its
I It is generally assumed (as by Heath. lIistory, vol. I, p. 100) that in the 'sie\'e of
Eratosthenes' only the odd prime numbers take on successi\'ely the measuring function, and
indeed this is all lhat is neces!'ary, for, e.g., Q is a multiple of 3 and all its mulliples are
likcwise multiples of 3. The lext, howevcr, seems to imply that all the odd m.:mbers should
be used. although perhaps Xicomachus did not intend that he should be so strictly
interpreted.
tReading fClVT(lV i n ~ t e d of fClIITW') with G
I
. The number:; referred to are the squares of
odd prime numbers. Q, e.g., has ninths, of course, and as it is measured by J, it will also have
thirds, the denomination of which is derived from J.
I Thus, if a, b, m are odd numbers greater than unity, and In = ab, In is measured by a in the
quantity of b, and vice \'efS3, and m will have the factors m and!!! named respceti"ely from band a.
, b
4 Nicomachus evidently contemplates admitting into this division only the squares of prime
odd numbers, though numbers like 15 (J X 5) and 77 (7 X 11), when compared, would satisfy his
requirements equally well.
own quantity, if one thus produced be compared to another of similar
origin. For example, if 9, which was produced by 3 measuring by its
own quantity, for it is 3 times 3, be compared with 25, which was
produced from 5 measuring by its own quantity, for it is 5 times 5,
these numbers have no common measure except unity.
10 We shall now investigate how we may have a method 1 of dis-
cerning whether numbers are prime and incomposite, or secondary
and composite, relatively to each other, since of the former unity is
the common measure, but of the latter some other number also besides
unity; and what this number is.
l[ Suppose there be given us two odd numbers and some one sets the
problem and directs us to determine whether they are prime and in-
composite relatively to each other or secondary and composite, and
if they are secondary and composite what number is their common
measure. We must compare the given numbers and subtract the
smaller from the larger as many times as possible; then after this sub-
traction subtract in turn from the other, as many times as possible;
for this changing about and subtraction from one and the other in
turn will necessarily end either in unity or in some one and the same
12 number, which will necessarily be odd. Now when the suhtractions
terminate in unity they show that the numbers are prime and incom-
posite relatively to each other; and when they end in some other
number, odd in quantity and twice produced,' then say that they are
secondary and composite relatively to each other, and that their com-
mon measure is that very number which twice appears.
For example, if the given numbers were 23 and 45, subtract 23 from
45, and 22 will be the remainder; subtracting this from 23, the re-
mainder is I, subtracting this from 22 as many times as possible you
will end with unity. Hence they are prime and incomposite to one
another, and unity, which is the remainder, is their common measure.
'3 But if one should propose other numbers, 2I and 49, I subtract the
smaller from the larger and 28 is the remainder. Then again I sub-
I This mode of determining common factors is found in Euclid (Vil. I; X.::) and is commonly
tenned the Euclidean method of finding the greatest common divisor of numbers.
I Reference to the second example following will show that the tenn 'produced twice' (411)0-
by this process is the final subtl1Lbend, which is equal to the final remainder. Boethiu5,
T. 18, is somewhat more explicit in describing the operation: Dalis elli", duobus numens iruuqr,mj..
bits, al/lerre de m4im'e minot'em oPMlelm, " qui reUdus lu"", si maior (st, al/lerre ez eo rurws ".i1lO-
rem, si llero minor IU"", eu". e% reliquo maiore d"raMre alque hO(; eo usque ladendum, quoad unilas
ultima vium impeduu, aul a/iquis numerus, impar MUSsano, si ,.umen impares
/Wo/H)tuJ"'l#; sed eum, qui reli1tl/uuur. "umerum sibi ipsi
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
'7
tract the same 21 from this, for it can be done, and the remainder is
7. This I subtract in turn from 2 I and 14 remains; from which I
subtract 7 again, for it is possible, and 7 will remain. But it is not
possible to subtract 7 from 7; hence the termination of the process
with a repeated 7 has been brought about, and you may declare the
original numbers 2 rand 49 secondary and composite relatively to
each other, and 7 their common measure in addition to the universal
unit.
CHAPTER XIV
To make again a fresh start, of the simple even numbers, some are I
superabundant, some deficient, like extremes set over against each
otherJ and some are intermediary between them and are called perfect.
Those which are said to be opposites to one another, the superabun- 2
dant and deficient, are distinguished from one another in the relation
of inequality 1 in the directions of the greater and the less; for apart
from tbese no other form of inequality could be conceived, nor could
evil,2 disease, disproportion, unseemliness, nor any such thing, save in
terms of excess or deficiency. For in the realm of the greater 3 there
arise excesses, overreaching, and superabundance, and in the less
need, deficiency, privation, and lack; but in that which lies between
the greater and the less, namely, the equal, are virtues, wealth, modera-
tion, propriety, beauty, and the like, to which the aforesaid form of
number, the perfect, is most akin.
Now the superabundant number 11 is one which has, over and above 3
the factors which belong to it and fall to its share, others in addition,
just as if an animal should be created with too many parts or limbs,
1 Nicomachus refers here to the general relation of inequality which is opposed to equality
(1. 17. 2) as one of the primary divisions of relative number. Technically equality and inequality
are ITXitTflf, 'relations,' the term applied here to inequality as it is to equality in 1.17.4; sub-
classes of the unequal, fin;t the greater and the less (d. L 17. 6) and then the specific ratios (ell
ob,tl, ITXitTflf, L 23. 4) are also called' relations.' For the notion I1XiITlS and the
kindred term A6)'Ot, 'ratio,' d. on n. 21. 2.
1 According to Aristotle \';rtue i!'o the mean, and vice i!'o excess or deficienc}'. Cl. El". Nic..
H. 6. 1106 b 33, nl 'TlliIT-' 'T17s id" /Clldcu iT \rrfpfJoA'IJ ICIlI .;, (AM"',". 'T17r l! dPO-71t ;, IUI11Trl1f.
These are just the \'aricties that assigns to inequality.
I Cf. :\risC, Elh. Nic., as quoted in the pre<:eding note and 1106 b 24: iT 5' dprT1} rfpl 'll'd611
/CIlI rpd.fu IIT'T!". I" oh i] id" vnp/3<lA1j nl ;, O,X(I!f<t 1!f/-rrTcuJ. 61 idl1ol' Ir(Uni''TIlI
Kill /C1l'Top8oUTIl<' 'TlliiTll 0' 'T71f dpuiit. IUITITrl1f TU 4pll IIT'Tb i] ")'f
Toii ,d1101J.
4 IrrfPT'fXijt dpl'p./n. Theon of Smyrna. pp, 45, to fI., 46, 4. includes this class, but calls them
inrfPT'iXfIOl.
1
with ten tongues, as the poet says,l and ten mouths, or with nine lips,
or three rows of teeth, or a hundred hands, or too many fingers on one
hand. Similarly if, when all the factors in a number are examined and
added together in onc sum, it proves upon investigation that the num-
ber's own factors exceed the number itself, this is called a superabun-
dant number, for it oversteps the symmetry which exists between the
perfect and its own parts. Such are 12, 24, and certain others, for 12
has a half, 6, a third, 4, a fourth, 3, a sixth, 2, and a twelfth, r, which
added together make r6, which is more than the original 12; its
4 parts, therefore, are greater than the whole itself. And 24 has a half,
a third, fourth, sixth, eighth, twelfth, and twenty-fourth, which are
r2, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1. Added together they make 36, which, compared
to the original number, 24, is found to be greater than it, although
made up solely of its factors. Hence in this case also the parts are
in excess of the whole.
2
CHAPTER XV
1 The deficient number 3 is one which has qualities the opposite of
those pointed out, and whose factors added together are less in com-
parison than the number itself. It is as if some animal should fall
short of the natural number of limbs or parts, or as if a man should
have but onc eye, as in the poem, H And one round orb was fixed in
his brow"; 4 or as though one should be one-handed, or have fewer
than five fingers on one hand, or lack a tongue, or some such member.
Such a one would be called deficient and so to speak maimed, after
the peculiar fashion of the number whose factors are less than itself,
such as 8 or '4. For 8 has the factors half, fourth, and eighth, which
are 4, 2, and r, and added together they make 7, and less than the
original number. The parts, therefore, fall short of making up the
2 whole. Again, 14 has a half, a seventh, a fourteenth, 7, 2, and I,
respectively; and all together they make ro, less than the original
number. So this number also is deficient in its parts, with respect
to making up the whole out of them.
1 The reference is to Homer's description of Scylla, Odyssey, XII. 8S ff.
I See also L. E. Dickson, Hiskwy of the Theory of Numbers, Washington, 1909, vol. I, chapter I.
cr. Theon, p. 46, 9 fI.
t The Cyclops. Cr. Hesiod, Theogony, 145.
TRA1\SLAno).;: BOOK I
CHAPTER XVI
2('9
\Vhile these two varieties are opposed after the manner of extremes, I
the so-called perfect number 1 appears as a mean, which is discovered
to be in the realm of equality, and neither makes its parts greater
than itself, added together, nor shows itself greater than its parts,
but is always equal to its own parts. For the equal is always conceived
of as in the mid-ground between greater and less, and is, as it were,
moderation between excess and deficiency, and that \vhich is in tunc,
between pitches too high and too low.
Now when a number, comparing with itself the sum and combina- 2
tion of all the factors whose presence it will admit, neither exceeds
them in multitude nor is exceeded by them, then such a number is
properly said to be perfect, as onc which is equal to its own parts.
Such numbers arc 6 and 28; for 6 has the factors half, third, and
sixth, 3, 2, and I, respectively, and these added together make 6 and
are equal to the original number, and neither more nor less. Twenty-
eight has the factors half, fourth, seventh, fourteenth, and twenty-
eighth, which are 14, 7, 4, 2 and I; these added together make 28,
and so neither are the parts greater than the whole nor the whole
greater than the parts, but their comparison is in equality, which is
the peculiar quality of the perfect number.
It comes about that even as fair and excellent things are few 3
and easily enumerated, while ugly and evil ones are widespread, so
also the superabundant and deficient numbers are found in great
multitude and irregularly placed - for the method of their dis-
covery is irregular - but the perfect numbers are easily enumer-
ated and arranged with suitable order; for only one is found among
the units, 6, only one other among the tens, 28, and a third in the
rank of the hundreds, 4<)6 alone, and a fourth within the limits of
the thousands, that is, below ten thousand, 8,128.' And it is their
I Euclid's definition, EJem., VII. 22, is: " Aperftct number is one that is equal to its own parts."
Similarly Theon of Smyma defines it, p. 45, 10. See Heath, l1istory, vol. I, p. 74.
1 Subsequent investigation has determined seven more p r ~ t numbers. T. L. Heath, His-
tory, vo!. I, pp. 74-75, and L. E. Dickson, op. dJ., vol. I, chapter I.
1. 2 (2
1
- I) - 6. VII. 2
11
(2
1
- I).
11. 2
1
(2' - I) = 28. VIn. 2
10
(20 - I).
Ill. 2
4
(l' - I) "'" 496. IX. 2
tD
(2
41
- I), with 37 digits.
IV. 2' (2
7
- I) ,.. 8,u8. X. 2
1t
(:la. - I).
V. 2
12
(2
11
- I) "" 33,55,336. XI. 21.2' (2
111
- I).
Vl. 2
11
(2
n
- 1) ,.. 8,568,910,416.
Theon, in his notice of the perfect numbers, mentions only 6 and 28.
accompanying characteristic 1 to end alternately in 6 or 8, and always
to be even.
4 There is a method of producing them,' neat and unfailing, which
neither passes by any of the perfect numbers nor fails to differentiate
any of those that are not such, whicb is carried out in the following
way.
You must set forth the even-times even numbers from unity, ad-
vancing in order in one line, as far as you please: I, 2,4,8, 16,32,64,
128, 256, 5I 2, 1,024, 2,048, 4,096. . .. Then you must add them to-
gether, one at a time, and each time you make a sununation observe
the result to see what it is. If you find that it is a prime, incomposite
number, multiply it by the quantity of the last number added, and
the result will always be a perfect number. If, bowever, the result is
secondary and composite, do not multiply, but add the next and ob-
serve again what the resulting number is; if it is secondary and com-
posite, again pass it by and do not multiply; but add the next; but
if it is prime and incomposite, multiply it by the last term added, and
the result will be a perfect number; and so on to infinity. In similar
fashion you will produce all the perfect numbers in succession, over-
looking none.
For example, to I I add 2, and observe the sum, and find that it is
3, a prime and incomposite number in accordance with our previous
demonstrations; for it has no factor with denominator different from
the number itself,' but only that with denominator agreeing. There-
fore I multiply it by the last number to be taken into the sum, that is,
2; I get 6, and this I declare to be the first perfect number in actuality,'
and to have those parts which are beheld in the numbers of which it
is composed. For it will have unity' as the factor with denominator
the same as itself, that is, its sixth part; and 3 as the half, which is
seen in 2, and conversely 2 as its third part.
S Twenty-eight likewise is produced by the same method when another
number, 4, is added to the previous ones. For the sum of the three, I,
I Cf. Boethius, t. 20: El hi nllmeNdllobus paribus terminaniur, 6 el 8, et semiel' tIllenuJJi",
in MS nu","os summaru", filU prC1f1ttlie",. See p. 52.
t Euclid (IX. 36) and Theon of Smyma (P.45, 14 fI. Hiller) report this method of discovering
perfect numbers. I That is, i.
4' Actual' (IrfFY'Yf1f) is here specified because in sect. 8 Nicomachus designates t as a potential
perfect numbet. On his use of Aristotelian terminology, as here, see p. 35.
Boethius, t. 20, speaking of this matter says of 6: habtl unam quidun a se tknominaJam par-
trm, id est, se:uam, 3 ,,"0 mtdicJatem secundum duaJifaltm, at f)t:ro 2 secundum coatenIalionem, id est,
sCGundum temarium, qU()niam coaartlaJi 3 tlttdtiplkaJi sum.
2, and 4, is 7, and is found to be prime and incomposite, for it admits
only the factor with denominator like itself, the seventh part. There-
fore I multiply it by the quantity of the term last taken into the sum-
mation, and my result is 28, equal to its own parts, and having its
factors derived from the numbers already adduced, a half correspond-
ing to 2; a fourth, to 7; a seventh, to 4; a fourteenth to offset the
half; and a twenty-eighth, in accordance with its own nomenclature,
which is I in all numbers.
When these have been discovered, 6 among the units and 28 in the 6
tens, you must do the same to fashion the next. Again add the next 7
number, 8, and the sum is IS. Observing this, I find that we no longer
have a prime and incomposite number, but in addition to the factor
with denominator like the number itself,' it has also a fifth and a
third, with unlike denominators. Hence I do not multiply it by 8,
but add the next number, 16, and 31 results. As this is a prime, in-
composite number, of necessity it will be multiplied, in accordance
with the general rule of the process, by the last number added, 16, and
the result is 496, in the hundreds; and then comes 8,128 in the thou-
sands, and so on,2 as far as it is convenient for one to follow.
Now unity is potentially a perfect number, but not actually; for 8
taking it from the series as the very first I observe what sort it is,
according to the rule, .and find it prime and incomposite; for it is
so in very truth,' not by participation like the rest, but it is the primary
, n,.
t Thomas Taylor (Tlwwdic Arithmdic, p. 33) gives the follo....ing table, showing how the per-
fect numbers may be formed by Nicomachus's method:
Et/mly et'tn numba!:
1,2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256,512,1,024,2,048,4,096;
Odd numb,,! prodl/ud by addint fhe ab01Jt:
6 ' , , , , 8 '.
1,3,7. IS 31, 3, 127, 2SS, 1,023,2,047,4,095, ,191,
Pajed numba!:
1,6, 28, 496, 8,128.
The odd numbers which are not prime, and hence cannot be used to make perfect numbers, are
marked with an accent .
This statement is to be understood in the light of Nicomachus's essentially Pythagorean view
of arithmetic, and with it should be compared 11. 17. 2 and incidental remarks elsewhere, e.g.,
11. 17. 4, 5; 18. I, 4 (end); 20. 2; 1. I (cnd), etc. In n. 17. 2 it is stated that' S3.meness ' is found
fundamentally in the monad, and most of the other passages cited bring out the principle that the
odd numbers and the squares participate in 'sameness' indirectly, through the monad. the monad
being that which' determines the specific form' of the odd numbers and the latter
in turn acting as the bases of the squares. Likewise 'othemess' inheres fundamen-
tally in the dyad, and is hence conveyed secondarily, as it were, into the even numbers and the
heteromecic numbers. A similar construction may be placed on the passage at hand; the only
difference is that 'primeness,' instead of 'S3.meness, is in question. Thc monad is per se prime,
J a
21'
9 number of all, and alone incomposite. multiply it, therefore, by
the last term taken into the summation, that is, by itself, and my re-
10 suit is I; for I tinres I equals I. Thus unity is perfect potentially;
for it is potentially equal to its own parts, the others actually.
CHAPTER XVII
I Now that we have given a prelinrinary systematic account of ab-
solute quantity we come in turn to relative quantity.l
2 Of relative quantity, then, the highest generic divisions are two,
equality and inequality; for everything viewed in comparison with
another thing is either equal or unequal, and there is no third thing
besides these.
3 Now the equal is seen, when of the things compared one neither
exceeds nor falls short in comparison with the other, for example, 100
compared with 100, 10 with 10, 2 with 2, a mina with a mina, a talent
with a talent, a cubit with a cubit, and the like, either in bulk, length,
4 weight, or any kind of quantity. And as a peculiar characteristic,
also, this relation' is of itself not to be divided or separated, as being
most elementary, for it admits of no difference. For there is no such
thing as this kind of equality and that kind, but the equal exists in
5 one and the same manner. And that which corresponds to an equal
thing, to be sure, does not have a different name from it, but the same;
and otber prime numbers are secondarily or by participation prime, for they are combinations
of the monad (cf. I. 11. 3), though of no other numbers. The monad on the other hand can be
broken up into no smaller components and is therefore elementary. It is further to be noted
that the word for' prime' ('lI'pWTor) is slightly ambiguous, and c\'cn in this specialized use of the
word there must be a suggestion of the original sense, 'fi.nt.' The monad is obviously' fi.nt ' in
a higher degree than any prime number.
I According to I. 3. I, this subject belongs to music rather than to arithmetic. Cf. p. II4.
t That is, a thing of one class can never be said to be equal to a thing of a different class.
Nioomachus does not state this principle in its broadest form, namely, that it is impossible to
establish any ratio between objects of entirely different classes. The latter is the form in which
Theon of Smyma, p. 73, 16 fI., puts the matter, following, as he says, Adrastus. (See above, p. 41.)
Nicomacbus, however, demonstrates elaborately in I. 23. 6 fI. and 11. I and 2 the proposition
that the relation of equality is the element of all ratio, so that, if the connecting link be supplied
for him, it may be said that he implies that only homogeneous things may have a ratio. Theon's
statement is as follows: "The ratio of analogy between two homogeneous terms is their definite
relation (:11'011\ O"XJ'Hf) to one another; e.g., double or triple. For as to the relation between un-
like things, Adrastus says that it cannot be known; e.g., a cubit and a mina, a doeniz and a
ioly/e, white' and' sweet' or warm,' these things cannot be brought together and compared.
But homogeneous things may be, e.g., lengths with lengths, surfaces with surfaces, solids with
solids, weights with weights, .. and whatever things are of the same genus or species and
therefore have some mutual relation."
T
' ..R': AN' :8"LA'T'ION,I... B'',00:":'''' 'IK I
' .... I.. - .' . . ... _."" ..... ' ." '. " 21
3." I "
like (friend,' f nei.ghbor.,' 'c[omr'a,de:,' so also ',eq,ua').; for 'it is equ.'al to
a.n equa
'.' . .'.
Th,e u.nequal, on, tb,e other hand, is ,split U'p, by 'subdivisions, ,and o,ne 6
part of it is th,e gre'ater, the: other the less, 'w'hic:h have opposite names,
a.:nd are ,antith,etic,al, to Q,ne another in th.ei'r quantlty an,d. relation,.
For the ,gre.ater is greater' than so:me other thing" and the less ag,ain is

tchlan" -.' anoth.. cr :t"hm-"-g' I! c
c
,. ' 1 d tb ",;11 .. , .. "'. .. . t :th .
.'S '.'" "".1 .' I, _ '., :'. ._ ,.omp,ar.lson, I, lerr .names ar,e DO '. I le
same" but. they each have difle:r,ent. ones, :for example:, 'father' and': son.
J
'
" : 'trik' \---, -L -. d' ..,k , 't- ,': "h .C ... d ,.' .. 1 ' ." d' th lik ,.' ..
s,c-er lan sruc, , eae er an. PUpli, an _.'e I.: _e.
Moreo,ver, of the gre,ater, separated by a seco,nd. subd"',vis,OID into 7
J:.
ve
spe' ""Cl"e-'S 1 one k'Jllnd 'l!lil'S th
l
e m'ultl-'pl'e- another t"h-e S' - . 1--- 11": ',.""_' . ', ... ' ' ..- .', .'_. I ... '1. . ,'..: <,J, .1; I'" .", '. . l,lCU ar,
an.othe:.r th,e s.uperpartient, another th.e multiple superparti.cular, and
,another the multiple. superpartient. .And of its opposlte" the less, ,8
th
' '11" 1' 1 b bd-' "'. fi" '. d t th f
'. l'ere arIse 'SlDll ar,y SU', lV1Slon speC:Ies, oppose;:o ..... ,e
gOlng nVle varieties of the greater, the subm.ultipl,e,[ subsuperp,articular,
subsuperpartie.nt, sU.b.mul tiple-su.perparticular" ,a,D:d su,bmultllple-,super-
:J' ..t' 11',., . t 'fl"" ... ;" 1I _:j-"':-C"I' '. t, c "h1 Ill" . ': t "1 .', ,-,,'t;c, 1,
pa.rlenl " or as W.. 0. e ans,werso w,. o e." sma. ,er .,0 ,grea. "er, so ,a so
th
" t
il
d 'h- t h' th f -'d d ... h
' -' e varle 'Ies ,corres,pon., ea.c, "'0, eae-. I " m 'I e a Of=_.er, WIt,
the prefix
1 Tb'-' ' .,,- 'h-- , '-d'" ... .J. ted' - 'B'" ., t-- - 'lat'! " "-d' . - , ed 1'11'
-' . e Lierms .,ere use I are aua.p. ..... . om .. oe.,,1US s rans .lllon5 aD' are re,mp oy.... In [.omas
'T).''II t T L . -I A' T''b' " .' t .11. ifi'".. ,t... , . . d' 'bt. th' '.' 'd'" - .-- . ,i! .. -t-fi"'-
ayJlor s , nCtWC,1t: . 'le presen, (;1855. ca[ Ion was no, OUi '.', e Olrlnary SCl,en I ,C
one'.. Theon. (pp.. '74 .20 16" 1 ,ff...), ho,vever, gl'vesl two differicnt classifications\, of wh.ich the
latter is like 'that of N:tco.machus:, except tha.. t 'Theon adds the unnecessary class 01 oit8frlptJl.
In p.. 74, :2'0 .ff..he divi,des rat.i,os first into ,greater; less, and equal, and then the greater into mul-
tiplcs:
J
superpa'rticulars .and c: those ,of 'neither class' the less Into'Submultiples. sub-

f-'S a'-nd f o-,se or; ne';the-C"r' 't )'t" ma" be"" n,o't,:e.-d tha;' [t t'''n t"h:l'S- cO''''n'- t'e:,....,t -i'Ifti "'IS"
.. ' . ,&_ I: .Ii.. ' " ..' . c'.. " ,Ii . .' .,1 t, . 1 '. . c. .' .' .. .. uueT1',.,..... ._
." . }'., "d' ." d tt '." ...... e-'r-' . t'"' It'!' . f' '1'1 thilil c:I', "Ien"- b.. 'N'c' 'a'c',bu'" th tihan-":
proper y use , an . 1\ . ml.,g [. cov . fa o a ... ',.,: .' m . 0 '.' '. I, ,om , .. SO" er .. ,_.
those which Th,eon specifically includes. :He proceeds (p. 74, 23 fT.) to 'enumerate the m'embers
of these classes which a're also 'concords," in mus'ic, citing' ,as oHI'1"eptJ,I the ratios, '9: 8
C
'' t' '. ,,). --, d .. 6 -., I' (,0;.. t'h - -- ;')'" h" h 'h .' - .'. . t'h'" i ' .". - , - f' '.- ". '-. d"
..,l.. e." ,e' _one' I an ,25':' 243 .i.,e", ..e unma .. , W.Ie ,e says, are' .e . 0_ concort
d ';', t . '. . t'h': 1,': . '," I:" d]" ... ' .' ,t' '. ,t,i!,d . f: - ",-":, "'m:,' N<' t" (. '. ' .. ' ,'. )'1 h,'-
a,n . re I , I erel,ore nell. ,er emse yes concor:.s, bor yel , OU 51 e 0 conco .. ex "P" 7.5, 17. e
,goes, ,on, to &a,y that there are'" ho,wever, ,certain other'ratios spo;ken of ift arilhmtlk" with 'which he
will deal ,in due time; besid.esthe ones .gl.ven." i a'lso superpartients, multiple: :superpartien.ts aD,d
still others. J Tbese he enumerat,ss" as has been sald:. in is final statement (p 7f5'J 1 ff.) whicb.
agrees with Nicomachus, save for the in,c'usion of the o;it3hpol.; he takes pains ."0 ten u:s that
tb
'" .. rI: 1..- L .. -, ..... '" j (.1. -. .-.. ) d o!!J h cl .. fi f'
,' .. ,IS, .IS . tilt "nt.flme'I',," ',Q.Ta d.ptBl'flT11t' -rctpGoOQl"P' an' '!S, t,.e _ assl catl.on O'
A.drastus.. I't 'wou.l.d see:m fair to conclud.e, then, that 'the .fanner classification. is 'the ",usual
lradi
'-"'u" nand --a
e
n'ot' taken i'PAm A'da tus p"crha
l
- . Pi/!!' -he has cam+ed 'ver f'ro1!ll the,c m'ut:!!'I!'CaJ"; )is ."1 . v[ I". ',_ W ,3.[ '. [LU:. '&; S ,.,"" .' ". '. [, < ". :'1 .', .; 0 .. ' .u.. ... , .:,;L- .:11I..
the o63J.T :po&.; i.t IS Dot suitable in the second list. BlUer notes (see his critical note)" He uses
this class to ,cover' the ratio 0:( num,ber 'to 'number" (a direct. t'e'ference to Ti'maeus" 36, :8) in p., ,80,
,., i.e., the i limma," as, before. Co.mpare with Ni,c'omachus"s list also, Johaone5 Pediasimus,.,
GtomdrW
1
in. Neue Ja,',fJ. f .. PlJil. U't, Pae4i!" vot. XCII, p'p., 366 IT.. (fi! 43 b of the M'unic'h MS,
there cited).,
,
21
4
CHAPTER XVIII
I Once more, then; the multiple I is the species of the greater first
and most original by nature, as straightway we shall see, and it is a
number which, when it is observed in comparison with another, contains
the whole of that number more than once. For example, compared
with unity, all the successive numbers beginning with 2 generate in
their proper order the regular forms of the multiple; for 2, in the first
place, is and is called the double, 3 triple, 4 quadruple, and so on;
for 'more than once' means twice, or three times, and SO on in suc-
cession as far as you like.
, Answering to this is the submultiple, which is itself primary in the
smaller division of inequality. It is the number which, when it is
compared with a larger, is able to measure it completely more than
once, and' more than once' starts with twice and goes on to infinity.
3 If then it measures the larger number that is being compared twice
only, it is properly called the subdouble,' as I is of 2; if thrice, sub-
triple, as r of 3; if four times, subquadruple, as I of 4, and SO on in
succeSSIOn.
4 While each of these, the multiple and the submultiple, is generically
infinite, the varieties by subdivision and the species also are observed
naturally to make an infinite series.. For the double, beginning with
2, goes on through all the even numbers, as we select alternate numbers
out of the natural series; and these will be called doubles in compari-
son with the even and odd numbers successively placed beginning
5 with unity. All the numbers 3 from the beginning two places apart,
and third in order, are triples, for example, 3, 6, 9, 12, IS, r8, 21, 24.
It is their property to be alternately odd and even, and they themselves
in the regular series from unity are triples of all the numbers in suc-
cession as far as one wishes to go on with the process.
6 The quadruples are those in the fourth places, three apart, for
instance, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28,32, and so on. These are the quad-
ruples of the regular series of numbers from unity going on as far as
I Tbeon's definition (p. 76, 8 Hiller) is: "It is the multiple ratio when the greater term con-
tains the smaller more than once, Le., when the greater term is exactly measured by the smaller
with no remainder." Euclid (VII, Def. 5) has:" A greater number 18 multiple of the less when it
is measured by the less" 0 I"lfw, TOO &r. IrClUl"Tpi/nl v...o TOG lM4-
0'"0"01) ; the same definition as Euclid's is given by Hero of Alexandria, Definilio" I :JI, ed. Hultsch.
I NicomachU5 more often uses the tenn5 half, third, etc., for these fractions.
',. I. That is, from the natural series.
-
...Ie y
placed 7
the suc-
dd, and
, r. 0
will/e seen 0
'-other,2, and
-egmning 'wi'
-_.'-S
, 1
JO
-,,
le'
, ,
0:, as as,
lother at
o o,t,her.
tOI s d, 3
.....jll...
e'l 'J &11'11:\.1&
m' -ly OIlU- _
..
a ,eceso
ore oft:
.-"1.>Ji7".... t i '_ ntecedent "and f _...... ' ...,..,..,._... :t
'all _"'-rms,maratlobe-we
I.raDlLlILlC)DI CI,"U' _-,-d ,,,miles (_0G"0 tJulGm fM",,"
4 If we care to investigate the second species of the superparticular,
the sesquitertian (for the fraction naturally following after the half
is the third), we shall have this definition of it - a number which
contains the whole of the number compared, and a third of it in addi-
tion to the whole. We may have examples of it, in the proper order,
in the successive quadruples beginning with 4 joined to the triples from
3, each term with the one in the corresponding position in the series,
5 for example, 4: 3, 8: 6, 12: 9, and so on to infinity. It is plain that
that which corresponds to the sesquitertian but is called, with the
prefix sub-, subsesquitertian, is the number, the whole of which is
contained and a third part in addition, for example, 3: 4, 6: 8, 9: 12,
and the similar pairs of numbers in the same position in the series.
6 And we must observe the never-failing corollary of all this, that
the first forms in each series, the so-called root numbers,1 are next to
one another in the natural series j the next after the root-forms show
an interval of only one number; the third two; the fourth three;
7 the fifth four; and so on, as far as you like. Furthermore, that the
fraction after which each of the superparticulars' is named is seen in
the lesser of the root numbers, never in the greater.
8 That by nature and by no disposition of ours the multiple is a more
elementary and an older form than the superparticular we shall shortly
learn, through a somewhat intricate process. And here, for a simple
"I I frU6pJ"ff: properly' stock' but here translated' root.' 'I"u9,u1l. is the technical designation for
that onc in a series of equal ratios which is expressed in the lowest terms i in the words of Theon of
Smyma, p. So, 15 8'.: "Of all the ratios grouped in one species (e.g., double sesquiaIter, etc.)
those tbat are expressed in the smallest numbers and numbers prime to one another are called
primary among those bearing the same ratio and rools (lr,>flp.iWf) of those of the same species."
....1I8,u1f, is so used by Plato in the famous passage on the marriage number (Rep., 546 B-C). Apol-
lonius of Pergae used the term ..v6J.'Jt, in a somewhat similar way, to designate the units which
serve as the 'stock' in numbers consisting of those units multiplied by 10 or its powers; thus 5 is
the .. u8J.'Jt, of S0, 500, 5,000, etc. See Cantor, ap. tit., vol. I, p. 347. Another use of the word
..u 8 J ~ is described by Heath, Hiswry, vot. I, p. 116. In the present case, if the sesquialters are
derived from the double and the triple series,
2 4 6 8 10, etc.,
3 6 9 12 15, etc.,
as described above, the 'root sesquialter' is the ratio 3 : 2, the 'second from the root numbers' is the
ratio 6: 4, etc. Boethius, I. 25, observes that the number of the 'intervening numbers,' of which
Nicomachus is here speaking, is always one less than the number designating the order of the
ratio in the series. E.g., in the third ratio of the series above, 9: 6, there are two intervening num-
bers between 9 and 6 (8 and 7).
1 The number giving the name to each variety of supcrparticular (e.g., in the case of the ses-
quitntian, one and one third, brl .,. pl'l' 0 I) is to be observed always in the first instance of that ratio,
that is, in the' root numbers' explained in the preceding note; and more specifically this number
is always the smaller of the two in each' root ratio,' e.g., 2 in 3 : 2 (whence sesquiallcr, ;, 1'1 6).aol).
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
demonstration, we must prepare in regular and parallel lines the mul-
tiples specified above, according to their varieties, first the double
in one line, then in a second the triple, Ihen the quadruple in a third,
and so on as far as the tenfold multiples, so that we may detect their
order and variety, their regulated progress, and which of them is
naturally prior, and indeed other corollaries delightful in their exact-
ness. Let the diagram be as follows: 9
I 2
3 4 5
6
7
8
9
10
2
4
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3
6
9
12
15
18 21 24 27 3
0
4
8 12 16 20 24 28
3
2
3
6
4
5
10
15
20
25
3 35
40
45 5
6 12 18 24
3
3
6 42 48
54
60
7
14
21 28
35 4
2
49 56 63
7
8 16 24
3
2
4 4
8
56 64
72
80
9
18 27
3
6
45 54 63
7
2 81
90
10 20
3 4 5
60
7
80
90
100
Let there be set fortb in the first row the natural series from unity, 10
and then in order those species of the multiple which we were bidden
to insert.
Now then in comparison with the first rows beginning with unity, II
if we read both across and up and down in the form of the letter
gamma,' the next rows both ways, themselves in the form of a gamma,
beginning with 4, are multiples according to the first form of the multi-
ple, for they are doubles. The first differs by unity from the first, the
second from the second by 2, the third from the third by 3, the next by
4, those following by 5, and you will find that this follows throughout.
The third rows in both directions from 9, their common origin, will be
the triples of the terms in that same first row according to the second
form of the multiple; the cross-lines like the letter chi,' ending in the
I The top row and the Id'tband column of the table, which wc are directed to use, at
1 in a right angle, prncnt the form of the Greek capital Idler gamma, r. With the terms in thc:sc
stries we compare those of row :1 and column 2, which metl in the term 4 and make the same figure,
a r; but second rows are rtgarded, not as ending with 4. but as continuing to the tnms :1
in the first row and the first column, as Nicomachus's immediatel) following observation sbo'A"S
and &$ Boethiu5 (I. 27) interpreted him. The first term of the first suin, I, is surpaswd by tbe
fint term of the second, 2, by I, and so<on; cf. stelion 6 above.
I Row J and column J, which we no",' compare with ro" t and column I, meet at the term 9
at right angles and run beyond Q to J in both the first row and the 6rst column, They therefore
the appearance of the Greek capital letter chi (X), the two lines of which in inscriptional
forms often make right angles.
(
II di- g-,
direc.i1o s is 6, a,Id
__ e, third speces 0
-th, that sam,e ',- t
it' firs d
'tetrm vnt J,' '",,t,
',am, t'he '.'f
__.-. ities, tha',',O"C'1
jI
,er longm
. ,,'_te, IQ - 2, 6] o,f 4,1 ,.
,,',e, ,,'" , Iave as a diffe' , enc'," ,&
'0,"'- '.hem,.
- J Pi oceed
'16 - 2 I' 9, 16: I' 2, ,ani,
1II
1
f('--=' And ' ,"; "', ':= ,'- 'C,"es, "-:-", ',' '-;
'I .' . . . ". - '. ._! _'
, I e la' r
I I
- -
, "
-:.:'
"
-
(J I ," . 01
,di r mGirder' are the 1 t J,
of do : .. section 11).,
:16 I :_' I , le", the ldif(ereDc-e!1 are" &I. : -fo, " ,
"'''''IIo,''''iI mlal"LBI I : ',' ,cuJ,ar,,' ,Ie .1 I., regularly iD'C, - '.' 'I
e_I.ii!_''''
nIJlIIlllliIi":"",'.....II'JIit'"'hIllIUr .'. -;ft co-- tt, I, ' 11, ' It' I
.' p",,!jlo "Y ce 'h, c
(' ' 10 rgJ4), pp.. ],0'5 fie 0
,IThais,3--'2-- 2;91 -"
1
I
' b.ch was 'the ,ease with "'h.: d:' ,'I. - 'I
., f Jli
t
' ... ' "
D ,', 5e'neso" sesqUl i,-,,_O,
, ,I' 2. 3 4'1 lIte., so that "eqU' , 'I_I . '
Tb,e followi.ng feat-uric o]f t'h,le diagram, mloreove'[', is of n[o less e:xact,- 17
ness. Th,e te'rms at the corn,ers are u,nits; the lone ,at the b,egmnin,g
,a 'Simple unit, that at the en,d the UIlit of the third C'o'urse,l a'od the
othe'r 1.\\'"0 units of the :second [course appe,a.ring t\vice; so that th.e
product (of the first two) is equal to the square (of the last). Further- 18
more, in rea.d,ing eit'her way' there is an e:v,en p,rogress from unity to
th.le te.ns, a.n.d. agai.n on the Olpposlte. sides t'VOI other 'progressio:ns from
10 to roo.
Th.e term,:s oln the diag[onal fro,m 'x to 100 are al.l squ,are nu,mbers, '19
the produ,ets. ,of e:,q'uals 'by e'quals, and th[ose flanking them on eith,er
side are :all 'heteromecic, uneq'ual, and the pr[oducts of sides, of \vh,ich
one is ,greater '2 than the other by unity; an.d :50 the sum :I of t,vo :suc...
cessive :sq'uar'es and, t\\rl.ce th.e hetero,mec'ic numbe,rs b1et\veen th,em is
al\\T,ays a :squa.re" .and conversely a [squ;are is al\v'a:ys produced from th,e
t
h t b thd d t" th hi t .' wo _e eromeC1C numers o.n e .es an_. 'Wlc[e .-.. e square-e wee'n
them.
An ambitious perso,n mi.g'ht .find many' other pleasin.,g thin,gs. di,s- 20
.pla.yed in this diagr,am., upon which it. is n.[ot n01w' the t.im,e to dwell"
I A,,-,'t T'C1.. ..... 1: A', ,"',,1. . ',. . ,- bl"" , ,". ,'. hi"- n 't ..'. n tb' . --'sa" - , "Uta: ,t .... "". t tr .' ".:!I!' '.' '1 ,-.
- .. s', pp. 254 SS ,as In 51 ,0, eo -. spas. ,ge ,Dl... -M sun.. eSt pnma I,
d
. I I' -' '"' d'" '"' 'h '" iI' 1d 'I! U' A.
Ie(un' A, 10, lertl8 'I [00 11 'i .. .. Jt Q' ".r;op, J.n . ractlOne, .I ,;,e+t OppoSl taone v,e, ecussat loneiI' rY
--b'l h
l
-. .. I. '!'- ([. :;\7:0' ," S'S if" 'p,iI tI'I:') It ..... 'd
l
f th' ." d- d
l
t"h'rd" -,-,
. am.. lle. us expiams" II l,com". p. I') 24, I., IS .LC,U. monas () .. e aD,: I ,. 1 CO'ones
(po..."a.1 ,-p&w3-olup.l",) are Pytha,g,orean terms for JO ,and 100.. TIllS designation
depends on their 'belief that tbe ,first decade epltomize,s all nu:mber, and the numbe'rs
simply' repeat j in a sense. the 'first 10., So in tbe Theol .. Aritn.. (p_ 59] Ast) we are informed that
tbe:y,called 10 P'an .:, because no nU'mOOr is naturaD.y greater
J
but if any is so it som.ehow
cir[cles about to at again in repetition.; for the hundred. 1s 10 d,ecads" tbe thousand Is 10 hund'reds,
and each or the others, win. come
l
taking th,e return. path eIther to it or to one of the numbe,rs up
to it..:" nis notio;n is. of' necessity bnked 'with the doctrin.e tha llO is 'the perfect number.;. and as
the a,utbor '(probably Nicomat'hus himselO says jus:t before the words quoted. 10' exists as the
epitome of aD. numbers in its.elf in Qrder to offset an,d ,control unlimited, multitude, to a,et as "a
m,easure: for the wbole' and as it were a. gnomon and a strai,gbt edge U in the hands of the creating
dell,y;! The uBits then form the lint course, the tens the second. the hund,reds t.he third, and :50 0'0".
circling aJou.nd 1.0 and its powers as the ,turning plints of ,a Cf. ,also NesselmanD,
G,'s,mcA'le' ,tkr AIglelwla, I. Tht, Pi 239 (Berlin, (842). The i product [of the first then, is I X
100 lOO't and the C square of the ot'her" is :rr:;il. or 100..
t Hoche: here (p. 54; I i '0.( l,he text) reads i .1',0&. II is hard. to see what, 1"60& 1'I"pop.'4lt II
would be. 1:t is better to read 4''''''4' 'With G. and two other MSS re:f'ernn,l to rMupai:r' (or
perhaps "",d,u', has d'ropped out. of th[e t.ext '; .",.CKI' 4"1'.' would. be' easily explicable and
, "w"dl b ..- - l ..I. '. ..). T . ill-I ...-t' . t' -'. 'L'h' , .' 'f tb" .. ,,', '. ,.. '!I
t
: " . be" -.' - ['ed']
.. 0 .. .alanee 'gM:&r '. ,I. 0 ,[ us ra e . [e meamng o [[ e passage .I:: may ._' 05_'rY' . t It
the numbers tlankiDg' 4 a'f,e 2 and 16, which are respectivel.y t X. ;2 and :2 X 3; 9 Is Banked by [6,
and 12 (2 X .a,3, X In ,gen,e:ra1 m' :is flanked by (m - I)" and, I(m, + I)m. 'On h.etero.meac:
num,bers. see 11. 17.
S'Thus 6 is the b.et,erom,ecic a.umber between 4 and 9 &D,d 4 + 9 +(2 X 6) == 25 ;;;; 5'1:,. n,e:
general formula, this 'pro'position wo,uJd be rn"'+ (m +1.)'1:.+ 2' m(m + I); (2 m + 1)2"
a.ft.. ,6'1' d' .,." 41 __.1.,. '. J!;.I +, [,' ,+ ('" 'X/' ,-') - '-6'' d-, - ,., . .. _,_Ill ('" -)" .. - + (':. + .')" .
an 12 UAUA9 '. _[ ''11 v - 12 ".:3 _. Q.. 3- -.. u-, Of, m geDIt;lu
J
, I m.- .1 m.m . lllll
+
' ""....d-4' ..t
.. ,.- I It,. '.
-_..
for we have not yet gained recognition of them from our Introduction,
and so we must turn to the next subject. For after these two generic
relations of the multiple and the superparticular and the other two,
opposite to them, with the prefix sub-, the submultiple and the sub-
superparticular, there are in the greater division of inequality the
superpartient, and in the less its opposite, the subsuperpartient.
CHAPTER XX
I It is the superpartient 1 relation when a number contains within
itself the whole of the number compared and in addition more than
one part of it; and' more than one' starts with 2 and goes on to all
the numbers in succession.. ,Thus the root-form of the superpartient
is naturally the one which has in addition to the whole two parts of
the number compared, and as a species 2 will be called superbipar-
tient; after this the one with three parts besides the whole will be
called supertripartient as a species; then comes the superquadripar-
tient, the superquintipartient, and so forth.
2 The parts have their root and origin with the third, for it is impossible
in this case to begin with the half. For if we assume that any num-
ber contains two halves of the compared number, besides the whole
of it, we shall inadvertently be setting up a multiple instead of a super-
partient, because each whole, plus two halves of it, added together
makes double the original number. Thus it is most necessary to start
with two thirds, then two fifths, two sevenths, and after these two
ninths, following the advance of the odd numbers; for two quarters,
for example, again are a half, two sixths a third, and thus again super-
particulars will be produced instead of superpartients, which is not
the problem laid before us nor in accord with the systematic construc-
tion of our science.
3 After the superpartient the subsuperpartient immediately' is pro-
duced, whenever a number is completely contained in the one com-
pared with it, and in addition several parts of it, :2, 3, 4, or 5, and
so on.
I Defined by Tbeon of Smyrna, p. 78, 6 if. Hiller.
1 See OD 1. 19. :J (p. 215).
lThat is to say, given a superpartient the existence of a subsuperpartient naturally follows.
For if 9 is a 8uperpartient of ,. being If of it, then 7 is contained in 9 If times and is a sub-
superpartient of 9.
TRANSLATION: BOOIK I
CHAPTER XXI
22'
'The regular a,rrangem:e'n: and or'derly production, of both. speci,es,l I
are discovered when we set, forth th.e s'u[cc:essive ,eve,n and odd 'numbers,
b
'!i'. 'th- d 'ilth- th '. 1 .. f dd b
,,", '1' .. '. "1!'>' . ',"[ ",--. .',' - , ,... .1,. ,'. -',' - .. ' ".- .. " " - ' .:. " .........
l_.egmnmg Wl_: .3" ao[ .. , c'ompare 'VI"',, ',' ,em s[unp,le ,se,rles 0, 0 .. ,,'. numers
only;2 f[lom S in s[uccessi.on, 'first to :first that is, 5 to 3, - secon.d t,o
'. ,.,.,: .... cl ,tl'h' ,,', t i : t,... t"h.. '' 't
l
,.-.:.. t'h,d-[ - t'h-I"" t " 't', .,-', f' It1h,'
secon _.a., IS, 7 .0 4:, .1 ,D;" 0, ,If.J, a: ,IS, 9
1
_,0 5, our.
to fourth ,- that. is, I I to 6, and so Q1n In the same ,ord,er as far as
you like,. In this w,ay .the, fo'rm's of th,e s:upelpa'rtient ,and the subl-
sU,perp,a,rtient, ID du,e order, will be disclosed thr>ou,gh the
f h
h b i'-' . 'h th" iII!.
0' eac, specle.s:, t .e super'll'partlent ,rst, tt en I., e s.'upertrlp[artten.t,
supe'rquadripartie'nt
J
a,nd superquintipartie:nt, ,and further in succession
m slm.illar ,m:an,ner; for' after the root-:form's o,f each, species, ,th,e o'nes
fo ..l10,-w, t''h"e-;m:' w" :"1-'1-'1 b"'e" p' ,ro'du,ced"" h"y,',, [or b"OIt"'h t'h
l
e"
',:...,1..'.': ' :','.,' . '"" " ... "'",,,'- ,_"Co,.,." '.', .,.,".,,, .:1., .'"J . ,...:.1 .. <,1. .. , ., ",." '. ",.,,'
terms, ,and in gener.al by :mul.tiplying after the regular fo,nns 0, the
m.ultipl'e,.
T
A,B,'LE:" 0'.-"",F:I T:-' ..'RP' ,AR,' "T'"IE'"N"I"T'S",
" . .," ... "'.[ .. . - . '1' ..". ' '. ". . . :. ,_.

5 3 7 4 9
,5
I I 6
13
7
10 6 I
4
8 18 1'0 22 1:2 .26 14
.',-
IS 9
2I I 2 2
7
I ,5
33
18 3[9 21
20

2
2,8 1,6
,3
6 20 ,4,4 2'4 52'
28
I
-
2S IS
35
20 ,45 2
5 SS 3
65
3S ' ' :. J
3
1,8
4
2 24 ,54
3
0
166
.3[6
7
8
42
. '
8
63 3,5' :2 I:
49
2":
.3 5 77 4
2
9
1
4,9
1 .- " ,
4
24 56
3,2
7
2
40
88
-8
:10'4
5
61
4",,:
45
,27' 63 3
6 8r
45 99 54
I I
7
63
.. ,
It ,must be lobserved tb,at from th,e tw'o parts in ad,d'itio'D to th.e 2'
wh'ole are contain,ed in the greater term, ,v,e ar'e to und,erstan,d
'th. .d., '3 t'b"'..e' cc.ase.< 0'.',' a',,rts. '- fo-urth: '4 with fo[ur parts 'fifth,'
..If _,J 1 . . . ". .-' , .. . ., - ""....'- -, "
I The superpa,rti:le'nt ,and subsuperparticnt..
'I Here means i pure t in the sense of t' with DO ,ad..,
mtu're from anoth.er 'class of term5
t
' as in I. 22. 3" ,4,:; 11. 21 4,"
I That is, 'when a 'superpartient colntains", besides 'the lesser' Du:mber'l 'two parts o,f the 'lesser
Dumber" it is unders,tood. that those parts are third'S, etc'., eft I 2,8: Hoc tlftoqut tJ'ide.'N'"
tlu'm .es,'.,1 tl'fUJ'niam" ,um tlOOt: /"arles ""i,wrl: ,,l,rl;s- In maio,ib"ts tertii S611J:/Jer lo'CabuluJII sub..
ut sr' pe,bilarl,iens .' . .. . d,;caJ. ", s14. perbi/Ja:,'luns leTtias" ;;.'
'. These te'rms represe'Dt the [,auos,r'espectiv'ely" of 11, 'I", 11, 11- to I'.
'22
with five, 'sixth,' and so on, so that the order of nomenclature is some-
thing like this: superbipartient, supertripartient, superquadripartient,
then superquintipartient, and similarly with the rest.
3 Now the simple, uncompounded relations of relative quantity are
these which have been enumerated. Those which are compounded of
them and as it were woven Qut of two into one are the following, of
which the antecedents 1 are the multiple superparticular and multiple
superpartient, and the consequents the ones that immediately arise
in connection with each of the former, named with the prefix sub- j
together with the multiple superparticular the submultiple super-
particular, and with the multiple superpartient the submultiple super-
partient. In the subdivision' of the genera the species of the one will
correspond to those of the other, these also having names with the pre-
fix sub-.
CHAPTER XXII
I Now the multiple superparticular is a relation 3 in which the greater
of the compared terms contains within itself the lesser term more than
once and in addition some one part of it, whatever this may be.
, As a compound, such a number is doubly diversified after the pecul-
iarities of nomenclature of its components on either side; for inas-
much as the multiple superparticular is composed of the multiple and
superparticular generically, it will have in its subdivisions according
to species a sort of diversification and change of names proper both
to the first part of the name and to the second. For instance, in the
first part, that is, the multiple, it will have double, triple, quadruple,
quintuple, and so forth, and in the second part, generically from the
superparticular, its specific fonns in due order, the sesquialter, ses-
quitertian, sesquiquartan, sesquiquintan, and so on, so that the com-
bination will proceed in somewhat this order:
Double sesquialter, double sesquitertian, double sesquiquartan,
double sesquiquintan, double sesquisextan, and analogously.
Beginning once more: triple sesquialter, triple sesquitertian, triple
sesquiquartan, triple sesquiquintan.
I See I. 19. 2 and the note, on the terms' antecedent' and
1 That is, just as corresponds to so
superbipartient (a subclass) answen to superbipartient, etc.
'Theon of Smyrna, p. 78, 23 ft. Hiller, defines this ratio.
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
223
Again: quadruple sesquialter, quadruple sesquitertian, quadruple
sesquiquartan, quadruple sesquiquintan.
Again: quintuple sesquialter, quintuple sesquitertian, quintuple
sesquiquartan, quintuple sesquiquintan, and the forms analogous to
these ad infinitum. Whatever number of times the greater contains
the whole of the smaller, by this quantity the fust part of the ratio
of the terms joined together in the multiple superparticular is named;
and whatever may be the factor, in addition to the whole several times
contained, that is, in the greater term, from this is named the second
kind of ratio of which the multiple superparticular is compounded.
Examples of it are these: 5 is the double sesquialter 1 of 2; 7 the 3
double sesquitertian of 3; 9 the double sesquiquartan of 4; I I the
double sesquiquintan of 5. You will furthermore always produce them
in regular order, in this fashion, by comparing with the successive even
and odd numbers from 2 the odd numbers, exclusively, from 5, first
with first, second with second, third with third, and the others each
with the onc in the same position in the series. The successive terms
beginning with 5 and differing by 5 will be without exception double
sesquialters of all the successive even numbers from 2 on, when tcons
in the same position in the series are compared; and beginning with
3, if all those with a difference of 3 be set forth, as 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21,
and in another series there be set forth those that differ by 7, to in-
finity, as 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, and the greater be compared with the
smaller, first to first, second to second, third to third, fourth to fourth,
and so on, the second species will appear, the double sesquitertian,
disposed in its proper order.
Then again, to take a fresh start, if the simple series of quadruples 4
be set forth, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28,32, and then there be placed beside
it in another series the successive numbers beginning with 9, and in-
creasing by 9, as 9, 18, '7, 36, 45, 54, we shall have revealed once
more the multiple superparticular in a specific form, that is, the
double sesquiquartan in its proper order; and anyone who desires
can contrive this to an unlimited extent.
The second kind begins with the triple sesquialter, such as 7 : 2, '4: 4, 5
and in general the numbers that advance by steps of 7 compared with
the even numbers in order from 2. Then once more, ID: 3 is the first 6
triple sesquitertian, 20: 6 the second, and, in a word, the multiples
of la in succession, compared with the successive triples. This indeed
1 Because it contains :2 twice, plus I; i.e., is 2!- X 2.
224
we can observe with greater exactitude and clearness in the table
studied above, for in comparison with the first row the succeeding
rows in order,' compared as whole rows, display the forms of the mul-
tiple in regular order up to infinity when they are all compared in
each case to the same first row; and when each row is compared to
all those above it, in succession, the second row being taken as our
starting point, all the forms of the superparticular are produced in
their proper order; and if we start with the third row,' all of those
beginning with the fifth that are odd in the series when they are com-
pared with this same third row, and those following it, will show all
the forms of the superpartient in proper order. In the case of the mul-
tiple superparticular, the comparisons will have a natural order of their
own if we start with the second row and compare the terms from the
fifth, first to first, second to second, third to third, and so on, and then
the terms of the seventh row to the third, those of the ninth to the
fourth, and follow the corresponding order as far as we are able to go.
7 It is plain that here too the smaller terms have names corresponding
to the larger ones, with the prefix sub-, according to the nomenclature
given them all.
CHAPTER XXIII
I The multiple superpartient' is the remaining relation of number.
This, and the relation called by a corresponding name with the prefix
sub-, exist when a number contains the whole of the number compared
more than once (that is, twice, thrice, or any number of times) and
certain parts of it, more than one, either two, three, or four, and so on,
2 besides. These parts .( are not halves, for the reasons mentioned above,
but either thirds, fourths, or fifths, and so on.
3 From what has already been said it is not hard to conceive of the
1Referring to the table in chapter 19. the successive rows of which are multiples of the first
(since this is simply the multiplication table).
1 That is, the comparisons are to be 5th row with the Jd, 7th with the 4th, 9th with the 5th.
etc. Hence we will have:
5 10 IS If b"
- - - - - = etc.... - su..... r lpartient
3 6 9 1'''-
7 14:n It ..
- - - - = etc. = - su.... rtnpartlcnt
4 8 12 I' r- ,
9 18 27 It cl . .
- ... - - - ... etc. = - su........ ua npartient etc.
S 10 IS I' .. -.... ,
'Theon's definition is found p. 19. 15 ft. Hiller.
t See 20. 2 above.
TRANSLATION: BOOK I
"5
varieties of this relation, for they are differentiated in the same way
as, and consistently with, those that precede, double superbipartient,
double supertripartient, double superquadripartient, and so on. For
example, 8 is the double superbipartient of J, 16 of 6, and in general
the numbers beginning with 8 and differing by 8 are double super-
bipartients of those beginning with J and differing by J, when those
in corresponding places in the series are compaled, and in the case of
the other varieties one could ascertain their proper sequence by fol-
lowing out what has already been said. In this case, too, we must
conceive that the nomenclature of the number compared goes along
and suffers corresponding changes, with the addition of the prefix sub-.
Thus we come to the end of our speculation upon the ten arithmetical 4
relations for a first Introduction. There is, however, a method I
very exact and necessary for all discussion of the nature of the
universe which very clearly and indisputably presents to us the
fact that that which is fair and limited, and which subjects itself
to knowledge,2 is naturally prior to the unlimited, incomprehensible,
and ugly, and furthermore that the parts and varieties of the infinite
I The principle about to be stated is that of the 'three rules' (Cantor, op. ciJ., vol. I, p. 431;
Ncsselmann, op. dl., p. 198), by following which, starting from three equal terms, other sets of
three in different ratios may be derived, and by the rc\'crsal of which any proportion in three term!
may be reduced to the original equality. The present purpose is to show that equality is more
elementary than any form of inequality as measured by ratios (cl. n. 1. I), and it follows (or
Kicomachus as a Pythagorean that what is true of numbers is also true of the universe, and that
'equality' and 'sameness' are therefore elements and principles. The proposition was undoubt
edl}' not original with Nicomachus, for its history can be tracl'ti back several centuries. In Theon
of Sm}'ma (p. 107, 24 HilIer) it is given on the authority of Adrastus, a Peripatetic, whose date
is stated in the Pauly-Wissowa encyclopredia to be the middle of the second century A.D.
E. Hiller (Rhei'l. M,IS., "'01. x..XVI, pp. 581 fr.) has shown that the book of Adrastus which Thoon
is probably quoting is his commentary on Plato's Ti11UleUS. It is further probable from the con
text of Theon that Eratosthenes (ca. 276-194 s.c.) knew the 'three rules.' He is there cited in
these words: "So we shall take three magnitudes and the proportion residing in them and change
the terms, and we shall show that all mathematics is made up of the proportion of quantities and
that their source and element are the principle of the proportion" (hll,B6J'Tff atj Tp(a. Kill
ToVTOIt Toilr apovl Kill IJrI .0""11 TQ TO" I!
dNhO')'!1l1 W"Ol1WI" TtI"WI" lrV)'n'Tlll Kill rlrTll" llVTW. dpxtj Ka.l tl'TOIXf,OI" iJ Tijl dNh01'llll ,/,lit:ru),
Another citation of Eratosthenes (1'hoon, p. 81, n a.) informs us that the 'principle (ot>6rru) of the
proportion' is ratio, which should be taken into consideration in connection with the jltatcments
above. Theon immediately adds, after the passage first cited, 'Dut Eratosthenes says tbat he
will omit the demonstrations' (Td' ai dnllf!m 0 ,u. 'EplIT0l191",,1 1'7J0"! rllpll"'Afl+n,.), and
proceeds to give the 'three rules' as stated by Adrastus. Eratosthcnes's reference to 'three mag
nitudes' and 'changing the however, seems, especially in view of the context of Theon.
to apply to nothing else than the 'three rules,' and it must be inferred from his own statement that
he would 'omit the that the latter were familiar to him. E. Hiller (Philologus,
vol. XXX, pp. 60 ff.) has shown that this quotation of Eratosthenes is probably taken from hi!
nhllT"''''K6r, and that this, like the book of Adrastus, was a commentary on the Ti11UleJl.S.
I CL I. 2. S.
226 C
- CHUS OF GE SA
'.. ", .'. - '. .' '. I I 1 ... . . , , ..,:.
NIOIMA'- ,
and are gi'v'e,n shape an,d oo,undaries. by the .former" and
thro'ugh it attain to their fitting order and 'sequence, an,d like objects
brought bieneath some seal
1
or measure aD gain a s'har,e o,f likeness to
it an,d. similar.ity of name when they fall u.n1de'I its influe.nce For tbu:s
It is reasona,ble that th.e ratllonal p1art of the soul will be the agent which,
p'uts in ord.er th,e irrational p[art, an.d passlon and appetite, whic.h,
fin,d their places, in t.he, tw'o forms ,o,f inequ,ality, will be regulated by
the reaso,ning fa[culty as th,ough. blY' a k!n.d ,of equality and sameness,.
5 ,And from this equalizing' process there will properly result fo[r us the
s,o-called ethica'J vi,rtues,'2 sobriety, courage, gentleness, self-co,ntrol
J
fortitude, and the like'
6 Let us th"e'n [consid,e'l the: nature of the pnn,eiple that. pertains to
th.ese 'unive'rsal m,atters. It is ,capable of p.ro,ving that all th,e ,complex
species ,of inequality and the varieties of th..ese: specles are pr,oduced
[o'ut. of eq,uality) first and alone, as .' ro:m ,a mo,th,er and root.
7 Let there: be, giv,en us equal number:s in three terms" first), units,
th,en 'two:'s in another gro'up of thr,ee" then three's, next four's, five's,
a,nd so on as :far as y,ou lik,e. .-or th,em, as. the setting fo:rth of these
terms has come about by a divine, and not 'human, contrivan,ce, n,ay,
by Natur,e h,e.rself'" m.ultiples willfi.,st be pro[duced, and among t,hese
the dOll,ble wiU leald th,e way, the'triple after the dou,bIe, th,e ,quadruple
next, and then the: quintupl,e" :and, following the order we h"ave 'pre-
vio'usly 'recognized, ad infinitu.m s,eco[n1d, t.he superparticular',
. 1 1- I f
h,ere agaIn the first form, the sesq.ula ter" wil lead" land the next a Iter
it, the 'sesqu'itertian, will folow, and after them the next in order',
t
he sesq 1' ua' tan tb,e sesqul l"ntan the ses utse tan a''nd
l
so on ad';' '[ .. 1' --;:< U ,q . : '.' q,u, '," HI 'I . _I,.' ,.'-,X _'
h- d 'h h- 'h .'h b'
inji.-n1Ium, t I.ll. , t 'e sU,perpartient:, W.le '.. ,once, more t :.e S'Upe'I .Ipar....
tient WIll ..'ead, th,e sU,pe'rtripartient. will follow innnediately upon It,,
1 Whatever is absolute1.y indet,e.rminate can never r-emain the same or even. retain the' same
Dam,e ,even for an insta'D't; for the'Q ,it w:ouJd be d,eter.mined. Objects of this sort are to be loo. ['00
f
" . -- g th - ma- -t -nat 'thi' np' m-otl ned' I--- I 'W
H
:h ' .'L - . - '!' - pp,' -sed- 'III";th
l
'f 'm thaJ
, or amon:_ '_..' ., . :. _ . _,' c ,; eJ .0 ' n,. . 1 en UJey' ar,e Im: ,I"es' ,": ,nI,' 1 or .,.,y,are
no longe,r indete'rminate b,ut determin"ed, thereb,y; th.ey remain 'like th.emselves &'nd.lik,e thew pat...
te:m, the idea, fO'rJD,. from on,e mom,en,t '1'0 the next." ,aDd. can be called, 'by the same: .name from t!i me
to time of likeness, and 5Imilari,t,Y o( name'). As Nicomachus points, out above I,,, 2
- 2'., 1:) it is 'only by "irt.ue of tbe for.m 'with w'hl.c,h they are'i.mpressed, and not ,of th[cmseles tha,t.
'su,ch things have' any existence and appeUation; both their being a'ud. their nam.e ,&fIe those of the
forms and not their O'WD,"
I Aristotl.e gives so'bri,et.y (tlwf/JporfJ"I) as the mean. In matters ,concerning pleasure and pain WJ,th
licentjousn,es's (clICO').,U,la.) ,as the: ex,c,ess a'nd no to, ma.t[ch it O'D t.he 'side o,f' deficie,ncy'
Nie,;" 1107 b 4 Cou.rage (",,,14) he leaUs the mean between, f,ear and recklessness, fJ.6fJ'or
,and Btip"" (ilti4,,, , I 107 a 33)..; Gentleness (..pa.o'r'l'; t, e extremes 6nl,M7-"'t, iop,IJak) ': see
ibid.. , '1 108 a 4 fI.; self-co,n.trol d[d patience are discussed together'l ibid.,
JJ4,S b 8 B..
and then will come the superquadripartient, the superquintipartient,1
and according to the foregoing as far as one may proceed.
Now you must have certain rules, like invariable and inviolable 8
natural laws, following which the whole aforesaid advance and progress
from equality may go on without failure. These are the directions: 2
Make the first equal to the first, the second equal to the sum of the
first and second, and the third to the sum of the first, twice the second,
and the third. For if you fashion according to these rules you would
get first all the forms of the multiple in order out of the three given
terms of the equality, as it were, sprouting and growing without your
paying any heed or offering any aid. From equality you will first'
get the double; from the double the triple, from the triple succes-
sively the quadruple, and from this the quintuple in due order, and so
on. From these same multiples in their .regular order, reversed, there 9
are immediately produced by a sort of natural necessity through the
agency of the same three rules the superparticulars, and these not as
it chances and irregularly but in their proper sequence; for from the
first," the double, reversed, comes the first, the sesquialter, and from
the second, the triple, the second in this class, the sesquitertian; then
the sesquiquartan from the quadruple, and in general each one from
the one of similar name. And with a fresh start, if the superparticulars 10
are set forth in the order of their production, but with terms reversed,
the superpartients, which naturally follow them, are brought to light,
I II"ld fVev, 1'6 (p. 66, 14 Hoche) is omitted by Codclt G.
I As stated by Theon of Smyma, p. J07. 24 ff., Adrastus thus formulated the rule: "Given
three terms in any proportion, if three others be taken formed from thl'SC. the first equal to the
first, the second equal to the sum of the first and second, and the third the 5um of the first, twice
the !'oecond and the third, those thus taken will again be proportional." Algebraically this method
obtains from a, ar, art the series, a, a(1 + r), a(1 + r)l. All of the remaining results of this
chapter are included in this formula. The examples given by TheOD start with three equal
tenns, as here.
I The results thus produced will be:

,
equality
,
4
doubles
3 9
triples
4
.,
quadruples
,
5 '5
quintuples, etc.
Theon gives like .
Theon includes this process in his discussion; its results are as follows:
4 :: I, doubles re\er.>cd, giving 4 6 Q, !'oe!!quialters
Q 3 I, triples reversed, giving 9 U 16, sesquitertians
16 4 I, quadruples reversed, giving 16 20 25, sel'oQuiquartans
2S S I, quintuples reversed, giving ::S JO J6, sesquiquintans, etc.
,I-j . ,. !.II
. I " ' , , ,
!
NICO,MACHUS OF GERASA
th
',' .' "b' ,.: '. ". ti! .-:t- th '. ,'. '11 al .. t, 1 tb'l " . ... .,: rt't f'" ' .. :.....
e -,en_,rom ,e, sesquler., _ ,e supepa leo, - irom
th
-ie s'-,es"oq'-U"'It'ert';'an-. eo s'upe'-"'r'q'-'u'-'a,dr I, -Ip''lar "t'lien--t f:'ool-' "'m" '1- th-e-:-' se'sq'-' --.: W'--q'-'U'artan 1 an: -d
,-I., -I J' '.' -, : _ -,I. I '. _- I,' - '---- _ :<,---'.. 1
"
, _.' .'_
I so on ad infinitum., If" however" the supe,rpa,rtic,ulats 2 are set forth
with terms not in l,evle,rse but in dir'ect order,1 there are p,rod,uoed,
throu,gh the three rules the multiple superparticu,lars, the double
sesqu,ialter out of the first, the sesqu,ialte,r;1 the double sesquiterlian
f h d
'hl .' ill th d h'1- .' f th ' ' "i" '.- ",'. ' . , =- "'-1' 'ei ']... . le I '.' . '. e :,'il l' " I ,". I: .. "1
,[om te sesqult,rt an" .. sesqu, quartanrom .... e
-. th,- 'd" t:h -' J"'q:-uar--tan:.- a-'D-d-" o,'-n'- 'F'-rom- th,-,o'se. b'IY:' tb- "e"
12 e-lfi,,_ e s'--,qu., ': _. ,.... , ".', .'.' , ,.. ., , .. 1... I, " .. '. ,.'. . ....,,' .1 I ..
!eve:rsal [0'( the superparticular:, that is, the 'superpartle:nts, and from,
tb
,' - r d' ed Wl"'th'0 t -,--- uch- re-ver-sa'l the m ,)' superp-'ar--tl c- lars-
.. 'ose P[-;OIUC',_ ",.- .. .u S"..I', . "'."'-t .. - "U ',:'_'- ... '-"
th
',": e,'r-e a"'r',e" o- ..-n-'ce m''o-re p-r''o,,duced-' m-" th'(ie'-' sam..'" 'le' w''ay:': a-"n'd-' b"'y"""- e' 'sam: ," e,' ru"Illes- I . '._ ',' .'. ',._.', .' .." _ .' . - . : -, _ _ _.1..-.'....._. '- ,- . . . .' -_- _ . :. __ .' J - ",:':' '- ,
both 'whe,n the 'term's are 'in direct or reverse order, the,umbers that
h th
1- 1 t"
s remamlng' n'wnenca rea 1.0ns
1,3 The folllo'wing must suffice a's illustra'tio:ns ,o,f all that has been said
hit,herto, th,e productio'D o;f th,ese numbe'r:s an: theIr sequence, and the
14 u'se of d.irect and of I,everse oI'del Fro,m the relation an,d plroporti1o'n
,. f' th 1
1
t- d t 'b" th tb, I' t
..... " -' .. -- -', . .-- -,.' I -- - .. ,- ,-- ..... - - - -. - .. " .-.-' -.... - ',. 1' ,'- '--.' " ',.... ..,', -- .... '., . ,.-','.- ",'.' .' ': '- --, --,
m terms o. .,e sesqula I .. -er, reverse.. so as, 0 ... egm W1 .,.e arges, _
. h Ia
ti
il''' tll!l t -.. th' b-
terul, t' .,ere a,'Ilses a re_-_ 'on m superpar'len' ratIOS, I:'. e, super
tient;1 and from it In direct order, beginning with the small,est 'te,rm,
a multiple sU,perpart'',cu'l a-I relation, the ,double sesqu'ialte,r. For ex-
ample, fro,m 9
1
1 6, 4)1 w'e get either '9, 15, 2'5 or 4, 10" 25., F:ro:m the
1
'" f '. ill b' '... .' th h .'
reatlon In terms 0,' sesqulte,rtlans,'e,gmnlng Wl .. t,e greatest term,
,. d _.' .. d',' -,- -.,' ... ,.. - c-. ".. .... ,. ,t tb- -. '..,,", :-----tri-' '''' .. -. --"ti' ,-., t-, .. b" ,co ....' th, t-h'-"
IS ,erlve, a superparl,en'ie s,uperl ,,,pareD, ,-,egmnlng Wl :_e
'.,-:, .' '11:, -t t --' " '..- d')' ", ,b:,l ..'.i l "-t o ..,t,:': .. - F--",' .. ...:...--:. '--,,11, f- ',' ."-.- " -6 '-. ....
sma es,_ erm" a, .,Oll e sesqul erllan,. or examp.e, II,rom 1
1
, 12,,9
- .. ,.... .. -- . 6,- .::- [S" ,'.' .. -. '. . ,-, '1- -'" An'-" --.-- d f' "'.. :t-h --'--'- -- ,-'1-- t- . ti" .'. .f,'
comes I, 2'1,1 49 or 9, 21, 49., 11 rom le re ,a 1:0n In ,e:nns 0
1
.. - h't - d t b -h th It"
sesqulquartans'J w'-en 1 IS arrange. 1:0 ...egl'n 'WIt. -.: ,e arg'est IS
d
'. d h d' h '. '. -
..ienve. ,a 'superpartle'nt, t.e rlp,artlent; wJen It starts With
t
e- 's",m"a:'l'le.s-.;t :te',nn '''-. a m..u..t"Ip-l'e' IS-U'p'e,'rp. ':a. .. r'- th-
i
, e' d,o''uble- um'-,
. . ._- '- I .' t" '", ",' '. - _'.. -", - .- ,- .. - . . , . ' " - .-, ,- .__ , " .r ,... . ",.' ..
tan,; for instance:, from, 25, 20:, r6 comes ,either 25, 45, SI Oil 16, 36" 81,.
15 I'n the cas.e ,of all th,ese relatIons, that ,are thus diff,erentiated"s iand
Res,ult,in\g superpartients ':
,25 (superbipartient),
49 (supert,ri,partient)
,81 (superqua,dripartient),
9' '[5
16 28
,25 4S
Tb1eoD reports this, 'matter' as well.. Tbe results:
Rev'erse,d superparticulars :
'9 6 4 (sesq.uia t
J ,6 r:2 9 (sesqui,t,ertian)
25 20 16 (sesquiquartan)
I] This gives the fol o'wing results:.
Superparticulars : l\{ultiple &uperparticu'lars :
4 6 '9 (sesq'uialtcr) 4 10 25 (double sesqu'ialter)
9
1
! 2 16 ('sesq'U'itc'rtian) 9' 21' ,49 (double sesq'uitertian)
l6 20 25 (sesq:uiq,ua'rla'n) '16 36 81 (doubl,e sesquiquarta'n).
I ", '. ,at Nicom&chus meant by' "CI.'''. "."t"WP Busl"ev'x8f,wli.', f.tbe contrasted fa'iost'P is, ShO'WD
b,:y l'ambU,ch'u,s"s, commentafYil which here' has ',"'Q,. ,,'A,fA'(folAl.... &rxl",(dPI They' at'c the pairs of
1.
e-, 1 7
ill
'en.-
'JI
.' - .J
. I
I, -e
I
9
1- . ,
I'.' I
. e SUp
ar ,I.;) a
the
.Illest term com':s t I .
10 to start "Vlth, the
u_ ,from 9
1
, . 5, 25 'comes,'eith '9,
l...... ti,;.I;J... ,t, 'begi,nnmg ''\\r't
l
.
'rtlle, I. ,and
16" 2
1
8, '9 C,OI
o
L
.De
h
l
. ,I -
,_'t _, CI'fCU'. _..,
to,"/'On-
..
e '10' men
- d'lil 1IiI'
.D . ,.' '. It! on,
fur her 'I "UJI!!!i'I;
6
9 9
12 1,6 16- a ..
161
4
16 1,2
9
2 2
1
0
IS 2
5
1,6 28
'9
2 ,
5 - _.I - I
10 2 ..1 '9
21.
49
;(,6 ::1
Ii'
=-deri' -a' e c
-
I 'J' I
!
..
:0
.1'11 :
.' ..IIAI ":"! 'I '. .i'I ".AMJIbNii!i'iP'oiI ')
. _ ... " al'.' g;. 1"",1<" V1.t,f' oilY'
I ma.y'. 00- ." iIiliIiVJ4I'nnn""ed-
_ . .' _". I '"_ .1
BOOK 11
CHAPTER I
I An element is said to be, and is, the smallest thing which enters into
the composition of an object and the least thing into which it can be
analyzed. Letters, for example, are called the elements of literate
speech, for out of them all articulate speech is composed and into them
finally it is resolved. Sounds are the elements of all melody; for they
are the beginning of its composition and into them it is resolved.
The so-called four elements of the universe in general are simple
bodies, fire, water, air, and earth j 1 for out of them in the first instance
we account for the constitution of the universe, and into them finally
we conceive of it as being resolved.
We wish also to prove that equality is the elementary principle'
of relative number; for of absolute number, number per se, unity
and the dyad ' are the most primitive elements, the least things out
of which it is constructed, even to infinity, by which it has its growth,
2 and with which its analysis into smaller terms comes to an end. We
have, however, demonstrated that in the realm of inequality advance
and increase have their origin in equality and go on to absolutely all
the relations with a certain regularity through the operation of the
three rules.
4
It remains, then, in order to make it an element in very
truth, to prove that analyses also finally come to an end in equality.
Let this then be considered our procedure.
CHAPTER 11
I Suppose then you are given three terms, in any relation whatsoever
and in any ratio, whether multiple, superparticular, superpartient, or
a compound of these, multiple superparticular or multiple superpar-
1 The ordinary list of elements for practically all Greek philosophy. These four were s t n ~
guished as primitive bodies in immemorial antiquity, but the morc scientific idea of them as ele-
ments seems to have originated with Empedocles. On the matter see Burnet's summary, wed
Philosophy, ParI 1, T!uJles to PlaJo, p. 26.
'See on T. 23.4. er. Part T, pp. 99 ff. That is, those given in I. 13. 8.
"0
TRANSLATION: BOOK Il
23 1
tient, provided only that the mean term is seen to be in the same ratio
to the lesser as the greater to the mean, and vice versa. Subtract
always from the mean the lesser term, whether it be first or last in
order, and set down the lesser term itself as the first term of your new
series i then put as your second tcon what remains from the second
after the subtraction; then after having subtracted the sum of the
new first term and twice the new second leon from the remaining num-
ber - that is, the greater of the numbecs originally given you - make
the remainder your third term, and the resulting numbecs will be in
some other ratio, naturally more primitive.
1
And if again in the same 2
way you subtract the remainder from these same terms,' it will be
found that your three terms have passed back into three othecs more
primitive, and you will find that this always takes place as a conse-
quence, until they are reduced to equality, whence by every necessity
it appeacs evident that equality is the elementary principle of relative
quantity.
There follows upon this speculation a most elegant principle, ex- 3
tremely useful in its application to the Platonic psychogony 3 and
the problem of all harmonic intervals; for in the Platonic passage we
are frequently bidden, for the sake of the argument, to set up series
of intervals of two, three, four, five, or an infinite number of sesquialter
ratios, or two sesquitertians, sesquiquartans, sesquioctaves, or super-
particulars of any kind whatsoever, and in each case three, four, or
five of them, or as many as may be directed. It is reasonable that 4
we should do this not in an unscientific, unintelligent fashion, it may
be even blunderingly, but artistically, surely, and quickly, by the
following procedure.
CHAPTER m
Every multiple will stand at the head' of as many superparticular 1
ratios corresponding in name with itself as it itself chances to be re-
moved from unity/' and no more nor less under any circumstances.
I This is because the process is the reverse of the former. Theon of Smyma, p. 110, 19 fr.,
gives this rule, taking it from Adrastus.
2 For example. take 8. 32, t 28 (quadruple series). The first term of the new series will be 8;
the ~ o n will be 32 - 8 = 24; the third will be 128 - [(2 X 24) + 8J, or 72. This gives a
triple series, Then similarly from 8, 24, 72 will be derived 8, 16, 32, the double series, and from
the latter 8, 8, 8, a series of equal terms. J See Plato, Timneus, 35 A fr.
ty>jcrfTlI.<: That ill, with reference to the table in section 4; 'will head a column.'
That is, in the list of doubk-s (sce the table),
'3'
, The doubles, then, will produce 1 sesquialters, the first one, the
second two, the third three, the fourth four, the fifth five, the sixth
six, and neither more nor less, hut by every necessity when the super
particulars that are generated attain the proper number, that is, when
their number agrees with the multiples that have generated them, at
that point by a divine device, as it were, there is found the number
which terminates them all because it naturally is not divisible by
that factor whereby the progression of the superparticular ratios
went OD.
From the triples all the sesquitertians will proceed, likewise equal
in number to the number of the generating terms, and coming to an
end, after the independence of their advance is lost, in numbers not
divisible by 3. Similarly the sesquiquartans come from the quad-
ruples, reaching a culmination after their independent progression in
a number that is not divisible by 4.
3 As an example, since doubles generate sesquialters corresponding
to them in nwnber,2 the first row of multiples 3 will be I, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64 Now since 2 is the first after unity, this will be the origin of
one sesquialter only, 3, which number is not divisible by 2, so that
another sesquialter might arise out of it. The first double, therefore,
is productive of but one sesquialter, and the second, 4, of two. For
it produces its own sesquialter, 6, and that of 6, 9, but there is none
for 9 because it has no half. Eight, which is the third double, is father
to three sesquialters j one its own, 12; the second, 18, the sesquialter
of 12 j and third, 27, that of 18 j there is no fourth one, however, be-
cause of the general rule, for 27 is not divisible by 2. Sixteen, the
fourth double, will stand at the head of four sesquialters, 24, 36, 54,
and finally 81, so that they may of necessity be equal in number to
what generated them; for 81 by its nature is not divisible by 2. And
this, as you go on, you will find holds true in similar fashion to
infinity.
4 For the sake of illustration let there be set down the table of the
doubles, thus:
1 f ~ o v ~ l : In the same sense that the even numbers 'produced' sesquialters by the process
of I. 19. 2; but each double is here regarded as the source or producer not only of its own sesqui-
alter, but also that of this sesquialter itself, and so on, as far as the ratio can be carried on in
integen.
1 The number of the multiple is of coune that of its order in the series of doubles, or triples,
.le.
aThat is, doubles, the simplest subcla!l!l.
TRANSLATION: BOOK II
233
The triple ratio along
the hypotenuse
The double ratio in the breadth of the table
I 2 4 8 16 32 64
3 6 12 24 48 96
9 18 36 72 144
27 54 108 216
81 162 3'4
243 486
7
2
9
The sesquialter ra-
tio in the depth
of the table
CHAPTER IV
I
the depth
The sesquiter-
tian ratio in
243
3
2
4
43
2
57
6
7
68
81
108
We must make a similar table in illustration of the triple:
The triple ratio in the breadth
I 3 9 27
4 12 36
16 48
64
7
2
9
97
2
12
9
6
'7
28
23
0
4
1024 37
2
4
0
9
6
In the foregoing table we shall observe that in the same way the
first triple, 3, stands at the head of but one sesquitertian ratio, 4, its own
sesquitertian, which irrunediately shuts off the development of another
like it; for 4 is not divisible by 3, and hence will not have a sesquiter-
tian. The second triple is 9, and hence will begin a series of only two
sesquitertian ratios, 12, its own, and 16, that of 12 j but 16 cuts off
further progress, for it is not divisible by 3 and hence will not have a
sesquitertian. Next in order is the triple 27, three times removed 2
from I, for the triples progress thus: 1,3,9,27. Therefore this number
will stand at the head of three sesquitertian ratios and no more. The
first is its own, 36; the second the sesquitertian of 36, 48; the third
that of the last, 64, and this no longer has a third part and therefore
will not admit of a sesquitertian. The fourth leads a series of four ses-
quitertians and the fifth, of course, five.
Such, then, is the illustration; and for the other multiples let the 3
manner of your tables be the same. Observe that likewise here, as
we found to be true in our previous discussion, Nature shows us that
the doubles are more nearly original than the triples, the triples than
The quadruple
ratio on the
hypotenuse
co
- c -- .... ,'. '1' ". I" ..... " .' . .'. . '. , ,'. " ..
NI 'MAl HUS 'OF GERASA
the quadruples, these latter than the q,uintU.pi:les, a.D,d so on throughout.
For th1e highest rows ,of figures, across the breadth of the tables, if
they are doubles, will have do,ubles I,yin,g parallel to them, an,d the
n
um::'b.ers lym,. .. g' diag'onally- on thle 'hyp:otenuse will be of the n,ext " -=- -:" :.'" ',," "' '-.' ", ,J '-. .'., '., ' - "-"! .. :, " - ,'. ",.. .... , .
.. - '.', .. - :-:d' ,-:-.!';:;'t', b'- t,h-t t' ".-,. "1'1" .. --: " ---: .. --:'f
succee ,mg vane"y, grea I,e,ry I,J .. I a. IS, np'leS"t seen a, so m a senes 0,
parallel 'If, howe,ver, there are t.riples ac'rloss, the brea,dth, the
diagon,als will by a 1means, be quad.ruples; if the f'o,rmer are quadro,ples,
then the latter are, quintuples,J' and so fo,rth.
AP :-T"'E'R' V"'': .' .... .. .. ,"
,'- - - .
sesq:uialter
double
m
ill.
- :, " aD".
- .
[. RANI' TION K' III
. I '. [':"- " ..1 ,. ':" '. ".: ." '. ... .,.
2',35
But again., to take ano1ther start, this first form of the: multiple which 4
has thu's been produ.ced, tog'eth'er with the first, form ,of the. supe:rpar-

-. 1 'W-; '-1:1
11
pr'0, dUI th:,e
c
n' t o;f the" me-' tb"1atillS' th-e, nd- CU." I.' I. . I ','..:: .' ... '. . ... ,". .... .... i.:t", . --'.' I." I .. ' .. ', __
multiple
J
the triple; for from every multiple and s,esquialter clo.mbined
I . t ., 1- I.' '.' f ',' .., -..-I... 1,9 .. ', .'. F:-[' -.- ". ' 2' , I.' th'.-:-. d" . b
ll
. -f 6: : . ", '. d
a .rlp.. e 0 .. necessl y anses" . or examp, 'e., as I .... e .'ou :.JIle ,0 .'. IS 12,. an, ,
tb
. "'1" f I h- 8" h d' I 8- i!!I . 'h '. f 6'"
.'.e sesqulater 0[._ t,:lS IS unme:'late1y I:" .IS tl'e trlp.e 0'1';
and to take anoth:er method, If I. do not care to make, 12 the mea.n term,
but rather 9" the ses'q'uialter o,f 6, th.e same result will come about,
without d.eviation. and harmoniousll.y; for whil,e 1,8 is the ,d[oub,]e of
-. -t . ill'- - . -. - - th .... ., -- .,. . . '. 6..... 'H'" -.' . t'h .. .. .' 'It -. .' . ,,' , .' . . . , " .,." " . . - .. " .. .' . . '. [ .' . . I"',' .. - .' ., .'
91 ...... W.I preserve .. ' e .rlp,e r.a'lO'O '.. rom, 1_. sesqula.er aD,
the dO'uble" the first .forms 0' the su.'perp,artj.cular and the, multi.ple:,
th
,'" . "...... ,.. ,1 b-'" --. . ,. :b- [" t- ,'.:. th' --: '".': d' fi "1- f' t'h' '. It
'
,'I th
1
",,_ t_'-}
arIses. l... y com..lna Ion, e secon .orm 0 .' .. Ie mu...'lpe, ,.e
and into them it IS a .w,ays resolved. For look you; 6" which is the 5
, ii I f 'I-n" h t hi" h'! "'11 xhih'-
trlp.e: 0 2, Wl_la,v,e a, mean 3, W.' C' W11 e:,'. l>rt tw'o ratiOS,
sesquialter 'with re'gard to 2, and the double ratio of' 6 to itself.,
But i.f this riple ratio,,3 lkewise, th.e second form of the ,multiple, is,
g
.'
..
1b
.. I I _11 b
,! _. ese 'pnnClp ea :018y tuso,e
d ed
.. 'I
'.I
I
em.ODS,trat, , m ,generallJ terms ..
(
. 2",)
m; '2 m;'. 2 m + 3 m...
'" 2 ."
." . 'I' . m.. ('" I m) _. -.
or m" m.+ -, .2 I '3 mj
2' '" 2 .'
Of.. aritbm ...1'" 3.. 2: - 3' .
-". .'
2 I -
18
double
triple
triple
double
sesquialter
I The sesquialter,
I gi.'ven in the ,M.SS:
12
''
. - ,
triple
.. JIi
sesq.Ultertian
9
quadruple
;1 Dia,gram from the MSS:
31
I
quadruple
qUi.ntu.ple
sesquiq"
. _ _ . .YCU.14U1
.20
" .'.'1 (" ).
,or, 4, S, 20,
5
quintuple
eext'uple
1e8Q.ulqwntan
Algebruc statements of' th,e mat,ter aoovle :
(a) m; J 'm; ('3m +3.). 4"
. 3 '
combined with the sesquitertian, wbich is the second form of the super-
particular, there would be produced from them the next form of the
multiple, namely, the quadruple, and this also will of necessity be re-
solved into them after the same fashion as the cases previously set
forth; and the quadruple, taking into combination the sesquiquartan,
will make the quintuple, and, once more, the latter with the sesqui-
quintan will make the sextuple, and so on to the end. Thus the multi-
ples in regular order from the beginning with the superparticulars in
regular order from the beginning will be found to produce the next
larger multiples. For the double with the sesquialter makes the triple,
the triple with the sesquitertian the quadruple, the quadruple with
the sesquiquartan the quintuple, and as far as you wish to proceed no
contrary result will appear.
CHAPTER VI
1 Up to this point then we have sufficiently discussed relative number,
by a process of selection measuring out what is easily comprehended
and appropriate to the nature of the matters thus far introduced.
Whatever remains to be said on this topic will be filled in after we have
put it aside and have first discussed certain subjects which involve
a more serviceable inquiry, having to do with the properties of
\. absolute nwnber, not relative. For mathematical speculations 1 are
always to be interlocked and to be explained one by means of another..
The subjects which we must first survey and observe are concerned with
linear, plane, and solid numbers, cubical and spherical, equilateral
and scalene, 'bricks,' 'beams,' 'wedges,' and the like, the tradition
concerning which, to be sure, since they are more closely related to!
magnitude, is properly given in the Geometrical Introduction.' Yet
or, m; m+:; (3"'+\"') -4m.
(b) m; 4"'; (4m+\"')-5111.
or, m; m +:; (4 m + \",) =- 5 ..
(c) m; 5m; (5 m +5sm) = 6 "'-
or, m; m (s m + 55"') = 6"..
1 Boethius, II... : A1Ml eni". quodammodo maJMseos spuuJaJio altuM proba1Wmm
. . 'Cf
amstJlUJ. . p. 79.
TRANSLATION: BOOK II 237

the germs of these ideas are taken over into arithmetic, as the science
which is the mother of geometry and more elementary than it. For,
we recall that a short time ago we saw that arithmetic abolishes the
other sciences with itself,' but is not abolished by them, and conversely
is of necessity implied by them but does not itself imply them.
First, however, we must recognize that each letter by which we in- 2
dicate a number, such as iota, the sign for 10, kappa for 20, and omega
for Boo, designates that number by man's convention and agreement,
not by nature. On the other hand, the natural, unartificial, and there-!
fore simplest indication of numbers would be the setting forth one
beside the other of the units contained in each. For example, the
writing of one unit by means of one alpha will be the sign for I; two
units side by side, that is, a series of two alphas, will be the sign for
2; when three are put in a line it will be the character for 3, four in a
line for 4, five for 5, and so on. For by means of such a notation and
indication alone could the schematic arrangement of the plane and
solid numbers mentioned be made clear and evident, thus:
The number I, Cl.
The number 2, Cl. a
The number 3, a. Cl. Cl.
The number 4, a a. a CL
The number SJ Cl. a. a. a a
and further in similar fashion.
Unity, tben, occupying the place and character of a point, will be 3
the beginning of intervals and of numbers, but not itself an interval
or a number,2 just as the point is the beginning of a line, or an interval,
but is not itself line or interval' Indeed, when a point is added to a
point, it makes no increase, for when an non-dimensional thing is added
to another non-dimensional thing, it ,...;11 not thereby have dimension;
just as if one should examine the sum of nothing added to nothing,
I Cr. 1. 4. 2-5. I See p. II6.
I With this passage should be compared Theon of Smyma, p. 81, 6 ff., where 'interval' ("11-
G'T1I,l.IlI) is defmed: '''Inlernl' and 'ratio' ().,ryor) are different; for 'interval' is that which is be-
tween homogeneous unequal terms, 'ratio' merely the relation of homogeneous terms to one an-
other. Wherefore there is in the ~ of equal terms no interval between, but there is one and the
same ratio, that of equality; whereas in the case of unequals, there is one and the same interval
from each to each, but a different and opposite ratio of each to each. For example, there is one
and the same interval from :2 to I and from I to :2, but a different ratio; :2 : I is a double ratio and
I : :2 is one half." He then quotes Eratosthenes on the subject. This will explain what is said
below as 10 intervals in connection with the relation of equality.
N
'le'O"MA" 'I' ..' ". '0".F". GEIRA:,'gA."'
. '. _' ".' . ,J. . _' , ,,':' _ ',', '. ) _": I. _.' _. " '.:.-
1
l
I
I
whIch mak..es nothing. We saw J a similarhin.g also, in the case o,f
eq .. am.,:o.nl..g'l thie r.e'.'l.a,Ltives,; flol"',r a'" p..r
,
.o.po .. r
,
.tlo.0. IS. .. :.,cI'"e--.,d.. 'th'e.c
_, _ ._ . . __ : _ _ _.. . , .. .. '. . ., _r .,f as
firs
' h cl' d .' th h'" db' 1
'1:- .. -,') ..'.. [ .. -:-., '",,'. ,,::': ;'1-:- :- - ,'..:','1-': ", --:: . "" '-1"-" , ..... :;- 1-, . " I ," .,.I[ ..-:.:" I
_... t IS to t I.e secon .. so t .. e secon .. IS t,o I.. e .1.Il _ut no
.. t d th 1 t'W f th t t h'h h!l IS in __ 'e re ,a'. lOin e e.x_r:emes "0 eaC.
1
as t-,e're ]s
i '11 .th" ".' '.' ,-th t'h',,:- "'- .. , .',' .. '.'- f '.:.. . ,.' In '." tl .:
ID a ..... e, 0 .rl.. er re ,a lOins Wl_, .e 0 equa ." y., I .. exac.y
the same way' 2 unity alo,ne Olut of all number, when it multiplies itself,
pfiod,uces nothing greater 'than ,its,elf.
U
'ln:t:l.y t'heref''ore-: IS-I d.. une'Ds'.'o'na .. land-- - an--d dim"e-nSl:-n'" . 1..1.' .. , .' 1_' .. " -. I.I., .. '.' ... ' . .:....,1. i. '1 . ', .. '" "', .. ,0 ..
:6
.' t
'
" f cl d' - _.. tb.
,
th- d '" : ' .. ' '. - I .-;:-- .- I , '. . .' , [ . . I . . '1": I - -/ .' . .'. '.,' '. :-:. , . ." .. ..
rs IS, QUO, an. seen m ,2, ..en In .3, en ID 4, an m succeSSIon m
the following' numblers; for r dim.ensio'D.' is th,at which is conceived 0:
,as between tw'O limits.
4 The fitst dimensilon. is c,alled 'lin..e,' for is that which ,is extendled,
l
n e d"J'rec' tl"on T'wo' d''un-ensl'ons are' called' (s - -e' J 4' f ".1
:. DI .. [ ' ,.... I . '... . . ",_.,ll. ,or a sur ace
is th;at whi.ch is extended in t.wo [directionsj Thr,ee: ,dimension's ar'e
'Ca .. )lled 's' ''''-ll'''dl ' f'o"r a (solI-d' , 15- .. th'a't h- 18- e'xtAD .. ded m- thr .. .- . t:- .".'
c :"""_ ... C:O _ ,I,I' _. I .. " w ... '.' .._. _ ."" .'. . .1.
0
...... ec.10Ins,
..... d' '-t .',' b.. ..... .... _...... '.' .' .I. ... '. '-bl .. t, 'C...... ..- ...', .... 31 .,:. f '-: .)' d- '. ":h' .' hi h'' ...... '.: ." '..
an.. 1. is .:.y no m,eans e [_0 conceive [0, a so 1_ 1, W__lC. __,as mo, e
th
L . t'h' . d'''- . .... .... d" th- hi. "d't"-h .. d 1 ... th B:" th .. d . 11 - ." .' . .' I" I I '. . . , '. I .'. .. I' I ,. ..' ...." 'j '. .. . ....
.an .. ree '..mm.enSllons, .. cp ..... " ,I.rea.. _. "an..... ,eng .. .... ,are,.e-
fin
- h .. d- . - .. h .. - .. '.
.. ' ed t e: slX:'lrectlo
I
DS whic: C are saId to exist :ID connectl,on with eve'ry
b
-,od- b:IY w O:lt'l
ii
o;n's -In" 'spa' 'e:' arle" dI'S,t-'ngu.-'I'" h -d: d'" b.. , .
.. y a .'.. " "c.. ..' :,C: .' _ 1_ - ..5 e'.:_J' ![orwar
,
I ,,:ac-
4: - h' d' f' f f ... ..11, iIII
w'ard,' up, ,down, et j10r 0
1
' necessIty two dtre)ctlons lopposlte'
: h" h f" 11-
1
h dim' d' d' f
' :- .. _. .. : ;- ...- .. '" [:",-:, ,-1 " ....:--:.... :-, '. ,-,-", ...-.-. '.' -.-. ",.-1: ..,:', .... ,1 I'' .": .....-
to eac oter _0 ow upon eac.. up ,an '. own u,pon one, ..or
- - dl 'b . -'k' -d . t'h-' .... d
l
... d-- -ht -- d' '1 ft -- _.. th - thii- 'd
war' a.n ,acw,ar
,
upon sec1on, , an ..rlg:_ an' e I upon I'e .1
I The reference is the' series of equal nu:mbers, emp'lo,yed iD 1. 23. 7 tt. In the :series, I. J', I;
2, :2
JI
2
J
etc., the rat.io is the same betwee'D any pair of 'terms; the extremes have the :sa,me ra,oo,
as the m,ea.ns; that is, 'tbe:y are all eqU,al,1 50 ':-re is DO interval bet.ween the exu'e.mes.
I; Tbe Neo-Pythagor,ean's commonly used this fact to substantia,te tbeir ide:D,tificatlOD ,of the
monad with God.. Lik.eGod the: monad is immutable and eternal (e.g." C'halcidJlus" Comm. i"
T
.. 01' t '11 -. .... .... _I.. .) IIi
.... C:.. 39: S_'(J ,,,,,o,ntI4,!'!,O ,es'. atque sW" suo ttrS,mJ6rJI; semper ;0 a ....:".m",loo,,".
a
l
sj"pla,ws The monad they derived from remain' (JMJN.,s) piNI') beca:US8'
the
..-. ad'-" Ii: '. . . , tb ,- ...' -d" - ,th . - -'. 'd' - (."-f' 'TL ....-., A' .'1'11. --c As'11,.. T - -blich . I ..
. mon 'I remains c e' same UD, er _1e5e con'l lons,c_., IWUJ.. ... :",1.. 11.." P 3." .11i.. .lAUD! , I.
.NitI, p. lIt 24 Theon, PF J9, 7)" See ,also I. 1'7-" 4 below
I PhHo[ Judaeus, De Decalofo, 7, also that th[ere ca:n be only 'thrlee dimen,sioDS (..ulov,
7'" "G"VTd"CT'&' ,l-yi,pt}tI.p).
4The SIX ,categori,es of relative position (and. mot-ion) al.so, were frleq'uently ,cited in 'NeoPy-
thagO'rean ,argum,ents,;, th.e topic 'was; mor,eo,ver
J
inv'es,lled with greater signiftcan!ce from the fact.
PI 1.... ed .. I 10.. h th .... f .. 'T' ill dd

't at .'ato It., lD IC.Ose conn1ectaon WIt" .e va:ne'tles 0 m.otlon, ID ilntUUS:. 4J BA' .'. [;00
mg rotation, Plato mentions se\ren va,rieties of motio'D, ibid., 34 A (cf.. 40 and I'Q' (not a.n
spatial h.ow'ever) hI Laws" 894 Cl! 'The :Neo-p)tl.bagoreans regan:led it significant of the peculiar
vi-n'ues of 6
J
therefo,re
J
that there should be. six spatial posi-tions' Ari'",.."P1' ,36
A
'-"!Il!Jt ".W'V l:U6.__tI 1: ......n.. ",,7-;'.1',... , ,Ih ,cf a"I'
so
" A" U eg: I ..,,, (PIu'lt )., m"
. _ii!!!I_ 11 III " ur-"'...... 'P' 1IIIft""'-1l "",(1..1, . 11I::,..10",' qv 1;' . , .iI .. .. ' ," . J' .. " .. . 'O' :.,. 10'. '.,. t, . '1.
t'S, J:[O =.DO%OgF G,tUCIO, J80. 2!4; !wt .. Capella,1 VII, 736:. who adds 'that. ,the seventh" circular'
... J) "1.'1 f th .. "'I I ..,--I' h- f' t'" I f 'h
lion:, lS etem"a I' ).Y. an.y 0 . em Slml ar y t e group O' se'ven mOlons In p'ral'st 0- te Dum-
ber 7 (eFg., Ana,lotio-s" Theol., ,A.nth.,. p. 42- Ast; Lydus, .De ltl 11, 1'1'; Philo:. D:e Mw'. 0,..,
,41, ,a'nd 4; J\'lacrobius" [C:uBm. in Soma.. Sci,+. I. 6. 81)" N.icomacbuI
1
1;-: eD'l is
usiDg a topic 'v'e'ry frequently e Iployed..,
g.:1
-' '-'
I.
"', I
,
(I 11'
;e' solId, 6
ere tO
I
"'y stat.ed, a
I"a'Pa,Ally','Jat which,
if b;- ..
,
, .
. I I
-
SU.I ace
0 1-'.' [drect 0 1: . I
IDC -
e latter a- '_ '_-.
e
I' :".', _ . ", ,'ly.. -0'" r'e"'vc' . "e I: .Ie',.
- .. ' . . _." . . I, . ._ '.' '.: .'.' : ..
'h h- h . d
... at 'W-I[e -. ,- .a's t.,,'o I [ lDlen ',JOID "
".... "'"'"" .. [ SJ"o ,S is always a 'Surfac .
. iI' d'db -h'
: IS ,excee',e__ ;y ',_
by 1_:. ..
,"el a I
'If '1-
l,-<JeL' a ,.n.e.,
.d the begln.-
'. "0 . '. 1, ectlrons."
"el body" 2
1'101 -=tse f ,
,
....IIiII.A,.W,iI;,.'l!!;, .,,"JII 0 ...1
h b ,. ti'
" t: I':n" S t ._e ,0,.
'__ D[ _= 1_.Wlse th.e begi.n'mD.,'-) '0"
, I . -,'ginning of surfac:"1 bu,
but.a, - i" L -1
1
-
.: '.alce is the begmni: .' 0 .
,:ginnlng of the'
... ' .. d .-IC:tOI_ ...
,
I.' '1- .'a.. ' ce
"1-0 ' ,
.
.. 1111
sense 1" 19 t r
I " '. 6[ ., -, tfal151&
p
.
r
I' f'l; r:i.r ' ,i
dimensio:n ,; and, plane ,n'umbers ,are those 1 th,at begin with 3 as 'heir
most elem.enta,ry root and procee,d through the next succeeding num-
bers., They receivle theIr n;ames also i.n thle same ,order; fo,r ther:e ar1e
tirst- th t" 1 th tb' t'b ta af't th th
.-' .': ", . "-["1'-; ",c- "'-'1"'" .':,.,'- , ....... '-'" --.'. '-",',': :'1" ',' :-, ,':,"-.'.,:--, ,-,'
.1_;<1 ll,ang,es, . ,en ,-.e squares" I, e pen <' ,glons er eseJ, . len
tb
- '. 'b'-' ,'.' . ' th": h-.. t 0 . -, ,-' . -d .'-', -' d'fin-' '. I ,... d
'
. ... ." "d . " . '. . I' '.: 'I'', I -. - . I :' I .' 1 .. 1 .... I I '. . .. ',' . 1" """. . I . ',', . "'1 . I".,' .'
e e., ep agons" laD so on m".celey, an, JI as we sa,
"h d ft'h .' be-' b" -th t., ey are name:., ,a.; "_e:r t ','e :succeSSlve num .. rs _.egmnlng M",.I 3.
4 The trian.gle, therefore, IS found to be th,e ,most. ori,ginal and leleme,n,-
ta.ry form ,of the plane: number. This we can see from the 'fact that.,
among" 'p'lane figu-res t g"rapl-lhica11y, rep-.resented :if lines a,re drlawn from
. ..' :::'. ' . -- " I .. - , .' '. ,- _. . - - . '.' .I . -,., -- - -- - - -- - -
th,e ,an,gles t.0
1
the centers each rectilinear figure will by all means h,e
resolved into as many triangles. as it :has sides, but the triangle :itse'lf,
Ii --
like the rest, will not chang'e into anythin,g else but itself.
J Nicomachus, h,ere: land .10 the foUowmg 'th broadest view of 'what
tu
......... th cll. ..( -lan- n'-- be.. N-t aIl 1 -- :I'-nt- :l'th him"- E -Jj-d - ::'1,' ... __, ....
I .Uri!IIe I. _ass 0' I. p' '.Ie ,um '.- -n. I., -. anClC' .5 -5&'v,,",Y, WJ,I.. ,I', __ ;1 -UC .' , ID
VII, J ,,/, Id,efines tbeplane number as we shoul,d'
f
as t.hat which 'is produced whim two Il,umbers
multiply each, other. lb. multiplier and multiplicand beiIlg its, si,des (fr ., ,. l:aSo dp,elA41 r'o").CI-
S'M,lvClrrt1'1 rO&W&r'1 d hrl.e301 ..Attlpci IClfro'v ol ...A,x...l.CIG"I-
U'ct.w.. cl)..A1jMur d-plllplJl)p &Dld Thleon of Smyma twice de'fines them similarly (p.. 9 ,Biller"
&roe. w-' 160 cliP"'""J" ..Au,cI,torr.,,;, p- 36, 5, 01 o,x"r rO).,).Clr)...-,ul.C'""MH -'.llre"OI)'1i n ...
Martin clearly the differe,nce betw'een this a,ppUca,tioD of 'thle term and its com-
pr,ebensive use: by Nlcomachu5,: C,f En diet, Jes no,mbres rectangles et canes e.xpriment, 'la
mesue des su'rfaces", et les nombres, parallelip,ipOies 'rectangles et cubiques expriment la 'mesure
d,es soUdes.. An OOD'traire', les Do-mbres triangles., pentagones
J
hexago,nes, etc.. , de m!m.e que lies
Dombres ,pentaMres, bexddrles" e:'tc." ,o,'expriment rien q'u'une dlsposition imaginaire
des unU:es dans l'espace ;;, (CIIa/1Uru u X,X' Id" L,ivre s01Itl de IJ.lmr,odw;lion Arilllmltiquc
tk Nicomaqus lde Rome, 18$8 I p..
In of b,is, definitioD
J
T,beon '0.'( S,myma lis,ts tria,Dgular' aUld other polygonal numbers" like p'
.,icomac'hu:s;aDd consequently must have: known and s.bared to ,a ,certain, extlenot. Nicoma-ehus"s : ..
Iconcep1tion of them, 'whether or .not he was, aware of lan,y iDlc'onsistenlCYI an,d that this conc'ep'tion
was som,ewha. generally alrrent is sbown by its appearance in the wo,rks lof Philo Judae'us (see
p,,, Furthe'r, it may be noted that this notion of the poly,gonals is fOUD,d in Diophan'lUs
when (De .is N"UIJeris, .. I" P 450,.3 Tanne'ry) he remarks that "each of the DUm.bers
beginning with th.IC triad, and, 'increasing b un"iy is a polygonal, num.her in 'th.e first de,gree from th.e
monad, and has as many ang'l.es as the of U.'Dlts in it, and its side is the next ftu.mber ,af'tler
the monad, :2
t
, (I.lCu1"of, TWJI cl.. orij', -rp,ui8ot 'Pt''';;'" lavfopE,,",p p,GNa', ....,Afy'CIJ"oI' 1(1"'1. w-:p,Grro. ',.6
,r'" IIJIJ,dlot", *'cl I XIt ''YwJ!la.t ?Oo-CltJ-r4, &r'O)i I"", I, T6 ,..),;;80, 7' w,' i P 4W p.o.'IWP" T'E Clfro6
IltrTUI 6 di'fjl Till J;Wvtic5JOJ' 4pt8p,6r, 0 If). From, "icomachus':s poin.t of view" evidently, 'th.e same
D.umber coul1d be called 'Unear, plane, or solid, accordin,g to the assumed arrangement of' its
compo.n,ent
'I Nicomachu's 'here agrees with PlatoJ. Ti JnlJ.tus" S3 c ff'., in declaring tb,e triangle to be th.e
fundamental form of the plane surfacel;; Pato in th.e passage citlcd 'Uses the prin,dp'le furtbe:r
to explain. the forms of the m'!!n'utest particles of tb.e four elements. H:e agrlees with, Ni,co-lDachus
In statin.g that all plane surfaces may be reduced to tr-angl,es (.T-'mdeur, 53 C, " " 1"1)t Ir&-,
"1"'0'1 (j'dcrlftM die 7"pt'*1dJ PlO, t1 'but with 're,fe:re'oc,e to the subdi\fis'io '. '01 the' triangle
itself" h,e po.ints, out that each may be reduced, b.y drop'ping a perpendicular from the ,apex Cm-
stead of d:ra.wing lines to the ICeD'ter, a,ccordi'ng to N-ic-g,machu,s) to two elementary fo'nDJ, the
'h '1 ..... -1 ...-.-.... 1 h _. h- --led' - '" _. --1 C-"'f at 'l""L...,ol A <iI L . '" '
ng.:,t-an,glOO, or le ng' ,t-an,gl JSOSCle.CI. . \11 ',.50 6. nC!..olgumena .', ,:n".meuc46, p. 18,
Ast t and 11.. I 2 . 8 below.
TRANSLATION: BOOK Il
Hence the triangle is elementary among these figures; (or everything
else is resolved into it, but it into nothing else. From it the others
likewise would be constituted, but it (rom no other. It is therefore
the element o( the others, and has itsel! no element. Likewise, as 5
the argument proceeds in the realm o( numerical (orms, it will confirm
this statement.
CHAPTER VIII
Now a triangular number is one which, when it is analyzed into [
units, shapes into triangular (orm the equilateral placement o( its
parts in a plane. 3, 6, 10, IS, 21, 28, and so on, are examples of it j
(or their regular formations, expressed graphically, will be at once
triangular and equilateral. As you advance you will find that such
a numerical series as far as you like takes the triangular {ann, if you
put as the most elementary (orm the one that arises (rom unity, so
that unity may appear to be potentially a triangle,' and 3 the first
actually.
Their sides will increase by the successive numbers, (or the side o(
the one potentially first is unity; that o( the one actually first, that
is, 3, is '; that o( 6, which is actually second, 3; that o( the third, 4 ;
the (ourth, 5; the filth, 6; and so on.
The triangular number is produced 2 (rom the natural series o( num- 3
ber set (orth in a line, and by the continued addition o( successive
tenns, one by one, from the beginning j for by the successive combi-
nations and additions of another term to the sum, the triangular num-
bers in regular order are completed. For example, from this natural
series, I, 2, 3, 4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Il, 12, 13, 14, IS, I take the first term
and have the triangular number which is potentially first, I, ; then
adding the next term I get the triangle actually first, for 2 plus 1 equals
3. In its graphic representation it is thus made up: Two units,
side by side, are set beneath one unit, and the number three is made
I This is again the distinction between potential and actual, aDd according also to Theon,
p. JJ. S. the monad is the first potentially triangular number. On wbat potentiality might be
concei"ed to mean in this case, cl. Boethius, n. 8: Ham si cUttClorum mal" esl ,.umerlWUIfI (se.
""itas), qukquid i,. "is quae ab ea na.scunlur Jlumeris i ~ i u JleUsse est w iPS4 Jldtu,a/i quadam
Pole.st4te ,ontinelJl.
2Thcon of Sm)'ma, p. 32,22 fI., notes this mdhod of generating triangular numbers. Cf. also
Johannt' Pediasimus, Geomd,ia, in Neut }aIJ,b. f. PIJil. u. PlUd., "01. XCII, 1865, pp. 366 fI.
(f. 40 a of the Munich MS there cited).
LHt I
N
' le-'O'MA'I,' ,,C"'H', V'S,:: 0.F'" GE:RAS,'IA": .
- .... . - . . ,'..,.. - '-' .' -. .'
a triangle: A. Then when next after these the following number,
_ ,
., dd d' " lifi- d 11 to "t d ..'. d th f' 6'
3, 15 , slmp .. le_ an'_ JOlne.. to' -.:ormer, It gives :.,
the secolnd triangle. in actu,a' ty, and furthe'rm,ore, it graphically,epl e-
sents this number :,
': .
A,gain, the number that naturally follows:,
4, ,added. in and. set down below' the former, l,educ'ed to! units, gives
the 'O'De in or,der n,ext :after the afo'resaid, 10
1
, and takes a triangular
f
orml
, '" .
. -ft - th, tb"- - 6" tb', -d 11" th b - .. .'. I . '. " . ',' .' ". I'" . '. I ..' . . 'I" . " .',' '. . ..... ". .'-:-
S" a.. er lSJI _,,_en ... , _.en 7, an. a_ .. ' ,e num.,,.e,rsl ID
orde'r, are ,added, so that regularly the sid:es of each. tri,angle win 'con'sist
of asl many numbers'l as have 'been ad,ded from the natural seriesl tO
I
cl
'.
pr,oulce It :
" ... Cl Go la. a. ....
'S" '6" Im.,
SIDE 5
C
"'HAPTER IX' " ,.', ..., .',':, I,' . ':
,I The square is ' hie ne,xl, nUnlber '2 after this" whi,ch sh,ows us DO longer
lik t f b t I
'" -t h tatI! b t '.
e .' orme,r) I'U 4" ang:.es m I ',5 gr,ap_' le represe,n '__ \UI IS
non,e the: less equilat,eralll Tak,e, for example, I, 4, 9
1
" 16'1 25"1 36", 49,
6
.'. 8" . f' th'.'. '..' .. - tat -. f' th '. ..b" '. ' . . .-.il' t '1
1
'. .' - - [I .". . "', - . . '. l' - ," I. '. I :. ., .. '. ..... . I' . I. . [' . , ". . . ..' '"". - , . 1 .. -' ." I I !' .' . . ". . .:_
.. 4,:, 1, 1.00 'I .or -' e represe,n l.ons 0, .. ese numers are equ.a.era I,
fi
h - h d ..' 9n b il' . f .. 'h
. . , .. '. . ".-,--. ,. .... .'. , . .... 1 .. ' '. . ... '. ,0 .. . . I . " 'I "1 '.'" , ...,' ,.... ."'. " . "I .
square .. lgur1es,1 as erle an, It W1. .. .e SUD,,ar as .aI as you WlS .
to go:
r;-;:l
Aa.
., .. .
' a. I
'. a;, G, I
.,aCL
I'. '. et '. I
,I
4 9
1.6
2' It is true of these .numbers" as it was also olf th.e pr,ecedin,g', that the
cl
," -ldes prog"res'ses' .. th the . t' .1
1
.. ,.. 'Th"" 'd-
a vance m S, .', .,' c... Wli 1_ _:' naura series. le Sl e
I Theon of ,Smyma" p.. 3,7, :13 I." states that the un'its iD the sides will eq'ua1 the. 'last oum,ber'

2 Tbis :nu,lriber 'IS treated by Theon. 0'1 SmyrDa, 26, 14; 28. 3,j 34, ,I: j 39, 1'0), wh,o repeats
him'self several times,.
243
of the square potentially first, 1, is 1; that of 4, the fi1st in actuality,
2; that of 9, actually the second, 3; that of 16, the next, actually
the third, 4; that of the fourth, 5; of the fifth, 6, and so on in general 3
with all that follow.
This number also is produced 1 if the natural series is extended
in. a line, increasing by It and, no longer the successive numbers
are added to the numbers in order, as was shown before, but rather
all those in alternate places, that is, the odd numbers. For the first,
1, is potentially the first square; the second, 1 plus 3, is the first in
actuality; the third, 1 plus 3 plus 5, is the second in actuality; the
fourth, 1 plus 3 plus 5 plus 7, is the third in actuality; the next is
produced by adding 9 to the former numbers, the next by the addi-
tion of 11, and so on.
In these cases, also, it is a fact that the side of each consists of as 4
many units as there are numbers taken into the sum to produce it.'
CHAPTER X
The pentagonal number is one which likewise upon its resolution I
into units and depiction as a plane figure assumes the form of an equi-
lateral pentagon. I, 5, 12, 22, 35, SI, 70, and analogous numbers are
examples. Each side of the first actual pentagon, 5, is 2, for 1 is the 2
side of the pentagon potentially first, 1; 3 is the side of 12, the second
of those listed; 4, that of the next, 22; 5, that of the next in order, 35,
and 6 of the succeeding one, SI, and so on. In general the side con-
tains as many units as are the numbers that have been added to-
gether to produce the pentagon, chosen out of the natural arithmetical
series set forth in a row. For in a like and similar manner, there are
added together to produce the pentagonal numbers 3 the terms begin-
ning with 1 to any extent whatever that are two places apart, that is,
those that have a difference of 3.
1 Cl. Theon of Smyma, U. cc. He adds the obvious generation of squares by multiplying num-
bers by themselves (implied by Nicomachus, n. 18.3), and adds that the squares are alternately
odd and even (p. 34. 3)' The method of Nicomachus 'was known to the old Pythagoreans; d.
Aristotle, Phyt., Ill. and Cantor, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 160.
2 So in the first square, I, the side is I and only one term is taken to produce it. In the sce
ond. 4, the side is 2 and two terms are taken to produce it (I + 3)' Generally, the algebraic sum
f
,
01,3,5 ... tontelmslsn.
, CL Tbeon of Smyma, pp. 34. I1 and 39, 14, on the derivation of pentagonals.
NICOMACH'US OF GERA,SA,
..
U
-c -t .'.. t'h- ' :.- t '-'1' 't '.,' "-" 1 ' ,t'e.. :- t'" .11 ..' , d, th d' '. ' '.. 't, 'd'' "
"Dll,y,IS .. e neSt penagon" po, en I,a,y, a,n IS ,c-us I
, C& I
th thi
' ,. d d t f' tb - t" f'" b -t'h d'd d
---:-.. .' . .-. .' . -. , . ' . , , ". ,':' : " - 'I .' '. : ' , .... ,'.' '. ' - :-- --: "'. '..' ,'. '. '."'. . .. .', - , . ." .", . '--: I :- ,---: ", -. '''I'
12" I.".e ".I,r, IS, ma. e up 'Q'U ,0 . ,e .WO "o,rmer num. ers, WlI 7 a'.e._
, ,h 'h'" h '''d h b ha b
... '. , ,- . , " 1'1' ,,', ,"1" ..,.-, '. " " 'I' . ,.1. '-. I" C .-'.. - '-:-' '. ''C, ,.',:-. ,.
to t,"em", so t_Jat It may ....ave 3 as a sle, as t,ree numers .'. ve:een,
,,'d'd''d-1to, .. .. ,.. ,--d', 1''-' ,,,ta"I' 5 ..',:", (c' th"'-"':'"
,a" .' e," .,' ma e 1 ,."lDlar ,y e prec,e 1 mg pen . .- ,gon,"IJ was ' ,e 'co,m-
'bination olf two numbers ,and ha,d 2 as its sid,e" The graphi.c represen-
tation, of 12 is this ::
'The" .ot;h:e,l' pe"'." Ita' ,--,,',:.)',.itb, ,.'. ,U be'" ',' d', ,--:d': b,,ld,.-d, t:: [.-',th:'e''
, . .' ." _.. ,n, gona, num ers Wl . ',. p.ro,uce:._ .y a. '. Ing oge ' '. r
one after an,other in due olr'der the terms after 7 that have ,'he differen,ce
f I
,:-. ,.. :' ". .' ' .. -- ,," .- (:-" ' , '. '. " , ' ..,: '.--': .' I" . .'-- ,.' ,.'I I" ." '. ". --: I" , I" : . ,'..'
3, ,as, or exampe, ,lOt 13,) 16, 1
1
9", 22, 25" and so ,Oin. The penta,gons
will be 22, 3,5', SI, 7'0, 92, 117, and so fo,rth.
1 Tb th f d MS G" Tb ) '1 t .,
'. - e .... glven are .. J' OK 'Dun' m '. ... '. I [ego ar pe-nt&gona arrangemeu:' IS I1v,eD
by M" Ma'rtin (,0' .. i'D a w- y t:o, S,hOlV the numbers added in ealth instan.ce. He takes ,these
,from, editioo.s of Theon, and Iamblichus, but cf.. Rocket p'. 8'7" c,ri.-tical D,otes, On tb,e other haD'd
the sta'tements 0.( 11. J: 2. 2 see'm to ,favor th, scbe'me&, given by G.
S
d ,:
Nu'mber :dded
(1)
0
,,
'. .'
. .
1
....

(2')
5
7
12
10
(4)
22
,'- . '.
-- -0 00 ' . '- ..... _., ... ' . I. 'I. " .. " '.' ;'-
TRAN,SLATIN. B .. K 11,
245
The hexagonal, heptagonal, and succeeding numbers will be J
fo th in th:eir series by' 'allowing 'the sam,e proc,ess., if from the natur:a,)
seri'es of number ther,e be set forth ser.',e:s, 'with the:' differences increas-
in,g by I. or as, th'e triangular numbe:r was 'produced by admitting
into the swnmation the tenns that differ by I a'nd do Do,t pass o'v1er
any i,n the seri.es; as the sq'uare wlas made by adding the terms, that
,dUl,er b,y 2 and are Q,ne place ,apart" a:n1d the pe'ntagon 'b,y' add,
i,ng terms with a difference: of 3 and two places, apart (and we have
d,em,onstra,'ted 'these', by se'.-ting forth e:, amples of' them ,and of
the poly,glQ1nal :nunlbers made from them), so likewise the :hexa,gons
will ha've a,s their root-nu,m,bers '1 those which diff'er by' 4 an,d a,re three
places ,apart in, the' 'Se'riestj whi'ch a,d,d,ed 'together in su[ccession will
p,r'oduce t the hexagons,. For example, I, ,5, 9, .3, 1'7, 2 , ,and so on;
so that, the h,exagonal numbers produ,ced will be ], 16, IS, 28, 45:, 66[)
and so OD, as, fa,:r as one wi,shes to
The hepta,g:onals, which follow th,ese" ha,ve as th,ei:r 2
terms differing by S' and four p,laces apart in th,e se,ries, like 1,[ 6, I ,
16" 2 I, 2,6, 3'1, 3,6, and so' OD., 'The hepta,gon's that th'u:s arise, are 1,'1 7" 18",
34, ,SS, SI) 112, 148", and so forth,.
I That is" gnomons; the ter,m being' u:sed in the broader See 0,0 liI' 9[iI' 4J. and cf. 11.. 9 3
.. :MS G gives the following diagram ,of the hexagonal n,u,mber IS
a, '. .. '.
I
','. Th' .. .-. -c. ta-,, ,]"" 1 .... .' . th . " 'f' - b"-'-" .th. ;J,!:Jr"" .. ,,-
3 .. ,le OC --c'.:gona S" mcrlease a-'-er ,.,e sam.e .1.as,.llon, Wl' ... 11 a uw,eren,ce
of 6 in t,,' eir root-nunibe,rs ,and c,orrespo,ndng variation in the'ir total
t t t '
tClons ,11 ',Ut-Jon.,
I d h n
'h'l 11
.' "'1 " .. "I ',.'. - .,,' .' I I'" ," -., c' I' - .' -'.-',-,".- ", ... ... ',' - .. ' :- .. ,,':' ...... '1 1"'-
4 ' .n or,. er t ... at, as you survey a ,cases, you may ,.ave a ru,e gener,a, y
applicable,! note that the of a'oy polygonal differ by 2
" b'" h bth - I
I
. .
- .... ',.",,',' : ',-"" ,." .,-:'- ',- ",,'- ,",'" "- .. ' .. '-', :'- '1'.- ,",,' ..... ( .. I . 'C '''1' -'.' -. "".
less than the n.um er of the anges s.. o,wn, y ,.e n,ame of the poyg
al
' thl t b .. th t ,ii - 1- Iii! tb" tbl ta'
.' ."" ,- .;:-( '.. ,',. I" .'.'. ,'. -' . . c,,. " . -' ... ' ". . ," .' ,,'" .", . . " . , .... I' .' " .','.
OD'I - , I,a I IS, _y I m I .nan,g le, 2 m :.,l,e square, 3 ID : __,e pen",gon,
.,h 'h th h d -th imila''
" I... ... - . . - .",:""" . -:- l'o -'I . - :: . .' :- . ( .' _. . - .. ,.. " . :1' -1 ...... ',.1 ," ...: - " . , '- . [ . . .':' . ': . , '.' . [ , I": . . . ,', : '. 1:1 - :,- -.. .. -: . - .' .
4 m t e .. exagon" 5 m e an __-so on, S -,',. ",,,,f mClease.
CHAPTER XII
I CO'D.'c.'emin.g the nature o,f p.la1e polygonals this is s,ufli'Clent ,,-or 8,
'firs't I nt,olduction. That" ho'wever, the Idloctrine of these n.-umbe'rs is
t\o the high,est degree in acco.rd, 'wit.h ..'.heir geometr,cal .representation,
an,d -.' ,ot QU't of harmony with it, wO'uld be evid,ent, no. olnl,Y from
the: ,grap.hic rep:r:ese.ntation in each case, b'-ut also from, the following.
I
,
1 The 'oUowibs illustrations &l,e I'rom, the same MS:
Deri'Mti'tm, of Aep.14gontJlS:
7 18 J4
5S
, " .# 'r ,
I" 2" 3t ,4, S't 7, 8, 9, 1,0, 11, 1.2. l3, 1,4, IS,t 16, 1'8, 1'9. 20, 21
I" ....
I Cl
I
le .
'.
I
I
1I
I
. [I
1'\....... _ _1
1
'vWa,',Onu.
Cl
also Theon.,pp, 34,16 ,and Pi!! 40" I1 I,. Theprinci,pleberestated byNico I" .
been given by Hypsicles (CIl. ISo whose theorem is 'Cited 'by 'DiophantU! (De P,ol'"OIIu Nu...
p" -lA 'IV' ,,). _ICl foUows- 11 Ulf as many numbers: as yo'U plaaea 'be' e"t ut t equa'll liI!Dte I ""'IS, .. 10r* .. '.' QiO ."." .' . I .... .1' . ,.. ' .".::., ' ..... ' .. ', :'._'.: ".:'" 0 '1 a .... ' .:'1.... :rva
I'rom I, a_Dd the' iDterval is It th,eir sum is a trian.gula'l number; if the interval 'is 2,' square; if
3t a pentagonal; and genera'ny the number lof a'ngtes, is greater 'by 2 than the' intervaJ. It Dio-
phantus, gives this as a tb,eorem of c. Hypsicles I.." 'plt'l!t' which may mean. either that it 'QCcu,lTed
''!in " defin'""It;nn' w'hlll"'b 'be ma"'de som.ilhUbere m L.t..... w'n;;,u
lli
nQ'R or t"hat lilt was'- mill', , boo"k w-ed' '''0-'' .... I," ,&,.1 . u;:,' ,'';, J_< .:...,: """,,,,,,-1...:,_'.::. . D..Iti , '. 0...., .:.. &,
CIII Nesselman.D, ,(I"IJ ci',tJ. p,t 466; Go'w, 0/1 cU", p. 8
1
'7
TRA'" SLA,TlrO' : BOOK IT
fi
1 d' 1I cl' ., -d d- '. I d' .. 1
Every square _. ',gure' '. lagona IS reso've mto two trlang es
,and every sq,u,arenUDlber isesolved int.o two consecutive trian,gular'
numbers, andh.ence is Illade up of two successiv'e triangular numbers.,
For example" 1,3,6,10" IS, 21,28,316,45, SS, an,d so on" are triangular
numbers an"d J, 4" '9" =-6, 25, 3[6" 49
1
, 64, 81, 100, s,quares. If you add 2
a,ny two c'onsecutive triangles, that you 'please, you wil always make a
sq'u,are:, ;and h,ence, whate'ver sq'uare, YOlu resolve, you will be able to
m,ake 'two t, iangles ,of ,it,.
Again, any triangle '2' jo'ined to any sqUaI'e figure m,akes a pentagon,
for example" the triangle I joined with the sq.uare 4 Inakes th,e penta
gOD 5; the next. t,riangle, 3 o,f course, with 9, the next sq,ua,re, makes
the 'penta,go.n 12; the next, 6, with the next square, 16,) gives t .. 'e next
pe:ntagon" 22; . 0
1
and 2,5 give ,35;, an,d so on.
:Similarly,
8
If the triangles are ad,ded to the 'pe:ntagons" foUo;wing 3
') MS G gi"les the fo'l1owing figure as an mus'tration.. The priD,ciple may be pro'ved from the
formu'las of arithmet',c prog,tession,
S .... .; (a +I), I - 6 +eft - dd.
T .'" .' I he" ed . 'wo s,u,ccesSlve tnan.gu ar I,orm/_.. ac...
cording to ,de.5niti,on by tb,e s'ummatio,n, of IJ &n,d
+
t
-f,"",e r 'pec' -u'"' I wil"'I' th f' b +tI
n . ,- -,cs>"ve yli " I.. -ere:oree ,'...............-
..r! 2 _ _
and n" +3
2
" + 2, and their sum is ,r + 2 ,. +I, which is (n +- Jr, a perfect square
Th,e e,mploy,ed an Interesting deve'Jopment ,of tbis, p:rin,dple to display 'th'e:
relative characters, of th,e monad, and the d)t'ad, (cf.. Theol. ,A"i''':., p. 9 A:st" and Ia,mblichus In N'u"'J
p. 75, 20 The, matter is 5,ta1.OO in the Theol.. A,ith.,.l. c.". as follows: The mo'n.ad is, th,e cause
of squares not only' because the odd nu,mbers su,ccessively arranged about i.'t give !Qual'CS:
t
'but also
ubecause each s.idle, as tb.e tum;ing point of' a double race' course) from. 'the monad, as starti.ng
'point to the monad as, finish line has as 'th ' s'um of i.ts ,go'ing forth and of Its retu.m :its O'WD sq'uare' ,;;
(i,:\X frt. fKCG'T" T).,ftl'lpA, 4trfrf'P 1C41A7r'T"P Ua''').'''IJ'TY,oS: p.onia',ot' Ilr 'l,vfJ"'(lGlI p4N3a" W'd)"ul' 1"I'Xe
'rij I' ..po6ao11 M.:IlI,l ,I.al'6aou T ,g.iJ"p dtp' l,etUT;;1' 'rip 'TfTpa-y....';) t That is, to take tb
side ",hen t'he succe,ssi' e 'Du'mbcrs, up to .5 are set o.ut as ,one 'side of the race-lra(' " 5 is mad,e
the tu.'ming point and the other side 'is made up 0: the descending to I, e"g.,
I 2 J 4
.5
J 2 J 4
lh f
h h '] 11 '11' ! 'Th '"' r ,. I be
,'le sum 0 t.e w, 0 '" senes IS ,25" or S"11 ' -e senes I 'I! ,5"0,, course, IS on.e tnangu. ar Dum .. :r,
and the descending series 4 " ill I. tbe imm,ediately preceding ,one. From its :resemblanc,e to
the ,doubl,e ra,ee' CO'U'rse o[ the: Gree'k ga.mes this proposition was apparently recognized un,del
the name 'diaulos' (efl amblichus,. p. 75" 25)., Ils fu.rther appllcation to the het,eromecic nu_m-
bets IS not. pertine,nt to the p1resent subject
2. This, may be seen by comparing the fi,gure of the pentagon as shown in the dia,g.ram.5 ac-
companying Chapter X; a,n,d it, IS. an ,argum,e'D.t in favor of representing them as does )15 G..
propositi'on and the preceding ,are special cases of th.e theo'llem that the polygonal
number of , sid,es with side IJ, plus the tnan,gular with side,. - 11. makes th,e 'polyg-
a1
' be' -iitb + <i!'d' d d- .,- b '"'call' ft + I (' +...,A\. + n (n + '1""
,on _ nu,m .'r W1 ,I , - I SI es aa- SIC e:lS .1&1,. ,y .2 . i"J - .:J. .
- '2' . 2
n + ' .
(2 +n (,I +1).
2'
COMACHU,S OF GERASA
'"
'th,e same order:
t
they will prod,uce the hexagonals in, due order, and
'. th t ..' l' -tb tb latt will" -,-''e tb-e h-ep" . tagon'als m' agam :-e 'samenanges Wl' __ .,,",'_'<,1:'['
..... d' . .. t,'h, t .--.,-:- ' ').. , af-t, tb": .'. h'-! taI .' ' 'Is aIDd 'SO'" [on to' .in:fini-- - .
lorl',er, e oC.,ag,o,na_s ".1 er ... Ie e,p '_,gona_, '.. ,'., ",' ... _' ..... '=.
remin,d u's,. let. us' 'Set forth rows of th,e polygonals, writ.ten in
par,a1lel lines:" as 'foDo,ws: The first. row, triangles, the next squares,
aft[er thent penta,gonals, then, hexagonaI;s,, the:n heptagonals., then if
h h din- I l-
one 'W1S"'es '- ,'e '11g po,
Triangl,es I
3
6
1,0
15
2] 28
3
6
4,5
SS
. , -
Squar1es ,I ,4
9
16 2
S
36,
49
64
8,1, '1.,00
..
Pen
'1
ago,n:alsl
3"S 5
1
7
92'
7 145
I
5
'2 22 I I
He,xago:nals ]: 6
IS
2,8
45
66
9
I 20 I
53 190
. . . '" .
, .
. I.
eptagonals I
7
18
34 SS
81
]
12 14,8 18
9
1
235
- "_1 . " [.'.' ". - ! ,-
. . . .<:1 _ ' ...:. I _ I. I .r :
Yo'u can .a1so set forth th1e succ,eeding po ygonals in simila'r
Im
lt
I e
c
S' :. . -.,.
1
- "'., ,.' ..... -1 - .' UI fin'-'d- tb tl th.-.'," ." I... . .... . '. tb,'. . -.-':.' f' 'th''-: tr
il
. -'. -, --', .' .
SD, g,e,nera., you W1 '. ",' ,a I--:e squares are ..e sum o .. le .la,nges
above ,tb,ose th,at occ,u,py the same place in the :senes" plus the :numbers
'f': th' t .I' cla', .. th' '-', ..'::-. t- 1- '., ...;. b .c 'k 1. f:- '-:'.- -" .. '.', .. ),.'. -'111 "
o _ a. sam,e .'.- ". 'SS ill _e nex" p. ace '. ac . " o,r exampl( e, ,4 equals .3
plus I, 9 ,equals 6 plus 3, 16 equals 10 plu:s 6, :25 equals 1'5 plus 10, 3,6
equals 2 I plus I. S, and so on!l
Th,e 'pentagons are the sum of the squares abov,e them in the same
pl
-'a'c"'e'-' m' .... th-'e-' ser--Ie'8- p' lus' tbe" 'm'"entary--"-' t'na-In:g es .. t-'h
l
a:t' ar'"e ne p'la
l
c'e"- c.'.'.. .:......: : .... - .. ',,,'. - :, " .,>_ ... I.' .. : ..... I ..:.._. """.,,_,'.' '<1.,' '.. ' . , .... I. I .......
:further b,a.ck in t' e :series; for eX'ample, ,5 equals 4 plus I, I 2 equ;als
-
9' plus 3, 2:2' equals 16, plus 6, 35 equals 25 10, &D,d 'so Ion.
6 Again" the, hexagonalsl are simila,rl.y the sum's of the pentagons ;abov,e
them in t.hle 'place in the 'seri,es plus the triangles one place; 'ack ;
fOil instance, 6 equals 5 plus I, 15: equals 12 pilus 3" 28 equals :2 2 P ,us 6,
4S equ:als 3,5 plus 10, ,anld as fa,r as Y'OU like.
7 The sam,e appl'es to th,e hepta.gonals" 'for 7 is the 'sum, of 6 an,d J
18 equals IS plus 3, 34 equals 28, plus 6
1
, and 'so on. Th'us each polyg""
onal number' i,s the sum, of the polygonal in the same: plac1e in the seri,es
'j'th '-',1' '1-' 11'" '1--(-1,'-' ... 1,,:: t'h t' 'i, ,1.,,1, .- thi' 'h' ,h -,t '...,.. '; ... " .... ,...,11 ........ , '-
W1 . one ess ang e, P us e n,ang e" ,m e 19 .es[ row" one pace
b1a1c:k in the Sleries.
8
-. -atu'r'aU-y t'hen the tn"an'g'I-e lS the elemen't of-' t'h'e pol:
yg
-
on
2 b-th- m-- : _' '.' .,:', '. . .... , '. . '..'. . , '" ' I :_:, .' "1'1_',' <1 '.' -,0 I ':' .
'figures anld in 'numbers" and we say thi.s. because in the table:, I'eading
J That is" in ,t:he column next 'to t le
I Cf.II. 7'. ,4- T1I8ol .. AriM,., p.. ,8 As't, states that the triangle IS the elemeD.t of both, :D1a8'D'itud.es
and, ft'um,ben and, is ,made by the CO,ogress of the 'monad and.. the dyad.
'49
either up and down 1 or across, the successive numbers in the rows
are discovered to have as differences the triangles in regular order.
CHAPTER XIII
From this it is easy to see what the solid number is and how its I
series advances with equal sides; for the number which, in addition
to the two dimensions contemplated in graphic representation in a
plane, length, and breadth, has a third dimension, which some call
depth, others thickness, and some height, that number would be a
solid number, extended in three directions and having length, depth,
and breadth.
This first makes its appearance in the so-called pyramids. These,
are produced from rather wide bases narrowing to a sharp apex, first
after the triangular fonn 2 from a triangular base, second after the
fonn of the square from a square base, and succeeding these after the
pentagonal form from a pentagonal base, then similarly from the
hexagon, heptagon, octagon, and so on indefinitely.
Exactly so among the geometrical solid figures; if one imagines three 3
lines from the three angles of an equilateral triangle, equal in length
to the sides of the triangle, converging in the dimension height to one
and the same point, a pyramid would be produced, bounded by four
triangles, equilateral and equal one to the other, one the original tri-
angle, and the other three bounded hy the aforesaid three lines. And 4
again, if one conceives of four lines starting from a square, equal in
length to the sides of the square, each to each, and again converging
in the dimension height to one and the same point, a pyramid would
he completed with a square hase and diminishing in square fonn,
bounded hy four equilateral triangles and one square, the original
1 Ast, Tluol. Arith., p. 288, declares that 'ull .. (the reading of the Paris MS for
xlll /felT! rXcf.Tor, p. 99. 5) is an interpolation, but Hoche retains the words on the authority of
Philoponus. The triangular numhen; arc the differences in the table taken 'in depth' (KilT!
/3490r); for in reading down the second column the common difference is I, that of the third
column is 3, of the fourth 6, and so on, the differences agreeing in turn with each of the triangular
numbers. Thi;; observation is omitted by Boethius, who devotes n. 19 to showing that the
triangular numbers furnish the differences taken across the breadth. When the numbers of the
table are compared with those of the same column but in the row next above, and the comparisons
are carried across the whole table. the differences are found to be the triangular numbers.
Algebraically the corresponding equation is the same as that given in the note above to 11. 12. 3.
, That is, successive sections paraUel to the base are triangular. On pyramids, cf. Thecn,
p. 42, 3 ff.

UNIVERSITY Of MKHIGAH -
And
.' f'I 1 h . .
5 ,one. '>,1 sta,rtingrom a pentag'oD,exag[on, heptagon, an.ld h:ow-
lever far .you care to Ig[o, lines equal in number to th[e a.n.gles
l
' erected
.in 'the sam,e fashion fro,m, the an.gles and cOlnverging to IOI.ne and the
same pomt, will a, pyramid. named from 'ts pentagonal,
,--Iexago'nal, or hepltagonal base, or similarly.,
6 S lik" ., b 'h lin' b ,. f' ...
among num -ers, eac. ,_,__ear num. er mcreas,es, .i,r[om .' n.' ty,
f
- i!!I t f 1 d 'b
as'rom a pom-', as lor examp.e, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, an s,uccesslve 'num'ers
to infinity., and fr'om thes,e same n.umbers, which are linear and
tended in one Idirection, clombin.ed in no ra,nd.o,m manner" the
...... al1 .-:- - d.. . .'. -'- . "I: . lb'" ".:' .. ...:..... fl' hi ,'--d - th :1' bc-:, t'-h- , .-:- bIII
on- _an> p_,ane numers are as. o.ne.",le LJ.l.an.g esy I, e corn 1
na
tlon 0 .. " r,oo' .. t-n-um',b--:ers
2
lDlDll!_" ; e'diJ-"at.'e"ly": a-:-1d-:- ce-n--t the'=,:, s-ql[ua'I'1e=--... 'b-y' 8d"din"I"g' ...: ..: ' .' '.. .. -.. ' ',.' ",:.' _". ,." _. :' '::. ." (' I .." ,' .. ' 1_..:: .&"" ','.: _'.1_
7 every other term, the pentagons every third term, and so on. In
exactly the same: way, if the p1lane pOlygOID.a1 numbers a're piled one
U.pO'D the o,th.er' ,and as .it. wlere hurlt UP" the pyr'amids that a.re .akin tO
I
e
'-'a
7
0"-' f'- t-hi'e'rn' ..... a'lre" pr'o'd"u-ced
J
tb
l
' 'e-" trio 'n"'gu' .la:Ir p.y''ram'" I' .... fro"m ' .. ,-t'he' t'n-'an'"gles' ',--:-'. ,,,,1 _ .11 ".' ,..,:_ ' " '1- '.' ._ '.' , I I, .. I,..:U '.1. 1.. ,.. ..::....: _.- -_. "-'J
the squ.are p'yramid from the squ,ar'es, the pentagonal from the penta-
gons, th,e hex,agon.al from the hexagon's., and so on through,out,.
8 The PlY amids with, a triia-gular base, the.n, in their p]}oper orider"
. th e- --=- .. ,.,., 1- "'- ..., ...... :-'--5" 6-' 8-
1
.. d :-.-- ... -..... ' "-'d the _.. .'-.-- th- .. .
are ., ese iI I, 4, 10, 20., 3,- , 5' ,4'J an, __ so Ion,; ani I . ,err 0 ,gm IS . <_ e
ilin
l' .. f th '" la- b h h ,E!. h
.P- I'!:g U.p 0 I' .:- e tnan.gu numo-ers one upon t;e ot.er" nrst I, t.en I,
3" th[en, I" 3, 6:,. tb.en 10 in additio,n, to th.ese, and next IS togethe'r
with t.h.le fore.:going, then 2 besides t.bese" next 2
,
8" and so on, to infinity.
9 It is clear that th.e gre.atest number is con,ceived of as being lowest,
1 The foUowh1g' dia.grams, are lrom. 'Codex G:
"Dt.ftii!ftJ'W'!li'tI idI . - .'. . , . .. ":.1"" :', la' 'd, -.-. ta' . . naI' ba,
A.,. ........... S on SQ,uar,e, 1".....;HU--r an pen, gOI ,seI.,
Pyramidsl DumericaIly reprelell'led,:
Cl.
a.
,a "
Cl
&
a 11 Cl
Cl ..
11
a., A
'Cl Cl Cl
(I G
.. (I Go "
a.4,,.
DJI; p .1.3 S' P TL1_:J P _l;l
rJ:rst l'tJmiG _"o00 .. '- yrtJmiv,'
'They are buUt up in layersl as it, were (<::1. sections 7_, 9 infra.). Il'ke pUes
l
of' shot or sph res 'of
any :kinJd." ,and th'e laye;ts are tb,e triangular numbers in orde;r. U all were put 'in triangulaI
form, it 'would be Iclearer.
I; Tha.'t is
J
gnomons; see 011. 'I. [9. 4a In this case the gnO'lDOns are the Datura! series,
TRANSLATION; BOOK II
for it is discovered to be the base; the next succeeding one is on top
of it, and the next on top of that; until unity appears at the apex
and, so to speak, tapers off the completed pyramid into a point.
CHAPTER XIV
The next pyramids in order are those with a square base which rise I
in this shape to one and the same point. These are formed in the same
way as the triangular pyramids of which we have just spoken. For
if I extend in series the square numbers in order beginning "ith unity,
thus, I, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, and again set the successive
terms, as in a pile, one upon the other in the dimension height, when I
put r on top of 4, the first actual pyramid with square base,s is pro- 2
duced, for here again unity is potentially the first. Once more, I
put this same pyramid entire, composed of 5 units, just as it is, upon
the square 9, and there is made up for me the pyramid '4, ffith square
base and side 3 - for the former pyramid had the side 2, and the one
potentially first 1 as a side. For here too each side of any pyramid
whatsoever must consist of as many units as there are polygonal
numbers piled together to create it.
Again, I place 1 the whole pyramid '4, ffith the square 9 as its base, 3
upon the square 16 and I have 30, the third actual pyramid of those
that have a square base, and by the same order and procedure from a
pentagonal, hexagonal, or heptagonal base, and even going on farther,
we shall produce pyramids by piling upon one another the correspond-
ing polygonal numbers, starting with unity as the smallest and going
on to infinity in each case.
I The square pyramids might be represented thus:

a. Cl et a.

These layers are to be piled one above the other in space, and thus the edges will contain as
many units as are layers, or, in other words, as many as the numbers of square numbers
taken in addition.

UNIVERSITY Of MKHIGAH
4
F ..'- 'tb I,i:. t t.- bee ': .- .. , :- .:.lIId, ".' :tl th t '. ,1'--:1 -[. th ,.,.-:<t c'l -.- ",-
rom IS, 1.00 I ...'.. omes .. eD. " a.. ang es are e mos_- eemen
tary; for absolutely all of the p,yramids tha'tare: exhibited ,and shown"
'h th .' I I b boO dl d b t ,. '1 to th
Wit v'anous po ygonal[,ases", are .. es up I",..' 'e
apex.
,s: But lest we be beedless of trun,ca'ted" bi,-trun,cated, and tri-tron,cated
d
.h f'I b- h ' .. ifi
py.raJlll.- s., t;e ,names 0: c w' .le
lC
we :are s,ure tOI en,c,ounter m SCle'n'tl: "C
t kn tb t f 'd 'th rt
WI'l
'., .'. ID,.g:.S', yO ..-u: m'a,'y:' ': O"W', 1'- a. PlyraDU' "'1 ,.,' .... W1 .. :. ,... any so::',' 0,. p. o. y-g-o:n _ .' _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.. r" _ __ _ __
'. . . t .._
its base, triangle, squ,a,r,e, pentagon, or' any ,of th,e s,ucceeding polygons
fth
' ki cl h i b- th fl d
01" ': le .. 'D:'.I, w,Ien It m.lcreases'y ':.11S 'process 0.1 pll,mg up. oes nOlt taper
off into unity'I :is called simply truncated when i,t isl left without 'the
'I tha b . . 11 -ds f i1i. d .'.
" '1 ,.. - "'. . - .-. .,. - - .. ' " '" . '.' .,': ,.:' '" :' ,- '.. ' ,.... .. - .:. ',,: I .. '. '. . 1 > . ..". ,. -- '. I '. . ....--:. '.' .. - :.:. . - ..' .. , .':- ". - -.-,- . -, .. "'." .',
DatU.ra apex .,,:.. t .. ee-ongs to a . p,yraml '", .or It oeSI Dot te,rmmate m
th,e ,potential polygon, unIty, as in some, OIDe point" 'but in another
.... '1, 'g"" n' -nd'- '0' ac't" 'a')' o':'n-Ie' a'nd '-'--Olt.-.- )Si- n':'o'tl a"'pex". 'b" t l'-ts'- '. 'per- '.'--
'I a ,I.c.' a.. .n " .'. i .. U :_Y , I. '.' '. "",.I"",IU,
boundary becomes a, pla,ne 'figure wit I the SaDl,e n'UDl.be, 0
1
: angles as
th,e blase. If', however', in addition to the falure to termina.t1e:in unity
j,t does not even tenn.inate in the 'polygon next to unity and the first in
actu.ality" sU.cb, a pyramid -is called b"'-t,runcated, an,d if, still fu'rth,er, it,
d.oes not have the second actual polygon, at its upper' liInit, 'but only
the one next be,neath" it 'will be caUed tri-trun,ca:ted, y,es, ev,en four
t
t ted- ltt d t ha th t its nt fi-
)i oes no, ve._'e nex o,ne as ,or -.ve
t
- t ted t th' . t te d .- f to
. 1 . ' .":''.- I ' .-....' ." . - - " '. ". .- " -.. .. - .. , '. .'. '.., .' .....":'.. ' ' .- ' '..... '. . . "" " '_.-.
.IDles runca..... a, ..... 'e nex. S ,_p, an so on as ' ar as you carle ...... ,carry
the D1omenclature.
CHAPTER XV
I 'While the o,rigin, ad,v'ance, incflease:, and nature of the
".. l:id II,Ib-:-,." ,f ....-.-- .. : icla -11 a'-pe ar-an IS' th'e f'-, ,'.' .'_'1" ,:"th 'ts 'd
501 Dwne,Is 0.1 pyraml,-,p,. ""I. C . Icore,gomg,1 W1 .. see.
d
th I I b d tb, -li' f th .. h
-'" -. - - . , ..' '. . 0 . --,' a" n'" .'. .... .-. e'- -.11 . . .. -.''-,. . . ,. .' . . ' . . "':.' . ""1'" ":, .'. ',,::;, ",' . '1 . '.' I I' .... ... . .'. '1' I : ';. .... .' ...,.. ", . ," '[ ',' .
an root rn,. e p_.ygon." .wn _ers an .,. p, .,ng up 0, em lD
l'egular ,o,['d.[er', there IS ,an,other' seri,es ,of solid nwnbe.s 101{ a ,different
k
.. d .'. ,--.- .. c" f tlh' .' .. ' "..-.-,. n
l
' eel- '.. be .'. 'b-" .', ... ,Cb' .. 'ksl---c. , '.' 'd'I'- -'-.' ,
,ID.c', conS,ls",mg 0 'e g,o-ca= cu,-:s,eamS,_ln,c" we.,gles,
spheres an,d parallelepipedons, which, h,as the order of its, pr-ogress
'ha r 'n somew'._.. as.lO ows:
2 The :fo:r,e,going squ,a,res I', 4, 9, 16, 25" 3,6, 49, [64" and SOl OD, whi1ch ar,e
t
' d d" ".' d-' "'. d ill th '.' b- .' " .'. c.' "I .. ' ; "1' .. " . ',:.' '.,.-. '1 . c' .' ':1 :'(- - I , .. ',': - :;. "",." I' - . '1"
ex en e. ID two .- lrectl'ons an ID "ell grap le representation m ,a
plane hav,e o.nl,y len.g'th and brea,dth, 'will take o:n. yet a third d,mension
d b li
'd d- . d d' th di' '" '" 'f _.L" 1 lie - b
',e SOl,S an:- In-- .. 1. eaul IS mu, ,tip
11 I d hili- 'h Ill' III lII!I 1'" 1''''00 b . '.
" :-., ..-''- ,.'- ., '-.' I .=-- I' . , . :-.:' '-'. . . . .... . .:.. 'I" . - ". ':', '. " - ... .... - - .. - .'. , ii
It.S own sle, 4, WI,IC,t IS 2 tlDles :2, IS a,galnmu,tlp I[ __ y 2, toma.,e8,
h
ll
h .1 t '.., ed b '. th d' .. d
9" W_' C' IS 31'wes 3, IS agam, .'y 3 '.n ano' ,le, .'"imenSlon an:'
'53
gives 27; 16, which is 4 times 4, is multiplied by its own side, 4, and
64 results; and so on with the succeeding squares throughout.
Here, too, the sides will be composed of as many units as were in 3
the sides of the squares from which they arose, in each case; the sides
of 8 will be 2, like those of 4; those of 27, 3, like those of 9; those of
64,4, like those of 16; and so on, so that likewise the side of unity, the
potential cube, will be " which is the side of the potential square, 1.
In general, each square is a single plane, and has four angles and
four sides, while each several cube, having increased out of some one
square multiplied by its own side, will have always six plane surfaces,
each equal to the original square, and twelve edges, each equal to and
containing exactly the same number of units as each side of the original
square, and eight solid angles, each of which is bounded by three edges
like in each case to the sides of the original square.
CHAPTER XVI
Now since the cube is a solid figure equal sides in all dimensions, 1
in length, depth, and breadth, and is equally extended in all the six
so-called directions,' it follows that there is opposed to it that which has
its dimensions in no case equal to one another, but its depth unequal
to its breadth and its length unequal to either of these, for example 2
times 3 times 4, or 2 times 4 times 8, or 3 times 5 times 12, or a figure
which follows some other scheme of inequality.
Such solid figures,' in which the dimensions are everywhere unequal,
one to another, are called scalene in general. Some, however, using
other names, call them 'wedges,' for carpenters', house-builders' and
blacksmiths' wedges and those used in other crafts, having unequal
sides in every direction, are fashioned so as to penetrate; they begin
with a sharp end and continually broaden out unequally in all the di-
mensions. Some also call them spltekiskoi, 'wasps,' because wasps'
bodies also are very like them, compressed in the middle and showing
the resemblance mentioned. From this also the sphekoma,' 'point of
the helmet,' must derive its name, for where it is compressed it imitates
the waist of the wasp. Others call the same numbers 'altars,' using
I CL 11. 6. 4 and the note.
I Cf. Theon's brief account of the solid numbers, p. 41, 8 ff. He has only the Dame 'little
altars' (cf. below) for scalene numbers.
, The point of the helmet where the plume was affixed.

-
'tb
l
.. ,'.. .- ",' :'. :-t",,-,,,.,h-..','.' f-- tbl ..:. -Ite'l' '-" ,'f .- -. 'C.,-' It' "1:" 1': -1'-.- th,:....:.
. ,elf o\vn or I ... e a -a,rs 0, an,Cle,n,. ,s ye" par leUal.y .' .,e
Ia,nile, do no;t have the breadth eq'ual to the depth, ,nor teither lof these
equ,al to the 'Ien.gth'l D,or th,e base equal to the tOpl, but are of 'varied
h
.. 'unen'slo'ns, everyw' , ,ere.
3 Now hereas th,e tw,o kinds of n,umb,ers, c,ube and scalen,e, ar,e a"{-
t['emes" the anle ,equally extended in every ldimensio,n, the othe,r
,equally, the: so-called pa['aUeleplp,edon:s are solid, nUlllbers like means
between, t.hem,'.' The plane s'u,rfa,ces ,of thlese 'are heteromeClc ,n,um:bers,"
Just as in the case of the cubes the faces wer,e squares, as has 'been
slhown.
CHAPTE,R XVI'I,
I Again, then" to take a ,fresh start, a number is called he'ter
1
omecic
2
if Its rep'resentatio1n, when ,graphically ,described in a plan,e, is
era] an,d ,quadrangular), to be sure, b'ut th,e sid,e:s are not equal o:ne to an-
othe'r, nor is the, length eq,ual to, the breadth, b'ut they differ by I
Exam'ples a,re 2, 6, 1:2" 2,0, 301, ,42;, and so' ,OD, for if olne, r,epresents the'm
gtlaphical1y h,e will always consltru,ct theJn thus: I t,nnes 2 equ,als 2'"
. !iI, Is 'it Is dl tb dJ!!! .. rW
'2 tunes 3 3 'tllDles 4 12, ,an'I_,e, su,ccee ''In,g ODes 'SUDI-
larly" 4 tinIes S, 5 tinl.'es 6
1
, 61 times 7, 7 timles 8
1
" and thus indefinitely,
provid,ed ,only that one si-de 'IS gre'ater than the ,oth,er by I an,ld b'y no
,other nUDlber,. 1:" hOlwever, the sides differ otherw--ise ,than by I, for
l
ns-ta,n-c''e'", bL.. ,y' 2"" 3 4 o''C'''r- Sc'UC''ceed 'l-n-'-'Ig" n'um"b'e"r's
c
a:s' n 2 'tim-'-e .. 'sc 4 3' t;n"'ll,e""s" 6, I .1 1
1
'_." .,: ,':, ." .' I ,-..... .,' .' ,I. ' :..:: ,I,' " .. ' .', I '. ..' ": .. UJ..I,I .. " ' :,'
4 8, or however [else they may ,differ"1 then n,o lOlnge,r will such a
n,umbe::[' be plroperly called a heteromec,ic, but, an oblon"g'DUDlber.1 Fa,r
th,e, an,ci,ents of t-- e, school of Pythagoras and, his successors saw ''the
oth,er' 3 and ,C0thern,es:s, p'Iimarily in 2, and 4'th,e same' and 'sameness'
'I See 'the following chapter.,
I There' is no good English equivalent, fOlr Boethius ca 'Is 'this DUmber oIlerlS
parte'longio'4 To thi, class belolng numbers ,of the t,ype '1
1
(. + I).. The d,eJini'tioD is repea:ted
in ll" t8,. :2:; cl. Theon, ,p. 26 21 ft.
"'The lother'," 'the same,' ,a'h,d 'sameness,' ,are Plat.on'ic terms, ralhel' than
They could 'ba.v,e been :in,clu.,ded as opposites in 'the lis,ts of such, (the vVf"TDlxIClc),
's,uch as th,at. preserved 'by Aristotl,e, In Met., l" 5i but they' ,do not occur ther,e,. On the other
,ha.Dd we are ,informed b,Y Simpllclus (Phys.." 181', 7 D):. Eudorus, ,that 'the ..Pythago'reans
d h
J.. U"tb jI (. .1 ,. ') d '1 . h . d i1'. .. db b
ma.e le 'PX';, prlmar'y ..e one Tu .11
1
'le a,ne" an' Its Opposlte;, uner Wl.le
,,"ere class'i,6ed, respectIvely ,. e1ega'Dt tbi'ngsl J (UTfi) aRid 'trivial t:bin,gs" 'This ,setoD,d
dpX'1" Eu,doru's further Ia,ys, was called ,the '1,nd,efin,j le dyad,' ('6p6TOS ,'v4r). This, la.l't..er again
is a Pla.ton,ic ter,m" 'The same" and 'the 0 t (rCI:tn-,6v" ,'d,Tttpo') may be seen in a, Platonic
context in the famous &Ic,co'un't of 'the making of th,e world-soul; 35 A (See OD IL 18" 4),
and are generally considered to be Pythago:rean at least in, ultimate origin.. :Plato, however, was
'SS
in I, as the two beginnings of all things, and these two 1 are found to
differ from each other only by 1. Thus 'the other' is fundamentally
lather' by I, and by no other numberJ and for this reason customarily
'other' , is used, among those who speak correctly, of two things and
not of more than two.
it was shown that all odd number is given its specific 2
form 3 by unity, and all even number by 2. Hence we shall naturally
say that the odd partakes of the nature of 'the same,' and the even of
that of 'the other'; for indeed there are produced by the successive
additions of each of these - naturally, and not by our decree - by the
addition of the odd numbers from I to infinity the class of the squares,
and by the addition of the evens from 2 to infinity, that of the hetero-
meeic numbers.'
There is, accordingly, every reason to think that the square once 3
more shares in the nature of the same j for its sides display the same
ratio, alike, unchanging and firmly fixed in equality, to themselves;
while the heteromecic number partakes of the nature of the other; for
just as I is differentiated from 2, differing by I alone, thus also the
undoubtedly the onc who contributed most to tbe \'ogue of these particular terms. Nicoma-
chus's present statements, then, may reasonably be regarded as in accord with later Pythago-
reanism which was strongly influenced by Plato. er. also Theophrastus, Md., 33, p. J22,
14 Br. Theon of Smyrna describes the heteromecic number.; in a manner that agrees in the main
with Nicomachus. He briefly defines them (po 26, 21) as "those ....;lb onc side greater than the
other by a unit," and notcs t .....o methods of producing them in series, (a) by adding together in
succession the terms in the series of eyen numbers, and (b) by multiplying together successive
pairs of terms in the natural serics. Both methods are mentioned by Nicomachus (sections I, 2).
1 cr. tbe picturesque personification of Theon (p. 27, t): "For the beginning of numbers,
the monad, .....hich is odd, seeking 'otherness,' made the dyad hetetomccic by its oWD doubling"
"Yo:I.p T';''' dpt8p.';'", TOUTlrfTl" JAO"dr, oD.ra fTfpOT.,ra hniil1& lIudlla.
h-fPOP.'lJICTJ.,.;; a{,.,.ijr IIlrAal1,al1p.;; IroITJrff).
t A somewhat similar distinction in terms was adopted by the arithmologists (see p. 117, n. 4) as
a topic in praise of the number 3 (See Tlu:ol. Arith., p. 14 Ast; Lydus, Ik },fensibus, IV. 64
WUnsch; Anatolius, p. 31, 8 H. Heiberg; Chalcidius, In Timat'um, c. XXXVIII; Theon of
Smyma, p. 100, 13 H. HilIer). The purport of these passages is that of 3 we can lint use the
term 'all,' for of one thing or two things we say 'one' or 'both.' The ThtologlJmena Arithme-
ticae adds that, in expressions like 'thrice tcn thousand,' 3 is used as a symbol of plurality. The
notion that 3 was called 'all' as the first possessor of beginning, middle, and end is coupled with
the statement above in some of the sources cited. These passages have a bearing on the present
utterance of Nicomachus so far as they illustrate the Pythagorean idea that 'otherness,' repre
sented by 2, and 'plurality' are not identical. Duality and 'othemess,' first seen in and typified
by 2, arc elementary i plurality is derived.
I Doethius, 2. 2j, givcs the following explanation why the odd is founded (ptrfid is his expres-
sion) on unity and the even on the dyad: .Yam CUillSCUnqlU medielas unw est, ille impar esl;
willS vero duo, hie pariJak reupta in gemina aequo disi,mgill'r. CL I. 7. 2.
'This method of deri"'ing the heteromedc series is given below in 1I. 18. .2 and .20. 3, and by
Theon (p. .27,8 tT., 31, 14 fr.).

sides [of' every he..tero[mecic nUDlber ditIer from, OD'e another', lone: ditler
ing from the othe ' bly I alone:.
To illustrate, if l have set ,ou,t before me, the suc'cess:ive nUIDb[ers In
b ill tb' dId 'b h I h dd se,nes Wl'- " 1'1 an' __ se ,eel an" 1 arrange . t. 'emse; v'es t 1- eo. I. .
b
th }'" d tb b th el '
nwners me an "e eveny [,,'ems=- ves[ In anotber, there are
,obtamed tb[ese two senes, :
'1.,[ 3, 5, 7, 97 I I" 13, IS, ' 7, 19, 21" 2'3, 25, 27
2, 4'1 6
1
, 8, ,10'1 1'2, 14, ,18" 2
1
0, 2[2" 24, 26, 28
N
" th h b' f" h- dd .. '. ., 'h[ h f h
4_,ow,I ..en, t 'Ie .'e,gl'nnlng 0: tll, eo" series IS unIty, IS 0_ tl ,e SaJIle
class as the series and, possesses th[e D[ature of C'the s8.IIle,' and, so whether
it multiplies itself in tw[o dim1ensl,ons or in thr'ee I it is no't mad,e ditIer[ent..,
nor' yet, does it make, [any other n'unibe
l
- depart f'ro1m what it 'wals ori,gi-
nally,2 b'ut k.e,ep[s it Just as it 'was., S'uch a property it. is iInpossible to
fin
, d '. 'h b O'-'f "h th .' .. h bill. '. h-ch
l
,5 ' -, . In [any ot :, [er num,-er., [tl-,e 0', er series, :'e,egtnmng .IS 2, WI _1 1
.is similar 'm I_m,d tohisl serIes and iInitates 'o:ther,ness';. for whether
it m,ultip'lles itself or an[other number, i-t caus[es a change,s[ for ex-
1
11 II!!
, ," .. I -:. " ,'" , ' "". " ' . .. ,-" ,'_.',' , ,
lampe, :2 tunes 2" '2 tunes 3-
" B,'-', "'t ,., -.",', l!'k'-:-' 8" t- . -'. 8'" ,time - ,.. , ,. 8"':' t'' .. ,,'- 8 til' ... .. . .h- - -'l'd'
16 u[: In cases, le [, unes, , I ,es[ 2, or " lun,es . .unes, 3" SUIC- 80_1
forms, are called "bricks,' 4 the product of a n.um'ber by itself and then
'bya smallernumber ,; ifthowev'e,r,la,greate'r heigh,t is joined to thesqua,re,
' t' -.. 8' ' , - , '. h
as m 13 tunes 3 tlDles 7, 3 .... unes 3 Olr 3 tlDles[ 3 tnn1es 9', ,or- ow,
e'ver m.any tim.es ,the square be take,n,1 p'roivided o,nly i,t be a greater
, I b,.. ,:, ., f' 't'" "e,", ,th"a-', 'thl''e, p;e: "t[--lf t':he I" 't-h"'-' "I 1-: 'b ,
nUDl._er 0., _1m:S .-.. n ..... -. squa,I.' I sel" .D_le nwn _ers aeam,
the 'p,roduct of a :numbe:r b[y i' -self' and then. by [a larg'er n'umber. The
I [""ft.1I',., .& "T,I','" .: as,:.' .urf,-.... or as '-I ,50- "'U1d,:- I
_ .. _ . C"_ . ., r--fII . "' . ... - . - - ..
I rrL,-t I' h - 1
1
't 'ulu
JiP
Dy t'he'r D'U'm'be-'r 'D--thi an[ys of 'I1',rn[;t - 1
- ,1.,1i& 15, w_.cn.' m _p'.ICS ..... ... 0 _ I". . I .. ,. I 'us, 2 "t oa' .", '_ ""-'lollY'" " '. 1:.
1;1....... ....L..:r' .... L <11 , __.f' , _.. ]I'" I <ti _ ...'1 - .AI ... .,;1" ,r
"alum aWQm7i ,"t: mutauwU' Suu,sl4nlUJe ul, fII" cum vai se s,lsIJ M'.ll".1('fJ-VuU vQ ,n " ..an",f.'I,ne De,
iN, ,tw:ojUllllilale, rei si ali",. ,,"""DJIt .amenmt /Jet' se ;':'4 .,NU:;I"""', a /Wioris' q,ltJIJIilau'$ fWJIIIJ
tl
et. C-:f '1-1-' 6'
non ,.'UCP. ..c:
11
, .. _--, >Ill' 3.
I '&tT"IS: literally 'a s'tan,ding out oft (seil its former s,tate Of, as b"ere. number),
'change/' Aristo,tle
t
D, Anima" 406 b 13, ....... "t....'1 'lt6T'fUllr ,'IT.,.t TOO [:&'[8VpJ"U i
lelftWal" When 2 :is the multiplie:,r, the result is always dUIerent fro'm tbe' multiplicand;. fo,r
Ni,oo,machus"s number '.ys[tem,. consisting of' positive integers only. 2S' ,is al'wa,ys different from
4 Sucb a de'finition, as tbis_uil's well certain kinds[ 0'' &oman 'bri[cks which were :square in their
-b ._, ... ..;JI -to ," ',' t 'd' ,I 't,,",,, e1' 'tbiD- - Tb" R'; ,. ., l od ",' eel'" b' Led b" k' t' G' k la' d" d
roaues ,aspec [aD re_B IV ,y ,.... -el,e ,omans ID ,r uc' a,.. nc. IDO ... ree' n SJ [an [
Nicomachus wouI,d doubtless be aoqualnted with thi.s variely,. Thoon,1 Pi;; 41, 8 tt,,,, gives the
same name and definitlODiO Theon alsQisimilarly names and d!efines "beams,' and cubes" but
for .-he 'wedges" he has only the name [little: altars' (cf'., 11, 16.2)1 [of the !eve'ral tb,at Nicomachu!
H
- f' AI d[ <lii (D' fin iF H}' b H' Al _,,,J"''' r .......,...........
uses.,[ e:r[o o,_e'ZaD na l,tl0n '113, m,u tsc,caonssl,esaoo:r.m \n;(nOO'netW'unJ, d
RrJiquitu
t
p. ,31) defines, 'b:n,eks' as solids with, the le.ngth 'less than the b'readtb
, "',d d" "'th'- 'th- 1, tt' -. b" .". ,'. :'.,'" .. 't,'-' "'I ' . ,""', -,',' (" ',- thI 'b"'n>l'ck-, ,[ d-" -I', ,', Tb', ''', n" 'P .,' .)." 'd:
an,ep __ 'I [e I WOI a" erelDg some Imes eq,u on . e._I:, 1 ,iUSO . ''','' 113, ,5 .. an
th
- 'b---, ,( '"1.:..1 D' "',.,)" 'h- .. ' d fin", .. ", ,- " .. -li'd
'
hal . ,. J ....gth',. ,, [ . 1,:-. "'\.,- -- '[tb' '. :bread' [ ,
.. ,e .. ea,.mIUl&., .. e,'Jllntt.o. 112 le e, ea as so I ... ..vmg a ,ell _. . gteau:r I.WUIl - 1 e, 1 ... '._
or thickness, the two 'latter being sometimes[ eq,ual.
5
.1 7'
[..
Wl
e.
. ,
:Il
'.', . ry'
- , .... ' ,
"Ier,'
k;!!"''IIi!!i' ........'''_, thes,e
'1
1
"'ltb'l, V'.::J' . .' _., I
of thse, It
'IIL&. ......a. vative of
:.,e\' a-
II'S, ,5,
:multlp, "ed
.......c<i.....,'ers, for
'0'" =1
e
'. '
. 1'1'r1'
._.. -
th,e,
,pie,
-'e'. . I . .
if
'u, ..' I I
[a 'ne:'
" 2S d 3
ey havre
an '.IS" they are lea e::
16, or:, a,gain, I, 6,25" 1'12
'
,,6,
[ .
.,
, L.. ..
Ilesame..
an,' also[ reeD,r' '''A'l!IiJfrjj
f
"'o':- - h10" "'W'-.' e, ft"'?'oy:'
. ..:.. _ ....: . V .
cl h
' ill
,........... an,',1 en,.. '.. lDl,e In
,5 n, 5. For exa
wi 1 5 times
'd to lty
I.:.
I'IT
en.I,, '.,nI1es
- ' "
:5 '" :aJe me-I,.......,.
,h'c'h :s gi'
I
-
_.11....,..
. _' mpt L, dUI
,t, prol fty [01 5 is
N
.'" Ph' M ...... " ',ht,!,S c"I", [,,'1 , ....,.,
11"
ilr pl.coD ..rt,y or 6 J cf'.
'fl .10),0,
reason.
I( bfII"U"
,"T'I. ,.1 ii:SO . -eon of Smym, 'p.. ,3,8
.' "b. _. \',' , 76 Wflnseb.), caUs S a (f'tflaip .r
'y ..M 'orus" p., 33, 2 Heibe" Id
.. '1 It aItJJas'dticus) .. Anato i ,9 r --
:.. I. !I In fact tb -' .'po -opolfc.o
I
NICOMAC'H'US OF GE,RA,SA
ularlyinthe heteromecic numbers, whichar,emadeby "hecontinu"ed ad,di..
t
-Ion o,f ,th'e' e"'ven' numbe'rs- 'b'e"ca'us'e' o"f' th" -'e sh-'ar'e- of th"'e- O''['I-gm'".al' m'"e' ali- I I.",,".:. ._. _,,":,.. , ,: . . ,"', . " ,' .. _,.... ,.::'.,.', "':'" " . ,'.1,:_,1. l...c'_ . .0. 1 '_. I"y .
an:d 'othern,ess' whiCh th,ey have in th,e differenc,e between, their sides,.
Therefore it is m,ost necessary further '10
1
demon.s .'rate how :in the:se two,
as m
-'.. on' -g'lr!l'ns a-n-d S'eedls th'ere-' are potent,tally-, e-,v-;st"'e'nt all' the - 1 '. I . 'I. i. '1,1 ',:,', '.".' .... :', I .'." _ ..,c." > :C
AJa
{' ,... '. .,.i." pecular
properties of number, of i.ts, fonns and su,bdivlsio,ns, o,f all Its .elati1ons,
,of polygonals, ,and the like.
2 First, howeve,r, we m,ust make the distinIction. whereby the oblong
(pro1mec.ic) numbe'f 2 differs fr'om the h.et.e:romecic. Th.e 'heteromecic
iS'1 as, was stated abo've:,3 the product of a number multiplied b,Y' anoth.er
larg'er than the. firs,'t by I, for exam:p'"le, 6, 'wh-.Ich, :is 2 times 31'1 or 12, which
. .. B:" h b
'
1 '1 I tb d f --fI" 'It
IS 3 tiIDves 4..'ut t le 0, ,on.g 15 SlDllar ,y ". ',e pro' llct 0'. t.wo d" .erlng
numbers, d,iffering, howe,ver, DOlt by I bu,t by some la,rger n.untber, as
:2 times 4'1 3 times, 6, 4 thnes 8, and similar n,um.bers
"
whIch, In a way
exceed, in len,gth a,n,d loverste:p th,e diff'e:ren1ce Oil I,..
3 Therefo,re, since squares are produced from the m'ultiplicatlloln o'f
b
-"S b'y th'e-l-r' O:"l'-.::Fn, length' a'nd ha've the;'" Iengt'h t'he sam'e' a th re .. numer', '1_:' I .' :-<-, , -" _.1, . ;, .. "_ I :.L.L.J;, I .. " _-_ .'._ . IS ... ,elr
breadth, properly speaking they wo;uld be called ":idi,om,ecic' or' 'tau-
, 4 f" l''. .. . th ..
tom,eelC .' ;' 'o.r e,xamp, e, 2 tlmes 2" 3 tlntes 3, 4 t.lDles an" . ,e :rrest.
And if this is true, they ,will adntit in every way of sameness, and
dl f h 1" ,. 00- d d f chi' Ity" tL,lS reason. are ,an: I('ome to an en-; 'or eq.ua '.'
and 'the same' a're so 'in o'ne definite wa:y. E,ut since the heter,om1ecic
numbers al'e produced by the multi'plicati,on, o,f a ,number 'by not its,
rO'WD, but another o'umb,er"s length, the'y ,are th.lerefore called
.', d d -t f fi' .'. d b ell
m,eC1C, an. alml 0,' In -nlty a'n _oun. essn.es:s..
4 In. this way', th1en, ,all nwnbers and thle ,objects i.n the universe whic'h
have be1e:n ,created with referen.1c,e to them are divided and ,clas'sifi,ed, an.d
are :seen to be opposite ,o,n,e to an,other, an.,d well do th,e a.n1ci.ents, at the
very beginning of their account of Nature make the first subdivision
I That is, a unit, ,for' ,it was shown, in U. I 7 2 !ha't I 'the' other is fund,amentaUy other'
. ... d h d::tE' be th -d f' h le .'11 L __ " b d-.I!.-,j ..
by th,e unit
t
,aD 't
,
., : ,wetence .. e SI"e! 0 B,e:_<romeclc nutnu.:l"'
i
a Uonlt.
f
. lI- '" simila
li
.. d fi .,.. f thi 'Ill f be
'I TPO'JA''',",,: ThOO'D 0 1. 'Smyma, Plo 27J 2.3 u: ) gives ,a ,r . e I Rlt'tO'n 0 s 0:' Dum:rs,
thougk he caUs ,t.hem ..),,6*tpa.JJPOI. "',8p1)l, but lnp!! 30, 8 ft .he defines Tpo",xf"r as the
products of two unequal terms'1 which difIer by 1:. 2', or any other 'Dumber, thus, including the'
hete.romecic among the oblon,g numbers,. Theon giv'es 'the froUo'.'ing c_,&ssifi.cation of oblongs in
conn,ectio'o with tb,e definitIon, Ju.st cited = (a.) the .heteromeci,c num'bers, are, obl,on,gs in a sense;
(6) num.bers tba't, 'by on,e: factoring a.re heteromeci,c, by another oblong, as, 12" w'hich is either
3 X 4 or 2 X 6; (c) Dumbers that areob,long by all, possible factorings, e.g,., 40, 'which is 2 X 2:0"
4 X 10, or 5 X 8.
I C'f I- . I., , . 17., I._
t l3&Op.,1)ICf:I.. as opposed to lerfl'OlIiI': ,., or
TRA1\'SLAnON: BOOK II
259
in their cosmogony on this principle. Thus Plato 1 mentions the dis-
tinction between the natures of 'the same' and 'the other,' and again,
that between the essence which is indivisible and always the same and
the one which is divided; and Philolaus' says that existent things
must all be either limitless or limited, or limited and limitless at the
same time, by which it is generally agreed that he means that the uni-
verse is made up out of limited and limitless things at the same time,
obviously after the image of number, for all number is composed of
unity and the dyad, even and odd, and these in truth display equality
and inequality, sameness and otherness, the bounded and the bound-
less, the defined and the undefined.
CHAPTER XIX
That we may be clearly persuaded of what is being said, namely, I
that things are made up of warring and opposite elements 3 and have
I Cr. Plato, Tim<Jeus. 35 A (Archer-Hind's translation): .. From the undivided and ever change-
less substance and that which becomes divided in material bodies, of both these he mingled in
the third place the form of Essence, in the midst between the Same and the Other; and this he
composed on such wise between the undivided and that which is in material bodies divided;
and taking them, three in number, he blended them into one ronn, forcing the nature of the
Other, hard as it was to mingle, into union with the Same," etc.
'Philolaus, the Pythagorean, was a native of Croton or of Tarentum. Ritter and Preller
(!list. Phil. Cr.) give 440 B.C. as his jlor/lit. This fragment (I b Chaignet, 3 Mullach) is found
in much fuller form in Stobaeus, Eel. Phys., I. 21. 7 (vol. I, p. 187, Wachsmuth-Hense).
J It is a question whether Nicomachus here has in mind strictly Pythagorean ideas of the origin
and constitution of the universe, or the Platonic account in the Timd<w, which is in fact strongly
Pythagorean in tone. Elsewhere he refers to the Timd<w (I. 2.1 i 11. 2.3; 18.4; 24. 6) and
emphasizes the fact that he hopes to make his work useful for the interpretation of Plato (II.
24. 11) and of the ancient texts read in the schools, among which the Tirrnuw was certainly
c1uded (II. 21. I; 28. I). There is so much in common between Plato and the Pythagoreans
that probably Nicomachus would think of both in making this statement. For the Pythagorean
doctrine that chaotic maller was ordered on harmonic principles cf. Philolaus, in Stobaeus,
op. dl., p. I&} (fr. 4 Chaignet, 3 Mullach): "HI 61 Tell cipxal inrapXo" OVX 6.$Wu oH' 61'6tpIlAol
'''ITal, 1f6." d6vraTo" if' Ka aVrai, KO"/ol.,,9ij/M", ai 1'iJ a.p,...o,la lrryirrro TpO,rftl l-yiwro.
Plato gives a clearer picture of the' warring and opposite' constituents of the universe {Ni-
comachus does not call them (fTolXfia, dements ') in Timd<US, 30 A; fjOIl),,,Bfh 'Yap 6 Bd" 4"(a9.
,d, rli..,.a, of>),avpor "I 101."61,, dl'll' KaTa "vra",,', OVTW ra, &10' ifr opGT6" ovx
xla, 4"(0' d),),a KlI'OV/MfO' .oral dTlillTWf, fir Teitr al'tT6 t1"(a"(fI' IK rijr dTUlar.
That this Tdtu is a harmony, and furthermore that it is a sort of mathematical harmony,
Plato makes clear by showing that it is secured by the interweaving of the world-soul into the
whole extent of the universe (36 E) and that the world-soul is constituted on harmonic principles
(34 c I.). We may further compare 53 B: an 8' KO<T1'fi,,9al TiI ra" rvp rpWTo, Kal Uo1wp
Kal "(l1r Kal 4ipa., tx", JAi" 'x0l>Ta aliTw' 4TTa, ra..,.dra,,1 "(f piJ, &xTrfp dd, 'Xfl' 'ra"
6r"a" d..-; Bdt, oVrW 6iJ TlTrf rfof>lIKlTro. To.iJTo. "-PWTO' fUf",1 Tf Ko.l dpl8poil.
The idea of a chaos of warring elements (fngUla pugtwbant wJidis, urru:ntia skds, Ovid, Md.,
I. 19) is a commonplace in ancient literature after Hesiod. (Cl. ClasskaJ Philolo,y, VIII, p. 40S
with note 4). Cr. with this passage I. 6. J.

2
60 .. _ '. '" 1 NIC,OMAC'HUS OF' GERASA
iI' all' likJl; Iib-' d- tak h d h . aJ
ID (,,'-[e -:00 ::",: Oln ,,' larmony ,- anl,l ways ,an:ses
f
.. f'" harm' [ '11 th ifi' . .. f' ,-.
'rom Oipposltes j I-o,r .. '.. ' -Jony IS 'e o the diverse an,ld the
reconciliation of the oontrary-nun,ded let us set, forth in, two paral-
l,el lines no lon,ger, as ,just preVl[ously, the even numbers fr:om, 2 by
themselves and the: odd ,numbers from ], but the numbers that are pro-
d.uced th,ese by: addmg' theD1 s,uccess,ively. tog.',ether'- the sq- .. ': nares,
. .. . -, - --, . - .' - - ','., . - - :... .. ' - , ,. . . .. .
f
-,(- '-:-. tb- '." od""ld ,-. : b '.' .' t,d,- t'-h
l
'." h,t-,-=- - c ..-- f" '-[':--:"'--, :tb- I ., ... ....,.... :',.. F,'--" if' "'1 ,c"
.rom .' e,.... . ..... num. ers, an. I., .. e .e. -eromeC1C .,rom I. e e,ven. or we
give icar[eu) attention tO
I
their setting forth, we s:haU, admire their mu-
tual 'friendship and their cooper,ation to pro. u[ce and perflect the re
I" ...': ..... " f,: ....... t-: 'tb- : .. d,; t-h-" -:-t-, --_.. '1"- ,,'tb . 1 'b' - - :--.7- th t
mammg ormsl , 0 1 . e en. . ; a . we may Wl,., ,pro, a ..... III .. y conceive, a_
also in, tb,e nature 0. the universe, :.l'om some s,uch so'urce as this ,a
similar thmg was brought abou,t by universal providence.
1
", .. ,t th' 'tl" __ '.... t'-h . b' "," fU.: :-:, ... Th-- . t' f th .' '1 " fro'-: -.
;2 _-e ,Iewo senesJ ,ene as ,o_ows .a, ,0 - e squares,
unity, I, 4, 9, 16, 2'5, 36, 49, 64,1 [81:, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 2:25" an,ld
that of the heterom,eclc ,numbers, begi-nning with 2 and proceeding thus,
2,16" 12, 2.,30,42,[ 56,72, (}O, 110, 132, -,56,182, 210,2'4.
3 In '_he first place, t.hen, the first squ,are is, th,e fundamental multiple a
of the first 'heteromecirc, number; t'he seco,nd, compar,ed tO
I
the seco,nd,
is its sesquialter; tb,e thir[d, sesquitertian Ol' the third ,;, the fo'urt.h, :ses
quiquartan of' the f01urth; then sesq,u'iqumtan,J' sesq.uisextan, and so
on similarly ad infinilu,m. Their differences,[4 too, will increase ac-
cording to the s,ucc'essiv,e. numberSI fro1m I;, the differen,ce of the firs .
.' f th d f" h th' d d Nf fi h tenns 'IS I, o '-, .-Ie secon. 2, 0,.1. t.e .. .. llr . 3, an. :5,0 o,n.. .... ext, l' rst t ,e
second. term of the squa:res be compared with th[e first h,eteromecic num-
ber:
1
the third with the s,econ.ld, the f'ourth with th,e .' bird, and ,the rest
"'tar tb "'llk ha d th '. b f b th SUDl y, - le'y Wl UD,C . __ ,D,ge , ,I ... e 'same rat.IOS as ... e' !',ore,-[ut
diH
:: - ',. will'" b .-- t ..".' . 1.. . f .. " 'b' t f'" . . ..... .,. ..' L "' .'.. ,- .' (' ", I '. - .' _ ," : ) . I . I ", .. 1 : , ' . - . . "1 1 ; :' " " . .' '1 . . 'I I . I' I - . I'"' J . . . " . : ," . "1-' I I' ."' ' :. ..
. ." erences, .. ,.egtD 0 progress noonger rom, I" U,., I.ram 2, re,m,am
ing the sam,e a's before, and according tO
I
the adv,an,ce observed ID t..e
f
th firs' th fi'" 11 b tb fi' . f
,.' ,,_. ".. . - .. -'I ..' .' '", ,.. , .. '. . 1- '--. I :'C I"" . " ",.. - - ,- '-.
,[orme,r ,e, -t to [-.. e.c[st, Wle __erst, or root lo,rm,
I
' }., tb .-. --. .." d': t tb. . '.. d: th.- . .. . d -." ,.. 1-t, .. f" -- th- ". ':'[ I' ': !' - .. ... ,... ". .", '. . . ,":' -" .: ,I .. ' ..... . . I . . [':' I.'. .-..,: '. . '.':1" .:.' . . I' ."', ' '1 I' .' .: , .. ,', . [ ....: .. :
m,ll tiP e:
t
.esecon 0 . .. ,e secon .' e secon. ". ses.. Ula ,er rom ' ,e root
,1 'Cfill the remainder of th[e fra,gment ,of Phil,ol us quoted, in th,e pr-eceding no,le: .,.A pl.
ol'Oi.s I'al 4ppIJ"l.r ..'3,
1
h .al ..,.., TA a', 1''1''1' t1,I'6tln,l. ",,,5'. wak,,'i .1,'&,,1'.
T; ..ry,.. ,.1 lP.lA"AQIJI'T'I. ,IOcr1AIt" ... The words are also quoted
b Tb f S
-,- dl As't tb' 't furth I' b'Uch' 1- N-
. '.. . ,-- .' _. . . "1 . " . . ' .' ."" . .. . . ,'. , . , . . -. . '.' . . . .... .. ..
ron, PlO 12" IO
J
an OD e passage C18 ,.,' er_am .II' us, .'" .' "om.,
p'. 13, I Pis,telllj and Asdepius, In NK-o
I ,..p6"'"" 'fo1r1ctho,ug'b,l.' may be also translated 'providcDCl_ ' and has reference 'to t,cleology'.
Even before: Plato's time the t,eleological idea was in the a-ir. but it was, P'lato who first ,made i,t
..' "', ., ,tiaJiI. : '. '-rt--- .. -f tb t'h ' ..'.. ,f' l'h" .. '. " '. tt t . l'be' .'. erse, '.' Tb"' . " tb d" '00'' -
anessen.. p&,o, ,le [eoryo, eCQDS1U.-lono .,UDlV-, .. llsmano,erm,Ic&[<D
t'bat Nicomachus isl decidedly' a PlatonUmg
I That , tb d: '. '. hI :.' 'X:' I ')" 'F'.',- '[ I' tb'.. .. '.'. f' the" te- d ,.J.. . . I' .' 6
. ---" _. IS, .e .DU....' e '. 2 2.., or e use 0_''_' _,nD 1I"VI1p;r'.f C, ODiI' 19..
tT'hat "'15.
1
c-O--m"'pa' ""n'D[" 'h'[om"ol,o'".t7iQ",D terms[,, '" o .. f' tb'e- t;W':O se,rl'e,,,I!' 'T" .'h,e .... ."Dri"'dI be - twee'D I: and' 2"
I, , .: ' '.. 'I. _, r..'!O I..:.,. -":',0'..:."' .'. '. I I . >, . " .',.' . ,"Oil!. , '" UJ.lI"" .. " ." "
is I:" between 4 and 6, 2; bet,. ,D '9 and 12', 3;1 and SOl OD.
TRA
-' "N-'-'S'LA"T' "0'"'N B'OO'"K" 11 .1 . :," '. ' .'.: .' '" ": ,:.' . ,I, ..
f
,- ,- t"h' t'h"JI-'dt, th_,- t"h""'d' th
L
',. t'h
l
"d .' t'," t-, f', ,'" tb ' ,t' f' ',.--
I "orm, I",e' .1[., ,0 ,,'. e " seSqUl, .er lan .rom I ," e roo: - o,r.m,
d h d
Ji. '11' ill 1 f" h
Jl
,a'n,1 tl. '.e succee mg t.enns WIL-c go on ,m S,lDll ar :.as .. ion.

F
'tb, .. , ...'.. ". t'b
l
',',-, ..... ' ,1, 't'h'.''' -:-1--:, 'il'lh - 'l-th', 'd'd' .'
.- ur ' '. ermo,r-e, I: .. e squa.res ,. among . ves, W ,_cca.ve on.y '-. I,e 0,,:_ 4
n'umbers a's diff'e,rences,:, the heteromecic., even numbe'rs. An..d if we
p'ut 2 the first hete::romecic .number as a mean term bet\veen. the first two
'squares" the seco,nd betW'een the n.ext, two" the. ,'hird bet\veen th,e two
f
'U" ,"d'th'f' " ,t"h' b"t",,, t'h t':,: ,,,,t ,,',,:-;,dI ... , ,t"h"'" "11
_0 1, ow,ng:, ,an-:! " e I.QUrl.e ween. : ewo nex, I "il,er,elD Wl ,
be seen 'sti,'ll m,ore re,gul,army the .num,erical relatio:ns
3
in groups of three
terms. For as, 4 is to 2, SO is 2 to I ; and as, 9 i,s sesq'u'ialter to 6[, so js 6 to
4, an[d. ,as 1
1
6 tlQ' 1'2" SOl is, ] 2 to 9" and so OD, \vith both n'umbers and ,ratios
regu'arly' advanc:ing. As the greater is tO
I
the ,mean, 5,0 'will th,e mean
b t
'h 1 d - '. t'h ttll 'b t 1 d-ff'"
" ,..' .'.' :,. , ": '-, - .' " , ' ,----:: -"" -. ,. =, I', ,', I' ,:', ,:,:. ,"''',-'. . .' - ...
e to_ e ,esser, not ill. e same ra,IO, n,1 a\vays a __ l . erent one,
b
.. - 'Ill .- '. -- 'h d' f h
.,. ,y an mcrease. n a'_ the group.lngs, too., t .e, p,roc- [uet 0.' t -,e extre'mes
i.s equal to the sq.uar,e of the m.ean; and the extremes, plus twice the
m[ean, b[y' excha.nge will ,alw'ays give a Whats neates,t ,of ,all"
f'r'o"m'. th',e a:,[d'dlt'l[o'n' af', bQ,th
i
abl,ou t th-'e"" 'p'lr'o,"d:llC.. of t"h'
lI
e"" ',', ' .... ' _ .', '_' .. ' :' _ '",' . I,. -,', ',,--"":" ,-- .", '. "-cc :--. I. ',.:..' '" "':.c' __' ,,=,,' ::." ',,',',
'n--' gle-"s' 1"'0" d"':ue' or"d:-'e'-'r s--h['0' "w:m
il
' "'. g' 't:, a"t t'he D'a't'u're' 0'f" th'ese'" 'm'o"'re' 'anc' "'len:t
l
, "'." ',':',,' ":: "', ._:' I" ",,' .[, '-, J'> ,.',,', C' '._,' ',.' .... ' . ' c ,,;.'[,.:_ ,',' ',--., " .' ".', .- .,:. ,,[, ... 1. :, ,' __ ,". ,I, ..
36 40, etc.
J 3,. etc,. j odd
42 etc't,
14, etc.. ; ev[en diffe .ences.
3
12
20
10
'J6
9
12
7
9 4
3
g
- .
. : ....O..iI\".... ".. 2' _ n;: _
5
6
4 6,
I 'C"f T'h' ",' , '8' 6'
c
ff' HU',
'.. ean, p- 2, I' _ ,I_er,
I That is,. tn
l
, m(m, + t)". and (m+ .,)2 alw,ays the terms ofa geometri[ca) p:ro-
portion.. Tb[eo,n no,tes, this (c. 16)" adding that the su,ccess.iv,e bete'romecic numbers do not .mak'8
.a, p,ropo. .. .rti(,o .n. Wli't'h .. th,e' m'""'I'cl, i e"'- -MIf'.(m, - 'if).,- ...t, an"'.d' .... +I. 1)1 00.,[1' rtl"'o.'n'aI:,
, " ,',,, " .. '.," 4 -- '1i ,." ..I,,' "".]1 . ... , ",.. I, ""'.", ,-,' .,.
" The :ratios formed as directed an,d the, additional properties of the series .may be seen in this
table:
Ratios Sam of eXZnmu Plus 2X "0","'. S'um,
S ,+ 4 '= 9
13 + 12 == 2S
9: 12 12:. 16 25 + 24 49
16 ,: 20 == 20: 25 4, . .+ 40 = 81,
'Generally, in the ratio m
2
:. m(m + I) == m(m + I) : (m + the s-u,m, of the extremes plus[
tw'ice the mean. "in be 4 ,r +, 4 m + I,t whICh. is a pe'rfect square
I This may best be seen 'by' setting' the' squares a.Dd ': 'e'terom.ecic numbers altemat,ely and
,oom.bining tbem m pairs thus :
I 2 4 6 9 ]2 16 20 25 ,3.0
1
3 6 I'o[ 1$ 21 2,8 3.6 4S 5'5 == tnangular ftumbers..
'I This is :significant to '.... icomacbus 'because ,he beli.eved tb,at the sa:me f. and, 'the 'other' were'
the ultimate e, emen'ts, an.d that th,ey res,ided par eX.c-ellence in t'be squares, and the he'terom[ecic
numbers respectivel)! (Cl.. 11.1:7" 3; 18.. t). Now (,hat into which an :plane :figures, are ultima'te:J,Y
analyzed it, the triangle (11.. 4, 12,. 8); as Nict>macbus himself shows:;. and it is t,o be re-
m,ember,ed that in 1,1 ,e Tinuuus the triangle is made the ultimate basi's of' th[e corp-uscl'e5 0'( 'the
elements" a theory w.bich he doubtless has in nund, th,e present propos,itio:n, confirms
his position in holding 'sa,mc'ness," and otberness,' to be the 'most el.emcn.ta,ry things, prror even
to the elem,en'tary triangle., An interesting coD,lirmatio.n of' the :in,telpreta,tioD aoo,ve is found in
NICOM
'CRUS' OF G' E S'
' .. ' " '1 .. ..... ',,' '.' -" :, ..... ' I:" '. ", ". ,':' ,.:'.
" . ,A:.l :RA A
4 ....... 2== 2==IX2
9-3 6 2X3
'16 - 4 ;;; 12 == 3 X 4
2S - 5 = 2
1
0' -' 4 X 5
or
-- , ' ("" )
m - ... ;;;;.".. - I ... "
than the orign of aJl things" thus' I plus 2, 2 plus 4, 4 plus 6, 6 plu.s, 9,
9
_ p'lus" '12" 1'2 plus 1-6':: 16'-', pl'us" 2"0"" a'o'd' by'-' thil"s' pr'oc .. 'e''s"s" th
i
-e t'pl-an'g'les"" W"hi- ":ch-
l
.: '] .C "J ,._1.... ',' " . ,'.' ....'.".: ..... ' I.. , .. '.... :.. ',' .' ..... ... ;..: .. .. " .....
g
.'I-'V' .e" rl-'se- to' tb '. e" polyg"o'ns' c'"0--:"m"lie'" f'o:r'th mi'l o-::r-,'d'e'r' '...._ .', I ..... :, '..-'.' ":' . ...:'.' 1.:_ I ..
C
"'RAP"'TER XX .' ", .:.:' . '., .' .. -.:. .' . '.
I S,till further, e:very square, piu,s its own s'i.de bec,omes heter'om,ecic, or
by Zeus, if Its sid,e is su'btracted from Th.us, oth,er" IS conceiv'ed
O
f a',''S" '1 g b',o:th
"
g're"at'er':" and: Ism-"'all" '1, e-::'r- tb-an . 'the', S'Q""",e-' 'et:t
c
15 p"'" I'ed,:' .>_ ' .' . e _,'. 1.,-...:'.. I,. .. :. .:.. . .' . ., ... ',' . ..:' I .'.. ,' _ ..... 'Ud,J,.JI" '. . c; .. _.. ". .': .ro, UC. ". 11
b
'h b ddl' d b 'h' ,. .' th h' h
ot .. Y a'ltlon ,anly su ...tractlon." ln1e sam.e w',ay tat te tw:o
kinds of ineq'uality
1
also, the greater land the less, have their origin from
tb
. 1- t' f d''dilt- bt t t l"t Tb- I ,.
.' 1 -I' C -. .'>.. 1. 1 11.... t. -'1"-: .',.' i' .' '] .... :,.. -. ,i'" ." .-' .... .- I" ;.: ;'. I'
,2 ,.e app .lca.,.Ion 0., a.. _lo.n or SU .' ,raCt .lo.n 0 equa, 11 :y.., .IS a so 15
S
ufti,:, e"-Vl"d"en'" -'ce'- thl' 'a-It th,eo, tlw0'-' f'o'rm .... s partak'e' 0'" '. s"a"m'en'e-:-'ss and oth' 'er ]c_ ... '. ,. '.'1 .. ,' ... _" ,':.:.... ....._'.' _ .:.:.1 : ,..... ...:.;:... .'. __ .. ,'.' '': ..:.'.' .'-
nesls, of othernless ,an in.,de,finite fashio1n, but of samenessl defin,ite'y,
a'nd 2 g:-enerically' 2 but the odd o' samenes's after the Dlann,er o,f a '. , ..._ ".;' .,' '. '. "._ ".' 'I .I. ... ',.' ,-, .'." .'.' ." '. ." . . .'. ... . .... .... ..... . '. '. '.
'b d- b" b' h '1 d' th
sU:O'[; ma,te It'eongs to t_.e same Class ;as, I, an, I, ,l'_e
eVlen of other.nes's, because it ls 'homogeneous with :2.
Tb
.. ai' till' 1 h th iIiI 't tb d
3, "ere15 .'. so ,a SJI c.lear,er I'eason w I. 'y" ',I'e, square", sm..ce 1. IS ;-.e
'uct. of t.he a,ddition of odd. numbers, is akin to slameness
"
, and the
heterom,ecic n'umbers to otherness because it is maide up by' a1ddin.g even
n: mbers; fo,r as though they w,erle friends of ,Olne an,other,1 t,hese two
fOlrms share in th.eir two rows the, sa,m,e ,differences, when they d.o not
ha've the. s,ame ratios, and convlersely thle sanle r,ati.os wh,en they do not
hav'e the same differences. Fori the differenIce: 3 betwe,en 4 and 2 in te
TheQI. A.";'tll., i8 Ast (on the Idyad) in a context certainly Nicomachean; ""Wherefore the firs,t
- ... . " ..f, th "" .. ': t'b, ;.. ' 'ad' "1 d" th:' I d' '. d") 'I"IiIA..I te,'d d' ,fin' . ed ,. lti"'t, ',d' ,,L,'l: :': t
congr,ess 0 . ,-esesc. .'. e mon ._ an.. . e .ya. '.' ..ec. .' eI I. ,. '" mu. :U.' '-De e.emen.'
of things" which would be a triangle both of .ma,gnitudes and of ,numbers somatic an,d bodiless;
for as the rennet coagu'lates the run,ning milk by its active and effective p[,opert,y", :50
1
the unifying
:f "'1' . of tb " . ',,; d' ... ,.... - . '.' .:. hi
i
... ,:. :th Id, I . h
t
'.,. i the''. 'so" . . ..-. ..f f, .il '-:: ....., .. ,-. "t : 1 d ""f" d', -
orte ".' ..e mona, approac, .cDge . ya., W_ le 15 c '.' ." wee o. ac__e movemen aD::. 0 . 1SSQ-
lu,tion, ga.ve a bound a'nd a form that is a numbeT to the: triad;, f,o:r thi_, is the begtnnlng of ,ac-
tuality in n'ulriber as that is defmled by the combination of monadsli
u
In 'the preseo't text 1theIr
t
,. f' t th -r .: -nd h" -le' , ro'm-Cl'C n'um'be-rs -Ddl 'l'he .riaiD ' 'f' a'11'1
1
thin""'gs'. .. the' tn
l
na re, era co. le squa a ::. J:..C ,.e:, . 0
1
. 1 ',c'" '0 '..,.....
angle, as tb.e ele:mentary figur'e.
I Cf. I 17.. 6. The resul'ts obta'ined by adding to or :S'ubtracting ,their sides from, the square
'numben arie as follows;
4+2' 6 2X3
9 +3 'I;;; 12 - 3 X 4
16 + 4 == 2'0' == 4 ,X S
:25 + 5 ;.....; ,3'0 5 X 16
,o'r
W +,. == (m +I)-m,
I See"- f' ,. _.. t40 tt..:... .. . .. .
>... ' p. '101' ','or' romm,eD'. lD ',um, passage"
I Tb' "'1" th- '. 't' t h-- , ' . f diff"" "'. . '.-. led -''th d 'er. .' cf" ,-t' - F-"-
exa,mp es m ,e ,'ex> S IOW sameness o.I ..,eren,ce coup .. WlI:. :...luerence 0, ra.IQ'. or
the ,converse. compar1e 4, 6, and 6,,9 The ratio is sesquiatter 'in both 'c.ases" but 'the dilerence
,
vanes,11-'
double ratio is found between 6 and 4 as a superparticular; and again
the difference between 9 and 6, as a sesquialter, is found between 12
and 9 as a sesquitertian, and so on. What is the same in quality 1 is
different in quantity, and just the opposite, what is the same in quan-
tity is different in quality. Again, it is clear that in all their relations' 4
the same difference between two terms will necessarily be called frac-
tions with names that differ by I, and be the half of one and the third
of the other, or the third of one and the quarter of the other, or the
fourth of one and the fifth of the other, and so on.
But what will most of all confirm the fact that the odd, and never 5
the even, is preeminently the cause of sameness, is to be demonstrated
in every series beginning with I following some ratio, for example,
the double ratio, x, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 641 128, 256, or the triple,
x, 3, 9, 27, 8r, 243, 729, 2,187, and as far as you like. You will find 3
that of necessity all the terms in the odd places in the series are squares,
and no others by any device whatsoever, and that no square is to be
found in an even place.
But all the products of a number multiplied twice into itself, that is,
the cubes, which are extended in three dimensions and seen to share
in sameness to an even greater extent, are the product of the odd num-
bers, not the even/
i
I, 8, 27, 64, 125, and 2 I 6, and those that go on
analogously, in a simple, unvaried progression as well. For when the
successive odd numbers are set forth indefinitely beginning with I,
observe this: The first one makes the potential cube; the next two,
I This is substantially a repetition of the previous statement. In the terminology of Nicoma-
chug two pairs of numbers have a relation (lTXlcrlf) Qualitatively (..-o,on7n) alike if they exhibit
the same ratio; numerically if they have the same arithmetical difference. This
terminology appears again in the discussion of tbe proportions; cf. 23, 4 below.
f1xif1l1: That is, the comparisons of the pairs of terms from the two series; see on 21.2
below for a further discussion of the meaning of f1Xif1i1 relation.' For illustration of the mean-
ing, we may take pairs of homologous terms from the two seriC'S, as t, 2; 4, 6; 9, t 2; 16, 20;
etc., and their differences I, 2, 3, 4, etc. t is the whole of t and the half of 2; 2 is the half of
4 and the third of 6; 3 is the third part of 9 and the fourth of 12, etc. Or, compare 4, 2 with
4,6; 9,6 with Q, 12; etc.
I Philo, De Mlmdi Opifido,36, points out further properties of the table of doubles: "If one
doubles he will find that the third from unit) (Le., counting both ends in the Greek fashion) is a
square, the fourth a cube, and the seventh, arising from both the third and the fourth, a cube
and square together." Similarly Theon, p. 34, 16 tJ., points out that the terms in every other
place (he does not spedfically say 'odd ') of the series of multiples arc squares, those in every
third place cubes, and those in every fifth place both cubes and squares. He adds furthermore
that squares are always divisible by 3 and 4. either as they stand or when 1 is subtracted, that
those divisible by 3 when 1 is subtracted are always divisible by 4 if they are even, and vice versa,
etc.
, See Part I, p. 133.

added together, the second; the next. thr,ee, the third ,; t.he f()'u,r next
follolwin,g, the fOlurth; the s'ucceedin,g :five" the filth;, the next ISix, th,e
t".'h
L
"'d" ", ",
SiX "I" an, so
C
' "RAP' "TER" XXI-
I '.' ..", _ -' _. .
. .-' 1'-' ' ..
. .-. --' .' .' . -. ", '- ".:.' ," .
I After' this It would be the proper time to incorporate the nature of
propolrtion's, a thing m,ost essential f:or speculation about. the natu're lof
the unive'rsle and fOlr' the, pro,positio,ns of mUSIC, astrono,my', and geome-
try', a'nd not le,ast fO'l' the stu,dy of the w'orks of the ancients,1 and th'us
to bring the I #,troduc"ion to A"it,hmetic to 'tb.e end that is at lonce suitable
an,d fitting,.
2 A propo,rtion,'! then:
t
is in the proper sens,e, 'the ,co,mbination, of two
lor mOire ratios, but b,y the mOire gen,er,al defin'*tion the combinatlon, of
I l' ). A >t ,A, - Doe'" lh<IJ I'"1- .. ._..J __.-....... ,. "I' ..
I1 '7'al' 7'WJI' W'ICL<aJW)' _'I' I . _'I .. IUS, . ". ,40. DU VGirGT.m .te Imf'''.
Tw
r "cc.'. __ .. , .' '-d
,
-: ,..JI:'\. l, 'd .... . . tb',', fl' ,-" ,[ sed',' h:.. . 1 .. ' 'be' '..- ....-
. ,0 .rCCl\. wor aN"wym an jJLtlUT'I'.. ,e ,ormer 0" w_,-c_ IS U .c ere, may.:."AUr
lat, ,.' proportlon," ,and Nicomacbus poi'ots out tha,t an is, strictly speakmg, a /
non of ratios IOike' ,', 2, 4 i"e:;;, in his, classUicatlon o'n,ly' t'he 'geometrical propor ions)' 'YIwp,e'
"pl.si or Pro,perly 'then an, arithmetical progrlessio'n of three ror f:our
t,erms (e..g., !, 2.. 3, or t, 2., 3, 4). sbo'uld not 'be called aD AMI."AO,t.
J
but in practice it ,is SO called,.,
l
't .. t' , J . 'bt 'tit N' ,1 . " I 'eel t''h' - "tt' , (:G' , , .It' I!I .L" - AI" 1...... .'
. , ,was ,o,rmer y I" ,oug",' un
r
.,' esse'mann c ear:.." up ,e mal. ,er .'': esc """ ua Pi. 2J:'0I,
note) that "NAr,la meant,. p,roper'l,y. ,a propo,rtion of four terms (i.e.'- a disJUDct proportion. i
6') d /rr'. ed ,4O (f tb'l cl'" ') A
see section .... , ".tr.: -'1' a coo'lIDU_ proporlloD,0
'
",tee 'terms ;". 5:.
fro'm t'he statemen'ts 'of 'IambJichus J'5 tI and 104, J911. PisleUi; the lat'ier passqe RIDS
I .I.... . , .,..at . ., 1._ ,,.... .' . .'7' - ..a. ...,. ..I ,," - I' ,...'l.L.....
1
" .1-'" ., ,..1 , ..LI _'11
TI ... .. Dill. cpa. ,""UT'II "" .,rw;P,p"c", KUpW' 19.J'\CI.AU'"y.Cl ,:.' .. " Al, u W' _ I'W' ,or ',U. Clvru. IN ripe,
.N, T6,1' .,"",a" )by., a",,.,,,TI') ,and Nic-omacb,us hImself (see ll. 24" I), NesseJ-
"t !ha'"" II '- - t I-cd nI to t ,t I rt'"' d.J
mann sta' esJ_' t I y was app'I'.:: 0. Y _' ,geom,e.rlca propo -1Ons, aDl
to thle other' 'two. the barmo,nic an,d the arithme'tic, bu,t that iD late:r' u:sage th,e' dis,tm.c'tlOn of terms
v,a, ished" 'It is certain that Nicomachus uses themindiscriminately of ,all thrJee B'ut the
present passale makes the matter perfectly cl,ear if t 'Ie proper str'ess. is laid on the words ).6,vI'
and .'xi"t. Nicomachu here de,finit-ely s,tateSI that ,a proportion (d,NAo"t.) .is properly or
s,tri,ctly lb.e comb'malion 'of two or mor-e ralio', ..,)" but in Go "",,,e general sense (01-
.in'epo'l) a combinatIOn of relations (crxl.'fJJr).. Now is the term which plroperl,Y meaD
ratio, the mea'sur'eme,nt of one number in terms of another, and it is, not used by Nico'D1&cbus
with r'eflerence to '.he r'elations between n,umbers in any other seDse (he does" to be use )iye,
with other meanings, but n,ot with 're:ference to the relat,l
l
ons bet.ween numbers, see 'the rGlossary).
Nicomachus is undoubtedly woefully lack"n,g in p'recision whe'D he defines 'l\"ro, (sectio I 31)'
but in his 'usage he' is ,con,sis,tent "X/fill on the' lother ha'od means simp'ly , rJmioPI ,and caD refer
to any kind of relation" inclUding' proper and mere numericaJ ex,cess or as w,-:U;
i.t IS th,erefor,e a more general !er.m, ,and sometimes, but not alw,ays,. synO,D,ymous with
Here" ho'w,cver, Nicomach.us uses it in the ,general sense, so 'that :l't includes the relation o,f'ruceed-
'I d J,.,: fto a"-ceeded He ,_..JJ_:ts th-en th'at ..I. --"'.-..'-15- 'used of': ;0"thmeU"'c - d h I' 109 aD', ' ,>'. .. 'p, __I ,:.: '. I .... '- M;'_ 'I... an;, _armo,DI.C
progressio,ns
,
as well as of the true 'propo'rtions" th,e ,geometric. It may be noticed that iD dis..
cu.ssing arithnleti,c pro'po'ruons, Nlcomachus, d'0e5 not use the term to d,escr.ibetheir m,uta ., I
-relation; in fac,t hie says that thc,y a:re not in, the same: >..byot (11.., ,23'I' t: fra,. ,.. prlJ .,",1
'lOyOI cl "w,lt, ,. TO;)' "PO" ..,or ,'''.A1JMtJ;' 'Yl"'"r.:i). In 11. 2'2'. J (I. 1&p ."j 'FO'O A..loS i,..,p,oi
4'u-" i 14"b 114wl'os 4'.lBI(,fl,., "tlc:..r,'P'&U 6 "&Vr'J" ,JJ"I' where TaH'" ; ,.;;,
TRA:NSLATIQ,N: BOO,K 11
two or more relation.s, ev'en if they are nlet brought under 'the same'
r,atio" b'ut rath'er a differe:n.ce, or someth'in.g else.
Now a ratio 1 is the 'relatio,n a,f two t.erns to 01 e anloth.er, ,and the 3
combination of such is a, proportion, so th.a't three is the smallest .num
ber 10'.f terms of whic'h the latter is c,olmposed, altho;u.gh it can, be a s,e.ries
lof '. ,ore, subject to th,e same ratio, ,or the. same diffe.re::n'c'e F,or ex-
1 t h' th t b t .' th ,amp ,e, I : 2 IS one r'a;10, W ere ere are I,W,O terms 2: 4 is
.. 'il- 'h ' . f'" h'Ii'" f'
S,lD1',1 ar ratIo; '..e:nce I, :2, 4, 'IS a proportlo'D, ,i'or It IS a ,co,m,".mation 0,"
ratios, lor of thr'ee terms w'hich are o,bs,erved to be in t.he, same ratio, t,o
o;n.e an,otber. The same thing may be obs,e.rved also in greater numbers 4
and longer se.ries, of t.e:rms; fo,r let a fourth te:rm, 8'JI be joine to the
former after 4, again in ,a similar relat.on, the dou'ble, and th,en 16 after
g.... a, n'lld- SeO o-'n
. c '." ...' .
Now' if the 'same term, one a'nd u'nchanging't 1S co,mpared. to those o,n 5
Uyor does Dot mean but f scheme," I.: plan:,' or, prac.tically, f IdEdinitio'D. ' In I" 5,,, J be
spea-ks of >t.&,rOt,. m,eaning th'e mtelV,als ofharmoQY', but only to point out that these
are reaUy fatios in the strict :5ense"
A
t-;oo o'f th:e ,A:f' th: ,-:rd-'- '1... . -d ,', -.-1,"_"'" ;Il, .. f'. ::-d'- Tb' -'D p.' 2'2:' J,I\,
'.ti\;;I'U'U .. '. A'.. .. Jt.r- . 0'L0 u_ e wo S, AV,ar an "'X,l'"d'&' IS ,oun. '. eo__ t' _ ",._",
Hitler:. PG. ,a' TOI), ).6yOVl -rtjr '1",01' ''''''.qMvr tf,X Qp ga'I. as the,Y ,increase
'fey dlminishtbe ratios of their relatlo.b to one ano-th.er--
1
) He is speaking of the [act lha't iD
the 'natural series of numbers the ratios, betweern the terms decrease a's you ascen.d 'in th,e series)
e... g." 2: I > 3 ': 2 > 4 ,: 3. ,etc. ).ayo', i_the ratio; trXltTLI m.eans tb,egeneral r-elati.o.n existing
between pairs ,of terms" that is, the simple pairin.g and com,paring 0:1 th.e terms. :It. islurther
to be no'led with 'regard to the termi.nology of. propO'rti,o'ns that" ac'co'rding to lamblichus (P', 99"
2
5
ff
) .!. ,!i\I t';IiI!Ii P' -rt'y r-e' ....s- to the- 00-nt'l"O' P" -'PO'rt'1" - n (th-at "'10 t'br'ee tarm'c.') as onf"'ili'l,Ced'" 't,o- ,;': .. , u.P' f\O,i - : ,iL" '-, _, ..... .' '.' '_I.. 1 -, -: aO.c ,'0 '" _ _" _._ '. I. . .,' -.... I
7'"a d.I1d.M'Y'V, w'btcb, meansratber a geometr,i.cal progression .and :is the mo.re p,rope'r 'term to a,pplly
to the disJ:unct p,ro,portion (in f:our terms).. Needless to say., the dist.i'n.ctl.on is n,ot observed by
N
..... b
_.... lcomac I.BI,t
1In v'lew' 0'( what bas been, said. in the precleding note this definition is a poor one" for' 'it m.erely
asserts that a 'rati,o ().,6-YOt) is a r-elation (d" x:Icr,..r)'" Nic.oma,ch,us is eithe:r guilty of carelessness"
0
, r' .a,s ;5' ",'e"ry."p..p;obab :le:-' th-e' w:od] ....ft-.
1
h:als: f':
IO
,J-
l
e'n O"Ult be-'f, ::0'r,e-x.l_, 'l'e'a'Ii 0'0 tpa:'roe '.lln tb'e' . ._ ,A.:I. .. . '. ._.... ',... ." . . .& 1.1 VII-Cl - . I g,. !IJ., .. . -.:.' <.'. _. v _. !f'v ,it , .: .... 1_. _ '_,' . _ l'WJ!.:...
The ,a-dditio:n of this oD.e word would ma'ke th,e definition fai'rly satisfact.ory, altbougb it wou'ld
still lac'k the precision. of' Euclidt s, or Theon"s.. In ma.themafical lan.guage 1r(J.'ila (f,X a tela-
llo' n o"f' so'm'C' kl"nd]l Ca. 'qual:"'tat'l"""C re'la":'o'n' I m'ea"ns onc that t"4ft b'e dscnbed- as 'of: so'me kin- !I d.. ' _.. ,._' .. , I li.,'..; '''-'' 11, , g.. . c:' -.. ",' .. ;-' IIU,...... I, ". : ;' .. '.__ .'[ .. _ 1 '. e '1. , ....._ .....:: -: :'_'1 . ". , ,
that. is" d'ouble; tr.iple, a,r the like;, in ,other wlordS,. a, ra.tio prope:f,. an,d it woulld be con-
trast,ed. with, ""0"" tfxltltr, I' a r,elation of a certain amount;' wh'''lch woul,d mean a rela:tioln whe'r,e a
'. h .. 1d"a' b h 11 - ;11. I'" - hi ". I
m,ere arJ,t' metica luerenc:e, e'twee'D tl- e' te:tmS liS In 'Question.", Euc Id uses t_ s 'termmo o,gy
it> "L'. d fin'" '" f i!i d .. '" n... .... k -.- "'.. .' -' ... '11 tb I'" "" 'Ia .' " b
ID IllS " e' ratIO an'l proportlo "1 ID BOO Vl..lntl..... "RatiO IS . '_e ,qua ltatlve re. :.. tlon Wit'
reference to size 'between two 'ho:mologous ma.gn,i.tud.'es,.. :Proporti.on. is th.e likeness of ratios J"
'(1\6,,&1' "Tl *I #(4'T4 ,.. W"Ota IflX.lrr",. Cl,...Aoll.c& ,0 .. *J 7'w'r
A.6,rWP 6",,&6T'1'S); c'f. also He:ro o'fAlexandria, Dejinition. 121, edt HU]tS(', Pi 36, As Ness.elmann
(Gcsell" d'" AJg"" 21:Z) s.howed, th,e inclusion of ..,AucOT",.a and bnngs, out points
overlooked b.y' Ni,c'omac.hus'I but even more important is 1I"oui.. O.n the necessity o[ llerms in a
ratio being hO'mogen,eous, see 'on " 11i!! 4'; Nicomachus Dlegl,ec.ls this malte.fi Theon's de.finl.tions
o:f ra.tio and proportion. are mo,re like Euclid",s, but that of proporti.on is ei.ther poorly 'stated, 'Of'
wrongly transmitted: "Ratio is the qualitative relation in a.na).o,gy ('KaT' 4"aM'YOr.t) exh;,ting
betwe,en t'wo t.erms of the sa'me glenus" (p., 73, 16); uProporlion, is the qualitative relation of
ratioS to on,e another" (p,. 74, J' 2),,.
266
I!'
eith.er si.de, of it, to th.e ,greater as Ic.onsequlent 1 an.d to the lesser as an.te-
.-.-d-.-,t, "'-.. h - .- .. t-- t-:i--, "d'i11 f-:' ,. 1"- .' .,
ce en., sue ',' a propor l,on IS] ca ..e.. con I.or exampe, I, '2, 4 IS a
co,.ntinued propo'ftion as regar,ds qualit.y,.2: :for 4 2 2 I, an.d co,n,
versely I 2 equa.ls '2 :4 In quantity, I, 2, 3, f,'or example, is 'a contm-
'ued proportio,n,3' for a1S 3 exceeds 2', so 2' exceeds, IJI and, conversely, as I
is less than 2, b1y 'so much 2 is, less than 3.
6 If, h'Q,weve.r, one te'nn answers to the term, and bec,olmes its
an,teced.ent and a greater te::rm, an,d another, 'not the same, takes the
plac:e of Iconseq.uent. :an,d lesser tlerm with re:fere:nc'e to the greater, such
a mlean and sU.lch a propo'rtion 'is ,call.ed no longer' ,contin'ued, but dis-
.. -.' t- f' .". '. ."'-1 ...-. -'. 1'1 .' .. d : ..' 1- 't: '. ..... g....... f I' "':. '. 1 8:" '.' .
June "1 or eX1amp e, as rleg,ar's q,ua.l.y, -,,2,4, ... , .,or 2 '. I. equas .,4,
and con.versely I : 2equ,aIs, ,4 : 8, and ag,aln 'I :: 4 eq,uals 2 :: 8or 4 : I equ.alsl
-:- d" f' dd-b b ch
8 : 2 ; an-I, 10 q.u,antlt'y, I, 2" 3, 4" or as I IS '2', so 'm'u 3, IS
exceeded by 4" 1011' as 4, exceeds 3, so 2 ex,ceeds I., an,d by inte.Ichange'
J
as
3 eX.ceeds I, so 4 exceeds 2'., IO'r as I is exceeded by 3, 'b,Y so mu"ch 2' is
,exc,eeded 'by ,4.
C
.'RAP''T-ER- XXI'"'I ................ "1 1..._ ... . '. __
I, The :first, three p'ro,portions,
4
the'n, which are acknowledged by ,all
the a:n,c.ients, Pythagoras, Plato" and Aristotle" are th.e arithmetic'"
g,eometric, a:nd 'harm.onic ,; and there are three 0' hers sube'ontrary to
IOn 'lbe meanlD.g of 'antecedent, and 'consequent,' :see the note 'O,D '1. 1
1
9., 2.
t On th. meaning of' 'quality' re:terring to, ratios" compare, on 11. 'With reference to
.. h- .'b ,., ,t .....jjo h b " A oil rei . '. - ",".. ,". \ , .", . ',1 I .- - I ," .. - , '.. .. . .....- '. '. _ ,I f .' ", _. . - I' .' - ," : - . .- -. .:-- "-'". '.,' .- ,'.: -'. - . I" .'
propo.rtlon,S;, as .' lere; t ..e meanln,g IS Mt. t. ,e .ormer .... proporuon as re,ga, , 5
quality (lfa;TQ, WO,61"1J7'A
t
..tlTA 'TA, ",",0&16" ,OWT7:lTl) is a. series of terms exlii.bi tmg similar ratios,
and ,a proportion in quaotit)" r04"M-vrQ, ,lttlT14 TI& ..-oa,6"." is &D :ari'thme'tical pro--
0'1'" . , ,I. "'n- ith': . m .I d"iff"'., """'8"00 'C"f'- ,1 11 '. "2 . "" . b' I
D.CSS10 . J W a. .,on .. ,e.. ,': -:,., ..'. a so ,. 2 _.. 2" 4 _e rOw.
"C1'II",P.PVfJ':: Theon,. p.. 82', 10', uses the term (J'VPE.x1t" and 41''I1p,,:PlY71 fO'r (disJunct" (in N.icoma-
chus; ,3&f'f'r,rypi"l, sect,., 6).
t Iamblicbus adds c-once'ming the .history o.f the 'p:roporti.ons (p. lOOt 19) ': Bu,t of old th,ere
were bu,t three mea'DS in the' d.ays of Pythagoras and the mathematicians of his, ti.m.e" the. arith'
metic, the geom,etric., .and tbe third. iD oroer, w'hicb was once called. 'the subcontm,ry't bu.t bad its
name fOlrthwith changed to ha'rmontc by the schools of .Archytas and Hippasus". because .it seemed
to em:brac,e th.le 'ratio:s tha't gO.:l'crn thle h.armonized. and And it wa's formerly caned sub-
C
-oO' -tlar-y': b'
c
e-ca . '. b c-ha".racter h .'., "" b' ,-"', ";'- tti'Dry" t, t'h,e an M'"e' tlC- Af::l'..-r- t'hi '5 oam'e:
'. . . _.. .. cl. .'--' was some rOw SU con _,ID, 0 e,1 '... _" " ..., _ ".. ".
had been changed; those wb,o came 'later, 'Eudox.us ,and his, sch.rDal, inv'en.t,ed tb-,ee more means,
and call.ed the f,ourth. 'properly subcontra'ry because its p:roperlies were s,ubcontrary to the har-
monic ;; . and the lother two they named simply "rom. their' arde'r) fifth and s,lzth.. Tb,e' &.Dcients
and, t.b'eir sU.lccessors thought that this, number, SIX
t
of means could 'be set up; but the modems
have found four' more in, addi.ti,on, devising tb.leir fo,rmation (rom the terms and the Int.ervals.. u
Cf", aI.,so p. 113, 16 ft.. He adds (p. J 16, J I .. ) that th,e firs.! six. wer,e in use fr'o, I' , Plato's tim,e to
Eratosthenes. and tba.t the other four 'w,ere devised by Myonides an,d Euphranor, both Pythago-
reans
t
who lived laleft Appa.'rently Moderatus of' 'Gadcs;, as well, ,as '-.. .. .licomac US
J
emplo)red all
t f -.. ('" p' I - 1 T" 11 8' ff D.. bl-)'
. ..... I' .. , . '1' .' . I' '. . .... . ..... :." "', . . 1'_
en . ormssee .roe.us., .,B 'Im." I. 29. .Ie.
them, which do not have names of their own, but are called in more
general terms the fourth, fifth, and sixth forms of mean; after which
the moderns discover four others as well, making up the number ten,1
which, according to the Pythagorean view, is the most perfect possible.
It was in accordance with this number indeed that not long ago the ten
relations' were observed to take their proper number, the so-called ten
categories,3 the divisions and forms of the extremities of our hands and
feet, and countless other things which we shall notice in the proper
place.'
Now, however, we must treat from the beginning, first, that fann of 2
proportion which by quantity' reconciles and binds together the com-
parison of the terms, which is a quantitative equality as regards the
difference of the several terms to one another. This would be the
arithmetic proportion, for it was previously reported that quantity is
its peculiar belonging. What, then, is the reason that we shall treat 3
of this first, and not another? Is it not clear that Nature shows it
forth before the rest? For in the natural series of simple numbers,
beginning with I, with no term passed over or omitted, the definition
of this proportion e alone is preserved; moreover, in our previous
statements,' we demonstrated that the Arithmetical I nlroduetion itself
is antecedent to all the others, because it abolishes them together with
itself, but is not abolished together with them, and because it is im-
plied by them, but does not imply them. Thus it is natural that the
mean which shares the name of arithmetic will not unreasonably take
1 The sacredness of the number 10 was a favorite theme of the Pythagoreans. 10 symbolized
for them the universe, and by the ft/raktys (I + 2 + J + 4 = 10) their most sacred oath was
taken. It is the all-inclusive nature which they discovered in the decad that gained it its peculiar
reverence from them, and Nicomachus here cites evidence of the type accepted by the Pythag-
orean school to substantiate that property of the decad. It is .....ell to note that in two other
Nicomachean sources similar statements are found. Photius's report of the TluologumI!lkJ
A,ifhmd;ellc represents the decad as the universe because there arc 10 fmgers, 10 toes, 10 cate
gories and 10 parts of speech, and because it comprehends all solid and plane fIgUres, all kinds of
number and of numerical relations; and there is a dose parallel passage in Ast's Tlteol. Arifh.,
p. 59. Another instance of the reverence paid to the dccad and its supposed universal character
among numbers was seen in I. 19. 17 (CL the note). On the Pythagorean dccad in general, cf.
Philolaus, in Stobaeus, &1., I (WachsmuthHense, vol. I, p. 16) j Aristotle, Mu., I. 5. Q86 a, 8.
'The reference is to I. 17. 7-8 and the following discussion.
'The Aristotelian categories; d. Part I, p. 95, notes I and 2. Bocthius, n. 42, says that
Archytas the Pythagorean first distinguished the categories, lied qflifmsdam sit ambiguum, and
that Plato followed his distinction. There seems to have been a bo<lk on the categories (falsely)
attributed to Archytas. See Part I. ibid.
This seems to be a reference to the work called TluologunulkJ Arithnuticae.
'''QT4 TO ..ocr6",: Cf. the notes on n. 20. 3; :no S.
16 TQVTllS .u6""l' >..tyo,; d. on n. :no :2. f Cf. 1.4. :I ff. and the note.
~ . I r n m
UNIVERSITY Of MKNIGAH
pre,cedence 0' the m,ea.us w:hich. ar'e named for the othe:r sci.ences., the
etrlc 'an' 'd' 'harm' .-', n'I'c---:-'' fO"'r It

l
-I'S" tb I'at a'1l tb' "Ie-:::-' :m"o're-' will": '.. I'it ta,k"e" :'.. ,'" ",I.. 1. I ,. "", , C,_'.. ":...," ,. __ "'.: ..:, ":'" .. " ,,: ,'., .. "',':-,'. . :."'. ',',' ...:.' '.' ,-'._,_. '." . .-' ,.
'-,d'-,- ., e" .':,e:rl' 'S-'; ',be'.- -o'n--t'ra w,.-'h'l"ch' 'the., ftrs-:,'t' th:'r,e-.e- h,o'ld t'h-e:
pre1ceenc '. ov. I ..:IU '." '.' " '.. - t '." .. " ' .. ' '. . J. - .1.: :' ".' _ -, 1.1 ..
l
"-d" sh'[., A:" - t-h -, ft, .. t, n:d th'e-'re,fo"re'" s'm"'- --;"e It lillS' ;-:,'t, d'e'
4 ea,er i.1p. ,',$ .le ..,rs a_. 0 .:_.' ,1
11
_ I., -, 'c' 1 m.os, ..'-
se:rving of thle hon,or, let the arlthme:t.ic propolltioD hav'e its discus-
sion at our hands be:fore th,e others
I It is an arithmeti,c proportio'D,2 then, whenever thr'ee ,Of' mlolre terms
a'fle 'Set fO.rth in sU1ccession." or are so co.nceived, and the same quantita-
tIve ditI'e.renc,e is found to exist betwee.n the s.u,ccessive nwnb,e.rs'l but
n,olt the same ratio .amon,g the: terms, ,one to a'no,ther For ,example., I I
2, .3'1 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9', 10, :1,1, 12, 13;' flor In this n.atural series of numbers'J
exaxnined cOln-secutively and 'without any,omis,glons, every tenn what-
'JiJ' di' d' t bIdb t' t d t[ th' . 'th
soever lS,_sc,o,ver,e,-. Io.e Pi le :wlee.n [',W'O an-10 preserve:I,e an' ..-
metic proportion to them. F,or' its, ditier[en.ces ,as compared with. those
r
.--a,'n.' ..I.g',e-.ld,-- o:"ln,' eith
l
.e,:r' s'ld',e 0."-'- eq<'-u'-al., th.le sam"I'lle rati:o.. , h. o .. 15> n.o,t
. . . -'..' ... ,. .... . . ,I . ,. . -, , - , ,_. ., -- ..
preserved ,am,ong them.
2 And we u:nderstan.d that in. sU.ch a series th1ere comes about. 'both a
contin.ued and :a disjunct pr[oporti,on j for if the same .midd_e term ,an-
'swers t.o those IQ'D. either as bOlth antecedent and IClonsequent,1 it
w,o,uld hie a continued proportl[o,n, but if there is another mean [along
wit
l
,. it" a disjunct proportion comes abolut
N
' , if e -eparate out o'f' th-1f!!ls sel'les any thr'e'e- co-'nse-'c'ut'-I"ve' tl'erm-s 3- O'W JI W S . ':, _ '..'1- I ,.'.-:. . ' .. ' ::' ... '---.': .... .... '...:'
whatsoev'er', [after th.e form of the contin.ued pr'oportion, olr four or mOire
te'rms a..fte:r the ,d"sjunct form, and con'sider them, the, ,difference of them
all would h,e I, hlut th.eir rati,os would. ble' diff[erent thro,ughout.. If,
h,o,we,ve'r, again 'we select three or m.or'e term's, not adjacent., but sepa
rated., separ'ated ne.verth'eless by a constant interv.aI'1 if one term was
omitted. in setting' down. ea,ch term, the. diffel'ience in every case will, be
:2; and once more WIth three: terms It . ill 'be a, contin'ued p-roportio'n ;
,.,. h di If- " 'd h dll;t1' il'1-
Wlt ISJunct. .' two terms are t 1, 'er[ence w,
always b,e 3 in all of them, 'c1o.ntinued or ,disjun,et;, if three, 4; if four,
5; .an.d, so 0,0.
4 S'uch, a proportiOD:,3 the.refore, partake;s In equal quantity in its
1 That iSt the fourth,. fifth .and sixth" form!,. 'Cf" section I. The first three are the I.Jeaders'
of the subcontra."es because the alter' a.-re based on them"
'2. Cl' f tb---' dbfi----- 'Iiit", "n' '''1'1 'T"h n' .. .. ". "8 ff' lie f '. -. 1'1' -,', ,.. .-. ".'.'. ..':
'. lic . D10, .n,eo, p. 11.3" I., ,- Ii on .20" 3" 21.5" ,2.2.2..
TRANSLATION':, BOOK '1, 26
9
dlfferences"but. of u'nequ,al ,quality; fo,r this ,reason, it i,s ,a'rithmeti,c,.
If
.' th tr "t t k f imila""'- a1'"t b t t ti
tll
I!
" ,on_le -ary 1_ pa['I"oo 0, S.- >II ,qu' I.Y",'U' no,_ quan It
would hie g,eometric instead [of aritbmeti,[c,.
A thing is peculia,r,l to th-s proportion that dOles not belong to a:ny ,5
tb
,' ,1 'h '. -th 'h 'If f l'h f" "h
o""er, name ,YJ t ,e m,ean, IS er ,.a, 1. 0,;, or equa, to, t ,e sum, 0: I t-I.e,
extrem,es, w'hether the, 'pr'oportion bevie'wed ,a,s C,o,ntlDuouS or disju,nct
o,r by a,ltern,ation, fo[r eIther the ,mean t,e,rm itself, O'I' the mean
te:nns with, an,e a'not'h,er, are equal to the sum of the ,e,xtr,emes.
. t has still another peculiarit.y; what r,a't'o ea,ch t[enn has to itself.,! 6,
this th1e ,differences have to the differences;, thJat is,:, they' are, req'uaI.
Ag'ain, the' 'thing which 'is most exact, and '\\rhtcb has escaped the
notic:e of the m,aj'ority,3 the product ,of th,e ext remeSI when compare,d to
the square of th,e mean is found t.o be smaller than it. 'by' the p:rod,uct of
the diff'e'rence:s, whethe,:r they be, I, 2, ,3, 4, ,or any n,umbe;r whatever_
In th,e fou,rth 'place,4 a thing 'which all previou:s writ.e'rs also have
noted" the betwee,n t,he smaller terms are larger, as c,o,mpared to
th,ose between the, greater terms., I't will be :sbown that In the har-
monic proportion, on th,e co[n,trary,,- th,e ratios between, the gre'ater
terms are greater than those betwe:en the smaller '; fo'r th'is reason,
the h,ann1onlc pr;oportl.o1n is subcontra.ry to th,e aritlunetic, and the
'1 The trans,lation here '0110915, the readln.g of ,Ast (T,a IttJ.,.4 tlVvtlffTl,. ,.a.. 14"pwrI 3lT'ldd'l.Op ,"'0:0
pJtltJtJ -J)' r"IOP 7"oir IJI.t10&IJwu) ,", Stated:in al,gebralc form, a'Dd cl >b >e >cl.. tbe pro[po 'i-
tions in th,is section [are:
I.. (I) er; - b' - t; - 4, ,tw (2) a ,- ,b -' hi ,- c (typk,cJljo,rms oJ t1te'
['lien 11. (1) a +d -- b +{J 0' (2) a +, - 2 b.
But, if I is, gi'J,en'l it is evident that the follolving a),SQ are true:
UI.. a - , ,61 ...... tl (by altern6tion) Ji
""", IV., d +et . b +e.
Tb,e proposition is noticed by' eoD" lot. clt,., and, by ',. icomac'hus himself in his Ha1'JilJJook 0/
Music (Ci 8, Pi 251 t 13 Vo,n Jan).
I Boe,thiu'St n. 4,3 : IIamq'lte omnis:lamin 's ,sib,; aequalis el,' et diJtrenliat tl'ierdHli'i,s sunltu-q'uales.
I; Boetbius.. 'I, . ,43:, ,says that th"s was discov,ered h[y Nicomachus. In general this proposition
may' be stated; If a -, b :;:: b -, c,. IjJ tu: = (a ,b) (,b ......' ,) ,= (a ......' b)t = (b' ,-)1. Nicoma-
ch.-us :in his ,11a,ndboo'k oj AI"si" (c,. SjJ 'p.. 25'1t. 15:, V'on jan) &,gain 'mentions this o[ the
proportlon..
4 Th.us in the' seri,es r" 2" 3. oo:mparing the ratio ,of the lesser t,erms (I t 2) and that of th-e greater
(2', 3,),
,2::1>3: 2
But :in, a simila,r comparison of the terms 'of the ba-rmoni,c p'lO,greSS10D, 3, 4, 6,
4: ': J <6: 4-
I
.' '"
_D, a ,geometnc progre'ssloD, as I,. 2, 4,
"I'. I =' 4: "",
..- . .-li:JI
. I N
T
"',.. -, "" 'b .. ,'.',,- -'d-' '.. ,',' '-, N' .' ..... ' - ". 'h, 'tat 'ltb .t t"h-" f' .t h- 'd ,-" '--'.'. t -:d 'b--;. '11 .' . -,_.I!I'-;- ..,.
,as.u:oma,c. us procee ,s tlo sa,Y. . lcomac us S'.' 'e!, al .. no ,e ,,y . p,reVIOUSJ
The statemen,t is borne ,out by the f'act 'that it occurs[ ,as ,early ,as A'r[chytas, (('ragment ,2,
Dj" , S" Dk F'tJgmente de., V,OfS'ok,ra'ike:" 1
1
" p. 334t in P1olphyry'" 1'n PIal. Ha,IS.,., pI! 26,).. For it:B
enunciat',on, by A.rchytas,t see :p[. 21, where he IS qu,o[ted"
N COMACH'US QIF GERASA

'. d b .' .- h -t 'b t t
. . .. -.' . ,- . . .'.. . ," , , .... '" : ' ,- - 'I - .. -. " '. ( " - '-:- ' - I ' " , - .'. " . .' .. ,-, . . .,',' . '., I'- '. I ," '. . .. ,
/.. g,eo,metrlc IS ml, t, em, a,s 1. we e,e,_:ween exremes,
f
- h- "!I h th t" b t t'h t t d- t'h
:or t ,IS prioportion- as .. '. 'Ie ra '.105 I.'.e. 'weenl' '.1 e grea'.Ier I .enns an... I.....o,se
betw'e\e,n. thie s,ma_Ier eq,uaI" and we ha'v'e :see'n that the eq,ual is, in th.e
mld,dle. gro,uD..d between th,e greater
'
:an.d the, less. So much, th,en, a'bout
the arithmetic proportio,n.
C
'HAPT' ' ER 'XXIV'
,.- .,.'. ",.' ,= .,.... '. ". ".,,','. '. '. ',", , ..',.'
." ...... .::.....:.:....-. _. L_-
I The next proporti,on I after thisl one, the ,geometric, ,is the lOin-.y one
in the st:rict sens,e of th,e wOlrd to be called a proportion, becau'se its
term's, are see:n '1
1
0 be in the; same ratio,. It ,exists whenever" of thr[ee o,r
more te'rm,s, as, 'the greatest is to the next greate:st" so th,e latte,r is to the
11
'" - f h . th .. . th
o,ne fol .. IOWlOg', and I' t
l
.ere are, more tenns, as '" 'IS agaIn IS to I'.' [e one
fo,'llo,vin.,g' it., h,ut they' do not" howeve:r, idiff'e:r from lon.e ,ano;ther b,y the
SaDle quantIt.y, b'ut rather' 'by the same quality ,of r,atio, the opposite
[of W'llat 'was seen to be the case wi.th the arithmetic, p,oportio,n"
" F':, I .:-.... . "'1' e.' s,e .. t f",:-[ rtl'h tche'" n''um:ble be"'g>tWn'" -- W1: .. ' tb th t' '. d ".'. '. "e
2' '_ or an examp"J' ,0, ._1. " ._rs. ,0_
,
..... I .' a a ,vane_
by the doub,leratio, I:) 2, 4, [8" 16, 3,2, 64, and so on, or 'by the tripl[e'
ratio", I, 3, 9:, 2 7, 81, 24,3, and so Ion, or by the [quadruple, 0;[' in some
similar w,ay. I'n eac'h one 0' th,es,e se'ries t'hree ,adjacent tenns, or fou.I-,
b h
'h b" k -11 h -
- ...-.. -I :-,,-.. .. ,-' ... " ,- '.[" ;;', . .. ". i"
I
.... ,,-, .'. . :-.': :-,-.:'., ' " ", -" .c... , ... '.
or any ,Dum ,er w _atever t.[c at ,maY .. e taen, WI., give te geo,metnc
P
'ir"o',p:o:r,ti' 0:,'n' l I 't"o' 'Q",n,e: a
c
nl'Q,th-ier 0; ,a'.s t,h,e .rs: lS t"o- t,hie'"ne'x,"t :s::ma"'',"ne"'r SO" ", )s, th
l
a ..' , ,C. '-' _ ,', . ' , " " ,.',..... . , " ". ',' . II " ,.' "'. .' '--'....... . . " .'" ',. _. ...., .. '.' _' ." .:':' .,
to the n,ext. smaller" an,d ag,ain that to the next smaller" and :so Ion as far
as you care to gOi, an.id als1Q by alternation. For instance" :2, 4, 8; the
,- t --, h--ihl 'b' ". '.. ,', t:.::.' : tb.--; t' 'bl " '.',: '-. ',.,- t,.. '.' - d -:' .-",-"'. ;" 1, " t'h",'- -" d ',', . , 't
ra IOW le, ...I .. ears [0 4, .-,. a, 4 _.ears 0 2, a,n .clon,vergey:, I., ..ey _ono.,
h
,', -.. -. '.' 'h
"
'.' ','. t,h.. "" -." ,". ,-. t' t- ..- d
ia
,. -, . '.- A, .... .' . 8,,1 6-:-
.,o\vever, .'. aye .,e sam,e quan.l .. a'lve .:I,llerenlce., .:.galn, 2, 4, ... , 1
'
:.',
fair n,ot only does 16 ha'v'e the SaDle ratio to 8, as befo,re, though 'DO,t th:e
d
-f!' 'b t 1 b It . .. n' "-.- 1"
SaDl[e .. I: .erence, a so .. y ,a .,'ernatlon It presenreSI a, SlD1
I
:_ar re.. 3tl[on
6
,'''' ... t - - 8-:' -' t: - - d'. -)' .. . 8" '11, 6'" '. ','. ..,.' '. '. " "1 ", ""1 ,., - 'C:- ,- '1
'
.. ' .. ,-, - . '. ,it'
- as I. 1S, 10 4, SOl IS 0 ' 2, a,n conve"rse y, as 2 IS to ',. so 4 IS to I.',
an.[d disjunctly, as 2 iSI to 4" so 8, is to 16; a.:nd ,conversely' a,nd, in dis-
junct form, as 16 is to 8 so 4 is tOI 2; fo,r it. has the doublle, ratio.
3 The geometric proportllon has a pecul!a'r property shared by n,o,nie
of the '. 'est, that the differences of tb.e terms 2 a're in the same ratio to
1 IC :'f -no p'''p, 10"'7 S: 'an"ld' 114" I, 0':;DI tb',"'IS' Eu[c-tid: -,! d.'e,t!-es, D'umbe':!S'I.'
Cl. IiI!oI\:U ,'M' .' I!! J. 11 _" , .. :t '.' :...: "U.', ,. -. .c. .,1, Y ..... .: [ ". .. _I ... 1llI., ':. '.
in as foUo\\rs: "Numben, are m proportion whe,n tbe first 1:9 tbe same multipl-' of the
..:ecoDld [8.5 the' lhi d olf the f,ourlh, or th,le same part of it" or the same parts" ([""B_1 dPCiMy6J1'
rler",' 'TA' a"'p'"'I' inrrl.pol' ,:[etl .' ,.pt'.,.,or T',oi; TfT[4prou 16'4.&1 I
'
_.)..'lu.. 1\,OS" 'TI" 116Tb ,Jpos
4' ''F' .tr" 1'#1''1 dler, ",), EJeme,nls, VII, ,21,t
2. T'h, , ot: . th . ,,'. " ",'S 6':1 'thl ' .-' '., "'" d.. b'l ' d.' tb""" ." 'b" bet' . ,- tb ' '.' . ..... dif-'"
U51De sen.es I) ,2
t
4. ::., I . e ra, 10 1S, IOU ean. I _8 ra. o .. '. ween I. __e successive ... '-
fC'fences (I., 2.. 4, 8) J also double.
TRA:-ISLAnON: BOOK II 271
each other as the tenns to those adjacent to them, the greater to the
less, and vice versa. Still another property is that the greater tenns
have as a difference, with respect to the lesser, the lesser terms them-
selves, and similarly difference differs from difference, by the smaller
difference itself, if the terms are set forth in the double ratio; I in the
triple ratio both tenns and differences will have as a difference twice
the next smaller, in the quadruple ratio thrice, in the quintuple four
times, and so on.
Geometric proportions come about not only among the multiples, 4
but also among all the superparticular, superpartient, and mixed fonns,
and the peculiar property of this proportion in all cases is preserved,
that in the continued proportions the product of the extremes is equal
to the square of the mean, but in disjunct proportions, or those with a
greater number of terms,2 even if they are not continued, but with an
even number of tenns, that the product of the extremes equals that of
the means.
As an illustration of the fact that in all the relations, all kinds of mul- 5
tiples, superparticulars, superpartients, and mixed ratios the peculiar
property of this proportion is preserved, let that suffice 3 and be suffi-
cient for us wherein we fashioned, beginning with equality, by the
three rules all the kinds of inequality out of one another, when they
were in both direct and reverse order; for each act of fashioning and
each series set forth is a geometric proportion with all the aforesaid
properties as well as a fourth, namely, that they keep the same ratio'
in both the greater and the smaller tenns. Moreover, if we set forth
the series shared by both heteromecic and square numbers, one by one,
3'
,6
.6
,6
1 Doubles I 2 4 8
Differences 1:1 4 8
Differences of differences 1 :I 4 8
In general, 2,,+1 - 2" = 2"
Triples I 3 9 27 SI 243 729
Differences :I 6 18 54 162 486
Differences of differences 4 12 36 108 324
In general, 3,,+1 - J" - 3"(3 - I) = 2 X 3"
Quadruples I 4 16 64 256 1,024 4,01}6
Differences 3 12 48 191 768 3,072
DifTerenccs of differences 9 36 144 576 2,304
In general, 4"+1 - 4" = 4"(4 - I) = 3 X 4"
I Thus in the series 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
2 X 64 = 4 X 32 - 8 X 16 (= 128).
I Cf. I. 2). 7 fE.
That is, in the series of doubles (I, 2,4,8,16,32, etc.) the ratio between 32 and 16 is the
same as that between 2 and I.
~ . I r n m
.. -. - b h- .. d '-h I h b
.-c .:,.- .. ' ':1 -'-.. ' : .. ,.'. c ... -, ' .,.1 . '-.'.'. ,"- -- c' .'.1. ",':... "" :-,." .' - .. '
contammg t e t e,rmSI m ,at series, an. t en se_ectmg t e te.rms . y
g'r,oups of tb,ree breginning with I, lexaminle th,em" in each case, settmg
d
l";"" " th.. la"I"t :f thl
l
.,--:, -,-1.' . C" ..':"', ',:' --: 'th"''':- t 't :f t,h
ee
., ':c'n:'"
,o,vn .e. s 0 or,mer group as SI. r In[g pom o. I e ne .,
,.. :, "', ,h,cl'll' fin,-I -,d tb, .:' t
1
f"" ', .... t'h-
"
e" --I ' 1-: t"'[ I'" '............ t t:h' d[, hi""}:'"
we sa. . ' ,a. om '" mu" . e a -Ion ... ,a ,S, . e ou .. e
all the kinds of superparti.'culars I appear' one after th,e oth,er, the sesqui-
1
... ill d '.-- . ( , , . '..... ,...... I" " .. ' .' ..-. ,'0. .... . :. . ..', '. '1 . . ........'. ....
a.t.er, sesq.ultertlan., sesqu1.qu.arta.n, an., so OD",
6 It' 'w"o"ul'd 'be m-'-ost
,
lse'"'a'so' . '0'ab'le n'IQ'W'" 't/h-:-'a't w'e' 'h
l
a' rea' .c""he""d thl[S pOI,e
n
t
. ------.: I '. :'[ .' .1., , . . ..1 . .' ': , '. .. .'--:-:' .', , .::. . .' " 1 '. . ", . .: '. '. '. '.:- .. . . .....' , .,'..:;' , .' .' .,' .1.' .' , . : . . .: . _ ." ,
to mention a corollary that is,o,f use to U.S for a certain Platonlc theo-
2 for plan,le num'hers a're bound tog,ether lalways by a :s.in,gle mean,
1
-'d b t .' th f f t.' F '-th . t-
, . '-'. " . -..... ; '" I .,'.', '. I . - - ..... .,' . [ . .... I' i :', '-'. '.. .. - 1 '. . ' ..
so l'IS [wo, I.n I. e, orm ,0 . a propor Ion. ror._ .WO consecu lye
1 Th.e series of squares and numbers :!s .', 2',4.6,9. 1:2, 16, 20,25. e C'. Taking them
j,n groups, of tnree as directed the .follo'wm,g r,atios appear:
(
.'d b"1 )..
I.
t
2) 4 . ,OU,:le
4, 6. 19 (sesquiaIle'r)
9[j. 1 2I1 1.6 I(sesquitertian)-
16, 20
1
2 S (sesquiqua.rt&n)
t"The ef,erence 'is tlo Timatus, 312' A-B" and NicomachUI endeavors to elucidate a real difficulty
in the Platonic lat. ..', stating the case as ,he does [at .- rst bri1efty and. summarily ("'planes are
alwa,ys )oin.ed b,yone m,can, solid numbers by two"), hie doubtless quotes f'rom m,emo,ry, for he
Idoes not r'eport Pkto p:re'isely.. Plato ldoes not say that pJan,es can ha\t[c but one mean" but that,
o'ne 5Uffi,c
l
es (rlolh, [ 1'wl'I'oll .' ',3'& -ylryHfI(J.,1. Tb 1'oD ",.ni. .,W,"", pl. patlrr"r I, I.,t""ff& ,.4 TI!
peS' lAW,,' fvNer.. K'al, la,UT1f" Ira [a'l ne;peou3, 14p [.DT6... . ,pofT. ,ICe'. -""&t T[el "1 plc
[,"" alSo .l ckl fV,JI4P:pbr,..O""",,, a - .) '. But ,going 00 to restrict
h I
.. t'liI [--= th t " ... It" ... ,.1iI and b Id
t ',e app l(a 10D 0 wo pnnclP es '0 com,ecmI.W slqua,:es ... :1, ,u,-es seem to
be trying to impose upon the Platonic passage' an whi[ch would S,tand mathematical
ISCrutiny'I!
The word:s u.-sed by Pla'tot ,1"11". ao,l' and (I''rrpI:6., are' ca'pa'ble of a very broad inlerp,reta,ti,oD
and difficulties, woUld tb.en ,arise,. For ex&,mple, a plane D.wn'ber could be [&'Dy Dumber of the form
(J'b, and s-upposin.g a
J
, b
J
&. and d to be. 'prime integen, it would be impossible: to, find, O,D,e, rational
mean between the' plane numbers ab and al., for Vab,d.' 'would, be irrational. HOlwevert- it would
alway's be' possible to find a single m.le&'ft between two successive 'SQuareSt (o,r if' the squares a!!i_'
a' and (a. + 1)2, a(a + I:) wiU be! a geometri.cal m,ean. between the'm.. Furthermore'" 'Nicomachu,s';s
statement abou.t th,e cubes helpl! t.o dis,miss a real ,dHnculty in tb,e secon,d part of the Platonic
theorem, for the're are certain sOHd Du'mbers, that, can 'be put into a geometrical 'proportion with b'ut
{
. M''-\'" H''. d ...1 '1..... _ "'1 8 h'lII h ti I d hi h" 81 d' .' h a
onle .. tdJer- ,[(Kf H1t;.; Clles., W l[e _'IS ,2 ",an-c 512", W, ,.1 C. ts ',an. t e propo,rtio'D
8: 64 [64: 512). But if' by [sorld 'numbers Plato mlea;nt co,Dsecutive cubes) 'S .'. 'icomachus
then it will be found tha,t DO single mti.onal ,geonietrical mean can be inserted. bet,ween, two such.
Fo:r if tb,e cubes are tr and (4 +I), the: gleo,m,etrical mean would be a(a +1)'1':4(,4 + I)' and
would be irrational.
At t.he hands of :modem commentators the Platonic' passage ha's been subjected to somewhat
:similar r,estricUon.. ,Arche't..Hind in his not.e follows Martin for the ,most pant and d1eclares his,
beU1ef 'that Plato meant 1r11re:6.1I and a'TlfPfIJII in the :stnctest, possiblle '5e:nse, th,e fo,rmer ,a nu:mber
of
" t' rn-"o lacto'PIC! only l'be la'tter o"f' thr
AA
-u lb'.'e fact"om be'llng pnm-e 1II
1D
t
-fI rs _....1 that' t, th .n.' . .I.I. .., ..'. . .::., il.U ' .. ' J,' .' .. ' ..1 .:... '_ -_'.' '. " " 8uu . '. _'.1 IDle lcase
,of ,th,e solid 'nu'mbers he t[estri,cts himself to cubes Tb,en. it would be possible always to bn[d IO'n8
geometrical mean between two squares, {as a
l
: ob == ab: Qt)I
J
th,ough in [other plane. numbers, t'wo
mea'M might. be possiblle; and the possibility of two cubes with b,ut one rational geome'tnca1 mea.
will be ex.eluded" f'olr jf . is the mean betw1eeD, 4
1
and, b', ,i,t win have the irratio,nal value al,.../;;;,
4 and ,b bing prime integ,e'rsli
273
squares 1 only one mean tenn is discovered which preserves the geo-
metric proportion, as antecedent to the smaller and consequent to
the greater term, and never more than one. Hence we conceive of two
intervals
2
between the mean term and each extreme, in the relation of
similar ratios. Again, with two consecutive cubes
3
only two middle 7
terms in proper ratio are found, in accordance with the geometric
proportion, never more j hence there are three intervals, onc, that be-
tween the mean tenns compared to one another, and two between the
extremes and the means on either side. Thus the solid forms are called 8
three-dimensional and the plane ones two-dimensional; for example,
1 and 4 are planes, and 2 a middle term in proportion, or again 4 and 9,
two squares, and their middle tenn 6, held by the greater and holding
the lesser tenn in the same ratio' as that in which one difference holds
the other. The reason' for this is that the sides of the two squares, one 9
belonging peculiarly to each, both together produced this very number
6. In cubes, however, for example 8 and 27, no longer one but two
mean tenns are found, 12 and 18, which put themselves and the tenns
I Cf. Euclid, ElemenJs, VIII, 11: is one mean term in proportion between two SQuare
numbers, and the square htlS to the square double the ratio of side to side" (81io n'Tpa-yrll/lf/l'
fIr jdtfGf dl'd.Nl'yO" irtf'l. dpl.fJ,dJr, 01 ATUpG.'YWJflI' 11'1'0' Tb TnpG.yWMl' ".rXlllTlo'Q Xb-yu
IX" rXnlpc\ f1'pO' Tf/. f1'M'upG..). Theon of Smyma does not include this proposition, nor
the following one, concerning cubes; this is strange, since he is professedly offering helps to the
study of Plato..
, The Greek word may also be translated' intervals.' On the meaning of the
word in this connection, cf. OD n. 6. 3. Tbese diJIerences will bear to eacb other the ratio of the
terms (cf. sect. 3 above).
J er. Euclid, VIII, 12: uThere are two mean terms in proportion between two
cubes, and cube has to cube thrice the ratio of side to side" ("60 l{(,fJw. 4pI8".i:J,",6o f'1f1fX drdM'yO'
df1!1I .8f'l/I, ",,1 6 1{(,{Jrll f1'pO' To\, ri!301i1 T".r>.4f1/o'O Xb-yO,'X" frfP " f1'XtUPc\ "'pOt Tf/, f1'Xfup.h).
'In general a proportion between successive squares would be a
'
: a{a + 1) - a(a + 1):
(a + 1)'. The I1ltio of the sides would be a; a +1. The differences on either side would be
a' + a - a' - G, and a' + 2 G + I - a' - a == a + I. So the diHerences have the same ratio
as the terms themselves. In this kind of proportion the only rintervals' are those between the
61'St and middle terms and between the middle and last terms, whereas in any proportion with
cubes &5 elltrernf$, as a
l
: m'" ,,: bJ, there are three, between a' and m, m and ft, and" and bI.
It is to be remarked that the same word, can be translated 'interval' and 'dimension' in
speak.ing of geometric squares or cubes. To p},thagoreans such a coincidence would mean much.
If for eumple the are al and bI, the proportion ma}' be of the form a': atb _ a
1
b; ab
t
- abJ: bJ; the constant ratio is a; b, and the differences will be a
l
- atb, atb - abJ, and
a6
'
- bJ. But (a' - atbHab' - bJ) == (IItb - The diHerences therefore may be put in
continued proportion
.o':,..:::..<c'.'Cb atb - a
-: = , whkh ,rouces to -.
a
'
b - air - bJ b
That is, the ratio between tbe differences is the same as that between the terms. In the case
of cubes of prime numbers there would be eight further possible forms of the proportion, all of
which obey this law, as may be readily tested. If, however, the original numbers were not prime,
the number of forms increases with the number of factors.
2'74 NICOl\IACHU'S O GERASA
in the sanle rati.ro as tha.t which the. differen.cles bear tlo
l
one. another j
d th f
t'h ., th t t'h t' t' t'h d ts f' tb a:n
l
. ... e reaso,n. 0'. ' lSllS' ," ,wo mean, 'enns are "Ie pro"uc', 0 . ,'e
'd f' .h b '" 1 d" , d' ..
Sl.es t. -e cu,es comnung-ee. , 2 times 2 tlDles 3 an'. 3 tun,es 3 tunes 2"
,'. - . th ' " I'' 'li
lt
.. ..
10 In g'ener.al, then, if ,a sq,uar,e tak,es a squ.are, '__at IS, mu It, It
always, makes a sq.u,are ,; but ifa, sq'uare multlplies a .heter,olmecic .number"
or vice versa, it never m.akes a slquare:; a.nd if cube multiplies ,cube, a
cube will alwlays r,esult, but if a hetero,mecic nwnber' multiplies a cube,
or vice versa, nev,er- is t.he result. a cube. In, precisely the same w'ay .If an,
b I
, 'li' b' od' I. .
even num.. ler es ,an even nwn.er, the pr.u.ct IS a ways even
and, if odd multiplies odd al\vays odd.; but if lodd multiples even lor
I1 even odd, the result will alwa,y:sl h,e even a'nd never odd.! Th,ese; mat-
t.ers will 'rec,eive th,eir plroper elu,ci,dation in the, conunentary o'n Plato,
2
M,th referen.ce t!OI the passage on the so-caIle.,d marriage number in the
R
,, hZ" t d d ill t'h f th M S .- th I t"
:' ...' ..... ':. . .':' .: I'" '.. .'.: c' ....: . . . ' '.' -. .. '. I' . . I . ..: . I ..... ... '.. I:c." ..... = I ;-: .... '.' '.
. uce, In. e, person 0_, le uses,.. [0. _en e c us pass,
a,ver to the third proportion" the so-called harmo1nic, a,nd an:alyze :it.
CHAPTER XXV
'I Th,e, propolltion that is, 'plae,ed in the order its, on,e called the
harmo,nic,3 WhlC'h ,exists when.lever ;anlo,ng three t.erms th,e mlean Ion
-. .. b- d t b h . 'h ,it . th t
rexamln,atlon, IS o-sJerve.'OI,e n,elt'.er' In t .. esame ratio to le eX.'remes,
,antec,edent of o,ne, anrd consequle'nt of the o,ther, as in the geo:metric:
prloporti,on, D,or with equ,al intervals,., but an ineq'u,ality of ratio,s, asl in th,e
The propositions stated are :
( I: ).' "r; 'I is ,a '-, [uare "
,-. ,", . _.., - sq - ,
(2) mt.<:n + I) is never a squre i,
l'.....) 11, ., . -: b. ,11>
U m-n- IS alw,ays.a CU.. :e,
(.4) ",s,,(n + J:) IS never ,a ICUbe;
(S) 2 m X 2' n is alway's even;
(6) (2 m:I: 1)(: n I) is odd;,
(7) 2 m(2 n :::t= J: ') is alw8ys ,eveD,"
t The formula for ,the, .: maniag[e number' occu.rs in the .Republk, 546 A 11.. The meaning of'
the passage ,is stUl Idisputed. "1 Ticomachus ma,y perhaps refer to so/me wo,rk of his'm which, he
commen'l:ied on 'the ,Rep,,,bl'ic..,
I Iamhb,ch.us (p,,, l'OOt 1'9 fr.) 'names this 8'mon,g the three kinds of' p'lO(Klrtion known to p)rthag
O
,ta'S a-nd 1...:_, e.t:->hool b-y.. w'h-' o''m- :t w"a's __,1I1
I
ed beca 'I'I'IIC-A -11!<t unliS- 'CO' to -. b'e-'
r. '.' '_ . ,J..l..Ut, 0'\00 ., J.' . '. _ ,iI.' . l,;.iIJJ.. ' V"" _. ,110II; , .'W"." __ . ll:itJ .'. ..', .
tr&ry to tb,e arithmleU'c; 'th.e name
1
, h.owever w,as changed to 4p,#LOPlAi, harmonic" by the schools
f h d
'HI L ..... _ 1.... f '. '. - 1 add
,0," Ar'e ,ytas an .. tney 'Qund In it. the harmonic ratiOS" lamb lch,_ , "., S
(p
'. 08," -. .. ff: ) ,t,'h' t t\h",A fu' -,' da'm::.'Dt:l :J.... '.' ( .. "al).. .). ::f lh-,, '-:-.'. --- rt,:- - I ' '. , 6 -d ,.' . 6':' 1I,:h,e'
..... ).; J .,.... ,a '. D_ ea arms . 0 ,. IS propo lion, are 2. 3, an,' 3" 4., -" . :.
multiples [or superparticulars o'f wb.ich 'terms give other e'xamples of it.. On account lof this, Iimi-
'ta, 11'"0:-n t'b e nam'e C :J .: estab)'lSh-[ed .....
l
:; (.J...... W'as aiv'e"n t"A lbe' ha . -rm" pro' C,fV'IirtlO:-;n b'iY' -. 'SO-m"e' 1 .' .' -' .. "-,'" I . -.', lIA. I ".", .. _ 1, .',C:v .. tP, ..,,,.......... ..... I', 0.' '.-: " r!U . I,. , '. '. . '.' ." .L,. -,' .. :1'...... ' '... '.,., .., ..
It will be D,oted that Nicoma,chus uses the eEamples mentioD,ed, althou,gh he does not speak of
-'uch' &, limi, I, ,ta'ti''OD' 5, . . " " ..
275
aritlunetic, but on the contrary, as the greatest term is to the small-
est, so the difference between greatest and mean terms is to the differ-
ence between mean and smallest term.! For example, take 3, 4, 6, or
2, 3, 6. For 6 exceeds 4 by one third of itself, since 2 is one third of 6,
and 3 falls short of 4 by one third of itself, for I is one third of 3. In
the first example, the extremes are in double ratio and their differences
with the mean term are again in the same double ratio to one another;
but in the second they are each in the triple ratio.
It has a peculiar property, opposite, as we have said,' to that of the 2
arithmetic proportion; for in the latter 3 the ratios were greater
among the smaller terms, and smaller among the greater terms. Here,
however, on the contrary, those among the greater terms are greater
and those among the smaller terms smaller, so that in the geometric pro-
portion, like a mean between them, there may be observed the equality
of ratios on either side, a midground between greater and smaller.
Furthermore, in the arithmetic proportion -4 the mean term is seen 3
to be greater and smaller than those on either side by the same fraction
of itself, but by different fractions of the terms that flank it; in the har-
monic, however, it is the opposite, for the middle term is greater and
less than the terms on either side by different fractions of itself, but
always the same fraction of those terms at its sides, a half of them or
a third; but the geometric,' as if in the midground between them,
1 The general formula then is a: c = a - b: b - c. For Tbeon's discussion see p. 114. J4 f.,
Hiller.
! Cr. H. 23. 6. Iamblichus (p. IIO, 18 ff.) says that this was the opinion of the Pythagoreans
but that some considered the hannonic proportion contrary to both the arithmetic and geometric.
He then argues elaborately for the view expressed in the text, lhat it is subcontrary to the arith-
metic only.
a Compare the ratios of the terms in the harmonic series 3, 4, 6 and the arithmetic series 3, 4, 5 :
t - It (less) t- = It (greater)
t = It (greater) l:. 11: (less)
4 The following examples will illustrate Nicomachus's meaning.
AluTHllETlC HARMONIC GEOKETRIC
Series 3,4,5 3,4,6 4,6,9
Differences . . . . . . . . . .. 1,1 1,2 2,3
Which are the following fractions of the mean 1: 1: 1: t I 1
And the following fractions of the extremes 1 1 l t ! t
In each case there are two differences. These are (a) in the arithmetic, the same fraction of the
middle term but different fractions of the extremes; (b) in the harmonic, different fractions of
the mean, but the same fraction of the extremes; (c) in the geometric, different fractions of both
mean and extremes.
\\lbat is meant by the elliptic statement of the text, "the geometric ... neither in the
mean alone, nor in the extremes alone, but in both mean and extreme," may be seen from the
example in the preceding note. The middle term does not diffcr from both e.IUemes by thc same
~ . I r n m
NICOM CHUS
' - G' S
'. ..... '. ". . . . ..... 1 I ' ., ,
" .._"A" '"I OF .'
h t
hi' t "th'" 'h . 1 '. eI h
S.. ows ":"'s pr,oper-y n,el-. ler m t m.ealn t.erm exc nlo,r m,
,extremes, b'ut in both mean and extreme.
4 IOnce more, the 'harmonic proportion, has as a peculiar property the
fact that. when the extremes ar,e added together 1 and .ntultiplled by
the mean, it makes twice the produc,t of themselves multiplied bly one
an.other.
T
hh 11II all-' d' b tb hm
5 '.' e . armonlC p,roportl.on wa's so c. e- I 'ecause '.: je ant 'J etic
p,ro,portion was d'istinguished by q,uan.tity, sho,wing an equality in, this
res'pe:ct with thre in.tervals frolD one term to anolther, and the, geometric
b
-1- _. .. -la li" .. la-..' b d
'qua,.lty" glvm.,g Sunl '" I" qua re," 'tl,ons ..,etw[een O,D,e term an.1
another, but this form." with re:feren,c:e: to relativity, ap'pears now in
lone form, no\v'in another., nleither in.."ts terms .nor ID. -tSI
di
"'fI' 1 I b I h d tl IiI th diff .' ...... erenCles 'y, 'I,ut partl y' ID t Le te,nns an, I. pari,;Y in 'JJ'le_' .'. er-
ences; for as the greatest term is, to the s,mallest, so also is the differ-
enc'e b,etween. the ,g.rleatest and th.'e next greatest, or middle, term to, the
dUi
' .: '. .-.. -- - - 'b -- , th- I - 1'" .. t-t - - d th, ,--:ddl . t ,-, .d' -_. - . I' ''',' 11' ,. ..... '1 -"',: ;"',' , . " .. ...:... . . .,',. '. . : I '.' ,,"," "".. . I ". ,.. I . ".". '.' '. -'-.,
.. ,.' _ere:nce,et.ween le. eas, enn an . e ml_le I _:e.rm'l an. Vl1ce versa.
C
,' 'HAPT' ...'.. -> . E.. RI XX/VI:'
'. _:, .' _" I ."J._ ," _,' _ . "
--- - - - --
I In the classmlcation. of Being previously set forth, we recQgnized. the
e1
.
1
. c 2 tb' -, " 1-" 't h" .. _..... , t'h'" bt tb , ,.. I .,.
r- atlve :as a [. ,.lng 'pecu lar:o .. armonlC .-.I[eory-; ,u ;. m,USl.ca, ratios
of the ha'nno,nic intervals are also rather to be found in this proportion.
The most ,elementary :is the diat.essaron, in th"e sesquitert'ianrati.o,
h
-
I
h ill th . ... f' 3 .. "h I th d hI
4 : ,3, 'W ,IC-1 IS I-e ratio 10,. term to term-I 1Il t .. e examp..,e In' ,e;,Olu _,.e
ratio" or of difference, t[Q differenc,e. in that which fOlllows,., th.e triple, for'
'these; di'ffer,enc,es are of,6 to 2' or again of 6 tlo 31- ImmediateI.Y'ollowing
t'h- d '.. ;hl'',h -1":- ses',"'" -U-'ill,t,er- , 2-:' ... " , '. '1' .,' th'r "'It, f-
S .... e, .... lap,,1 w .' C I.S,. I .. ,..q,.JIG, .. , , . or aga n, "... 4",era, .0 0_
part of itseU nor 'by the sam.e part of' th,e extremes; but from the .first te,.m by 'the same fme..
tion, of itself as, the fraction of 'the last term by which It differs from -the las,t term, aad con..
versely, sam,eness and difference of the fralct:io'n involved in co.p,aring the terlns do not lie, in
t.his type' of' propo'rtion" exclusi.vely in the rela'tions to th,e middle term" 01' iD those of the mid,dI[1
term tOI th,e e,xtremes.
I ThU! in, 2
1
, 3,. 6, (2 +[6) X 3 :It 2'4 _,'od 2 X 2 X 6.
In gene' al ,Q..::::; a - ,6, whence b ';::: 2' GC. and 6(1 +c) =2 tJC;t
C b-c, _+,
I See I .. J" I,.
I Thle e'xam,ples reflerred tOI are the harmonic p1roportions cited in, 11.,25- J. Tbe propo,rtioD
in double ratio is, 3t 4'1 6, a,nd that. in triple ratio is 2, 3, 6. The .lint two terms 'e in sesq,uiter-
lian ra.tiol iD th"e former (4: 3) and the differ,ebces of 6 to 2 and o:f 3 'r1espectively '(4J 3) give thle'
same n.tio in th.e J&t.ter.
1'7
I,e,co,' ,1-
o term
.iBi;"lBi.9!li.:C " LO diffler-.
-'io it the ratio
and th,e m,ean
dtl"r :n,ce h&-,
....',.ed
.,l:e
e
,d
....',"'. of ."he t-.".r,,,.,.,..
d
- ,. It
.... I:esqula .'e .,
le triple rato, and,
a "d 'n -.he ',0
to the difi,e 'e c,e:

'The
.,
,- J " ..
,ored,
1-, lem,ean
for a- the
ftWi.Oates, an,d
.-e., ..s....0'.' .. ,S.;:',
'..... ... - _. - _.'
For in e e:ry
ry c'ub,e 2' sildes, 8 angl
I' '2 1
1
IS accolr,ding' .'0
'h '. h-
,-o_'a,c. lo,tl"er, SO lSI .... '::
.. __i
'
0 ,may .'. i""' __
6," 4 . :Jome
,16)1
.1 .
-.e
I:. iI 'h
.' 3.. I,t IS t c'
f
;&,L. h J
I armonu::
Q be found -rvl
') 1'1
'.- ,ou-l
l
_ ,. t ., '6, 1 IS, the ratio of 4 t (4
-') 'to (3 - 2 =) I.
. , '. 'ho,w first that. t'his sen. s, 16. 8j .2
" D,d'hccn that ,all the ra'ti f
'......"'- Idbl reo.....,;;,o:t.
N
< I-'CIOM" U,5":' O,F: G ,-E:R. A:S:,A
'. ., .:......:: ,' .. I. " . -.:. '. , _ . J_',_ ',:,:,"
mIddle .erm to that between the middle and s.mallest tenns and aaain .' .- . ,. , , _. .. -' , _.. -_. -- . .,. - .. - - ,,- - J .. - . ','I 0' -. .,
the middle term is .greater than the smallest by one frarctio'D. of itself
'. b .h ., I .h th . b ., Ii' d 11
andy anot. ,er IS ' ess t .. an j-: ',e gr,eat.e'r' term"",ut IS gr'eat.er an- sma er
'by one a'nd the same fractio'n of the extremes., And ,8;gain, the 'sum 0,
thle extremes multiplied by m,ean makes double th.e product of the
I
, " '1'" dl b Tb d r. f d-" h
extren1
l
es, mu Itlp".ie , to,g'et.l.er. . le, ,'la'tessaron IS 'IOIU.n
l
', m t __e rati,o
8 : 6, which is sesquitertian, the ,dtapente in 12 :' 8, which isl sesquialter ;,
the d:!apaso,n.) th,e combinati'o,n olf these tw'o, in 12 : '6, the d,ouble r,atio' ,
tb
di- --; d' ... t.. . .. :.' ..,-..,b1' ', .. . .' h-'-; t 'le' 11. th .'. ,..... t"l .. , . ;f t"'h' .
. ,e .. ,ap,ason an. .. lapen.. e com .m,e ,W, le. IS .rIp ., In .1. e ra .10 0 ., e
difference, of th,e extremes to that of the smaller terms, and the di-
d
l
- ." ., th'.... 'C't
l
"' .. - "f' ,t-h' .. -. dI" t, .. _ t t"b dl.tI:,' ' .... bt ..
_la.pason IS" ,.:e ralO 0 ..re roll .. ...e .e,rm 1,0 .' e,. lerencee,wee,n
itself and th,e ,esse,r term- Most properly, then, has et been called.
h
-
la'rm,omc,.
C'HA.PTER XXVI!
I
J
UIst a'lls m' t"h,e- 'd-,) .. V:,ISl'on o:f' t'he> ml'USl"'C:a],c.. 'aI'D10n' 1 w;,hlen:' a" s.. tnn'g' I-IS'
, , I. '::...: .'.' .. . " : ' .c _-:.., .:. _,-- _., ':. .',. . ,'., : .:.:'-, .' ,. . ,I : '..: _ .'_'1,.: ._: .
: . h d 1-' h -f' .. . d- .. hi1- ds' d :h
' , -;: . -; .. '. -; . . ... ...'. :..: . . ..,.' . 1 . ., .. : . . : -.' " .' .. : . ".... ,.... . .... ... " 1 .1 cc . --:- . " ' .. .....
stretc.. or one .engt . 0, a pIpe IS use. , W1 . ". lDlmova e, en ..... , an,_, t.. e
'd .. hf ' .h b f th fi' h:l" 'h
mll-polot S'1 'ts In t e plpe.'y ,mea:ns ...=nger- .'0 es, In t.
l
, le strIng
by means ,of the bridge, and. as in o:ne w,a,y after another the aforesaid
rt
- ''''thm' t _. .. t . - - -- d h' - - -, IIJ b - d d
- .'. - '( -. . - I" , I ".I I . - . . .. , "I '.' . '. . .....' . . . .. ' ,'.' . '. . . ..... .' .
propo .1.0DS,1 a ... e,)IC, ,geome .rl.C" an,.. ,a,rmonl'C" can '. e ,p,ro. uce,1.,
so that, 'he fact becom.es app,arent that they a:re logi
1
cally'2 and 'very'
'properly named:, since, they are br'ought about ,th.rou,gh 'eb.anging and,
shiftin,g th,e middle term in diff,erent wa'ys, so tloo it IS bot, I reasona'ble
d
-bI t . -. 'rt:"h ..... -- t -..-. th t fi' t .. -h f tb' . thr ..,-... . . ... '., ... ' 1.'. . 'I' . . . I .' . I '. .... '.. . . ... ' .. ',' ,.. . I" . " , . .. -,'-
an. PO'SSl .... e 0 lns,e ...-,Ie meane[Dl .a .,SI ea,c,., 01 ....e I. ee pro--
portlol:ns between two arithmetic term.s, whi.ch stay fixed and do, 'no't
,chang'e, wh,eth,er they are both eV'len or ,od,d., In the ,anthmeti.c
.. th' . it th: d d- d'db 1
: -I '-' "-I: r' I I .'. .. , .' . ..:. . ".'. I. ..':'. .'. ...:... . .: :, : '. . .. .:,. ,.... .' ..,' .'. cc' .' t', .- .' .. -'. - ..-... ,'.,:- . I..
port.lon .. 'IS mean term IS one .. '. at excee.,s, an.. .IS excee e... .. y an equa.
h '.' .,.. ,. tr ed f' h
,amount, ; m tie ge:ometrl'c proport1.
l
o,n It IS .''Wlerentlat:.. -ram t e
1 The IJDlJ(I'lrir ""c:.. was, a 'measuring'rod oorrreB,po'Dding to,. and plaoed by the side of, 'thlC
mO'nocbord" G,n which, b:y .lea'os of & mo\'able bridge: experiments were' made to determine the
musical inteNals, precisely, by the use of mathrematics instead of by ear,. Th,e procedure in sUrch
may be gathered ,rrtom 'Boethius, In,11. IV,. 5: ,Sit chorda inlens4 A,B. Nuk
tUqf14 si,' ng"la, qflM /HJ."titUm.ibus dil1i4at"". ut ca re,gwa a/Jpo,nkJ
,
taakm din..
$iDnu in nenn lcmg'i'tudUu .n(nBnt11' fJUIS antea ngrJllfJeram,u in :,egula. Nos PerD' n.unc w 4,.i-
,mllS 'f'Ulsi f/J'sam cluwdam d non. regula., /Ja"twm"r. He then describes the actual division..
Ap'parently similar e.xperiments could be made on one' pi:pe of the flute.. The wor-d used by
Nicoma,chus for l bridge'/ IS properly referred to a movable, as opposed to a fixed"
bridge (I"I-ydr); ",\s:t in his, 'note on 'the present passage cit,a, a scholium on Ptol.emy, Harm,,) 1'.. ,8:
p4;yA, " /It+, &yopJ"", v".'CI'Atc.ry,v 41 6'''',d.'l'6p.f1'O''' ," leClI pa"cb h-&ry'&1)'flSr.
n
. - ..:1 t "h ,j!; I k f E' ''II''d
.... e eq>rressl0n dJ1WJ'OI ".'T'(I.TO'p.." )S, t ,le 'tll
lr
t 0'1 a war: 0, ;'UCd !I'
2 That is, they are p:roperl,Y caU,ed ,.-"'..,-'1 (C' meB'DS') becau - the ,mean term., "',,., 'por"
determines their charac't!er.
'79
extremes by the same ratio, and in the harmonic it is greater and
smaller than the extremes by the same fraction of those same extremes.
Let there be given then, first, two even terms, between which we 2
must find how the three means would be inserted, and what they are.
Let them be ID and 40.
First, then, I fit to them the arithmetic mean. It is 25, and the at- 3
tendant properties of the arithmetic proportion are all preserved; for
as each term is to itself, so also is difference to difference; they are in
equality, therefore. And as much as the greater exceeds the means
by so much the latter exceeds the lesser term; the sum of the extremes1
is twice the mean; the ratio of the lesser terms' is greater than that of
the greater; the product of the extremes' is less than the square of the
mean by the amount of the square of the differences; and the middle
term' is greater and less than the extremes by the same fraction of it-
self, but by different fractions regarded as parts of the extremes.
If, however, I insert 20 as a mean between the given even terms, the 4
properties of the geometrical proportion come into view and those of
the arithmetic are done away with. For as the greater term is to the
middle term, so is the middle term to the lesser; the product of the
extremes is equal to the square of the mean; the differences are ob-
served to be in the same ratio to one another as that of the terms;'
neither in the extremes 6 alone nor in the middle tenn alone does there
reside the sameness of the fraction concerned in the relative excess and
deficiency of the terms, but in the middle term and one of the extremes
by turns; and both between greater and smaller terms there is the
same ratio.
But if I select 16 as the mean, again the properties of the two former 5
proportions disappear and those of the harmonic are seen to remain
\ 40 + 10 - :: X 25
'11 > JI.
~ 25
1
- (10 X 40) ... 22S - IS'.
I As the numerical difference is constant, it follows that the mean is both exceeded and uceeds
by the same fraction of itself (i,e" H or i). But 15 compared with the extremes is I of 10 and
I of 40.
I The differences in the series 10, 20,40 are 10 and 20. Both terms and differences are in the
double ratio.
6 The reference is to the peculiarity of the geometrical proportion noted in 11. 25.3. In this
case the difference betwttn 10 and 20 is the whole of 10 and hal( of 20; that between 20 and 40
is the whole of 20 and half of 40. If both the differences are viewed in relation either to the mean
or to the respective extremes, the fraction is not constant; but if one difference be regarded as
a fraction of the mean, while the other is regarded as a fraction of the extreme, there will be "iden-
tity of the fraction of excess and defect."
~ . I r n m
I,
NIICOMACHUS OF GERASA
.t:.-, 'd ," ,..-:thl" "'''''. "'.... "':t :-1" th"':- t-: ,', . le '"", "-I t ',-'" FI "" -". , .. " ''',r' t" ,'," 't t" , ' 1
lJ.X,e" Wll, respec " ,e "WO, eVeDennS. . or as, ., e grea,es_lenn
is to the least, so is the difference of the greater 'tenns 'to that of thle
1 b h
- L '. .,., f th- I
lesser j cc'.'y w:",at 1cactlons, see,n as "r,actlo:ns, 0,' .. e greater term) ,.'" ,:'e
mean is :slmalle:" than the g,r'eater term, bly these the sam.e mean term is
greater tha,n the smallest term, when they are look,ed upon, ,as fractions
of the smallest term; the atio betwee,n the greate,r term's is ,greater"
. ,- f' tb II an" th- 'h- h -. f
and that 0,' ,1 1 e sma er t,enns, SDl! erJ a .-,IID,g 'W: .le:. IS nOIt. true ,0 ': an,y
othe,r propo:rti,on; an,d th[e sum of the extr,emes m,ult.iplied by' the m,e'an
is double 'the prod,uct of the, extremes.
,6 If, however, the tWOI tenn,s th,at ar,e given are ,not even, bu,t od,d, like
5
,-, ',5, tb-le SQ,rne number. 25
1
will m'ake tb-le.. a..ritlun".etic p'llO..'po,'rt,,;l'o,"'n'''
," 4 J - - - - - - - -. - , . . -" - - - .. - - - ,- - - - ., . . ,
. . .' .' ".' "_" . I '.
a,nd the reason for this IS tb,at the terms on eIther :sid,e overpass it and
fail, 't[o come up, '1[0 it by an equ[al nUDlber, keepin,g' th,e same quantitati,ve
diffe'rence with respect to it. 15 s,ubstituted m,akes, the geo1metric
'.. th - 1 db I f h" I d-I
,', -, """"',, ':",,- ',: ". ," '1"- I' :'-,' ,.'. ,"" ,.' '" ,-- " ',,- - - .' " - ", ,- ",,',,',,:-:' ".- --" , Ii ','-
propo[rtlon, asl It IS 1
1
e: trlp_e an_ su:"tnp,e [0 eac. "espectlve_,Y J' an.
if '9 takes over the 'f'unc:tio,n [of' mean t,erm, it gives th[e harmonic;, for by
those parts of the s,malle,r term, by W:hlCh, it exceedsl' namely, four fifths
,of' the sma lerJ it is als'o less th,a,n the greater', if they be re:gar[ded as
p,arts of th,e, greater term, for this too is fou'r fifths", a,nld if you, try all the
previously m,e'otio'n,ed properties ,of the harmonic, ratio you will find
that they will fit"
7 And let t'his, be 'your method 'where,b,y YOIU migh,t scientifically fashio'D
thle mean terms that a're illustrated in the three p,r:opo:tio,s. F,or the
'two, terms given, yOIU'1 whether ,odd or even, yo,u ,will find the arithmetc t
""ea'n"b""ad'"d!-gt'h""ee-,-t"r'e',""e"s- a' d,- pcc, t:tm-g" t-"he" ",.. 'th""e m .. ", Iy", .n,', ",I '-::" ,D' U" I" ,,' own ,I. .' "",,. , , ,:,m
mean" or if you divide by 2
1
the excess of the greater ov,er th,e sm,aller,
a.Dd add this to 'th,[e smaller, YOIU wil have the 'mean. As for the geo-
metric m,ean, If YOlu fin,d the square root of th,e 'p'roduct
3
of th1e e,x,@
tr
""" "" - . ' 'I .' .. ""n ," "'d "" ''','b, '-,' ,!!!I '" th" lti" t "f- t"'h' , 't,,"- " t", " " ."
, )"em,es, you Wl.. " pro. uce 1""JI or, 0 s,eIVlng I "" era. IQ o 1 __ e .. enns :oon,e
1 In, tb,e series '10" 16" 40
(
" ) 40 ,40' ....... 16 2,4
',.(1:) =. .,.'
xo 16 - ],[0 6
(6) The difference between 40 d,d 16, 24, is I of' 40;, and 'th,e difterence between 16 and 1'0,
6, is I- of 1',0
(c) tl '>+1,.
(d) (40 +10) X 16 - 2 X (40 X 10) "Boo.
t In ,ge'De'ral terms, the ,arithmetic 'mean between a, and ,6 is, - 6" [o,r, ,if G, < b", It is G +6, [- d- jI
2 2
I In ,general terms, the geometric mean, i_ vd.
'. Nicomachus 6, 5'tating the followin,g proposition put into general terms: given (I, a'Dd 6'.
2'
'-U f"' . ". - -t "., ". ..rti ..'th th d -. M' a,' Tbj' '. U- h Id ood I 8'
WJ.. orm a ,geome, ne, propo, "IO,D Wl" _ . ,[em, anv a. ,- == - .. ,ar., , 5 Wl. 0 I g ,_ on y lor
2 :2'
I
2
C
HAP> .... E
'1 .' .'. '.'
" ," - - '-'-
I o:,cerning th,e'-hr,e' ..
e .. a e IS uss,ed '
:-h- - - t h"
! 'Ie'y are .:0, ,"/,
I.
I L"
. I. , 11Io-'.u,,,,.
" ,
:root
'I I schools
,
lI'II'II"'.'....lJ"_ I _e..
:, ,[_'t
m.a...... '-., I
.. 2 ac _1II ".
.'0 ,I' which
14 +,'
o 11., 25- 4)'R would be
m_,
,{"I'
,.
c) .. 'e harmonic ,mean i'8,
numb-r I'. e In.','1'1I III U'
.. ' i'ntegers) _
(
Ii -
(J .. " . 11;11""_, , I: I ' a ,
I, .
-
-
'11 ,: ,).,
a:
-
i'
c'
,a,
ib
,,......
c
=
c a
b Ib
,
la b
a b
-
le
.-
b a
....-
b
m' Tbeon, consi. tently r'ev,.,I"Se
.n,lIiiiiiift,'U1 ... '1' -'0"
. I! _' ._
;"'JI8'2 .....".
acquaintance with th,em. and, SOl to speak, for th.le completenes's of o'ur
2 They are set forth by us in a'o or'lder based on their oplposi-
tion tO
I
the three arch,etypes .alread,y describe:d, sinlce they are fashio-Ied
out of them and have' the same OClde.r!t
The fou.rth, lan1d thle one called subc.ontr.ary.,l because ,t is opposite
to., .a,Dd h,as op,posite pro,perties tO
I
, the harmonic proportion" exists
.7Vh,e.n'l 'in three terms, as th,e greatest is, to the smallest., so the. difference
of th:e smaIJ'e.r term.s is to th,at of thle gr'eater, fOI:r example 3'1 5, 6" Flor
the' tenns compared are seen to ble in the dou'ble ratIo" and it is plain
h
'It It. ., th h .. f h h
'1'11. It 'IIS:I op-',pO.S.lte
c
, t0,' : e- . a:rm-:'-O"ffi l c pro:;port-IOi:n Ior ,e.r,e,'[as,: ','" :t:' ey-:
'f. _.' ... ..:. ., .:. ; _ .. ' _ I .' : . . _,., . .. .:.., .'_... :.:: ,." '._ .':: _ .'." .'. '. .. ,.-. . . - : - 1-.
both have the same lextreme terms, and in do,u.blle ratio, in th,e 'former
the differe'nlce of the greater terms as, compared to that of the lesser
preserved th,'e same ratio as, that of the extremesl
J
but in. this, propo' .tion
just the revlerse, th[e Idifference, of the smaller compared with that lof
the g'reater. Yo'u, mu,s.! kn.ow that its peculiar property is this. The
pr,oduct of th.le gr1eater
2
and. the mean, terms is twi.c'e th.e product of the,
mean and the smaller;1 for 61 times 5 twice 5 tim[es, 3.
The two, proportilons, 'fifth an.d sixth, were both fashioned, after _'he
geometrical, and they differ fro.m each ot.her thus..
The fifth form lexists,
3
wh[ene'v'er, among three terms" asl th,e middle
. h I 'h 'ii dliifl .. 'h d-ff- b h
te'rm IS to, t:eesser, so t_,.e:lr'l'_e.ren,ce ISI to tle;l<.erene'eetwee.n te
grea.ter and th,e mean, as in 2',4, 5, for 415 the middle term", the ,do'uble
of 2, the lesser, and. 2 is the doublle. of I .the difference of the, smallesl'
terms as co,mpared with that of the largest,., That whic'h :makes it CO'D-
t'rary tOI the g'eomet.ric p'fOpo'ltion IS that in thle forme:r,' as th,e middle
term is to the, lesser, so the e:xcess of the greater ov,er the mean is to the
excess of the mean t:he lesser term, whereas in, this propolrtion, on.
thle contrary" it ,is th.e: diffe:rence lof the lesser compare to that of the
3
4
n ...' _ z.
1 The 'h .. ..l!' J!!l U .. - VI' Tb d d' .," ill f'h f -
, ... -rmOD1C pro'portion IS -._ . b .. ' '.. Ie ODe .1-0" 'UD'er 15CUSSlOD 'IS 01 tl'e .orm.
" .. ' - [,
tJ...... b - In the example given the 'elements compared' are the extmnes &Dd cWJerences
c: a _.
peel
'.' I res .. - :;lveyil'
tTb- - t----'" it"h' uldbe t'h . -h" .rod' ct -ftb.'t:b -tb' "'dd1e '-1 .' ': e.s,ta'tement ISno OO.I.jlg..I",; ': S' 0 ... ' '., t t .le p" ,u: .0' - "e ,e DU .... eql I
.L -
. .. . 1'1 b th 1 1- liiled 'b tb .+ F- "if'" a u - eh' ... I. .. -
th.e' produ.ct of the m1dd e .,y [;e m.ultip,,' .... y.,I-e rabot. . Of' ._. == _ 6 W. re d, >a >c,
, G _ ...
l'et , be the ratio", Then be" wiIJ. leqUal be ,X !, or Or the meaD multipUed by the of the
,e
..- - ., '...,..-'1- the . "f t:h' ..- I' - -, f th[-, -: I" 1.'(:" +..) - I +
extremes I ... sum 0 .. -e squares 0... ,e es., II' . ,Cl . , 4 .' c
That is, if a > b > &, the proportion is b .... b -
. ,- .67 _ .".
. .
- ..)
b b
. IJ . ... --. :... _, ..... - .. : .. 1...
. .. '." .. G . -..... a _. . -. ..
4 That IS, _ " , (d.enVed from ..... == - ;, d" 11.
,
b -e 61 G" ." . .. , I .. . . . . . . [ .
TRANSLATION: BOOK 11
greater. Nevertheless it is peculiar to this proportion1 that the product
of the greatest by the middle term is double that of the greatest by the
smallest, for 5 times 4 is twice 5 times 2.
The sixth form' comes about when, in a group of three terms, as the 5
greatest is to the mean, so the excess of the mean over the lesser is to
the excess of the greater over the mean, for example I, 4, 6, for both
are in the sesquialter ratio. Tbere is in this case also a reasonable
cause for its opposition to the geometrical; for here, too, the likeness
of the ratios reverses, as in the fifth form.
Tbese are the six proportions commonly spoken of among previous 6
writers, the three prototypes' having lasted from the times of Pythag-
oras down to Aristotle and Plato, and the three others, opposites of
the former, coming into use among the commentators and sectarians
who succeeded these men. But certain men have devised in addition,
by shifting the terms and differences of the former, four more which
do not much appear in the writings of the ancients, but have been
sparingly touched upon as an over-nice detail. Tbese, however, we
must run over in the following fashion, lest we seem ignorant.
The first of them,' and the seventh in the list of them all, exists when, 7
as the greatest term is to the least, so their difference is to the difference
of the lesser terms, as 6, 8, 9, for on comparison the ratio of each is seen
to be the sesquialter.
1This again should be corrKtcd in the same way as the former one. It can be
stated that if - b - " where a > It > " and,. is the constant ratio, ab _ ocr. For, _ and
c a - b c
1St: X - ob. Nicomacbus's proposition applies only to cases where,. - 2.
<
'Cuual form, if a> b > e, = It - _" - I, the
g Cl .. 6-4
constant ratio bang KSQuialter. From the geometric proportion! _! is derind (0' ")
2 It t; c b
_ 0: - It (See note on SKtion 4). Here the ratio of diBerencn is uwe:rted. (Cf. Euclid, Elnn.,
h-<
V., Dtf. 16: , .....,.,.._ .... I.TI ).;;'.' nu n-"""'" ...IJ, i mp/Xfl ... nO'I"J'IO
...; iroJdww. That is, as Heath puts it. conversion is taking instead of the ratWJ of a to b
the ratWJ of a to a-b. This is c\'idcndy not tbe sort of convenion here intended.)
J Boethius, 11. p, says: tI Nu quidem smfl Sf%. ",midoles, quo,u", lres usque a Pyl1f4,Dra ad
PlalO1Jtm A,iskHtlcMq1Ie M/JPJ.Strunt. Post vera tllIi illsuti sunt Jw.s t,cs alias. de quiblU sUFa
4isserui",KS, suis commema,iis addiderunl. See Dote OD It. :n. J.
The general form is - - c, if a > b > c. In the given series 6, 8, 9. we have
, '" - e
..

.. i.HI NlCOMAC',H'US Q,F GERASA
8
Th
--,- e A'ghth-- propo-rtlOn 1 'hi- h 1 - th-e sec' -oD'd of this' - ,.' gr-'0'up comes I ... w,l.,'_'. 'I,_',---c.-=-' .",,' W"C.' '5 '-"',.' __ .., [, . 1.,1", :"1_" .... ,
abou, wh1en, as the greatest is to the least term, so the differ,eo,ce of the
extremes is tro th,e dilTerence of the gr:eate,r terms, ,asl 6, '7, 9;, for this
also has sesquialte:,rs ,for' the tWOI ratios.
[9 'Th:e ninth2 in the complete list" and third in the number of those s'ub-
seq,uently inv[ented", exists, wh,en there ar,e three terms ,and w '. a'e,ver
Iatio, the mean, bea.rs, to the leas,t, that also the difference lof th[e ex-
tremes has in comparison with that of tb,e smallest tenns, asl 4, 6, 7ii
10 The, tenth,'! in the :fu'lllis.t, whi.ch con,el'ud,es them all, and the fourt'h
in the series pr'esented b'y th,e moderns) is seen, when, amongthr-ee terms,
as th,e m,ean is to the lesser, so the. d.iffere,n,c,e of the extrem,es is to th,e
diff'erence of the greater te:nns" as 3'J S, 8, for it is the superbi,p,artient
. '* ," h
ratl'O In eac.: . paIr,.
1
1'1. To, s',um'' Up"'.. ,t[hll",e-n, Ile-;t, ti,h'e', ',S> O''.',"fl, tb-le te p''r..o'.','po:',rt"'IO,DI-'S'' ,f'o,'r.th:,
. .. . ..-. ...." . . '_' I . .- '.' . ." .., .. .". ," ., ,.' '. ..' ,
in one tllustratio,n, {o"r th[e ,e of easy' compr'eh1ension. ':
,First I, 2, 31
Se ,,-"co"nd' " I 2" 4 ',.' . " .. '.' , ,'. 'I! ".: . ,','
ITh"".. d' 6'"
, . . . ,. ,
'c ... ,3:, 4, '.:
F,o'u,rth" 3, 5, 16
'Fifh: 2, 4" 5
S
,"' .h- 6'
," '.'., ..
'.lX, L I, 4" .' .
Se th 6
: 8" " '. -, " . ' . . " " ' .
.:,ven . I ... ','" 19
Eig'hth,: 6'1 7, 9
Ninth: 4" 6, 7
Tenth: ,3, ,S, 8
CHAP
-
1,)"', '.' TE,R XXIX
. It' 're":,:a'ms .. 6 f"O"f me'" too' Id,lS''Cus's::-: t'h'e'-" 'm[o'st pe-"""rf,"e- -t '-"ro'po" .','rt; I .'. ",.' . ,_I .'. '---,CU, I ,'. 11:.,1, _,.' C" p., .. "I,OD,
t'hat 'whi[ch is thr,ee-dime:nsion,al and em,braces t.he1ll all, and which is
mlost useful for all progress in mu,sic and. in the theory of th,e n,ature of
uni-verse . This a),on,e would properly and tnlly be called, harmony 6
I n I ". en-'ra'l f rm if': . >'" I. >. , !lIS" (I, (& - t: and' 9
m
the.,ei --'. D IIIIl!A';JiIIIiJit 6: 7' " . 1I,wII.
'. ese .... . (I,,' (I ... "'" ' ,""'" - ' I."" ,.. ..'..'c... ov - we.
e a-u
9 9
1
- 6, 3
- - '.
6, 91-7 ...... i
I Tb,e gene,raJ,:' form.. u' a>.. ,6 >: ''"' is = 4 - '.d iD series 4:." 6. 7:,. we
, . - --,.- .. .... c b c a- " '" '"
'ha've 16 7 4
4 6--4 2
I 1'hat is, if a > b > r;, - 11 : ' and in the given senes 3, S, 8, 8 - 3. . 5.
e a-i' 3 8-5 ,3
.. 'It is to be notic,ed that a,11 the propo,rtion.s can be formed from, numbers m the first decade.
I Iamblichus ca'Us this proportion and says of It (p. 118" 2,3 Pistelli): -"11,.
f/JG.'. Ba.B'v"ClMCII., ...1I,. n:u8ll'1!
l
6pou' 'WpJrrO'l .'l"1 IAfJf';" (4:. tbey sa:y i,t was, a di's..-'
co'Very of. th,e Baby'lomaos, and that it W 9, by Pythagoras 'first m'trod'uced among the 'G,reeks").
IICf,. 11. 26. 2.
rather than the others, since it is not a plane, nor bound together by only
one mean term, but with two, so as thus to be extended in three dimen-
sions,1 just as a while ago it was explained that the cube is harmony.
When, therefore, there are two extreme terms, both of three dimen- 2
sions, either numbers multiplied thrice by themselves so as to be a cube,
or numbers multiplied twice by themselves and once by another num-
ber so as to be either 'beams' or 'bricks,' or the products of three un-
equal numbers, so as to be scalene, and between them there are found
two other terms which preserve the same ratios to the extremes alter-
nately and together,' in such a manner that, while one of them pre-
serves the harmonic proportion, the other completes the arithmetic,
it is necessary that in such a disposition of the four the geometric
proportion appear,3 on examination, conuningled with both mean terms
- as the greatest is' to the third removed from it, so is the second from
t Or, 'three intervals'; for the sense, d. ll. 24.6.
I Asl thus comments on the words translated est permutato s.
inverso ordine, et dJIQ,idf promiscue s. inter se; medii termini 8 et 9 (referring to the ex
ample 6, 8, 9, 12] ad extremos 6 et 12' ita se habent, ut aequaJem inter se servent proportionem;
8 enim ad 6 sesquitertiam habet rationem, ut 12 ad 9; inveno autem ordine 12 ad 8 ita se habet,
ut 9 ad 6; utriuSQue enim ratio est sesquialtCI'1L," Ast apparently means 'alternately' or 'by
altemation' by permulato sive inverso ordine' (- ba.XXlif), as his illustration shows. IN>.ME
is so used in U. 21.6, but in the same section cbllSlQ" is used in precisely the same way, both mean-
ing 'by alternation.' So we must assume eithel that the terms aR heR used as synonyms, as in
H. 21. 6, or that I,,XM( means 'alternately' and something else, 'directly,' perhaps, as
Ast would imply. It is quite certain that I",->.M( means alternately. Cf. T. L. Heath on Eu-
clid, V. Del. 12: "The word I",>,>,'f is of course a common tenn which has no exclusive refennce
to mathematics. But this same use of it with reference to proportions already occurs in Aristotle,
Anal. Pos,., I. S. 74a 18, a:a.l Tb dJl'liM"YO. 41', 1.,,>'>'4(, 'and that a proportion (is true) alternately,
or oltemalfdo.' Used with >.6'yot as hen, the adverb IPOS>.>.d( has the sense of an adjective,
'alternate'; we have already had it similarly used of 'alternate angles' (d 1_>'>'Af 'l'",.lcu) in
the theory of parallels." It is also dear that ToUt "tWolh >.6")'o1lf refers to geometric propor-
tion, not to the harmonic and arithmetic referred to after &ocr.,..., for >.6-yOI is not used of the rela-
tion existing between the terms in arithmetic proportion. I have translated d..,Id( 'together'
but with IlOme diffidence, taking the sense to be approximately that given by Ast.
a Such a proportion is of the fonn a, 2 ab , a + b, b. These will form a geometric propor-
a +b 2
tion, for the product of the extremes equals that of the means. Nicomachus further specifies that
both lJ and b an to be of the general forms ma, m'n or lmn. In giving his example he considers
unity a factor. Boethius, H. 54, thWl describes this proportion: HfUC aukM huiusmodi irtvenietu"
si duobw UrMi"is con.rluulis, qlli ipsi tribw crtM'illt itfJeroaJIis, lON,ituditk! lotiludilte et ,"ofundi-
l4Ie, duo huilumodi termini mdii fllUi,u C01Utiluli et ipsi "ibw inkmJUis 1Wtali, qui w.l ab aequo-
lrow per aeqllaltS atquaJilt, si,u J>rodflCli w.l ab inaequaJibw lid inaequaIia fUqlkJIittr, vel ab in-
cu:qualibw ad tuqualia lJU[uaiikr vel qlwlibel alio modo, aJqut ita, CUM lJ,monKlJM /Wopor'ionn.
CJl,stodiotfJ, alio tamf:n mode compa,ali fadant arilJ",utkam m!ulakm, nisgut geOmdrna Mdidas,
quae inltr WTSlJlU', PION possit.
The Greek fashion of counting, that is, reckoning in both ends, is used in the specification
of these tenns. 'By alternation' here is 'in interlocking or interwoven fashion';
practically equivalent to iI.,,>'>'d(.

it to t'he ,fo'u,rth; for s'uch, la situat.ion makes the 'p,roduct lof th,e means
equ,al to product 0,( the extremes. Anld aglain, if the greatest tenn
be shown to diff,er from, the on1e 'next benea'th it by th'e amOuD't
t
'h' l-,tt-, , f" " 't"hl
l
-1,- 't't-"'--" , hi, '" '", b- ,', ,-- '" t"h
" lsa
l
er'l[;ers Ilfo,m sue an array.:. ,ecomes an arl,J_'-
t
- t d' th- f ''h' .' t '" th
propor;lon lan -'I': e s'um, 0, t'l e extremes lS ,Wlce ,e m,ean.
But if the third term from the great.est ex,ceeds and is ex.ceeded by t .- e
f t
.. f' t'h t -t' ha- !II! d th d' t f' th
same ,raC_lOO ,0 ',le exremes, J lS:,,rm,on,lc ,an,' t' e 'c_ e'
m,ean by the sum of th"e extremes is do:uble the prod,uct o.f the e"x-,
t.remes.
L
' h b 1 'h-" ' ,. ]
31 ,_:et t:, 1s _e an exa,mpl e 0 prOpolrtloD, 6, 8, 9, 12'. 6 IS a Sic,a en,e
nllIllber, derived from I time:s :2 tUnes 3, an.d 1. 2 c.lomes from the
siv,e multIplication of 2
1
times 2 time:s 31; of the m,ean terms the lesser
)'i1's" f"-'-o"lm' I' 'tun' 'e""- ", t ,,'.,:, '. ,', d," 'tb',',' -, ',:' \'-.'','t""I' f' "-","",' I t-'un' -: 3 't',';-rrn'e"s"- 3' Th"-:-:",
" r, ,I ,5 2 _lm,eSI ,4, a,n,,c. e grea ,e,r ram I "I ,5. ,1.1..11.'.41 ' ,e
extremes a,l,e, both solild and three-dunensional, and the means are lof
th,e .samle class to th,e g"eometric pr'opolrti.on, as . 2 is to ,_.- _. ' .. _--. --, - '-, .' - ,: - .., -' - ..
-- --
8
' . .' 6 d th 'hm ,.' ed b
, SOl 9 IS accor" ID,g' to ,_e ant eti:c, as '12 exce s 9,.'Y so
m
'lu'ch' I d,,"o"'es'" 9' 6' an-"d' by t'h"'e' ha-' 'rm""'onl'c' by' {'I', ..:a"c'ti' 0'0" b"-y w" ". ". ' ",' ",.',,'., ','" ' ) .', '.< ":';'" ",,' _".... '_,::.' __ ", ',', .'.',' "",.i
8
':, exceed
D
' 6' '1 'l"'e ed: as a f'- 'a -t' - n of 6' 8' ' .' - als'0 e ce'eded- 'by - 2 Vl"'e- --ed' V 'W.::< ':., 'r,C'10 -;': 1-, .'.'.: _SI ".... ' I" ',".
as al fra,ction of 1. 2 ,
-M 8 6 t'h d' t t t' t
1
1!!1 6'
'I I" ",,-",",'.'.' - ,- " - :'" ,''- , '.",- ,",,, ,,", "" ,- ,'," '.- , '-", ," ", ",'" :!!!! .. ,'I' 1-"
4 '. oreover_ ..' or 12 '. 91s.e la ,essaro1n., m sesquller an ra 110, 9 ,. I
, ,- 8'" "h d .' 'h 1 6"" 'Ih di' 'h
or .I 2 . .. .... IS le- lapente In t e ses!q'uta_ t,er' .; 12':' IS t-e .ap,ason, m
d01uble. Fmally, 9: 8 ::s the interv,al of a to,ne, ID the superoctave
h h" h' f ],1 '.. '. .... .. ' '-:. .... .' - -, . I :: , ',,' - '" I' " 1
'
,c: .' ..', ,,'.- I . . . " ' , '. le
ratIO, W.1C I . IS t, e conunon measure [0
1
, a the ratIos m. lnUSIC, SInce, It
. a1- t f' ''''li 'b t" lik.:" '" tb . 2 b' t
IS -,.8'0 ..... e more laml .ecause 1 ',IS -:- eWlse '.: -'.e .' .... er'ence' e 'ween
thfi
: t d t'l t t at
'I" , ' '_.' " ,- " ,-", I ,,',", '. ',".'.' : " " ,,- , '. -'," '" .', 'I "
.,-e. e __,IS, an.. . m,os e emen .aJY Inlerv _s'.
S And let this be: s'ufficient c1onc:,erning the p'h.enomena a,nd properties
,o,-'f-: num"'b""e' f(o',"'r' a fi..:..s.-t'
",' .,'. . : .' . "), ',' '," . I. . :&'1_- . 7W, [,' .. : l.....,t'IrV'rlr..
1 8 exceeds 6 by 2, O'l' byl of 6; 12 exceeds 8by' 4" or by t ,of' 1::2;, so 6.. 8) 1 2 is, a barmo'mc sen
2: Boe-', ',- -'thi : ,. " h, ,s t"h' 'f' "U- - 'wm!''' ,- :;, n -','ti""<I',, n '. .-, 4 .' ;J;n
. . . , .': US .8 1
1
." e .0 . 0 ... ',I __1""&_ a 0 Iio ,"",M,H' 'J MUU . ' g'......,IiiJ""'C;o
-,,'" ,.....- d- :11.. ._,.., ., ill'" "'--'- IUl..dlr':I ,.;1 ,: A. I. ";_,A .... 1
CDmOM""'lM'Um, .v"W at.., ne " $Qi(J
tl.' (11. 54.)'.
PART III
SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
INTRODUCTION TO ARITHMETIC
-.
11
I. EXTENSIONS O:F A T'HE[ORE'M OF
'NICOMACHU'S
LO[N;G before the time of Nicoma[chus the fact that the sum. of th.e
first n odd, numbe'rs giv,es 'n,2 was kn,o,wn.. T.he theo.rem of Nicomac:hus
state:s 1that 1f you take th,e nth seq,uence 0[ n odd Dum.bers'l call.in.g th,'e
i],rst I, the sec,o[nd 3, 5[t th.e thir[d 7, 9,[ I .. , [and so' o.n, y'ou, obtain n
3
"
In ,consider'ng this theorem it seemed, to 'me' that there sh:o'uld be
analogous theorems fo.f' the fifth an[d seventh pow'e:rs, a.Dld 'possibly fo[r
hig'her 'p,rime powers. T'h.e theo,rem for th.e fifth po,wers may be glven
as follows:
In th.e se'_ies of odd num'bers, the first gi'ves I
i
;, o.mit the :nex'. ,one"
a'nd the following' 4 give 2&:; omit the following 3" ,and the next [9 give
3
-
Ji
o'--nu' 'a'n"",d "th'e' ,6' ai've'" 4.
5
a'm'lil
t
1'--0' an'd" th"e f''o,--llOW'-'I-n'g'
, , .. , ..' .., ':. ,1,- ,_,",__ '_' , , --.:.1,. -'.' .' -,' ._ -"._: -----' '--:
25 give 5' 1 in general, omit n(n + I) terms or a number equal to the
- - - 2
h
[ .. gul b d' k- th ('+)211 <W' b-
ntl- trla'n_:- .ar num -er t.a.:e 1_,.le.n I, "0, OW1D,g to otam
(n + 1)5,.
5, '7, 9, 11 19[, .2'1, . 3S
(3) 4 terms '[13t ,15, 17] 9 termsl '[37, 39, 47]
49, SI,. ',MO. '7'9 10I,
10
3" '1'05, .... 1'4'9
16 terms [81, 8S" .'... 99] .2'5 te.rms
Ea,ch gro'up of up[pe.r n,umbers ,co'ns,ists of n
2
terms and, the S,'urn is n';
( + )
each group of lower numbers consists of n n .- L terms.
2
Th.e gener.al proof cons'ists of the s-ummatiO'D, olf the n
2
: terms of tb,e'
gi,v,en arith.rn[etical series ,and follows witho,ut difficulty
For the seve:nth powers the cor.responding' theo::em is as, foll,o,ws'
In the series of odd. n.umbers", the .first one give.s 1'7; omit -.he' next 3
an
"d t-he f-ollowl'ng 8' ,alive' 2
7
'.. om'l'*"t t'he next -5and the f-- - U wt,jrn 7" _ _ '_,---, .1" , I' : 0"- --.::, ,1._, .....---:,_ -, I ".. . '0, 'Ig 2' .'. gIve
3'; omit 42 terms, take 64 an[d obtain 4
7
'; 'Q,mit. 90 term.s, tak.e 125
terms and obtain. 5,1; o.m-t :165 term.s, tak.e 216 te'rms and obtain 6
7
;
... 1 '., b f ,. h[ h d f-
. " . In glen,era. " O'mlt a num_er 0 terms glven"y t, e pro... uct 0, the
nth. triangula.r num'ber, m.ultiplied by the (n + I)!I odd numbe.r which
I. 2 20 s- . . ,. :.' ".-';. For the translation see pa,ge 26,3[ of thiS volume...
289

.y-'
q
,.'1
n
n
l
I (n2i-3, - I)n
i - I )n
1
q
n
'n
l
-
1

" .
is 2 n + I, and the following seque'noe of (n + terms will ,give'
(n + _)7.
The: algebra,ic proof is ,again by summatio'n of an ari.thmetical series,
an,d follows without. difficulty
Bot.h of these th,eo,rems an,d that ,o,f Nicomach-ls ar,e special caseSI
of 't'e following more in'elusive t.he'orem :
In the :series of odd numbers the sequ,e'nce of nl; terms, f01llowin,g
upon th,e' sequ.ence of i(n - I)n
k
ter.m's whic'h begin with I, has as
Slim n
2k
+
l
. Fo,r k = I this gives the th.eorenl 0' Nicomachus an,d fo,'
1f.K._ 2 and 3 the theorems stated above.
My collea.gue, Mr'. Norman .Anning, further exten:ds this general
izat.iolD in ,the t'wo following tables, whi1ch giv:e such sums to arrive at
even as we:ll as odd powers o,f kw
I'D the ,o,f odd D,umbers, if we omit the firs,t p, the'n the sum of
the n,e'xt q is 'n
2i
+
1
J' the possible val.ues of fJ a,Dd, q a,re exhibited in. the
following ta'ble :
p
l(n
l
- I)n
'
.{n
3
- I)n.....
1
i(n.
5
- l)n,t-
2
Similarly f'olr ev,en, po'wers, of n, if we omit 'the' first p, then t.he sum [of
the next q terms, is n
2
', values of' p ,and q being given by the fonowmg
tab
le" ill I .. ',_ 1,_< "
q
ft.!
p
- ' 1(,n .',21 -.. I -, I)..,l
I .[. ,.
I
q
n' 1
.....;6-'2
'"l
'.
' .
And, of c.ourse':,
o n"
(
k) (k)"
. . . .- .'. . _ ', '...... '-.. ' ,: .
ktb po'wers can be so exhibited I.D E .. .. dl:tIerent ways-;, where E. - ., ..
2" '2
" '.' : . '.'
," .', :.'
denotes the number of integers less than
2
M
'..- ',' f .... c .. ,1-1 I I' E'" B E ... I' 'ra-liized ..- ..- -:-Iy" t,h- -.:- ,.... -, ..
'.' yormer co ea " e" _..' gene _<.' m,. .' as
follows:: In th.e series of' ,oddnumbe:.rs if the :fi.rst in'' (nl-tl:-I ) tenns,
b
'edth- fth tit I Thj- 'If tb -,e onntt[) ,,_. e sum 0,1 . I" e, D1exr n--e,IDl'S IS n" I, . S gives m,y,.e-
',".,' '." '- f' I" - -' k +. -. .. :d M':: A- .... -, - Il-t '. f'-'" .. ,t"her .. I e'" ... f' 1-,'
orem or ... -- 2 ..... - I, an ..... nnlng s resu_s Oil , U so, . ,.
These. theorems a're Greek in, their na'ture and would ha:ve delighted,
the hea,rt 'of Nico,macbus.
I!. GLOSSARY OF GREEK TERMS
So DiophantWl,
an operation. l. 10. 2.
disiunclio progredtlur,
Iv-, (I) arry ,n.
, ' .
l\\IO'l" QyuJI =

(2) draw lines, 11. 7. 4- Boethius,pro-
dfiurl!, ducere.
ly.yIJ,proudure, n. 14.3.
Art/It., 6. 20.
"".'pcTOt, incapabk "I luinff divided (often
= incapable oj beilt/[ halved), I. 17 4-
9. 11. I. Boethius, I. 13, ne suar;
quea!; I. 21, indiviso.; I. 11, flue", secon
non possis.
indiscriminate, not assorted, I.
13. 2.
4.6l'C i.TOW, not luzvingexfension, non-dimen-
sumal, 11. 6. 3. 7. Boethius, H. 4, si,u
in/u-valli demtltsione; ibid., interval/a
carert:, sitU in/enlal/a esse.
"'-+op4.,/aillo disling7l;sn as diffn-tnt (in
methods of selection), with ace., 1. 16. 4.
"'X&CM'OI, incajJaMe of being cut in /1IXJ
or Italved, I. 9. I. Boethius, indivisilJ,lis
et ;,tsecabi/is, t. 10.
U"'.TOt, i",}tun"ole, pa.s.sim.
Upolr..-, a SUIlt in addition, I. 14 J.
koXo""_, follow out, observe prillc1IJ1ts.
t. :23. 3. So Diophantus, Arilh.,6. 4 IS,
"lto).ovfLa, o1'tur, stqUlnct, I. 18. I. 23.2.9.
KO),O",". (I) fol/()'UJinc. nat in ordtr, I.
19 S, I]; 11.5. 1.6. 3. 8. 3. 11. 2, 12. 2.
(2) of a principle, Iroldiltg Irue,
sisttnt, I. 19. 11; 11,2.2; hence d. lOT,,,
= it follows; 11. 16. l. Boethius, 11. 2S.
ojJorid.
(3) ((11"rt!jJondittg, I. 21. r.
u.).ri'1tS, (I) simtlarly,lI. JI. J.
(2) with <lat. = in accortUJ1Ut wil/r,
according 10, I. 23. 7; 11. 26. 2.
........... nol governed by rllle or melhod.
I. 16. 3. Bocthius, a nuluuerlo jinegene-
ralos. I. 20.
Le,.,. (I) masc. extreme lerm of any series,
I. 23. IS (so Euclid. Diophantus); neut.,
I. 8. 11, 9. 6 (esp. erlremes of jJropor-
lions. 11. 24... etc.). Syn.,
M:pOr17S" Boethius,
eJdremus lerminus, enremllS.
(2) edge of a wedge, 11. 16. 2.
(se. ezlrellu lerm, I.
8. 10, etc.
1.,6"", exlrtlllt. extreme lerm 01 a series,
I. 8. 3, 10. 9 6, 10. I, 16. I; 11. 16. 3,
etc. (Nieomachus prefers Q.Kpoi, aKpcw
for the extremes in proportion in 11.
21 If.). Boethius txtremllS, etc., sum-
mitas.
lUA">"Ovx........nt, (onlinuous, I. :2. 4. Boe-
thius, (onlinua tI SUtS jJarlibus tu"cla.
lA.oyot, (I) unreasoninK, of part of the soul,
I. 230 4. So tU.6yCllf, wtlnolll reason, 11.
22. ].
(2) having no t'aiio (with = with
ace.), 1. 6. J. Euclid uses in the
sense of irralional.
1,). aljJM, the sign for I, 11. 6. 2.
.. ,u ,017 indivisible (Platonic), 11. 18. 4.
4.p.I XOl, nol sharing ill, I. 7. 4-
.......l1li. exchange; Ka.,,' dllOf.!3'1jv, by er
(/range, I. 8. 10. 9. 6. Boethius. invice",.
""''Y'', reduct, referring to the reversal of
an operation, 11. :2. 2. Boethius, rtfill(O.
Cf.
....."'"'-, (ul off, /Jredude the continuance
of an operation, 11. 4. I. Cf. d'lr'OKM.{"",.
".u...,., lJt analogous 10. correspond 10,
I. :22. 2; 11. 14. J.
...>..yea., (I) analogy, ctJrresjJondtnct. 1.
13. 6-
(2) a /JrojJorlion (so Euclid. Diophan.
tus, Archimedes; Boethius, projJorlw,
/JrojJoriionaliias, ,nldielas); properly,
combination 0lralios, 11. :21. ), i.e., in-
cluding only the 'geometric proportion,'
11. 24. I j but in practice extended to
include 'arithmetic' and' harmonic' pro-
portions, as n. :2:2. I. Syn. (cf.
11. :21. 6). Kinds of proportion. 11. :2:1. I.
(]) loosely used in sense of relation,
ralio; .. ;jUo.V()l.f O'X(tnf ICDl d., I. 2J.
14; n. 6. J, :2. I.

N
I '11'C"'-'O:-'M''AC"HUS--I OF G-'ERAS- - "A ..... ".i:' .. ,I i ', ,
I'. 23.. 17; T,O ,L,
CtWrIS/JtmdIIJ"', I. '9- 13,; ne'ut. as ad'v.,
,. M ''''1.- J 8
III SImIlar mlJft,"6r, ; I .'. u..
...I. __.1:' - -- . 1..-, ,.' 1.1:." ,- .J__ .. . -to
.'I'8A,. ..'," UT t'tlN,'''g uvuIJI. 1,,,.,0 &0",rvr.e".. '$,
_I. .. 11 Doe' h' ,_'I.... L ....
."alYSI"', ,.. l'lf :2' : t,IUS, $0'-111, resolvl J8'
.,*"16rell'j tlMlm ,;nlo ,olll/Jolleldr, rume,
-- 11. 3; 11., I., I, S' 4.....S- Y. &aA,*.
Boethius
t
so/vert,1 resolvere.
..
et
- -:/' (... .
:. . -, .", "'. ",".. .... -.-. ..', .. "r . '. ". . -'1 ", . :1, . . '. .".... '1"' I':. . r :
....... " a .I,.e., D proportIon 1_
IJ d h 11 d) 11 6,
. - '. .. , - ",.. -..,
a.;, .. - t .. " t" en a t, ,& - ,. .'. ,_ 21.. '-, ,-
2411' 2,. But lee Dote ,on 11,. '29- z.
B
I .. - .. - 1'1' - .,"',
,oet :'!UI, fJ"",'ulallm, .'" 40, jJerlllixlttJI,t
,A "
,IrmlZ.'6.
.'.u.A"., (' .) 1II':'7Mr.ltl,,' I. 1.9. 19; JI., 2. I.
(2) of proportions, ,Iy ;nvlers,;otl, in
ver:sely (cf. Eudid, V 13" defined; 0
,Archimledes) , Ill! 21. Boethius, con-
'IIrerst'""", 11. 40. .. ,
,',...,).&rr.',fasA.io.n, mall" tkrwe" 1(,. 2,8!! 2..
i....t& 11'-" pas.-,,-, rill reduced by 1ng
a process, 11. 2,. 2. Cf.
....--I.L.- C'I )1 ..... . ... , t'!L, . t .-.,"

'..'"111"'""", '.. > tJrut;r ,0;;;"Will:I
(opp-" T'l/.lG&, I(cipt,u), I 231'ii19; 1'1.
34.. ,S:'i
(:z) ,;lffJert ,. ratio, Il. 28 S., See Dote
ad 1oc for EucJid"s usage.
(3,) 'nv,rt a jwojJOsit'ion (5Y'0., &,vrl'-
11.. 6. 5-
.,..,.,. 1 1'6f)ersal' of tJrlkr, I. 23, 1311'
E
'l'-d '!Ii f ..
U,C I, IcoD'verslon 0' ,a ratio.
4"""1,.' ,. ,ift inverted ortk,r:, 1. 2JI 10; of
;, I ('. C-.l J'
pr,oportioD_, ,.,,'verSI ryi, I, ,e., ., ,a' : it =: , : u;,.
'hen lJ :: a = d: , ; SY'D.. , ,dVt.i1nlAt,.), I1
24. z.
.nr
l
-Iif-, aroust, I. ,3 7; e,rtct lINes, 11. 13 S.
B h
t,
. oe't' JUS, SU'KWt,j)
4".It....., 'tlea/Ja614 of (e.,g+'
d
b ,M ') !l
'. IVIS'lon y a glven measure, 't .. J. 2.
,l..tuwaKri '., cfW'respo"d10 as, equals" ,,1'.,5:
(
ccf. .... , Bo']eth'l!lllus .,'" '41< - -,
I I. :'. " , - _ _", ,i;, fJ ..a:,u'las f# O"'ru,r,Q-
tur); :as Fecipr-ocals, e.gIi' superparti,cu-
Jarsl t,o sub,super'part icula'rs, etc., I. 19- 5,
21., ,3.,
A",ri ."" adv an ul.efj'tlol of tinllf;
in t'he phrases &..101 d., (numbers that
are: the' product of fhr,ee 'une,qual factors.
as I1Iny),I aDd, ladx,&;, 19CM Id. (the product's
or 'two equal fac'tors by a difieren't Q,ne, as
",'!'n), Ill!! 17, 6, 2:91;0 2. ,Cf. Boethi'us, ex
aeVttal'i!Jtu (.lttlt(J.. " a,vIla'liltr (itlaer] )
Jer ,4etfualia (intUtj.)
'wres, I. 19.. I g, etc Dio,:phantus.
iftl"ua/ily:, I. 14. 2,2.J;; 6. Doe-
tbiDS, ""aetpltlliJ41 . I ts two forms, I,.
I",. 2 -, the d,yad" tttWrrrJ 4., 18. J 11
IN ""t,d' from, a bue" as pyra-
mid, 11 14. J'I Boet'hios" fw;ojicisctJr'l
.l .. :-,t-..
i
Icorr,.po"d to, used, or oor-
responding' as 8, 3D,d 2 in 16
(8, =: j and 2 = l), 1'. 8. lO, J 1,. Doe-
,thIUS, rujJo,""Url,
,'.........-., C""IS;o"tkncl, I. 8. 11 ii
l'"*'Pw'., sllIJlraetio" i" tllrn', used 01
,the continued ,subtra,ctioDJ to fin,d the'
commo' , diviso,r, l. 13. 11. C,f.. Boethius,
,,,,i,isn,,, 'Sld ,,utraetio,, ,I, ,18;
dI",inuiio" ilJid.
slIlt,ra,t i" turn (cf. dvra,f/lal..
IM'C7'I,r), I. 13, 11...... 12.
'Wftltftl-, ,/XII.i., ,. e0m.;ariso" witll,
&(}'IIIpar4" I. I J" I, 14.. 3,. ,Boe'tbius, e01ll""
jJII,ral,.. a,d se inwcem, I,,, .,6..
6,rn&.lIrI'6.l., distinguish from, as eOll"ll
tra'ry, 'with d ,t.., I.. '9" I:, 17,. 8, I 2,,,
B
'h- -..
oet ,
' .......2 "al,", ,orresjJondellet, used lot pai.red
factors of numbers (cf. &VftlroKpi'PDII'U)I,
, .' 8,. 11", 16. 5
"."...., ojJjJo:lite, I. Ii- 6,,8, 19ii 20;' 11,,. 6,.
4; comparla" I. 30. 2.,
'PnINraI"corrlsjHmdingly, I. 19111' 1'8.
. IN ,oppos,d, IJe tll4 opposite oh,
.'Itb I., 11 1,3. Jt 16,. I ; 'I.., 16, It
etc. Boethtus, (,(}"trae positi.
,phantus uses, lh,e word of corresponding
factors (v. dvra.1rOKpll'OptU).
'w&Aa.plJAWIf, tide in III,IJlitNlion (c d""
'rtIJIJPJ.), J:J. '27 S
6e 'UZlH4tl fro',,,
"ally" I'I! 8.. ID..
Aavi'''K &twresjNmdi"g', 6111
Dp/JoSU't:, "";11r1l (as d,ou,blle' vS't' sesquialt,ler),
11
3
', 1 B,"oe s S. .,Il....,.7..... 'S
. ". I . III .'. .' l 11 - .. ,I, [ . ,"'. [ . U '. 1I
a."L' ... pWTU"Ll11 ,,:ciprocal Dpposition a'r &:or..

1
01' paired facto:rs (v..
7r'OtCptVoplU)" I 8. 10 ( see' Dote ad 1.),
'9. 6.. Used . Iso w'lt,h ,eferenc to l,he
operatoD lof find,ing the commO,D diviso1r
'in sense of shifting, eXtluzllgl" 1'. I' 3,;; I' I
inflert; di TOll AOyov, slate IN
&onverst" 1'1. 6,., 6.
1'.... .', et 4., convers,Iy" I 9. 2. E,uclid,
({),n7Jer310",
l,rr,rrP't-, COII'V,'Wse!y, I 16 4.
GLO:SSARY
the nUR1'ber of 't'e'rms,
in choosing from
'"It."".p''', tOmptzr8 OfJW ap"st, I., 1'],>1
11" 20. I.
''''"7("'ll", Stllls/ltute JOr't 11. 27. 6 (cf..
-.\,- Q' )
a ,,' '.
'no,"'" pAlt,, give a o,rresj}(J'lt:dlng, Dut oppo-
"a'l'Ite, I'., 2'2,. 7, 23'" I.
.....'Ol""w... ojJjJoslte tJoms,,-
(laill're, 1.. ,3-
'"Qn,vfll. lto/lIe a o/Jposite
"a',1&, ]. :1'7 4 6.
, ,witlloflt IRipping. fQitAIJ'llt o,l1il-
til,g t"erms in a s,eries, 11. 2,3"
11, , (I) a6011e''I one of the variet.ies ,of rela-
tIve positio,n (v., '1r[EpWTClU"$), 11.. 6., +
(2) t,()P of a table or diag,ram, II,

IIw' ,, tttUW, agai", I 8,
.z , z. F.1. t '" t hi"ft tl!! f
', , 'ID _C' e c,asS!', ," ca lion, 0' :
,genera and speciec;, 1.., 17. 2; to/lNtOst line
[of ,a table, 11. 4, 3.,
1a.,nrr4
'
,..., IJe.fOr.d in :;-he course 0' the
trea I I. I'.
l'wctE OII'Ct, ta'Re" ,()nC6 as tJ factor, I. 1,4,
etc!! Di,ophantus
...I. __-.J. 'l' .1." (" L., )' I1
.... ",,,cnanK'''&' ,- 17 3,
19'" 3 (I&poc)" J: 4' 21!!, S,!! N,eu't'1 ,as a,dv.,
t' fi="" t t .. 1'1
. all, 'WI.iltlll :& '" 5 ,4;
also I 23.3..,
6, ,'apEp 'Sur"1, flJitM'll! 1J:l1l.dra",e, of a,
regularly p,roceedin,g o'pe'r,atioD" 13,. 6
,""P", lilnltless', ile:, J. 2,. 5, 18", 4, 191 I.
.I" I' 'Ii "Z '. G "'-
,p,,",KPtC' a1rtl.p01JI,!( a "'n,,... niluIIZ,
I iI 2. 5, ,8.. 9 I o. '3 3, etc D1iop'ha,n-,
EuclId,.
c sillljle: hence, [clea,,. and 6a.ry, I.
f 9," 8,; '11. 6. 2, 20.. ;; l",tJ"'posit4', as leIe-
ments, 11.. I. I;, fW;t' eomplii:aJed, mere"
'witAoul tA'e rlstricti(JR$ of classification:
a
' .J "",I " "t' '0, , '] J 2'" 3 (, C ," .-.,a ' ''') I
"J'" ,,",/-.11:1. -101,1, ,I" .;Iii,. c [a. [o,pu.iJUli>" . '"
'2[. 3'" the aim[ple su,perparticula,r vs!! the
1
, I ' tIEld
mu t Ip e superpartlcu,13.r, . te. QC 1[' ,
Roeth.;i us, sitnpltr:.
I! ".a.- - ...AJUI J.. llW",iLI't;P J I 22 S 1'1 I I' 3
cur",." SI .. " a "",,",[1', . ... ,.. 1 ':'; JIl,. .11' ." .'"
e'.c.; frequeD,tly qualifying DQIUDS, ,sig'Dify-
:in,g that t,hey to be tak,'!'D, absol,lut1ely'"
without .'uch bmitatio'D, as that of gen,us,
'by a di:ffer'e'Dce, eg.. , I., 14" I ( &2rAWi'
IlplT"ux, t,he tI18,re!y even as o,p,posed 'to
d
AY,f., llorrr
tliIV
)' I 2 5 (. ub.J.l
lJ
= m116-
I -rc'!P 'P IPV'IIP .." . !IJ . u.. r - ,. 1I1'CJS, I :. 'wa
,,,ilt,tk pw a6solute) l' cl. I. I' 8. 6;, I1"'
S, 16,. 2,,,
I tr6
t
6egi1lllinK 'witlt", 11" 2, e'tc.. (so
Diophantus); 11RU tt, 10 fM remt]fJla
from.. 1.1,., 3.. I; ,of [cubes, (Olls/rlle/td on
a given side, ]1. 11,. 7 (so Dl,op'hantus)"'
'\ it I' I'Jr' 'il# ( D' h t )'"
'ra 41r'0" '. :e f(jl'tart' oJ ",SO ..... ,ap, an'i'US "
I 8. 1.4, )'9 17; 1'1. 23,. 16. 2+ ,4, 27.. 3, 4,
, S' db A 'h d f t etc. ','0 use' __ y .rc,[['mees 0" ,ge[ome-
'. at
n,c . squares.
UoIJ.lvcw" rlSlIlt, III 2-3 s; o,f addi,ti[on,
1'6..5'.'
[tLmry w"" prod'l.-e b,yan, operation. 10; 10. 8,
16,. 4,. I 8. I, ete.
.,o&cIUcPVPI.. dellll,l/ulral:', 11. '. 1-2,
',.....,. 8'" ' , ," D'"j",'",', 'h' ,,' "',.,' .',', E-
17, -, I cc" I, ,22,. 36 .' lOp" antus, .11 ,UC.l ,
A !'-,.. t
o.1fOOl&.tt
4'11"'05t.,. KOI" cll.palde 0f,:pr(J7JiN;g, .I. 2Jot 6,.
4waS' .. tL'
l
, giVe tU a re:Sl,lt, produce:, 11.. S" 2,
8. 3, 12,.2" to SJlO'W a rati,o, I1I 5. 2; of ,a
square s,howing four an,gles, 11,. 9'i! I i!
4wo6wn."t protlttifJe of, wi,th, gen,., 11,.
s- I
4trO... .,_ICOI, relurren't ,Dum'hers, II'. 117.
D
' ' hi 0,1'"' I l.:. '" E .]'"'d
7. : '. "aet IUS, ey,c"c, ''lJ,t. ,SjJnen,., I. .:' DCII,.c ,
A.- I'
Vii V',..,u.l(JlIC'OC1
" ,., ioCR off, pree,ludt tAe ,cont,nuane,
of a . o,peration, JI. 4.. I .
411"0110 ' ..... , . , co/nplelt, II. 13., S"
G, ,,,,,, a"S'fIJer t 0'1 lie COli'/Jare,l 'witIz,
J.. d ..
nave d' ral'o "OflJar/, terms ID a propor...
I1 'B' h' .,
lion, .," 21 5.. ,,... oet 'IUS" ,se &O',,,,,IU",-
"a"r" '" i "_ " Iiio
4nAa.p.Ik\".' Itleglt"""" ,elicit a c1ertain quaD'
tity, sai,d lof an asc:endin,g serie.." ]I,. 2.
aft,,''e,'r, su' I 13' 12,
'-'- ;l'-- .... - ,., " .. , " _ ..
....Alil', end, of t.he end, of a process (freq.
\vith clt I. 10.. J" ,etc.
6.aIUy,.,U'I' [19' . od'. sa'id of 'py.. ramid,c.-
r-"".' r " -- ., ... .. ...,
11" 13.. 9
1
,.' L
._ '&er",I', l'nterod,
regularly omilt[ed
'Il 11
serIes :. I I I ..
4
............. ... - tA-,:, "'-" .,. ",''I..,
. ,"lRJTVWV"", 'Olllyfe,:e, 'Ilg, ... 4,., 2 , .,Re
.lll/t' of ,an operation" :1 I' 9i! 16.
i.emU", eo-mp/ell, "I:Q,k:e.. I.. '6 I, I J"I 19:; 11
I' J'. 1" e;tc. as, 'the ,resu)t of addition,
I
11' 6 I 2 4 '. I C"'I I 4' ]' "t"" .. , ... " "
_'.' .1. '!!i I" ., " _ ",oil,":", .. ec., gzve as,
the' result of multipJicalion, 14, I' 0 8, g"
I 2 I; I I. I Sii 2, etc.
4..-rft"W,1 taR,t (Cllt) away from ,a series for'
d ,,", 11
separate C'ODSleratloD, -' ,,-" 23.. ,J., 24,.. 5
",. l1e6t, ( I ) ,,,U,1I.w;ctll,, ltav;llg to' do
tuitlz' "uIIIIJers" 1',.. 2,3" 4 <rrxl-
(ref.!); 5. I (MyOl) 'I
'.
( )
' .I A_.fJ ..., 1.
",,2 " ., "p.,1JTurr" lint sc,ene, C!r ' n.mflty"
aritII",di", I 3., '1'1 4" 7; 11 ,I ,
Boe'thi.us, "".,-'A,,"elua.
(31) 4. dTlaAoyJa, I"a'IMVt,aritlz,Jltlie
jJr(Jptwlio,n (I e.
t
jJrogr:tssio,,,) of the tJ,pe
a - lJ -=" 11,. 23. I (defined.). CalJ,ed
al
. I (.1. ,\" '!;, '\ "..
,,1,_'-0 nU,l}lerl&tl. '. "1 KaTG, 1'"0 1I"O(To1' T1J1' T'tIIV
" '. A 11' , -f'
0pwv avyr<ptq,V otKlLO'tIO"G,' c-. 22 2 le,i 'ZI '
4)
,.Ip.Ot, (I) a ntunD"" (Diopha'Dtus), I. 7. r
(defined), 8. I, rete.
(2) collectively, ,or series of num.hers"
es',P;l the' natur,aJ ser'es (fr,eq. 0 rMa.TOC
'.f.,9pdt), I. 18, S' etC;l Used of other
, e:ries (e.g., the multlples of 9), I. 22,. 4
BOiet.hius,
"''''l,-,. jit, agr:ee wl.th ,a p,rinclple, I.. 22 6;
/)e' suitable, I I., 21. I; pass." lIt ,jitted
gel"er, 6. 2-3; 11.. 26.
cIppo.,lcI, 114"11111)', 1.1. 1'9.' I (d,efi.ned)I" ,of
'the spheres, .1. S. 2 U,suall.y, mus,'cal
.L"'r''''''''''"liI I 3' '" 11' '2',6' 1
1
U!cad as ,n..., .,,.wu', "J" _. '- ' " 't '. . " _.. ' .. . , ..
'r the, CU',be',, .'. -, ': ',',,' ,,-,' " - 1-1-' 26,::
&Aa, , .'. - . -'. ,ye _.I"TpUf:fJ 4." .. ". -,. _.'
2, 29" I; of the 'most perfect' propor;;;;
t
" 'I]
100." 29. I.
.... "It
' .. .. te vaJ I 1'[
. . " _ . " ,', -. : ,",. . - ',' . - - _.':. :..:- I [' . : -',
, '- '.,,'tlrlnonte ID : .-,r, 5, " J,. 3, ' ." :2.
3; of ratios, I. S'. I; of a theory, 11. 26.
I'; of the title of a 'book ,of Arc'hytas
(
Ii "[1kl ] ) I: J! .,MII, .........i .,
YIWJluc09: i' ],.4,. q..
or ,fUaO'r11f. tu ,"armoni jJrojJortlon" 11
22. I, 23. 61.
"'.
d 6
if
, '. . - .:- J, ')"." - ,'.
-i " - . LI, a
l
,v an, nen "11111 ,er IJ' II.IIUSill
S
' - - ., dp w&v.a' ,r 11'
ee 'GpT'lOi,, __ T
'rnaK''', ill an e1.1m fas"ion: I cl. &vop,ag...
;. .. z. I O'
J.lfVOV, wit11 an I'll'" 'nam", .:,. 9. '2-_.pp,.
A
W"prD'(TtU, .
IAprLGytW"IJt, oy ge",,", 1. 811 10.
'pnoSV-CIt'"t in va'iNe or tlIlllJU"t; .Jp.
_! .', _ ,,,,, ,;I:, - ,--;' -:1.1 ' - I
TI4-KIl.f G." Ii' ..... ", ,01 Jio iV"1O H- _ n, V4...t ....
8
'
. U.
.1: -- "',.J'd 'I ( d
ur-' p',I , 01, e1Iln tl'me.s 0"'., _-9. r .. le e-
fined.); a species of the' even" I.. 8.. 3,
I. 9'.' S 10., I ;, etc. B,oethius,,, jJarittr'
illt/Jar.
l'iI 7 .. "11,_..1 ("d:'e-'fi"- n:'ed,-',')"
__, 10' V _ ";"'1 . ;6, ...... :......... ..... ,AJ!.I, _ ....' "
J,...' *' '.'
UflTI.(J.MI.S' apTIOP'" trqJ&rrao.pTCOll"
TO(V, J 8. 3, 9. 3, 1:0. 2" 11 ,"' I" etc.. d; _Awt
141" ,tl" nl'tl'. d'S Sltelt, dls,jnguish,ed from
its specles, 14. I. ,a., tA'4
11II4J nltN: num'ber' of the t)ipe Z", I' '" 8,. 4
( defined)" e1tc',. Boethius, par;: ,pa,iter
An..!.... .; '. E' cl d
l
r';;'Y ..... a .. ; '. 00, 1._' iI
4pnMayIJl'.t 'W'I'tA an eveR numlJw of '"ms,
11 "41 4] , ' .' ' , .oil! <10
''Ix.,. 01 primitive or,igi_, Iw 8, 11.
6'00 I,
'PXfnnI'ot, adj., t1TiglnaJ, ar,Ady/Ja'l, I. 4- '2 ;
11. :2,8. 2.
"x,lI, (I:) ,Hgi""inK, POi"t., passim;
dpx'j; as adj +' oriri"al" I' 9. 4 (ofglve,n,
number, " I!! 13- 13";, lorigin of lines" es,p,.
olfro'w,s i,na diagram, as I. :1'9'. 13,11.,
(2) source, orig;. o,f things 1n gene'ral,.
J. J I. 3 ; 'II. 17.1, 4., Boeth-us, prill"
eiJillm, cap"t, i"ilitlm:.,
4px''*, tWlgiMl"jJrlmiJifle, I. 17 4; I. If
7 J,'" '9, 4,
original, ,/Jrilnal, I. 7.. 4, II.. 6.. ,3
a.,X.., ,act"1 hgz;" IJe tlle,first term iD, a series,
1.1. 17 5; mi.d., 'with 4,,,0, takl fJe.gin"lng,
startlfro',n, 1..,8 1:0, 11, .. ]" 18. etc dpx'O-'
1""0", with reo., .. s fr,equent ad,vlerbiall,y,.
as/ron'omy, I. J., v. 'fT4Jo.&pt1C1j
1,-",14ft1, lnettmJmsitt" lID/.' ,,;olltjlosed of
lors (of prime numbers, v. 7I"pedTOI), I..
I J'. I If.. , 2f 3, 12. 2. E,uclid.
unfailitlC,1 of a p I. 16,;; .$.-
Lrx'W'TOI', incap'able of s,paratiO,n, diJIeren.
,tiatlD''', used of a 1. I i, ,4.
. _ "'Dl
t
dlsarrlJnged" not
l
,." dIU Oil' lIalrlra,1
,order, .01 sul!j,ct to I.. 6, 3-
O - iIF d'" I ""IiJ'J 9
. ppA f'U?'flICTQI. -_TalC'f'1di" ','I
1,'1&'1"1, Nol &QpQ61e' ojlJei"g ,dtvUUd, :1. 10.
,4, 9" I,.
Iftu.,tML iiuJifJ"isiIJu flJitM,ut of the
r- "'" ' - - ,-- - - J "'- v.,..', - ..
m,oDad, I 8 4-5" 1'0.. 2, et,c..
-611-
1
, IM ]I.. r 3ii 16, 15'.. 4t
e't,c. ; k mulliplied, 11. I 2:'1 I' 7. 7. U',sed
b,Y DiophaDtus, Oil numbers increasing
from u.nity t.O
I
:iDfinity.
'Ghnt', i"crease, I. 2" I; augme,.t, I,., 19i!!
1
- S DCIi - "'liI E!!, - 'by mult; -- 'Ilea'tl'" -, 11 17-' 7"
,I ; H_ . ...: ':'1
1
0
1
:0, '. '
.' .. ,.&lptcr ,. , stllltract;olt, 11. 20,. I (Diophan-
t,us); (I.N ojJer:a'l'o." of' $,,,blraclio":,1 I jI 1311
I' 2:; 11'. 2 I ,. '20,. I
a.aNuplc... Sill/rac/., I:.. 13 11, I' 2" JJ; ll. z. I
(so :Diophan.tus, Archimedes). Boethius,
dtnure.
set tllSttU, stt: dMIJ,,' terms, -1'" JI ;
mid., differ 11"0111 in attributes li 10,. 3-
GLOSSARY 295
(/qum the columns, I. 19 11; 11. 3 4. 4- I.
Boethius, alIi/udo, CYa.J$i/udo, pro/u".
dilas; Euclid.
IJase, 11. 13.2, 14. I fr., 16.2. Dio-
phaotus, of triangles i Boethius, IHJsis j
Euclid.
p;A , grow; hence, oe Jroduud, I.
23. 8.
11-...,-"11;", /illk allar, the na.me of a kind of
solid called also
crtP'1lClCTlCO'i, (}. v. Boethius, !Jomis(us,
nrula.
11-..,0" same as {JwJJ1UICO'i, (j. v.
after IIu jorm 0/ Gamma er),
i.e., at right angles, I. 19. Jt.
yIn..,.., origi", prNue/lf"., or ""'de Dj pro-
dUCli(J1l, I. 8. 8, 12. I, 13. 2, elc
""\1(601, Jer'ai"ittZ /0 a pnus, ge"eric, I.
17- "2 (&arpc17ti), 19- 20 (UXftllf). yew-
IU"fUT'Oi, mosl IyjJriolof a class, I. 14.2.
l""'-", a.t gntera, generuaJIy, I. 18.4. 23.
:1; 11. 20. 2. Opp. inro{1t.{J1Jr<OTIUi.
lIY"'-. froduu, ,,,akt, create, I. 10. 6, 22.
3. etc.
'Y'rnrndt,produclivt, 11. )_ 3, '9- 4
,......, get'us, in the Aristotelian I. CJ,
I, and passim. See
"'ttf"Tp'a, .!eomefry, I. 3 2, 4. S, S 2, etc.
Boethius, geolnt/ria.
y. !"(To-
T'T'fi,ceo1lletric jJr0/H'TliOlJ, type a: 6 = c: d,
H. 22. I, etc. (50 Diophantus). y. aaa-
'YWY'i, introd,u/0'Y trealist tm geomdry,
11. 6. I. Boethiu5, geomtlricus.
..''f'''01Ul4, De genera/ed or produced by a
pro" or principle, I. 9 5; of multipli-
catioo, n. 18. 3. So &'" yc..o!"VOI: =
multiplied by 2, 11. 15. 2. The participles
are of the products of multiplication,
I. 10. 8; 11. 27. 5, 7 (cf. Diophantus,
p. 170,16T), or sums in addition, I. 16.4
(cf. Diophantus, p. 322, 7) in masc. and
neut.
ll.a+vp6t, neai, niu, eract, of rules, prine
pies, I. 19. 6, 8.
'P',w", the ,f7I0mo" of the sun dial; the
carpenter's square. Used by Nicomachus
of the numbers of a series which added
together produce successively numbers of
a certain type, 11. It. I (v. note ad I()(.);
esp. the odd number", I. 9 4 (.... note
ad 1.). Boethius, radir tI /utfdil-
mentum.
a leller, used arbitrarily as a nu-
merical sigo, 11. 6, 3. Boelhius, COHl-
pendiul1f, signum tIImuri, IWlula
.. a li"e, n. 6. 2 (defined, ''lJid" 4).
Boethius, li,uiI; Euclid.
.. /Mrtain"".! 10 lints; of number.>,
linear, 11. 7' 3 (defined), 6. I (Boethius,
lineares uUlflert); of figures, geome/rlc as
opposed to numerical (dfu,(JJl-f7Tuco..), H.
1 4 Euclid.
.....,... angle, n. 9 I; IS, 4 Diophantus.
CTTCPCQ. y., solid angle, 11. IS. 4
Idwyvl'l, slttnl.', display as having, I. 15. I,
t9. 13; 11.14 4; tkmo"slrale, prtnle, 11.
9.3, 16.3, 29 2. Diophantus.
1c....A'-".len/old, I. 19.8,22.6, etc.
11.'.. IIu decad, tlte number len
dp48p., 11. 22. I). Plur.,11u t",'s, i.e.,
1C>--99> I. 16. 3
II.-ndl, capdle 0/ ad",iJlinC an .."iTplTfIIi:,
11. 4.
1I",",oU., De of t!le seco1fd couru (v.
8(161), I. 19 17
"WT,,.., uC{)ffd; hence, sU{)ffdary (opp. to
prime), I. 11. I fT. Euclid; Boethius,
stcundus t/ cOlllposilus.
"""'fIO"NylJt, arranced in llu uC{)ffd place
in a series, I. 13 S'
........". diapason, interval with ratio
2: I, oclave, 11. 26. I. Boethius,diajJason.
,,,. ......ii.. It&a \ .. '"""" diapaso1f a"d
diajJeltle loet/lter, interval with ratio 3: I,
11. 26. I. Boelhius. (simul) dia/unte et
diap(lSon.
.". '""'"' ditt!Hnle, interval with ratio 3: 2,
11.26. I. Boethiu5, dia/wr/e,
Tt......", dtiJlessaron, the harmonic iD-
ten'al 4: 3, 11. 26. I. Hoethius, dia/es-
saron.
....'1".'1'., laMe, I. 19 9.
'Wo.,,&+-, "'ake a lalJ/e, If. 4. r.
placed on lite diagtural, I. 19- '9.
diagonally, Dy a diagonal, 11.
13. I.
&..c.tlVr"'ftt'! UtryoJu; heoce, uparale and
oppose, I. 23 1S &cCaJYJl-'''''1 d.wAoyi4,
disju"ct projJqrlitJ1f, haviDg four terms
(opp. O'WTJPf"""')' 11. 21. 6. Boethius,
disiuncla j Euclid.
<.. Ol
NICOMACHUS OF' GERASA
I
I
I
i
t
1&.Glnt'"" disjundion" of pr;oportions, 11
244
SUI"''' 'It separation or difJisioll illto parts.,
Diophantus A class or ,divinon tn'ilde
by dhJiding, '. 17- 211
Ulttpl,Y
I
6t, capable of tilvi'sion, I. 9.. 6, I. I.
Bloethius, divisio1leln reciptre sec/iOlle
,soWt
6L.'pI_, di'lJitk, ,a ge,ontetrical figure, 11,. 124 I!I
Diophaotus; Archtme,de,s; Boethius, di;'"
videre. t
LGlCplvaa, pass., with wprk, lJe tlisli,'pis!lt'd
froJlt., I. I I. I, le sIpar"led or sifted out,
13. 8 '
eLaAtl- leO/VI as a "ntervaJ lJtlween; used
in locating terms in a serie,s, : 3 3,
v.. frfIpoAofl1rw, WP,{ja.tv'w.
,SLau,'I'T." VII'Y fro"l, II I 7 3,
8p"ClAvr6, sep,(J'TalJle" tajJalJle r4solttlio
l
n" I.
'2. 2.
&aA, __ , -resolve, I 12. '2,; 11" S ,3- Dio..,
phantus, solve a prob,em.
&.- '"hold true, 11. 27 S-
&&rracr t, di111mslon (= &d.CJT71p4), 11. 6.,
Euclid.
6 """'70 t ,er/Indeed, "lIving mmlnslon, Il ..
6. 4.. Boetbius" dls'lentus,
.. _, disJlii.gu.isA, In,ak, a distinclion,
11 18. 2 Diophantus
(,I) t'nt,rvaJ, 1.1 69 3,:nd (de-
fined).. numerk:aJ term.s
(== difrerence). I1 6. 3 (p 8,4t 19
1
fr' ) ;
11", 21. 3 (thl!6r4:nce in anthmetic pro-
,gre.ssion). Usual]y - di11U1Uion
Slim) 11. 13. I',S 2, etc. T e three
dimensions are enum,lerate,d In 11 6 4..
(2) tile Aar,m,onlc intervalJ, ,I 2,11
Euclid; B1oethios. lnttrvalllllll.
B.ar"t ., preserf)t a ratio tArough a series of
tenns, I. 23. I, 2,4+ 2.
"ntpl-, preserve a const nt differ, .DCe,.
1111 27.,6.
. _I' -, ( ) dijfer i ,a, tributes, I I 10 I (d.
In quanj y, I. 9. 4 " I. 17- I.
Diophan'tus
(2) fJt gr;taler titan" I. ,19, I1 Boe
thlas, translentkr,,;, SII/Jer:art, etc.
8,+p&, tlijf6Y,,,,e (arithmetical,), I. ('2
(Diopban'tus) ; variation" I .. 23. 6. Boe-
thius, differentia., dist're!Ja'IItia.
a._" ,give as the terms of a problem, 1.1.
2. I, Diophan'tWl;l'
:6 nb! ,o"sec,uwe
t
sepa.rtdttl terms 0 a
,s,eri S,l Ill! 2311 3
, ,icrTci. -, pass., De Tplxi1 ,8.,
extended in thrte dinle"sUJlIs, be a sio'iid,
IJ" 29 I.
61t'IC6Aev . -, dotl.o/y truncated of pyran1ida
numbers, 11. 14.. 5 Boetllius" bis ,elIT/US.
&.. ...'('a.r'9, duI/blinK, I.. 13" 6.
&&'11').",at ,doulJle, J;; 21" 'I" D'iophantus"
doable, tlte relatl'on (axiali-) of
dolllJles, 1. 3- I, etc. Dlo,phantus Boe-
thins, ,dllp/US!!
S, .'''ICco..,', tJ01ll, (== &11 I. 8. 10,
,etc.. Diophantus.
S' SI. .. traAJ"[." di.dia/Jason, harm,onic 'inter-
val w:th the ra,tio 4 I, I 26 ' Boe hios,
/Jit diapason.
6 +Opf .. pass., /le twlc. /Wod.,ed by' an op
era'tio'D, I J. 12, J: 3.
&'+O'P'lCI"""I" separation, ojJjJosilfo1f., I.. .19- 17..
&'X&,i adv., in two :/Jarts, J11, 811 41, etc., DI,'o-
phantus.
a'x'ltt
l
" difJid:e i"l" huD parts, I .. 7, 4 8. 4,
9, I.
SiX......' divisiQl' "",10 tUJO parts, I 10. 2'
I X''', adv.
J
into two parts, '. 11 J; tn two
dtrtttions or di'm81tsions, ]1. 6. 4..
&'XGrraWtI- 11 18 4
.. ' ".. rN,. I ,flf;;. . ., iii
I X.ftil*. -. a division into truo parts, I . 7
4
n
- 10p. s,. & iuln
." '" .. . ,.' : ' :A..,.-Ip
&o1C11, a 66am. A,p:plled to D,um,be,FS, of the
t}lle (JIIJ wh,ere 8 >11, 1.1. 6- I, 5 J7..
6 (defined), 29
1
2. Doe hj US, tig:n:Ullllll,
dlJcis, asser.
8 -" IM tlytul, tAt number two, I. 711 4"
13 ,6; 1.1 19. 3, etc.
jJairillg htHJ'S,1 11., 1'9 3.
861'.., (I') Mu'e, IllNDUnI, ,I 8.. 7' ro, 10],.
St- 9 211 Boetbills,
( 2) BM,..." potentially (opp. lnpylf.),
I. 161. 8; 116 8,. '2, 3, 9" 2, ], et,c.
Also Ka.T'f.& 8lftp.&v, in same . 16.
10.. Boethius, 'vir/lit, tUg"' potentia, vi'
still, ,polestat".
6cdIKU'1 tA, nun,lI, tfIJI1"'J I., 19. I .
11JIio1"'S,1 tAe num6er $ftMIt', I 1.3, 13, 2'2.. ]." S
""'1'1 turJ,. eS,plll ,of terms Drext .iD, a ,senes,
I ,H. 4, 19
1
6, "
.1 .. 1 1'&&, resiLk in, tll of 'regular
order inh,eren' j,D a series, I 1,31.' 6; IM
given to of names given, I. %2. 7.
GLOSSARY 2
97
$jJtcijU, /Je/onginc to or pertaining
to a species (d&x). Opp.,ycvtKOi. Hence
([0aKi] specific re/ation, a species
ofrdat;on (equiv. to contained in
a yfVOt;, I. 21. 3, 22. 2 (f.
Ta. .iOUul = species, 1. 22. 2. So
(. = multiple super-
particular of a specific kind, I. 22. 4.
Ad.... (opp., in the man-
,ur of a sjuciu, as a sjJeciu, as opposed
to genus, l. f9. 8, 20. I.
dSo'll'Ou_, creale a sjHciu by furnishing its
peculiar attribute, 11. 17. 2, 18. I. Boe-
thius, /Jer./ictrt.
d&owo''tC''\I, (rtalion as a species, 11. 18. I.
.tso., kind, sjm;iu, both in the Aristotelian
sense (opp., ybtos-), 1. l8. 4. 19. 2; 11. 4-
3. 5.4. etc., and generaJly, to mean va
,..i(ly, kind. Boethius, pars, specks.
at randum, I. I J. J.
,t.:ocro..6po1', /cosa/redran, I. 4. 4.
.It, ont, passim.
dcro.y_y"', introduction, introducttwy
I. 23. 4; 11. 12. I, 22. 3, 29. S; referring
tothe Introductio Aritlwutica, l. 19.20;
11. 5. I, 21. I; to the I"troduction to
n. 6. J.
_a.Tip.lu', in either din,tion on a diagram
or table, I. 19. 11.
on of a proportion, 11
25. 2-3.
Ka.TOWT6.S, plur., tlte hundred's (100-999;
cf. I. 16. 3, 7, 19. IlL
a seriu of I. 8. It, 23. 7,
etc.; also of the terms in a series, I. 8.
10. Boethius, dispositio.
be set lortlt as in a problem
or operation, l. 13. 7, 19. 10, 23. 8; 11.
10.2, 17.3. etc. (so Diophantus). Also,
lu plaad, IflCaled, I. 19. 13, 22. 3.
a change (cf. U[rrr7J1JJ.), 11. 17. 5.
set forth terms in seriu, I. 10. 7,
etc. Diophantus; Boethius, dispo,,"e.
u"a.T'I'O,,6.IU'I, a Ius numlur of times (v.
11. 17. 6.
lAClm".., i,1 way 01 btinC less;
pnv l., to lu H. 11. 4.
aClTTOotuU, lal/ sl/(/1't of. Ius titan. I. 15.
I; 11. 6. 7, 21. s
.A6.,..,.", small", I. 9. 4, etc. Diophantus.
lAAt('II' be tkJident, lall shtwt in 'luantity,
I. 15 I; n. 173
tkJiciuuy, 11. 27. 4.
O-Anr'iJ'I, tkjicient, as applied to a number
the sum of whose factors is less than its
own quantit)" I. 14 1 i IS. I; 16.3. Boe-
thius, deminutus.
insert a mean term, 11. 27. 4. Cc.
ivapp."'QJ.
,pWX., ,ontain, I. 19. S
lp. Aiy6'1", in interkxking filsluon; of pro-
portions, 11. 29. 2.
'I'+CIJ"., make I. I. I; display /0
view as having. 1. 7.4. 10. I j 11.22. 3.
Jp.+a.cn'l. 1. 19.8.
l,,<aU.6.. after tlte 0I1t",
I. 6. 4; by referring to
proportions; Le.. if a: b = c: d, then
a:c=6:d (cf. dvup.{t), H. 21.6. I.
1rou:tv, to make as a result in addition.
11. 19. 4. Boethius, jurlltutatim.
of 1lalue, e.g., to its
name, as when the fourth part of a num-
ber is odd in amount, I. 9. 2.
bt opposed, he contradtltory. I.
19. 16.
qualities 10 (with
dat.), I. 9. 6, 10. S.
lva.rn.""...... /rave iln ojJpositt name (v.
lval"'Ttwvvp.oo;), I. 10. 5. Boethius, '011-
trariam .
with e.g., to
its amount (cf. I. 9. 2.
bllfllL6t., Jit in, insert a mean term. I I. 27.
3 Cr. ip.f3o.MQJ.
M'I. tJu I. 19. 11.
admit factors. I. 16.2.
be contained in, of factors in a whole,
1. 10.5,21.2.
b4pyucr., aduality, I. I. 3 i esp. f.Yf.Pyd%/.,
actually, "" actuality, I. 16. 4.8 j 11.8.2,
etc. (opp. 8t1J1ap.n); also 1<0.1" i"ipy(l,Q,v.
I. 16. 10. noethius. actu vd opere.
''''u,pI"" p.1.ss . be beltdd ht, ,onaived 01 in,
hence 1. 16. 4. See note ad lot:.
In'Of,,,. ,onuive. 11. 13.3.
so as to be tmittlry, I. 6. 4.
uo_. unitary j 'ljVQJp.o.a, u1litary, I.
2. 4.
bft.,.., means, II. 27. I. Cf.1'a1'1'w.
lWT6s. within, esp. in sense of up to, in the
series by. I. 8. 10, 13, 16. 3.
be in, (on/arntd in, of parts, I.
22. 2.

-
2
'9-.
8
''': L." I.' ./ N
'-IC"'Q'M-'AC:HU--S'" O-:-:'F' G'E'RA"S'-A ,I ,', :....,,1 1:.[.' , I ,,",',,',".: ',', ' ' I x' '_ , .'"
,lI',,.' "." numbers, I1 7 1'1. I',
:12. J.. :Boethius, erago,nw.
pass. part.,
,diJIt.,.ent, .11., 16. 2; ,. IJ
peculitu Wgy, I .. 12. I; i,, tiijfer,mt WQ),s"
:11 .. 4.-
....J.......OIt sextuple., I. 18. 6.
,'., .",' "'I r6duc. ,a. Dumber to units, 8. 3.
silll/Jfijical'ion, ,edI1101l, 1.1 I' o.
,1I't, 1114, n,ll,mlJe, SIX, I., 16. 3.
'tt11l.t-, txtJlIJin" co"side,', I 19,., 12; 11.. 23.
I'll 25 I,.
4zamintJI:itm, ,tl31, ) . 9. 6,; '" 4- 3 ;
arrallKllllt"t., 11. 2,9111 2.
"I1I1t. in ordtr, in succ,sno", I. :10. 8 ' Doe-
tbius" naltl'rallt4r con,st'lull.
:- "Lt." sta'le, 'I I 6.. .,
1Icrn)..., fo,r',., tllIl" cltange (with geD)t 11"
1'7. 4 mid., eAanK', frolll, ".
I' OM 2.
" ,'itlrftl, i"creaset 1'1. J. 2., I S 1.1
11nIt. dnJiS4 ,." laddilio,'4, 11. '28'1' 6.,
my".,"" pJfl&,ed 41 an ang!" or &tJNler, J.
19" J1,
1ft8Ierr,ri." IcajJi46/e ,0/ admati"g (v'" r.'rl.-
3lxopa&)., .1 I '. 4 J.
m&4x......., IJ, capaDl4 of, e.,g"., di'visio'D, o.d;.,
.mit of' a fact.o,r, I. 9lli :1:, 11. 2:; 1.1a 4. I.
.....Up,'... culntinatlo"" ttrmi''II41,tJ'tlmw
of a serIes" Il. 3 2.
.,'I'IvIIl, t:J sup,rparturU .'umoer; T'O" 1;'1J
I;/;t mperpartttllt, (J ratio or relatitJ.", I ..
7, etc. Bloethius,
v
.. ..
_.. arle'tles :
hnSt"p'ftt, If" I" 23" 1'4,' syn,on.ymo,us
are 1.1 23. 16" 'f1r*/&I,pTjr,
I" 20. I. Boethius, SUpuDll,er:t,tu.
,. 1'1'" I. 2:1 :2; s,y'non,y;oo;
J' "'L '. ..!J ,.
maus are TpWortT'I"IUpTQI'" 'Ill"",., I'ft't....
J'.. 20. I. Boethlus, 'u;ptr@
Irifj'uart,us.,
1 I" I' '. 21" 2', s,ynony-
,. "'I.
mous a.fle T'f.T 7rf:.JAlITOtt, lot
I" 20.. I. BoethiU's,
s",p;ug,.adrig.i"I"sii
/- _,...eIIR-", 11, I... 21 ii 2,
., '. cr,1f(1rIJ&-wTftt .1' It I.. 2:3. :1,6"
... It, I. 23. 16,.
"" I &,' I. 23., 17.
ht',..., IAi a r3'tio or
r1elatioD" and variety of ineq.uali.ty:, ]. J 7.
7';' defi'Ded, I., 19, I
Varieties :
4JP""At.0I, I ii 1'9
'
" 2, or I., 2'2
2, IUfJ"iali,,. (Ii). Boeth,"us, zes-
',Ilaoer, ,II,.,61i',"'.
19
11
sesquitertiaD ( 1-1)'"
BoethI us, sesiJ",'"tertiIlJ'.
I. 23. 14t sesquiquartaD
(' I ,t) Boethi.us, ..
Irl, . 1'.....'"' I. :2,2", 2, sesquiquiDtan (I,t).
Boetbius, .
..:. '1fI'09. I.. 23, 7l' .sesq.uisextan ( 11)
Boethius, sesfulslrlus.,
hOySoos" 11, 2.. J" sesqulodav'e' (11).
Boethius" IUtjU','iJdav'Jls.
hi....,. plane (usual).y neu.t.), applied to
Dumbers (dpIBp."r&x;'., l., JI, 7', ,5), plalle
number; Idefined, 11. 7. 31; ,6'.1 geo-
meJ,ltd jJtanu 11, 7 s;
fJ/ane s-r:!aee
t
15 4 :;, fdel tif la solid,
ilJ:id. Boe'thius:, pltm'lU"um"or,,,,,,, ftp-
,ral..
v ., ' .. -' .. .. !I!. . ." 1'. . . -. '. .. -'. ------'0 I .
.. anetzes. 'r[pr.ywvor, 'l'C'rpoy -Ne, 'W'O'TI1-
'ilt...!. I' I1 '
l'CdVOl, i'Rl'DlII'OI" l'1JTa:YfdVOCt I... i. )-4.
, ----Z .. J. C' t' th
.. 1.' , tN,stMJ'8 rll1 coon.ee"IOD "'1': se-
I
I tof, f" .. t r: t
. -c,lng terms ,rom, !lJer.les, 0 conl0rmo
I ) I
certal frequlremen'ts ... " . '. IJ,. ], etc
IInrrIJtL1Jl. IlnOfllltdge, I. 1'1' 2" etc.
,., ,... dn-.()uk t,44!
'!1nl ..... iIIl .. .,., 'ill . .,. ----;r""w
r
- ... , 4i"
,"11111;4' derdt flIitlt 6y s-cun:&e" I. ,6" I, 4;
J' ulAl_I!_- ..../i- "I.-d"
c. ,..V'0cJ0s',1 sClent",,,,c .
hrtL.,,-lt ..., .oJ!; '1.. 13" 7..
itr\CrVl!Pt"l81liJl" add to ,a p[icvious s'um, ,I Z6. 7 ;
1:2.,,,.
J:....... - t..- at.-'.- , ... , .. ,'_..... .... .
....wr.p'-, SNJnln lo.n, tUIN,Uuu.'W tJeMU",Wn
t
]1., IS. I.
1 U -till rliA of' a - t'iI!- . .a..' a.. .," v..... ... ., , .
IgetA'er, 1'1.. 8. 3 Tpoaafd,paiw) " Boe
thius, adgregQre.
1L...1.J..i. - A
'I', 1nl dCH#.ition of a: te,,,, to' (J rre-
1l0113 SU'.III.. in i''7rW'fllpda, I. 16. 410
11.. 14.. ,)'F
(1R4K\'1'1",a" tz ,surfac4, s,,:ptrftcies, Itluzt 'WltuA.
A"as .two' di"",nsions, 11. 6. ,4, 7. .1-2.,
Boethlus, stljJe:rjia'4s.,
hft,w..., ktplagonal :0 m'her, 11.. 7' ,3,
11. I, 12I 3.. :Boethi.us, 6plagD:n:IIJ.,
Itn-,'s, tA, lteplad, tA, n'l,m66" sroen, 16. S.
Icrx-",:, last, I., 16. 4,. 23* r 5; J'ltmate,
11 . I .. I ..
Inpoyt.l.', D," ,of ill d!ffert,,,t ge,nus, I. I S.
WIpt1.rIJ', of a dljf4Tt"t g,nus o'r kind, I.
6
A_ 2',' 3', 1[6 I!I I] I S' I ,.
""..,." " I, . .." .. .
GLOSSARY
'99
ft-tpo...ofJlnJI. lu/tramedc, a number of the
type 1ft (m + I), I. 19> 19; 11. 17 I
(defined), 18.2, 163. 20. I, 24 S
Boethius, parte altera /ongrOr, lonplate-
rlls.
1...,0,,", otlter, passim; TO l., 'oIlurness,'
jJri,,,iple of differmu and variation, II.
8
" .. La/
J 7. 2, I .1 j TO 1rflO"i ,'npov ';(011, In
which has some rela#on /0 another, tne
re/alive, 11. 6. I.
fto'P',.,.,., difference,' ollurntss,' 'ne jJdndplt
a/differtnu (v. n. 17. I, 18. I.
Boethius, alttrzJas.
having tJ different nJzmt, lu/er-
onymous, applied to (actors not named
from the number factored itself, as S,
which is a third of I S, as opposed to I,
which is the fipeentlt (and is called
I. I I. 2, 12. I. Boethius,
pars alieni 7Jocatmli.
mpw"...'-, have a diJferenl name, I. 17 S.
fetter., straight line (se. 11. 6. 2,
7 41 13.3- Boethius, linearede stmu.
,HilYf*fLI'O', rectilinear, I I. 7. 4. So Archim-
edes.
do&4., proued well, 1. 4l3. 8.
dircovery, metltod (If discovery, I.
16. 3.
n.,(crll:.., find, discuver, passim i pass., be
Itlllnd to exist, I. 16. 3.
G-rtucTO'l, orderly, in natural or relfJllar
order, I. 13.6, 18. 5, etc.
.;".cat'a, due, proper or natural order, 11.
I. 2. Boethius, ordinabilis compositio.
'+af6t.., jit, tut to see if requirements tit.
11. 27. 6.
' .. ;n order, I. 10. 7 i IU l., and so on,
ibid., etc.
I+o&o'l, principle, mefltod, I. 10.6; 11. 4l0. S.
4Jy.....". leader, Itead, in the sense of heading
a list, 11. 4. 2; in sense of source as op-
posed to derivation. 11. :22. 3.
irfIot'cu. be first, lead. I. 23 7; be head 0101.
series (and its starting point), 11. 3. I;
be prior to, II. 22. 3.
f1t'Wrua, Italf. I. 8. S.
of)t'w""It'''' Itaif, I. 9 3
1it"G"'V'l, adj., Italf, I. 8. I; neut., substan-
th'ely, I. 10. 2, etc. Boethius, medietas,
ucunda pars.
smaller ter", of ratio, I. 19. 7.
11. 8. I.
....pi., behold, Vl"nu, I. l3 I, 16.4. 17.2,3,
etc. Boethius. considerare.
....P"It'O" principle, I. 2J. 6; 11. 6. I.
properly, peculiarly, 1. 9. I (but see
note ad Ioc.).
1&0t'II'"I', witlt O'Wn Imf/It, proper length,
epithet of squares, 11. 18.3.
OWIl, proper, passim; l&q., apart, in
one plaa, separately, I. 13.2, etc.
l&ump, peculiar quality, I. I S. I.
l&'-t'.. peculiar quality, I. 10. 10. Boethius,
proprielas.
an equal number of limes j w.
the same number taken the same number
of times, i.e., of the type at, a square,
r. 19. 19; l. l., a number taken
thrice as a factor, a cuoe, 11. 17.6. Cf.
also d.VtUQK(';.
lcrGp.')lOt, equal in nu",6er 10 (with dOlt.)
11. ). 2
tcro'PY\Ot, IUlVi/le an equal nu",6er ofangles,
11. 14 5.
having tlte dimensions equal,
of cubes, 11. 16. I-
Ecr6l1'Mvpo'l, Itavine the sides equal, 11. 8. I j
of numbers, 11. 6. I. Opp. uKaA7p'6<;.
LrO!. (I) equal, passim, often equiv. to the
sign =; TO t, e'luaMy, I. 17 3.
(2) regular, I. 19 IS, 18.
Boethius, aequalis, aeqll11S.
lcr6"1'l, equality, a axiac,;, I. 17. 2. Boe-
thius, ae'lualilas.
II:da.pk. pure j hence, of one kind only, ex-
clusively, I. 22. J; rI. 27 4
1Ca."("''l, in sucussion, in order, 11. 10. 3.
guteral, I. 16. 7; of the monad
as the unh'ersal measure, I. IJ. IJ.
1I: ..w.., rod; K., lite measllri"g rod
laid beside the monochord in experiments
in harmony, I I. 27. I.
1C."a., according 1o, oy; in, al; Kafl r(lVTO,
a6solllle, I. 11. I, 13 I, 17. I.
ICGTayfMlo+4), represenlalion of numbers in a
figure, 11. 9 I.
II:a.TGA.h,..., pass., Ot lelt in subtraction, I.
13 1J.
1I:a....a.A4)Y.., tnd in (with I,;, referring to the
last digit of a number), 1.16.); 11. 17.7;
cf. Tf'\l\ITQW. Also used of the termina-
tionofaprocess,I.IJ. 1" 12.

3
00 - ," :. .' .. N
' I-C"'0' "M'AC'HU'"' . SO'""F! G"E'R'ASIA ...... _ .... '" .'. '", :;1' ", .. ,.1. .. ",," '. :,' :":,":, -',' ""'.
.aftA,"_' tl,.1IlIiuztitm o,f :an operation, I'.
1311 ,1,3
--HaYr", &(J'm'6 to the ':Dd lof aD operation"
I. 8,. 4.-
lIE l""I(1'\,l(j,., ;'"i/ial.i'tg" 11 '11 S'I'
le '."'1 IN lAe begin.lltK oj"" rU6 to,
II 3, 3" 4., ],.
,....,,- 1 . __ . re/ur,,:, 0,1 cyclic numbers end-
ing iD the same digit, 11 17,1, 7-
.....,... .. .. th di.... f th
IC'."'Y-0IIC'I" ut'lll:ItOn;, esp,. __ V1Slon, o.'le
'monochord (cf. mll&}v). II :27I I.-
.,,, , kw, one of the II'. 4t
13
Kltpa., IJe ,fJ/aced" occrtpy tJ posi'lion i.n a
seri[e5 (de:tined, b,y such [expr ons as
...; c'," , ,_,.. _. t ,,' - ) ..
trap rva, 'tnrfp OB ."aTifpwvor, vnp ouo .. ,
J.. ,8. X" 13.. 3l 11 9I 4t etc'l!
c
t .,A, .... A'I. '" ( '\ ", )
"'Jr I, '"0','on, Sy'u41Q
of ,six va,r eties" 11.., ,6 4.
rlto[,mt COl.nmon,
ItG,,,. ,. ., lit i" eOHllllu"il7 'llJultij slts,re, I J'.
I" ,8. 6, 10.. I:.
te.'Mn.pot, trll"coled; of numb,ers
(t'erminating' in ,the pol,)"gonal ,Dumlber ,of
'h- b
the serIes" omog[eneous to 'Its next
to unity in that ser"es), 11 .. 14,. SiI'
thius, CU,r:l.flS.-
lC,oPV+fI[h tl:pex of tJ pyramid. . I j 1.3, 2, 1 more
generally', top, 11. :2. Boethius,vt,.lex,
&tlCt'lmen..
t
....' ,A 11-
leO: [",m,t,n'Q"um an arer, ,'. 1,4,1'

' ..."we., sin:" of Eratos,th[enes, 'h:is, me'th,od
of discove,nng pn,me oumbers, I. 13- '2; iF.
Boethius,1 (rill"'I"A
"p&L" /uz'V4 (aeto[rs, I. 1:2. 1, I Sill' ,
nfkKo, lcubi, Dum'be'rs, 11. 6. I; (,1I6t&,
sides" I I 24., 9,11
_',"', (u!Je, ,geom[etrical, II'. 29.. I:;
i,eaI, ) .. IS., I, J'7 j 6 (de'fined).. Boethius"

_-,M.,6 ,cye/it nu'mbe'r, one t:he [squa're of
wh,ich e'ods the same digit 3\5 th,e' orig-
ioa) numb[er,II" 17 7'" Boethius,cy:c'licus.
It'root, (""clt, geotmetri"caJ" 11. I i'. ';; used, Oil'
I'" - 11 e .U'-all orb'ts' I 3 3 "",e,I,[ 8' , .' . '. '., .,1, '." _ '. :'" : iil
.... tARt'. in a,n o,.:.:p ... erat.lo. 'D''- ]- '"'
....,.". t -" -, - r- 'J . - - -- . - -- ,
1611 4, etc.; r ,(0111e to, of a series
rea,chin,g a [cerain. point" 11 3, '2.
, p'ass., be ft, i,n subtmetloll I. I' '12
(AJlChImedes) So TO A.I,&1rQpAwv, M&q,..
liv, ,rema"iItkr, If 2" ,I V. JQ1'Ta.
Act"OJ., Boethius, 9wd .
lcrrtlo,JIA', Conuiv6t. il1lllgrne, 11.. ,13- 4.
l6y0l, (I) ,tJ&&o*III" narrative, JI. 1iI .5; defi-
nitIOn, ,sltz/tllum, ,I I. 6
1
5, 6 ,;
so, plan of t.he wo,rld, I. 6. I ; [cf.
I, 23""" and U'WPp' ..... \.L--... u
.'. '. 11 - vS' #""" Tvr ft, -A..... _--"
I. 4. I'
(2) ,ratio, I.. 8., '[0, etc. (Ar'chimedes,
elk:.). ].1. 21'l! 2, 3 (d[efio[ed) 1 JW[ttO'ucol. A.."
11. 26 I: 4 ; dpPDltUC[OI A., m;usulJ,1
]I ,5 I' :1
Boethius, pro/lwtis[.
,"LwOs, oIlier, I. I 3,. I I "fttrt"'er',
IIItJrt" I J., 4," I ,; t Ju r't'H,tli"dlr iD sub-
tractio'n, 1 I' 3
resolllltiJ":f divlsion, 1'. 1,0t, 2,.
:l " reSO/VI, "),, 12" J, etc., Cf. d.MlAUw,
\. '
OIGJ\tHIJ\..
..-tII1"'n, ",atA"lUIJus, 11. 6. I.
llilM,gre[aJ, /arg,; . 0 pJ.ya,gr4a1,ness, JiI S- I.
iiI hs, mapiludt, I. J. ]" Z" 4, S.
__ , make greater"" I" 211! -; of ....
plication" I Iii I S11 '2.
p480&os, HletNod, p,rocIss, I., 13. 2
a great" nUINDer of times, 11.
1'7 6[ v'" lcniK.lf, tlvccra&,',
"'''.'.'1,., pass., be diJninisltd, tdjJ"r, of
,pyramids, 11. If]" '2, 141 $.,
IpA.., w'ith 0 abr<K, re,fllII'" iAe "tJlII4, 1'. ZJ..
I 5; i'v n i ,.:"", tJ'u4IJtlty', 11.. '27" ..
pApil[", [divide into /Jarts, I,. 711 2, 10. 2;
11. 18. 4-
part, It 8. 4t " 9.. 2, '12. I 14 3"
I Sj I if. Boethius, pars, /JarIKIlIa.
PCG'lpttoM_, a diffe'feDCe betw,een
two terms, ,I. 19.. 12.
fI;I"n'a, lnt:e,posillon in ,tAe' ,nlddlt:, [. 1 2:.,
.1.1.' pas-s;m ." ,
,-cros, 1 a.VA p,f:fTOV
t
..
,I, 1,3- I, etc-'; 'TO lA- , .,iddle I erlll of a
series" I,. 8 etc"
llUft,...., (1) 'Ilea"" ttrlll- of a series
(general use), I,. 8,1 10;: IllidiU'e. IIZIadle
sjJate, :11. 23. ,6
1
I.lliddLt, of a monoch[ord",
'1.1... 27.. J ; ,Illiddk tert", of 3, pr[olportlon"
(2) a dJ.UAoy,U1. g 'l/6t i"D
Ni[c:omachus's usage); at'j,thm,et,j,c, 11"
I ;, geom1etric, II. 24 I, 3" 4; harmonic,
Ill! 2:)iI I.
l11ltiieias.
....,..,.., go ove,' to" cka,nge 10', 23 IS
GLOSSARY
3'
",de 10 dra"p, Ira1U/JoSe, II.
7,7 I.
tal"., jJos'n'Wr in Wlt''', I.
s. 2, le). .4-
,......stli.lI.j sllDrt CM Q.VTW" 11.
20. J .
middk grolllfd. I. 11. I i r;
11.25.3. etc.
,...:a1&f'lI'-. lake a sllare in the measuring
function. J. 1).7; d. 11. 7.7. 6.
,n-t N/Wttn, n. 6. 3. etc.
",n"',,",,, cI,ant'. n. ,. 4.
.. sllifli"K, tluJ"Zi".c, 11. 27. I.
participatio1l_ I. 16. 8.
,..r; , , wuuurt, J. '3. I (the of
times the measure measures is eJ:presxd
by o:r4 with ace., cf. ilud., 3); so '1"0
lUypi'.,. flu INttnlrtifg flllU/iolf.. I. J3. 6.
Absolutely, ad as "Ualllrl, c.g") I. 13 C}.
a Dumber is produced rJ]1' W,VToV
",b
1rOQ'0f''7'''U I"TP"JUf1.lfTfIIIO Y
something acting as measure in accord-
with its own amount' (i.e. multiply-
ing itself by itself). Pass., 6, IHLasJlrtd
IJy. hence. Aonvt IIu measure as a flU/"T,
J. 11. 3. 13- J (Archimedes); ,uTpTJ8ijKU
Kot";; P.(TP' ",pO; Ttva, be commensul'3ble,
J. 13- I. Doethiu5. mtliri, "u11I,rar,.
ph,,", ,,,otUral,, I. 16. I.
,,",PO"', ""asur" I. 12.2, 2). 4; Ilu fNHe.
lion of ""asur" I. I). 5; fCOCvOII po., eo",-
NWH divist>r, J. I). 10. Boethius, e011l-
mu";S "",,sura.
tiflfC", kngtlt, I. 17.); dimension of a plane
(with 'II'.ul1'Of). 11. 15.2; of a solid, 11.
6. 4. In a diagram, lit, me way, Itor;-
80Hlally, I. 10. 10. lloethius, longilut/Q.
ti'Jri-, "lIIt, IoH,f. I,,,gthen, J. r9- 20; m"l-
I;ply. I. 9- 4, 19 19: 11. 29 3 Boc:thius.,
"'JllJijJlieare.
,,(,&ott... pro",;StJlOHS, minr/i"c (adv. as adj.),
11.14 9
tit,..., tompoNnd, I. 10. 10.
til,np., ",i"xUt llse logctlrer,1I. 5 4
",iXtd, sharing qualitie5 of more
than one variet)', I. 13.2; tompou"d, as
multiple supcrparticulars, 11. 24 4-
........ TO ,.,... tht lesser or I,asl lerm of a
proportion. 11. 27. 4; also pJJCpO-rtpo'O =
luser I"."" I. 2). 16.
........ on'. mOHDd, llItity, passim. So &d.l]
,.ewGf, OIU, I. 19 17; ""' Sn,n.po&vll-M"
1nl.; IAt first (or .",t) 0/ lite Int'S, re-
garded as a course, ilnd.; 11-. TfHoSov".,m"
on' IIII"drtd, See note ad 1.
Plur., IIn,"ls, passim; also. llu nu",/Nrs
'-9t I. 16. ).
1A0008urri, adv., i" IINils, 11. 8. 3.
p,jp,.... ftKlor, Dlit;uot /Jorl, J. 11. 2. I). I i
jHlrl of the units in a number, 11. 8. I.
1'...., p!ur., llu I,,. 1l1Ousa"ds (10,000-
99,999), I. 163
r,laq, Ott ogdui. lad. Ilu n"m/ur tiglrt,
I. 16. ).
.. ", hlk, I. 17. 3; .,w" ",t"pcw", bod)', 11.
16. 2.
olat'-'t, OW". /JrDjHr, 1N1o"C'HC propo-Iy ""
I. 22. 3; It. :ZZ. I, etc.
oLnw.. mai, fri,,,dly, r(!rfcilL, in the
sense of bringing into mathematicil.l agree-.
ment and equality, 11. 22. 2.
*"",....... otlagru,al Dumber. JI. 11. J, 12.3.
......a,-, laAtdro". I. 4. 4
.........u.w., tigltlfold, J. 4..... 18.6.
&loot, wlfole, passim; TO Mw, lite wltol, of a
Dumber dealt with, I. 8. 10; plur., all
I!li"cs, the universe, 11. 17. I-
Wnra. a wlwle, I. 2. 5.
"'n"It', of IIu same rtHUS wit}, (with dat.),
11. 20. 2.
'twrt'""' willt IIu SD",t number of mtgles,
11. 12:. 7.
'ewwt. lilt, I. 6. ), 10. I, etc.; hence. ton-
sisltnl, not IJecD",i"K u"lik" I. 2. I: 11.
17 ); at 0IWUX = a"d so on, J. 9. I.
'v." x.,.,..4..... a/I,r a similar sdw"" or
fii{Urt. 11. '4 I.
"""hI,,, liluIILU, si",ilarity, J. '3. 4; 11.
16. 2, 28. 5.
.... O'OT"' ..... i" n",l1ar /as!lion, 11. 6. 6,
10. ,.
';'0"., make lit,; pass., IN lil" I. 10. 3.
,.""., Dttu/J)'i"K" a ctn'rujJo"dinK place
in a scrics, I. 19 3; 19 13
.." ....., Ita.VL IN sa",t "allte, of factors. I.
13 ..
.. /JossLSsitJn of Ilu saMe "am" esp.
of sensible things, named after ideal
things, I. 2). 4.
"-" "... !ltl1Ji"K tIlt sa"" na"" or ,unomi-
na.tiD". ItDmDn)'ffl(JIU. of (actors. (e.g., )
one third of 90 and 4 as the third of 12).
I. 13. I; of the arithmetic proportion,
3
02 N
IC:'0":-: -MA' . OF 'G"-"E':R'AS'IA- . '... .' ..,,1, ... ":" . , . .... . . -.-.:.:.' ." _. ..._,
.... of order, :1,11 2J. 13'11,
I""", in direct ,o.,-t/e,., not reversed" I:. 23.
11; 11. 6. [6.
4,(t-, tkjine, slate a d'efinitio'D, I'll I,. 1,,2; d.
11.. 6,. [4 ; If",it,gi",e a d6jiniteftWm, I. 23 4 ;
restrict, iD .sense of setting forth. as t rms
t,o be dealt wlt.b iD a plroble'm" .'1J'ii I1 ,t
...., (I) 6ollnd, limit, 11. [6" 3; hence,
rIQlm', DollntU, I. 16. J.,
( 2) deji"it-lo,N', I. 19, 4, 7' 3, 5:'" Freq.,
.Ier"", ).. 8ii I' 0t 2,), iI 7; I I -, 21. 3, :2J11 6, let-c.
Boethiu' , ler",in,".
Iv.LeL.' a,s ,,,,any times as'I I. 13" )'2..
.....wo,:, AtJWe'Ver mall}" times, I. 23. I.
rilt'" nent"", i 'I ei' BWO, I:I - 6. 3.
.,.,.C.-..., with 27PcK, slu1w a ratiol t:o, 1'_.
J- S"
..,. "- 'I tJ pltKi"K Oil stttinl for/4 sitU 6y
side ;' c'. wapaBitn.., of discrete ,objects, V.S.,
contin'uotlS, ,I .. '2. 4 I(cf. fTfJJptla)
..,.s..'pII't O&&IIpy a. tUijoi"i"g iD
series, le. 18. 19 19
....ol.....t, carry tlllt a process, J. 18.5;
folltno,. /Je' corollary, I. 8,. 6,.
_ ... .... '-: ._. uJ!IL. A I'1IriM or' ,.......tl....
rt1
,
-.1..."........ :, I'" IIlf.U'...lD,,....' Ci .... OJI,GoY,J,
.I.. 8; 11. '2'4. 6; (Q1I.,,,,,,jta,.t jJro/Jtrly.
,11'". 2'7 J,
....,.A.....II'.., ""'P
lo
':t J. 1
1
6., 4; ,la'M tl'Der
frtJ", a"olller ,a, funetioiD'1 I. 13.. 5..
....,.AI;(."'1 IJtus Dy in selectlD,g terms, :11
23.. J; appliled, i:n. act., to the terms tbe:m-
selves as a way of designating those used.
"'. ...... - "'I.' , __
ID a 'enes,t 'ifliO'V; DUO .PM'DUt
7avral, I. 1.3. 3 == ftIn:1 tAl'rd ler",.,
BoetbiuSt jJrlJd6rlre.
..,.o..,+-., an o",issw".. I.I. '2:J" 3-
VQ,ry', diJfw, ]1. 3-
..,.AA",,'''''., p;araJJelejJipedon, 11. ,IS'
I., 1'6.. Boet'hius, pa,ralllle/J'i/Jedus",
..,aA,.ADI, .paralie!" of I.ines, I,. 1
1
0. 10; of
terms, etc,." 11. 4 3, " "id, 6)' side, &11,"-
s8&utive, of te'rms i.n .ser.ies, 11. 6.. 2 .. '23- 3.
w.,..-,rll-, stall'd' lJy tlt6 szl:k of in a table,
I. 19I
..aa .I:i-. pass. ::- .' - '.. intrease .10"tT 7IJUIt1 81 2
- - - , ..... . , '.... ..:. I . 'b' . . [. ". "' .. . '"
'lap' ut-J.. &onli""81.1 i'ntreQs'6, II!! 11 4,'
...,..Irr"'JtLlr,1 ,set forth: in (I p4ra'iul series.,
I 22 4
""11-."'-, ,"tertll"e, I IN 7'. 24; Boethi.us"

for/A In the cou.ne o:f ,an
operat:ion, J. 19 14.
w"-'pA, DI of qualiti.es, I.
1'6 3t 19, 6; I I, 6. ,4;, carry' OIIt a process,
I.. 22. 6
..,......t., desig1IQ'11 fro", o,r wit", refer-
ente tO
I
, I. 2:2.2.
desi'g1IQtlon witll' 10,
I.. 5.
,nll/It,ea frOll.t: Aa?
l
i71g tile SQm"
"al/le .as', or a na''''e
l
f
;0 r9E 7
esp. " of factors, thal 'IV"itA taRes .its tk-
nomi"alor f,om Ih't flmnJiry of 1"4 .Iac-
lured' nl4.mber" as o:ne third of J, I., 11.". '2,
etc.. Cf. IvaV1il.tdVllp.ol, ,irc:pwvupDI
.,it', all, every", in :phnses .&A, 1ftln"Or,
1Ji'XP" wa....,.0i. I ",",ollgA'oul; lw, rcivn.w, in
J!!ll
la , .
I'
-
t .-
'1
. 'C ),
ad,d
l
I' .. ,24.. S
... I,'d JJ
so' ,I .. , ',iI'
'.n:.I,IN ..', .
g. v ..... '-
- - - .
ru.ll 0

. ,I
of
,. te.
.' 1:. 10", 8.
mult,iplied, by
ra't h.er tha,n
.',ullipJicllre,
,0
''1
1C
=
reWrll b Qcros ',: ,the page
u . 'up a,: 1 Id down
tJ 'Ot'int" -.1.. 27.
I 9-,2
i 2'., 2:.
10. 10,
" ...,
. "IrilO. 1
... III ','I!
,7",
6.
I!/ 1Il1J'
.
(wlt,h,
'iD,
D3.SS 1Ii , 11
d" .r .' I( /1. ". ,)
0,
't:o'. .
"h'i .) =,
'16.,
i.'__lf
lOl'
.!!Il
, .'
.' [ill
.1'
I) if.f1'_ I
: I
3
1
'

iil 10,
jenliJgtmal
It)
I,mts of' pyra-
.... f 1'.,-........
- " le 1 ,. fC\UAU1.t; -
'-I
" I
'I
011'ID.eElS'.01 __
, '
'1
,: I
16
..... ' 'fITiB... _ and ODe
d,lme'Dsion (ibid.)
. .
,--o,/u . t' - ari'eties, lIlde, -rdro,
'.. '. t sursu,,, tUOrs,I4,'J
.1 ,.0
1
W'" .. as IOPP,
(defi'ned), ,11. 6.. I'.
,IIA!:1liOiI 'I D lJOllnded 1. ii I' 3 3
. .". conlai"., "[" 24 S
PWliailiil I' WI 'tktl/ eOll"ain'ed, used of'
Ll'U'w;;..JII'!lii& ... d 'b"yuna-s, I1 J' 3 ]1
. .I

. ,
34
.,.... ..pw '.. (41,: I), ill:tui-
'lIpk ,tesgNitju'i'n/a"
...,...hcru: '._ pLCr'VI (5t: 'I), fJ14'l1l,t,upl4
sest]uialltrIF
(SI': I), 'fjUIN[lIple
sesg'uitertlaNIi!
WlPra.A.[CLCnI _. In...,.. (si: J), ,Vllin-
t [seSf}rlzgrlilrla"'"
t" ;1".rOl' (5') : J)" f ul,,-
Illp/t ,S,SfjIl:i,u,"tan,.
Boethius" multlpkx s'lIjJt:rjJtzrtlcllla,ris.
1rOUI [tll4 a axim.,c, and, a,
form of inequality"" 17tl '1, I ,g., I (de-
fin,ed);[ neut.., freq 10 as name 0;[ the 'FeJa-
00:0"
The varieties mention,ed by' N'icomachu:s
a're' as' . .eoUo-'w-S (v I '18 I 19 5 etc.) " .' 1. ...! ' _", ... ,. '" .'.. , ,,'. _, .,. ..... '.. Ill,
(2 : I), tJoulJle.
"'plwA""" (3; I), triple.
(4: J), tj"a,druple..
wtWGtrAUIOI (5 : I), V'tin-tup/e..
Il... (6': I),
,lNmwAU.ot (8,: I)" oetll/Jle..
&t (10 I)" dt"tpu,.
B,oethius, Inultip/,x' (m as).
p,o/ygonnl "IIN,fMr, JI.. 'I' 2. I, et,c
Th,c foll:owing vuie'tie,. are m[entioned[ by
N
-,', I"'CO: ""m',a'c:,h,:'Iu'S' ..
. '. .- '_ . :- '. 'I
7pl,.,,", triangular.
n""'y.,I'OI, square.

11'. -1'01,. ltera;goJ,al.
"""".',,",
&KT6V-t'OI, tKtagonaL
.. same as, f ,,'v.,
11. 4,
traAvtrAcurUurLi', a:mullipli&aJien (o,peration),
11 7,
multipllea/loll, prodllct f!f
"",tltijJii:atiol'. 1'. JO. 10..
woAvwA""OI" ,,,,ulJiple (a'Dother form, of fh,e
w1o'rd 11. ,4, 3. 24.. S, etc..
..A'_,Inllck, ,,,a,lY'. C,omp.." TO ".,MOI1, tlu
#>.ilJr ( .. ,opp "!'\ - )... a' , a d.
I,' I TO e/W'"OV ....
spec"l'es' of l'h'e ' of It'D -qual'llii
t
C' " ., __ ' .' 'I, aX[EUts' : _e,,':Y '. = T:O
1l'''01l1, the mOl'ie usual term)" I.. 14. 2,,,
'II"CHI1i- !tow .. ,..0' = ... ....[
..I- - "'.J - ,.. J - ft 'U'I,I" ..".
of t"llts, I. '3t [6.
W..,si', of sOlne a""rO'ltnl,; ,.C), wOC16v, "",,,fM,
(equiv. to 'I"OC7OT'Ji), 1. J'7. I, 2, TO".""
as limlte[d ,multitude, I. 2 .. S. I,ts class[ifi-
cation" a1>50:1ute and relativ.e', ].. 3ii :1'" etc. ;
.,
I' ,
b'
I()f a
,-,2.,
,16.. 7,
oil
. ,
IOf'
, I..
lIetj"i'r6
2'.
]
, [ ,
"7 '-
0-.:'
.,
'&Jp' '11&1'.
j, _' th,e,
, n,
,- -,f} t
.. 'I"' .
'; .,iI'......
j
..."",'"'...,. la'''-"IO'" all. _.
1_' longio,
6e 8..11t"deti,
'., ,.
.'
WrllifIiII!II"....ftiI,",.
11
'- I':
"!!!!I I.
"'
.,
C
t
'"
,4-,
2,

.
'.'."'<'
. "
',' 9:' 2
I I. " .1 1_ .1
Cd.'
ie.' " '" I'
,/Wogr"S, ,p
,.
'It from whi,ch a thin,
square" w. of the
or, igr" 'al., - '18
_. I.y prior:, I.
t:1Ti
Lo,
-_.' ! ce 'to p' -0-'
&JIIo...... -rcal
l
'
d'" '"nguish,ed by
dUfereDces, atlt_-
OD I: Opp., 4M1Aoylm, KOTii
II ,21. S:r 24 I.
i1a-s.'l
,.
..
( - .. I,'
6_
7
I
a
I

Ij , Ill! "
,0. 9, e.c
("' :," of' ....
pri .....,_...
..
I ",.
I
IIMrotI-' :" of :1"""'411 : _a
.'. 'DK'"ession flJill1
I: . J.. 6,.
Iftt illcrtost'li, 11i
,;1...... d
ui sfJUJ'" .... ,

I'
I:: 7',- .'.
3
c6 NICOMACHUS OF GERASA
..pitTo., prime, a kind of the odd, I. 11. :I:
(defined). Boethius, /Jrilf'us et uuom-
posi/us.
...",e... nK6.. fiuulamenlal, 6e/onging /0 tlu
simplest for"t (v. 11. 2. 2.
".tJ8,...OUC.W'i, in simplest
forlll, 11. 17. I.
"""l'fJ", slock, /Imdammlal form; the
simplest form ora numerical relation (e,g.
the double in simplest form is seen in
2: I), I. 19. 7,21. I; 11. 19 3.
'W'VJ"'I''c, pyramid. pyra,nriial nllm/Jtr, Il.
13. 2 If. Geometrical pyramid, 11. 13.
J. Boethius, pyramidlis.
WliJpa...n&lt.,pyraIHldal number. 11. IS. I.
;It.. root; as source, that on which other
things are based, I. 4. I (of arithmetic),
etc.; slartillg point. I. 20. 2 (the fraction
i is p. of the superpartient), 2. 5, rool of
multitude. Boethius, radix.
.."...to", point, 11.6. 3. 13.3 if.; a mark
used to check off terms, I. 13. 7; an ar-
bitrary sip for a number, n. Boe-
thius, punclum.
r1J..."'., nole duwn, I. 10.8, 9; repruenlby
an arbl1rary sipt, n. 6. 2.
.",... t-,.. designatio", repreunlalion, II.
6. 2.
rl(M'ItrOt, scalene, having- unequal sides j a
kind of solid number, II. 6. I, 16. 2.
Opp. lUo".Af;Vpoi. Cf. fJwp.Ur/((X,
K.UrK.Ot;, u+'1"{UK.Ot;. Boethius, scalenos
cradaltu.
'l(cw4_, oburve, I. 13 4. v.l1f'W'K.o1f'tw.
...... .. sudj hence, origin, with the impli-
cation of the potential existence of the
completed thing, as in a seed, 11. 15. I,
I 8. I .
...... ptla.nl('", like a uedi originally, funda-
menially, H. 17. L
rest, I. 3.
.,..,.6t, solid; applied to numbers, solid
numbers, the products of three factors,
Il. 6. I, 7.3. TO (T., solid body, 11. 6.4.
CTTfpIW'i, like a solid, Le. in three dimen-
sions, n. 17. 4. Boethius, solidus (soli-
ddos).
CM'tXM, row, line in a table, I. 10. 7. Series
of lerms j 0'., lite nn/lIral series,
11. 8.3.
.., elemenl, 11. I (defined); of the
universe, ibid.; used of equalit), the ele-
ment of relative number, 11. 2. 2; also
of the triangle. Boethius, elemmluHl .
rTOl.xmiS'II, elemenlary, I. I I. 3; applied to
a triangle. If. 7.4,8. 1,14.4; the dia-
pente, 11. 26. I; cf. also 11. 29 4.
.., in series, ill a row, 11. 8. 3, etc.
rvyytWJI, of IIu same genus with, n. 20. 3.

v. opoa"flvt]'i.
.... be comjJosed of (lK), I. 22. 2; Il.
18. 4, etc.
crvylct+u......, add loplher, 1. 8. 13; with
U'i TO &6, togdJur, 14- 4. IS I. 16.2.
rvylct+ua.'*fI&, sum, in addition, I. 16. 5.
rvylct+a.Moc.e".I, sum, in addition, I. 8. u.
rvypb., compare, I. 21. I, etc. Boethius,
comparare, aptare.
comparison of numbers, 1. 15. I,
22. 6, etc.
join logellur numbers to form
ratios, I. 19 3.
-tvy'.. a pairing-, a pair, 11. 19. 4; used
of the ratios, 11. 28. 10, 19- 4.
ritvyo.., a lerm paired wilh anollter in
some relation (e.g., corresponding factors,
as 16 and 8, of 128, are aV{vya), 1. 8. 11.
lake in conjllnclitm wiJh, 11.
5.2; lrelp, I. 2J. 8.
a combining, c011lbi"aiitm, I I.;EI. :I.
happen, come 10 ligM, remit,
1. 10. 10; be a facl, I. 16.3; impers., iJ
is all aI/rib/de of, characlerislic of (with
dal.), I. 9.;E, JO. 10, etc.
IMIfit""'Pla, tl/:ree"unl in metuure 'WItll
(wpcK), I. 14 3.
rifltY"'pot, agreeing in measu,., wi/It, n. 3. 2
-""''V''''I"> comiJine tenns to make a pro-
portion, 11. 21. 3.
rilL...... alllogelher, as an expression for
'sum,' I. 15. 2
........npu"!,&O lerminnlion. IJomtd, of surface
of truncated pyramid, 11. 14- 5; last digit
of a number, n. 17 7.
...MIC_. imlOlve in the composition or
somethin/{, I. 21. 3, 22.2.
""""';\'1,0 fill 011110 a cerlai" 9uanliJy, I.
15.2; n. 22. I.
."......MtfMHnl, a filling oul /0 equalily witlt,
J. 15. I.
tJ"VtIoWPOICO'lM'., i"crease It>gellur wiJll, e.g_
the differences of a series increase as the
terms increase, I. 19. 12.

UNIVSlSlTY Of MKHIGAH
GLOSSARY
37
. give consistent ruu/ls, of opera-
tions, I. 10. 9.
V\ItIt+-"'" concord, in harmony, 11. 26. I-
Boethius, sympJw"ia.
"' .....1'01, agreeing, in agreement, I. 19. 16;
11. 5. 4. 1'OU. = 26. J.
-vG1*, jJroduce, give as a result. in addi-
tion, I. 14. 4; brlllg toge/lter, combine, in
addition, I. 16. 2.
,",,,cdpo't-, with V, add, I. 16.2.
.. in plur., 6ot11 together (= the
sum of two terms), I. 8. 13; similarly,
TO 0'., I. 16.4. So Archimedes.
rvW&'ftTf,join logdluT ; OlJYTJp,fIoi.,." d.m.\oy14,
(cmli",ud proportion, 11. 21. 5--6 (\'. 8c.a-
'uryYVp.t). Boethius, ctmlinllQ.
crvdMt, 6ina logdlt", connecl, n. 22. 2; by
proportional mean lenns, 11. 29. I.
-f1TGt., examine loce/lter, compart, J.
19- 11
rv""xn.. sucussitJll ; l., u. JA.'lJlO1vf.tr, multiply
in SIIcussion. 11. 29 3
'"''''x.''Js, nert,jollOflJinc, oftenns in series,
1.8. 13; u. dp4.(J1Uf, by regularly pro--
gressilll: nlllnber, II. 8. 2. in
.mcussi01I, without omission, 11. 2J. I.
Boethius, continens.
crv"x,., joi" by mean terms to make a pro-
portion, I I. 24. 6.
n",--., addition; rcroc ilfo,.,.a cr., ('Iual 6y
addtJion to (i.e., their sum equals) some-
thin.f: else, I. 10. 10; sum, in addition, 11.
29 2, 8.3, 27.3; TO 1t11Ta. u., sum, 11.
23. 5; com6ination, I. 22. 2; n. 5 I,
21. 3, Boethius, com/kw/io.
n"',"" composiJe, composed of ftUlors
(opp. ""pWro<i, prime), I. J I. I fr.; com-
posed of (lit or &'11"0), J. 21. J; 11. 2. 1;
"'0 u., sum, II. 27 7.
ft..,........ convenJi01l, as opposed to natural
ordinance, I. 19. 14; H. 6. 2.
'""'WnJI", pass., 6e com6ined 6y addition,
I I. r I. 2; with (It, 6e composed of, I. 11.
3; 11. 5. 3, 4, etc. ; mid., arise, 6e formed,
1.23. 14; 11. 14. 2.
v ......., converge, of the edges of the pyra-
mid, II. 13.). Boethius, inclinari.
CMll'TIM., make, complele, produce, 11. 20. I,
27. I; "'0 produc/, I. 8.14.
com6ine by simple association, 11.
5.2,3.4t 5; add, I. 8. I. 15. I; 11.6.3,
26. 2, 27. 7 (so Archimedes); take as a
laclor, in passh'e, with numeral adverb,
'0:' __ lI" I
fWYaOO'i 'll"U'Tl1lClli UtJ1ITt:D't:1.a'11'i 0 (, . 11.3.
Doethius, redigert tit UI111m, ac/dtrt,
lungere.
three ,uce/llLr, Ilu SlIm 01 three
lerms, L 8. 13.
crwv+a.t"., weave logether; hence, {OllS/i-
lute (of = (It), L 10. 6. Cf, uq,o<i.
cnwv+terTltl", arise along wtlh (said of a
thing of which the existence is implied in
another), I. 20.3, 2L 3.
""""""''''' have the same name, Q)[Yu in
na1ne. I. 17 5.
VVl"_plv., add a series toge/lter, make a
summa/i,m, n. 10. 2.
rUrro.rrl4, comjJf,si/lim, that of which a thing
is made up, 11. I. I; compositioll, con-
struction in a technical manner, accord-
ing to rule, I. 8. 13, 3 5; H. 8. 3, 10. 2,
14. 2.
cnlcrT"l1'CloJ a system, systematic arrangellUn/,
I. 3. 5 (= Plato, EjJin., 991 0); a com6i-
nation of things making up another thing,
I. 7. 1,8.10; 11.5. 2. 26. I; hence, a
com6inalt'on 6y addi/ion, sum, 11. 11. 3,
12. 5, 7; a (om6ina/ton 01factors ",ul/i-
p/id fogtllltr, 11. 24 9.
....tp&, a spltere, 11. 17 7. Boethius,
splura.
.. spherical numbers, 11.6. I, 17. 7
(defined). as/rono1fty, 1. J. 2.
Boethius, sphericlls.
,,"'dO"ICOt, a III//e wasp, applied to a kind
of solid number (same as 'I.v.,
or 11. 16.2.
0"+41", a wedge, 11. 16. 2.
...""c.rKOt, a lillle wedge, a variety of solid
number (= '1.71. or a4J."ltia-
1t0i), 11. 16. 2, J7. 6 (defined). Bee-
thius, cuneus, 'linea/us, sjJluniscos.
"+liE, a wasp, 11. 16. 2.
rxlcrloS, (I) a non-mathematical term, sla/e,
condl/ion, Itabi/ude, 11. 22. I (p. 123. I H).
(2) mathematical term, relalion. In
the most general sense. any relation be
tween two terms. including equaJity (11.
6. J) and inequality (I. 14. 2); hence, a
rela/ion of excess or deficiency, measured
by an arithmetical difference, but often
applied to relatiODs which are strictly
Myoc., ratios, I. 17. 4. 6, 19. 16. 21. 3;
n. 6. 3, 19. 4, 21. 3, 4, etc. Especially

3
of ,the ten ra'tios of relative Dumber
t
IJ
22,,, I (p,,. 122.. 20 H), 24, 5; I:. 2:3 Boe-
h
,., L_L do'
t 'IUS'1 '"
crxttp.a, ,forll't fif:t
"
r4, 11. 7 4 " of a geo-
.. I fi' 00' '. -h t caJ
-,- ", .. ",'". ,',' ,.- . : -. [' '] : . . ,.' I I ",' .,;" - '-. ,'," '.- I"' :'1' /:..-' . .' .-.. -'I
metnca .. gore, as oppos,. to ant met....... 'I
11',. 12 I, 2; cnC,pE,fJII a., s(}lidJigtlre, II.,
IJ.], 16.:2
rx,....,tt., reJw:ts,ent 0.1 a Ji,A'"N,re" 11. 8. 3
G"X1J,lUIftG"'...., 11'. '9'. I.
crx1Jpa,ft1pa+. 't re/Jrese,,,t by lI.' figure';' act."
.. d' 'iA!t .' t
ID,tta:DS., S> gray',' "& rtr"tttn,a l'O",
11.. 8, I;; pass,., 11. ,10. 2,., Boethius
7
de,
..'!.
sc,nuere,.
crx ,6)' a figur:e,
f b 6
. .. "I_-
a" num:-erst I I .,)1.. 2" I' 0. 2; CW,t1l'"EOO'i ,cr."
,plaIte' firn,ra'tiol', 11. 13'. I,.
crXIECII, divide (non...mathc'mati,cal),ll 17. '6.
Boefh1.us, .recare'",
cr't;-, prt,Str'llt" /told tru', a ratio, I].. s. 2:;
of a pri,ncl,ple" 11,. 22, .. 3" 24" S..
__Ipa, DOdy, as a,ppl. to su:rface and line"
,11. 7 2,.,
'-, I " if' "'] 6'
.. .. . ,. \f' -' ,' I" .... .-,
aa. ' '.... Illml1ltl 'ID. ... ' a serte'S, I.. 4, etc.
A AlajJz"ng tl/l of one thin,g wifh another;
_ "I(I,T,4 f7., ,disc'rete filings, I- 2. ,4 (cf.
$-8 ..).
1mfJo. .(enS'. -
err_pt", add'to a lof'tI ,serus, !l.
83
CPttp'I;&6, t Uy summaJ,on or "tm.latifJ6 addi'-
tion, 11. I :1.. I '.
nibs, ortk'r, profHr order, passim; Td$U, ;11:
,due order, I'll 10'.9; pJ4Ce, jJlace ,n,
orw, I. 13, S.
.-..l.. J. , .. ,.;. -
pass", r,a61" g'lfI., iJ yOst",o:n' ,In Sel'ltS,
.. I t k
.... . 11' .' , ". ' .-' ",- .:-. ..-' '1' -',: ". '.
13'. 4 t '''S", a m"ean 0 ,mae a prig
porti,oo:, I1 27. 2 ; arra'ngl, I. 10. 1'0; Ill"
1'.,3;1 regulate, I. 13. 6,.
Ii 'f
tA
rgt.i," h" 1Jot"j
,--vrop .,..,,0< 6 ;I'ame . tn/lllg
dimenslons IAlt same (epithet of sq'uares,
similar t[Q q.,'11. ), II,.' J8" .3
I '. ....e ("pn' n"a" - '0:f .' s: m"':-, "', , . It ......
"".,VTU., ru;. sa"" '., ..' .-. Ie....a eness), -
" it I '\ _ ,. .
'TavrorJ1i; Q'pp., CTf:par., 'T'O I":PD"), ]1
8
'B" tb-.J.. at
:17. I, '11'. 3,.oe .tus" 6tlcwm ",lra,
(
.. ." )... I] _. I. '.1' - . " ':. -'. :.".1:. [I _ ", 1 "," I .'. I.
.,.vr,.....t sameness ....... TUvrOJ1, .'. , I i. I ,
idtntity, I)'. 21 4
..a..ws, perfect, of n,g'm,'bers equal i'n, amou:ot
to the sum ,of thel'r facto'rs, ] '. I4ni ,,1
1
6.. I' ;
[of pe:rfe,etion of the' monad, I. :6" ):0; the
d d 11
'h d d" .. - . I
: ',' .. ".. . I I!! I . - I . ." " I' '. .
.eca _,,'. 22. I , t, e- I". apason, _. I.
Boethi'us, perfectus.
'nAlu.erLI, &OII'/1lllioll,1 11. I' 3. 9!i
nA.lvrU" tnd, ttr",inat:e, ] ii :8,,, I I ; of pyra
,milds t,e'rmlna1ing In ,a vertex'. Ilii 14.. 5 ;'
,of Du,mbers ending same digit, '11 ,17.
']. Cf. Ka'TaA.tjycu.
IAIvr1r, t,er,min,ati'o", of the ,digit ending' a
n,umb,er, 11 17 j'ii
t'A0I', ",d,of a table, 17l!
dividt" esp.. &,ri' -ro., /Jist,t, 11.. 27.. 7-
,ftcrcra.pq" fOt". [efa &a 'rIO'Utlp(dt'.
n1",.'1t,IIC'6t
fi
square ,; r. w:AVp4, "'ltlare
root, 11. 2,7 7..
' [I1Ai1' fiO,I,tr--,a,II'o-/e.J, ntJ.tld,,,, -"(J'1,la'r 1-' I.
r-, -",) ,.'. . &' '% . . -
17" I,.
n,.,.,.w..."'s, ,fornlatiu" Ilk, IJ' S'lUIJre:" I1 ii
9., III
""'&1- ."1, S'luar6 nUlI1Dtr" I'. 19. 1
1
9
1
; ,Il. 9
(deficled) ; T,. ax'itJA (geometri,caI)" stj'4ar.
I I. 1211 I,., B,oethius" glladralus'.
'iI''W'''OMVpoI, four-tt:mu tru"tat,tl (v. .0-
AOVptK" ,ButOAmJpos), IIt, S
tlu fOltrfold ".,lation, I '..
S 5
ift,.,a.Anpos', fo,u,r-,sitkd, gMadrt1aJtral, 11,.
1"7. I,j
..,.,.["., , ,tA., ",tmlIw four, I [9. ,4, lOll 7.
I(US,Ulne, 1.1'911 8,8'11 JOI; 11 ,17. z;
make, ,as result of an o,pera,tion" 1.,20. 2 1I
set down, as a term, 11 2. l,t 24 5'
"Llltl""'" ep,ithet of arithmetic, 1- ,5 I! 3.
division, th,e opetat,ion, 1'.[ 0" 4.
'lit''''''' Icapable tif1J4lnKdivd4d" J. IQ.. 4
ftfLlit, 11 dividing, ,,7.. 4, 10,. 3; d'WisiIJ",
,;/; . 1-' B hi! d
I! 7'I I. ' oet :"1US,. ... wmO'fi
'""'udal, ton6'1 a musi,ca1 :i,nt:erval with the
ratiO 9:: ,8p 11;1 29- 4. Iona,..
... "ICOCI"ri&VO, I. 8,. 10.
rTJMtM' tA, tAe ,'Ullt;" l'Arel, I. 1,0. 6,
13, ], ,etc.
'P'l ".''1-" (1"12'''16 in trilzngu'1ar fllTm. 11.
8. I,
tniJ,nplar (pyramid), 1,1. 14. I,.
...,.w'1 formation lik,' a trillng1e" 11,.
I.
"",.ftCrfl, in tritJnplar form, 11. ,8., ],.
',-,(:, .nt" tnanplfl,r"umIJu" 11. 8. ,I. ,Boe-
,tbius, IrlanplariJ', tritlngullu_
'"p'KoAovpol, triply truncated (v,. OAoupor,
S'. Boetblus,te.rlcl'rt .r.
!le' of tile tlJ-ird ,&01l,.S4 (d. [lwrc...
,oB, ), I. 17
.. ",,,/liply lJy tArll
t
I. 2J .. I.
tA, tAre4.!oltl reltziio"t 11 5- 5
GLOSSARY
3"9
,;, Iltru tIiMnuUnu or dirlditnu
(with a..a,..TOJ), 11. 6. 4.
........., /tI, Iurw a r,Wu", to,
of terms in proportions, 11. 21. 6, 23. 2;
in pass., IN i",plied, 1. 21. 2.
.......""'"'", sJItHtIrlJry proportion, n. 22.
I, etc. Boethius, Dpjon'flU, cMtJraniu.
.......'"""""", 'lie sJale or ,.tlaJiqn of hi"g
su!Je""lrary, U. 28. S.
....._"'"-'-t, SJlkDlIJrary relalio", 11. 28. 2.
r,11U'Nt terms from a series, 11.
22. 3.
........f'Ilt, sdSlljilrjJartt't1fI, reciprocal n-
tio of the superpartient, I. 17. 8. Doe-
thius, sw6S11pwjHIrlitllS.
h.r,'''''' slIlJsllfwrfHIrfial.kzr, reciprocal
",Iio of the supuparticular, I. 17- 8, 19.
2:0. Boethius. mntpuparliclJllris.
......""""'"' ndJsu9"ilufia" (J: ..), a sub-
superparticular, reciprocal of the sesqui-
tertian, I. 19- 2. Bocthius, ntltSUljllUer'
t;'u.
....1IIa!.., jJass owr, used in locating terms
in a series, e.g., 1. IJ. ]. To.. SUo IJoCCTO'U'i
Wcp{Jatt'fWT'a, U the term occurring after
the omission of two numbers between" i
er' kyond, excud, I. 14. J i JI. 18. :I i
hence, lie grtaltr, 11. 27. 6-
....ptkO..1.., t%&etd, J. 16. 1,:1 i wrp{:l4AAOv-
witlJ entss, n. 17.6.
mptm...... IllJS 6y II IDi"', lJe umti"ned
Hyolfd, I. 19- I".
'-,lx-, Ixceed, I. 17.3. So An::himedes.
.... 61 ItJlld INyMUi in the next
place in a series, 11. 12. S.
.... pexll,'Xflss, 11. 27 .... 7. So Archimedes.
.... sujn'alJulftlanl, a Dumbe:r the
sum o( the factOD of which is greater
than ils own amount, I. 14. I, J. Boc:-
thius, SUfNrftIlDItS.
....,..,., Ixceed, IH grltJIW 111411, I. 9 .. i
n. 27. 3.
Vd, 6y, of multiplication by, I. 8. 14, etc.
TO wo, 'lie Imxilltt, I. 8. 14. 19. 17; II.
27 3, 4
as a prefix, 1116, J. 19- 20.
.....,.,_, (o",e undwnealh in the order of
rows in a table. I. 19. 14; !Je leJS I!llln,
n. 27. 6; ;"'o{3l/l'}K.rYrbK, in sulJordinaJl
1IIannn-, as of a species to a genus, H.
2.
In,..., il/lUtratUm, era",pk, I. 8. 13, etc.

I.C... f', sAow, Ix1u1liJ, I. :n. 6.
... iDlUlrat"",, H. J. 4.
I ... .. I 8
a '.,In.., .I_nlln"", . 11. I, . J .
stl!JdculJU, i.e., Ira/f, a
(species of ..>.Gu&Ot), I. 10. la.
18.3 (defined) = ;"uavt; but the latter
usually refers to the tenn qua fraction or
part, wo&,..AAutoc to it in ils relation to
the greater number. Boethius,.rulJdujJlw.
1111 &onsefjlU"', usslr ter", of a
ntio, I. 19. 2. v. Boethius,
C01l"S.
II divuitm "11/0 JNzrls, I. 8.4.
....,_, jlllllllftkr, !JI sll6jat to (a meas
ure, p.ft-ptlf), I. 13. 7 i (a procus) 8. 8.
11I) Sfl61f1UtlJijk ntp
jtJrlunJ. a axn'i, reciprocal of the 1r'OA..
(,.v.), I. 17. 8. Doe--
thius, SJllJ_lIi1ijlcx SfljwrJNzrlillU.
.... S1I6",lIlJiplc supn--
JNzrlinllar, a crxf(l''(, reciproc:a1 of the
.-o.Ua..AAcru... (fl1.). I. 11. 8.
Boethius, SJllJmllllipux sMjHrjHIrlinllaris.
.....u...u-... till sIl6",ulJipu, a UX(J&'i,
reciprocal o( the 'Jr'OoUA..>.4a&Qt' (V.v.),
I. 11.8, r8. 2 (usually applied to numben
that measure a larger number with especial
reference to their ratio to the latter;
p.lpoti are applied to them vua
!'actors, parts). Boelhius, ru611",ltiplcx.
!JrilfE under a ratio, 11. 21. 2.
h ,_, Sli6lcnd an angle, n.... 3.
" ",....u,""'. lilt SI/lx;lItuirlipu (ntio
1: 4), rmprtKaJ 0/ tl" vutuirllju, I. 18.
J. Boethius, slI!Jt}uadruplw.
.....,etv-, SH/JIH'St, I. 20. 2; /Jkue hlbw, lI .
8. 3.
:...",."u,'-", tlu ndJIripu (ratio I : 3), re-
dprtKlll of tk triple, I. 18. 3 i n. 21. 6.
Boethius, slI6Iriplus.
1111 $1I6slSVllitzlJW (ntio I : I i or
2: J). redprtKlll ojlk Itsfllial/w, J. 19-
2. Boethius, su6stSfJ"tzllw.
mid., arise fro"" I. 10. 6.
'+ow, a 'We6, hence, slrudurl, dis/JIuilibtf of
a table, I. )9. 13; qnJUuco" U. To\i
nntural arra1lgemlnt of """'Hr, the nat-
ural series, I. 9 S'
+ot. luil"lll, a dimension of solids only
(same as {3rUhx), n. 13. I.
NICOMACHUS OF GERAS,A

I
.......oAA..... Ia" """t""I' lJmlfJOle",., appli.ed to
nu,m'bers, :11. 19.. I,.
_- ",', mtlluaUy,/)tllnlolml" 1:1.. 20. 3;0
._,un'" n,atu,ral, esp" natural series, of
n,umber (dpllJp/It" "iXor, ',,'cae:r, xa),
I. I,g. 10' 1,1.,,8 3, ,etc..,
'p-, produ,e, getu,ale" 11.. 3. 2;, pass. fit'
Jrotlut:6d, 11. 5'
ftI
cA
' lid IJOI ;iJ 11
",- J' ,. . ,',-:',--' :,_. .- '. , - ' ..., .... '. .'. -, I ..., -,-
.X"" ". p, ,..Qr ,,e" 1Y1II, .. ,. , I,D -D.,otatIOD, :-', '.
6 2.
X........, cross-lines Whlc:h mak:e the 'form] of
the l,e,tter ch,i, 1,1, ,14. In t'he old
..
form of 'the letter' the lines cross, lD the
man,ner of our' s,igo for plus"
X.A""" d t!toUSdtld ; piu,r'" tit,,' IA'ousa"ds
(Iooo--gm), l, 16. 31'"
...&,....iIIi t./t,f.... -I .' IitIIIi
use, em
F
"", ,,' 2,1j 2; p..lpltTit )(p4-
oftu, A,ave lael'(Jrs, I .. [2l!
(I) 4 of' number, I. 7-
I, (as a de'fi,'D,i.tion of ' num,ber 't).
(:2) IZ se,r:ies; '''e "tztllraJ J,trtes (4)11fTl-
,.m., X), 18. 4, [9. 6, (dp,Ip,vrueov
X,.)" 11. 1
1
0. 2
plate in a seri,es,t I'li 20'11 ,5 lran,
fe'rred t,o the number indica,ti,ng the plac[e
, ..' ip' I - 6
a term .D', sen,e5, ,. '.' I J,. ' '
eT
IIi
II:lIiiLl'.I..&.y '0 sense com,.'
o le .ab: e the ,reade,r t[o fi. [d 1'- ul,-k:l ..
__ .,d frlequenlly.
EX, ANDI
God
,', ,
I ' ..." '. ,I
J .". 1: 1,',"1
1
0 1 ).1,
U
' .....
0_" ..
8
'-'9"'8':
I '.' :.':.
__........- .... r g, ,Hoc'he,.
'. I I 10_ 6'
_., . .-' I - -9:.' 1"".,
:-= [ ,-'
,7
....'
.:. v',
1U1:m,"'Ica" .
.':5 W-:---O'" Its I .' . .
.'. I . ., . .. .
10' .1,0 .. it
J: Sg_!
1/, enstD",S.. Ed I: .'CB -.: ..
'.IOH'is Arilhmel.uCJe L,lbr'
Oi
JIV.,....
.' .) ,E,.-.....,;..
2 vo-,
in .'. i'bliolheque drtJ'
(._., a:test editions

"
....,......IoMU_, ,Etudes $ur [la "
,.
IIIQ,u'es EI'lUles, Fasc 21 7, 19 SI'
.... del' Vor: o,llrlUl,-
'. 'u, I"ed.)
I, ....IDC!!
Elsenlobr, Aupat, Ein fJUJllwmal,isCMS BondM'h der' alUn A,egyp.'f> 'Le.ip,zig,
I 8'9-.' , .. . III
Heath" T. L,., The TA;j"leen Boo',ks of Eru;l'jd's Elemmls. 3 vo;umes. 'Cambridge,
I
nt'\g-
_yy.:t1
-----.......... (Sir Thomaa), A Hut:"", lo/Greek MtJIhem6ti&s. ,2 v'olumes. Oxfor'd,J :1:9211:
.,-, '. :elmllDD, G.. H,. Jr., GeJchi',hU ,der Alge'brtJ" vol.. I. Berlin, 184,2. (Only olne
vo ume was plublls,hed.)
'Peel, T. Eric
t
The RhiN ,MalhemaJi1Jl PiJ,pyr'us. London, 1923.
V
J
--1 M' ,. .. SI 'ht G-' Le'" '" S
011 . aD, .&dU, , "WUZ-c,crt'iI'ott'S -' 95.
B,duo'd, ,lM PlJil'os,ophie der Gruchen,. Leipzig.. (Tb;e 'atest editions
have been consulted.)
11
,
'"'
D
[.
'14',' 3
". ,
- '... _trou-
t 'I J5:;
'.po' [on.'}
_'t
of
l
3- -. ,;, develop-
t COD-
.II,Y a' -; tribu'ted
r
""1
7S
o
d-
t
- !!!
'Or-[
.1
6",'
c .
"mlLlSllalU
'I
Ari.thm-"'.'.-
A
- 1'1' tin'.. .: I J _ -
-,,-- ---
2 8
Bu lOID..
But__ -,
C ntor - . - I
I 7
255' D..,
sa. ' e' ' ..
. '11
...
"':1 om
of
..'
ftl
'1 .'. I'
o
90
,
01
"' .
-

1
, I
"Ii", 1"2
'-!iJ1
,6 0-
o.
.n ,e '1 1 '0' III
, , "
....callilli;l-it;'...; ''''u e - nd
num.her, 1. :14 ; o.n
D.; "a1bolismnent I and
2,67; virtue ,amean,t
A
ft.
-1- -, 8g; Life of, ascr"bed
I'
.--. -u-
I
lSt:OI:ID,\lS, '71-.'
3:'3
3
.. ,.. 1
-N,-n-,EX-
.. . .. . .. ,
'. 1
F
F,aber S,t8:pul
,
ensis" aritbm'eticaD, 14$.
Favomus)1 91 nil
Figur,a'te numbers, (plane and solid), antient
c=OD.c.eptioDS, of,. 55; Nicomachusts doctriDe
120"""12:2'"
F
'orm.,-:s-, d,'oc. .. tnn'.-"e 0.... ' m' NlCO -
. .. ,. - ... ,... ,. - _... . . .. ''''''''''..
F
... . f ,0; Egyp. th ., ..' _.". " .1 . ", - -.' " I . '. . . '" . '", -. . _, _' _
.,racUOns" treatment, 0 11 In ..... .tum an, - -
III G k d d- aI f
'meuc, 7;, . ani' me: le'V t,r:eatmen.. t.o JP
1L.1.1 .. G' L .. ..' 6
7--8,; umtJ! JuIcJ".,r;. m .' .. notation.,
Fried cin. 125 182 .D.
'D
'Decad, sacredness, and perfection of, 1
1
06" 2%9
1
,
267' -"
De,ficient nu.mbers, .52:. ..
Armand, 90. 91 nil
Democritus, IS.
Diaulos) tb,eorem, . ,2'8-129, 24'7
Dick:son.,. 120 208 D", 209 D", 243 n.
DieIs, 17 l'9[ 21 D". 22 26 D.jl 2'7
9S 114 D". 1,8<1: a." 1,8'5 n.,., .269 D.
Dimensions, 238..,
Di,odorus Siculus, 10 D.
Diogtenes 3, 17' D., 27 n " 88 D,. 89 L
Diophan'tus, 70, 138, 246 D,.,. ,51, .24,0 D.
D
.. .' '" Egyp- - .tj' met-hodI of, #:.
. . lV1Slon,-'c,":. ., 1_1 _' '.', v.
--: ,. 'La " iltlu '11 .
Domnmos 0:' ..nssa,. an 142
Dupuis,. 36 D. I
Dlyad, an elemJent) '99, 1.15-:1:19, 23,0'; ideD- [
tified with I otbemess", 100, 21:1, 2: 55, 2.S7. :
Capella, l\[artianus,. 91; arithmetical d,oc:- Elem,[ents, doctrine 'of., in. ....icomaCbus, 93;
trines of., 91 n[ .. , )'0,5 13,8,-142:, 238 'D.,. defined., 230'"
.257 D. E/Ji'nomis, 'ci.ted, 185.
'C,assiod.oms, 71. n+. 7,8 n., 124.; arithmetic. of, l..lrlliJG'J 68.
Equality as the element of ratio, 4' , 53., 225-
Ca;t,e,gories" 9[5, 261. 22'6., 230
CaxtonJ. M ""ol.r of th'e JV:orld, cited" 187' Etatosthen'e5." 213,'.8, ';, Plaltmict's O'f" in 'Gree,k
Chai,gne' " 33 n." 7S n. J. 88 n... ,Bg n"JI 104 D", anthm;etic, 27JI 41 n m'ftuence or" 0 D Thron,
ChalCldius" '9I 0 .. , 2.38 D.. , 25S DOl ,36., 4.1; sieve., of, 51, j the t three
Cir,cueloy[ J:4S. rulesl' in, 35, 2'25 DI, 266 D.
Cir,cular 2'$7'. Escot.t" .290.
Clemens Alexandrillus, 01 ft", 104 D.. Escurial. manuscripts of' at, :125..
Co.m.poSlte :n.umbers, 202-:2,03* 14'9
Congruence, first a.ppearan.ce of, 1\n history' of Eubulid.es, 33,.
mathematics, 58. Euclid, 4. 21 u,,' 38 D.. , 4HS., iXU:nm,J 114 0.,
Continuous and discrete" Ill, 18.3-: 138 n.. , 139. 140 D,., 191: Dj;, )'92 J'93 D.j
Cope, 16, n. 196 D.'I'.'I J98 199 201 nI" 202. 203 D..:t
Cosmo,IOD,y of Nicomach'us
t
;206 :1.., .09'D, 210
1
21'4 n", 240 ft." 265
C'oxe" 1. 25 D. 270 nil, 2'73 ft" 283 D.; Sectu, Canon;s, 21.
a:pparatu5 of-rdrodut.lion, I.. 1-3.. 162- i .influence of" on G"ree,k arithmeticJl 2,8; OD.
166" Nicomach'us, 34; de6nitioD of number by..,
- - , '11 I
CUbes,1 possess ,I 'I J9;' In . am.. . _c us, I 114-.
. ,
1.30" p, ,oduction of, 5r-.58, 2'52-253; 1 Eu,demus, 17 D.
erties of, 2.51, :2'63, 274; theorem of Nicoma... Eudoru:s, 2'5o'DII'
h
i' Q:". .. d
'e 'us conc'ermng,. 2'Uy ., ex:tenslOD an gener'" ,udoxus, 25, 26, 30, 114" 266, IL
, alizatiOD of' the 'theorem" 280-290'11 I Euph'r&brOr, 20.D.., 30t 266 D.
C'umonl, 5 nI, I (1 D.,. 15' D,,, EusebiU's, 78 D.
Eutoclus
J
, .3, ,68" :12:6 L
E'v&nS, 67 D.
Even. numbers:. classification of, 49. 192 ,
defin
I ed l\i'\o-,'lII"9-'I" -.nd: odd: tb'Ieo,re1 rei ..-at w
1._---.:.. ...:-..t .,- .... - ., _ .. :.: ... '-.' .. .- '. - ..
IDI' to sums" products, e''tc.., of, 4'9, ,274 ;
part&ke- I of 'o:therness, 255. '2.57,
Even-tim-_. ev'en numbers, 19:2:-'196-
odd Dum'ben! 196-198.
BatOD, 143 b,..
Egypt" meth,ods of computatio'D, iD" 4,
6-'[5,
Egyptian 'festivals" work 'OD, by :Nicomachus"
So
....
", '", il
Eise;nlohr... 6 DIl' 1.2.
G
. .
ae
t' 69
. -- . -.- - '. . . I . I ....
\ ,ma-ha" _.
Ge
: .. -,".. -
. ,. 1 I ,.. '-
..... IDlDUS, 3-
Geometri,c proportiolD (progression.), Greek
. '. th ,-'. ,c 16'1 0- IM- d, - :&nd Id,A...;.
an c me . 'I .-, .3. -yv t' .. .. WICQ .
scribed,
I:g' . " .
,. .
-
I , ~ , :-_ -'I
260,. _,
..ico - ;' .chus,
Palomc
"tb T,heon
J
0, 1 . 6-1:66, :;
b,Y
o'r:.
,.-'I
01
!!',
cr" ~ ,
- . ~ 7~ elm- ~ ,] ,f' o,f
B;;- ~ 'Commt,'IJ....
'10 Ar,U .met;c." 16--
1-
- "
, ~ . . ,
:8-;-'- , .
r
"." 0,'
..13'
.. I
0,
2'-4':6- D , .' -_<I!
,
iF
",
iIi
'61-- '17-
201 2:,,8,
WiUiiJ, I'. - ,11
8
i
, " ''I'
. ~ ,
iii
In
."
',' D '. "1 I
_. - ~ 'I
-,
.- I
leo, ac'I'US, 7'
, 15', -61",
:2 "'I' '93 _'I 20,.J
1 I'iIi "'S"S'O . ': Dill) .. " -I 11 '.1
D."
of
'5
,- 8--
I, J '1- -, ,
'g- .,1
,. '
3
16
[0
..
,.. IObloDg numben, 39;
IO'Crea,te, 6, I: ft.
'Odd 'Bumbers, classincation oft 301 t
defined" lQI"; partue of 'sameness," 'SS,
257. 2[63
()d.d@times, eve'D numbers, 198-'20Iil
,Qmot- 14 7- a- IAJ[n n .so n
. ...:... - [11,;1 ., '--'. ."",. -....,. _. - c...' . - _ ..
Op
"_":1 .. N'" h
[['ua-uv, ID lCOm.&C_US.. I 7D-'"":l 11
Orthograpb.y of Nicomachus,. 177..
",.,.. clauses in Nicomacbus, 17J-172'.
N
: -:bbe-- C F A edi- t N' ... -ach-ean - . - ". , r I' . 11.' .. " . I '. 1._
.. 0 ... .." .'. .'. ..or 0 ICOm .. . m ,
rial, 146, s8S ,"
Notation, Greek arithmetical, con..
ventional and nat.ural, -coordiDg 1'0 Nicom-
[ achus
J
231.
I .Number, cJassific.ation. [of, by Theon, J,8;

: of .Q.", 15 o...-.. f 8- 1'14-
1
-. )5
.." "tU t .DIU .' [. ,.', '.. , ,
JfJ.O., as 'forolS" ID Nicomachus philosophy.
divine and (scientific,' 'iD Nlcoma.-
cbus, 98'-99, 115'; theory of;. in, N.icomachus,.
1II"""I 23, ;, harmony 'in" 120-1:21 non....
th
":c__1 li"' -. of ill N
iO
h
ma qua.... ties . :t m > lcomac Ius,
1:22'-"123"
Numemls. (G.reekl. 66-70
..
p
P
.-nlftl"-[ -'po . '.... I 8
.,-.u0 - u.J.UD - - - - )I. ,
Papyrus, Michigan., 'Noil 62[., 7!i1
I Parallelepipedons, :154.
:p. III f Nil _L
.. ani, maD.uscnp - 0
"
... Icom.aeuus, ID, 140-

p[tWli.u,. ratio,[ 14["
1-, Wy... 7'2 D.
Pediasimus., 12'4 D,t. 113 D""I 2'41 D.
Peet. 6 nil
Peotagonal numbers", 24,3-2'44..
Perfect. numbers; 41., 200--2[2jj,
n b.: rb 6. N" .-L
C[enp. rasuC: ve, - I,O'rmJ m' ... lco,mlaaUS. ['7'5.
"'Phialite' problems, 4,
Philip o:f Opus, 26.
_ i: Wo Judaeus" '75,,90 n., 'roS D " 238,B.
J
2-tQ D.,
writings of, 263 n.; .arithmetic,a'. data cited byJ. 3.1-32;
1:1. N.. jj. h rJ..
.Jia.eness to ::.[Icomac .us
J
yv.
Philolau5r.; J 19 D"f' 259 '0", 26,. n,,; as, la mathe-
matician.. J. n:8uenee' of, OD. Nicoma-
,chus,., 35.; d.t[oo by Theon an,d 'Ni.comachuSJ
37. On Nalu,e, 19'J.,
. Philoponus, Jol1annes, 147, ISO, '182 n.... 19.2
193 .1'94 D. 249 n., scholia upon Nicoma-
I chusJ '72 J 2'5
P.hilosophy:. gen'e'ral, of Nicomach.u5, 83-11[0;
'0,' numbers, o,f Nicomachus, '1.11-1.13; mean-
ing of the 'wo'rd, :181.
N
14-75., SB-.ga;
reJating to arithmetic
ll
, 3
Nesselmann, 71 D".:. 80 Dr. J 2'1 n.", J 28, D..
J
, 132' D"J
192 ..., 20
1
:[ 0 . ,, 219 n.. , 225 D-, D., 264, nil,
"26,s D.
Nic.omachus, Rule o.f, 6r; estimate of, as
a mathemati[cian, 65; life of,. 7'1 w'orks"
1'Q-8'1;, philosopby of, 88-110; etbical
fragment of, 92';; philosophy' of Dumber,
1'1 f - I 23;' translators and commenta10n, of,
124='137; manu5C.ripts and text of, 146-J66 :;
- d 1 f
. .
-, '. ',. ,- ..". [ .. ,'. '.-. . :171 _ ... 1',
language an st.y_e 0 , ,167 111t
Manuscripts, [of Nicomachus, 146-159; at F..
curial. 125', 14,91j
Marinus, '77 D-
Mrtianu, 'C,apella., see CapeUa.
Martin:, Tb. H f 2'7 240' D., 244 D.,
M
'atb.ema[ .. ':""'5-,. sources of, 3-...... 1 S: ...
. '. . ...1 - _ .....1. l' I.
)fat.ler, doctrines, abou.t, m N'icomacb.u.,
q.2-q4" 182.
Jr6. use oft in Nicomachu5, ..,
"".,an"", - Ijj'n' rt=o,D ....1' be-:tDllleeD two- ,. term 8 m
D """"'ill." .. - ... ,J., , U\., .' ,"., -':.. _. ", '--
N'ioo:mach.us an;d Tbeon, 64" 2[78-28'1. be.
t'weeb pllane' :and solid Dumbers, 25" 2[7-
273
"'XPl-t elc", in Nlcomachu" 173..
Megillus,
M,"""o,um rtJJ1itJ" 141
, d d -., I h--I
: .pOr aD' IstlllJU15 ro." 53..
"t,j,eli, 18 b
Milbaud, 5 D.
Minoan numeral sys'tem, 66-6'7"
Y
od to. f G d D 7" c .. ...JIIt.
" era [us 0[' :a[e&. ,30' , .. , 33-.34. 3 , u:u
, I
1[03, J 18 '266
M Dad:; d '. - '22: 7 p""':'I0s0phi- - "c ..... 0-- 1 -.' aD[, one . >. 3" [DU. . ['-. ,- ..
- - - . -" . .. ,. J. _.. ., e. - _.. -- _. -- - - I
trines of, in Nloomach'Us, 96;, with. [dyad,
as element, Q9[t II,S,-119, 230; identified
...rib I sameDAe.e' 100 . 21 J' 255 25[7 'of "[iI-.[.. - ,,::..: .1" . - ... '.1........
1
. le.
the second (third, C-O'urse, 120" 129"
2:19; see. Unity.!!.
MoultoD, 1.68 D'''J 17
1
0 D., J 71 ,D. " 1'1'3 0., 174 D.
t
,
175 D.
Mall.er, J46.
Multiples and_ub,m'ultiples
J
, :21.4:0-21.5..
Multiple uperparticulBr ratios), 222..... ;2'24.
Multiple supe,rpartient ratiLos, de'fined aDd
described" ..
Multip.lication., EgypUaD. me'thod of:, 6. with
G:reek Dumerals" 68;, table 217,
Music,l.ost . o:rk, of Nicomachul on, [701
:Musical in.tervals, 276; cano -, 27,8; ,pro.por-
dOli. (so called)" ,284-286
My;omdes, 18, D".
t
30, 266 D,..
:11' '., , ,
of ,213. ,.
JI ' I ..
d (I
. :'.-: - .
-"1 2',,5,
.'
.',
""7-' - I
!I'd .,'Ilo
" - _'Ion.'-
'1'8, 254-
OD o';her
tlJltDlalJCJl1,
':6-
Ott _,-- ..
irl j -
,j;,>. comachus,. 'I 2s_
II!'
I.
ol'f '_ ',2,.
k"nd

- " -II..iFII.'"F . _. (}6,..
r,
. ,
nc

;I' ,
"'0' .I':' .- I
I I
-I all!' , ',' :,
,b
:0-
Sou],
"h-'o,I.:
fI I.,
.,1
...,
,
'',
.'
mathe-
of" by'
,
I
tru
' I'IDc8Ited,
- .' ,-. J
284,;
L,ife
,2s8
25, 65,
I I
" '2-.
'-'ItJ! il
...o ,', IQ'!!'
d' tinguiSbed" 238.
,__Dd 11 Ia:nve y prime.
: _: t.ivelyf 203-204 ; dis-
j 2'-tu:--2a6 " ....... ",10
60, '7'7:11 142, 183
;0
0IiI5UC"
matbC,:
lOUt ..n h,'fo,1)" Q'r
ri! tl- f
." o. on
lo'f,t by Niooma
37', 41, 44; rational and
-, 60,; Laws" 8;. Ti
95, 97" lOO, 10)', 182,
I ZS4 D., 26,1
23' Ellns
,S-I, Re.",.r18'llC
:,
.&-60'
_3,
,,_ - D
24, ,21-
.-
2,54. 28.31
of 18;
::"9
COlmlnll.:a. ._ n 8;0
tari

o
...... '
,
'1-
, ,
,
INDEX
I U'
Ubi-ty, odd 0'" even., 48,; compared to the
. t I . I t 2''' ... 't'j 'f' a-': !!i
geome nea po n ; 37) ,p,roper 0 ,I 2,3' ,:.
beginniQg of ,number, 239'; su'Mo'Bad.
34,; his life and boo,k, 36-45-, '
I,as,sim; on unity, 48;. d,ate of" 71-72;
I
i,t:.. f- h '" 1 it b
c asSlnca'tlon o. mat_.,ema.ttta_ SCle'n,c,es ".y,
,compa.ri.'son with work ,0,1 Nicomachus) [13..,
Theophrast'Us) 27, 2' SS D..
36, 42 , 71 .
i Three ru),es" 4,1, 53, 22$-2'2\9; m'ersed,
2,30-234.
Tbymarid,as, 1'21't 13,J.
Touraeff, 14 D.
I Triad, first, ,&C'tual. 'Dumber, 11'1'.
Triangle' ,the eJ,e,ment"ary' :form, 2400-24r,
'T'riangular num.bers, 39
1
, 56, I 29"
of polygonals, from.", as el.emeD.ls,
56, 24
'Tnmca.ted, hi-trun,cated, etc." pyramids,. 25'2.
I 26 D., 3$ D." 71 n., 74 D. J 75t ,81, ,82 n.. )
8'8 8Q
'.- .' .-'", -,'J "., ,," I ., ..... 'I ,"
...... 0." n,,) 93,n., 104 ,n,.
.Zero not part of the Nicomachean numbe:r
s:ystem. 48, I 20.
Zeuthen
J
S9 D.,I 83 D.
19 26
1
t
88
t

SpbericaJ numbers., 57,. 257..
Squares" theor-em's in Theon,
'I I h - .......
3,9-4;0'; ID . ,am =.. ,c. 'US
t
'J 28-129' ; I.n l';,lcom...
Bchust 262-263J' 274; diVIsibility o:f, 58 ;
c: C!!1I!I'me'nes' .. s }. t J 9 2' 5S' 2S1 ....6:2 : ...',,' ":, .:',':':1' ,':.:1:', "j;,." I'
graphically fiepresen.ted, 242 243,; resolu-
'lion of into tna:ngJ.es. 56 :24" 7' -. an.d,.,
,. .'. t.,. ,t - ... ....-
meci.c n,umbers. 57t 260-'3
1
62.
Sto'baeus, JJ 34 D." 104 n,t, ,1'14, J:I S n.
J
2'5"9 R.
Stoi,c i,nflueDce on, 9,5'-1)6..
Superabun,dant Dum,ben, 52,
5uperparlicular" series of, ,deriv,atioD of, from
mu.l,tipJes
t
54, :2',3 1- 234; defined and de- I
'scribed,. ,21 5"""22'0",
Superpartient ratios, defined and ,descn1Jed,
.2 ,20 j denva,tio,n of, 221.
Surface)
Su,terj I 2S 144 'n.
Slveste'r' n. Pope; a'rithmeti,c of, 144;;
T
T:-nnery, P., ,3 Di' 16, 21 D.
t
22, 7a'D., 104 D,_,
1.26", 142 D.... I4J B.,. 240 D.
Tay'Ior, Tb.. , 21, l! 'D.. 213 D,.
.,ixvu.
1
16.
Ten, 'sacred" 2'67 n.
Text of the 1nIrtHIuct.'Um 10 Antllmelic', sug-
gested changes i'D, 158-16].
T_"tJltt,s, 1'05" 267,n,,,
Thlbit ilm Qoraih, 125. 144,,,
ThaI,es, defines n.um.ber,,' 12.. 114; in his:tory of
mathe'matics
J
17.
Theodorus Pl'OtocensoT" scholium of
l
OD
Nicomachus" J 25" 147
,TlIeolo&u:JMnQ. .dNti.'ieu, work, of ,Nico-
machus, 82; an,onym,ous, 82; rela,tion' of
aDO'By,maus" to 'Nicomachus, cited, '
38 0"'1 42 D., 80 '90 n... 9
12
n... 93 ft.,
96-123, !Jtun:"., 1,32 n,." 1911' Dt
t
194,n,."
219' D'iJ 229 238 n'" 2_0 n,., :247 n,.,
248 D" 249 D., 255 n", 251 D,., '262 D",
26
7 n
Theo'o of Smyma., 18 n.. ) 20' n., 90
r
a .., lOO n."
11.3 ft., 12'7 128 D;lt 172 'D., 1'84,-2'86.,
. f' h'" 'book ( !!idI
notes, p'urpose 0- '.15 1.3J',
in P'latomc study)r, 28 j, intluenced by ,ModM
Vane;, go D'.J 104,
Vatican, :manuscripts, of Ni
r
oomachu5, a.t, IS7
Yinc-e,ot ,of Beauvais" Spe.cul'a.m Doe,l'ri"tik of"
1
"45'
. '." .
V
'U.'
.on neln:emanDJ :14'7 ft.
Von Jan, 11 D.; 72 D.; 76 D!!i' ?9 80 D., ,81 D.
. ,
W
,
..
W
- 1 . ')' " . '"1 ' I - - J.- .I I.
app, er, D..
"W,asps, J 2.5'3.
W hi 6
' .' '.' . . I . . -,"
. ec:-,e
l
.. 14'0' 14'7-
.' W:' .'ed'." . . . . , ,.. _. ''''
.. -,.ges,. I .: -, '_ -;.
Westcott, 72 'il..
W
nI t 1'_1 1 N": 'h
.lCOmac us, 1'75-1'7'7-
,
WorrieD; 144 n.
x
X
't - "6- 88
,>u-"""':1. a e8, .\-:t '.. '.
z
..
'.1

Nicomachus' Introduction To Arithmetic

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of J;lcuDitf

THE MAmEMATICAL CONTENT OF THE GREEK MATHEMATICA

,('p'hla'lI"t'e') - c"1 pour' (fr .. o.. 'lm' con--taI"'o--'er)1 th-re'.'e' t-JDl

contributions worthy of note.

GREEK ARITHMETIC BEFORE NICOMACHUS 17

Whether Theon is to be treated as a successor or a predecessor of

n [2 + (n - I)(k - I)], the nth (k + I)-gonal number,

The remains of the city, moreover, monumental and written, at-

is likewise the point of departure from the cosmology of the Timaeus,

titles.' How far the authors of such collections believed in what

,'-Ie' -.. [0."

LANGUAGE AND STYLE

and ... ,th an odd Dumbel of

,t'h,-fo''rm-e:'rcas'eth'' ",-,,,,,,1-""'1""["""" ,t[:f,, .-ts' 3

TRANSLATION: BOOK II 237

PI 1.... ed .. I 10.. h th .... f .. 'T' ill dd

,a'n,1 tl. '.e succee mg t.enns WIL-c go on ,m S,lDll ar :.as .. ion.

etrlc 'an' 'd' 'harm' .-', n'I'c---:-'' fO"'r It

N COMACH'US QIF GERASA

....--I.L.- C'I )1 ..... . ... , t'!L, . t .-.,"

In,..., il/lUtratUm, era",pk, I. 8. 13, etc.

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