Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PHOTOGRAPHIC MEANING
JOHN A. WALKER (COPYRIGHT 2009)
Consider a wedding photograph, and then the variety of contexts in which such an
each shift of location the photograph is recontextualised and as the context changes
so does the meaning. For example, in the family album the wedding photograph is a
shop window the 'same' picture is the token of a type, that is, one which represents
capable of producing. In the shop window the formal and technical qualities of the
photograph are foregrounded in a way they are not in the family album because
technical competence.
that is, their internal relations (part to part, parts to whole within the framing edge).
The frame of the photograph encloses a space, a world, which we can enter (in our
mentally place in brackets the context in which the photograph is viewed, even
When the word ‘context’ is used, it should really be qualified in order to make it
clear which of the several different types of possible context is being referred to. For
photographic denotation (its depicted content): a car in a photo does not become a
monkey's head simply because the photo is moved from a private house to a public
either a caption, text, another picture, or a particularly potent display context, then
a 'third-effect' meaning can be generated from that juxtaposition which was not
of sheep crowding into a fold, the third-effect implication is plain: 'these commuters
are sheep-like in their behaviour'. And this pictorial insult to commuters would gain
In the distant past, paintings and sculptures were generally produced for
panel paintings in oils supplanted mural paintings in fresco and tempera, and as the
mobility of artworks increased until they lost all connection with specific places.
and media. (1) News photographs can now be transmitted by wire [and the
worldwide web] with extreme rapidity from country to country, that is, from one
cultural context to another. The effect of this phenomenal mobility of the image has
train, in an aircraft, etc. In this instance, the media context (newspapers, books,
To illustrate the influence media context can have upon the way a photograph is
text on the front page of a newspaper and encountering that same photograph in the
form of a glossy print surrounded by a wide border of white paper in the pages of a
'serious' art photography journal. In the first case we are encouraged to accept the
Circulation/currency
contemporary situation (as in a lecture) in order to focus attention on the image and
photograph enters into relationships with new circumstances and publics. In other
words, there is a need to examine the life of an image as well as its birth, to consider
its circulation, its currency, as it moves through time and space from context to
context, as it is used by various individuals and groups for different purposes until
'currency' are borrowed from John Tagg who derived them via an analogy with
various social strata and institutions. While an image circulates it is current - it has
a meaning, a use, a value for a particular community. Even after it has been
'withdrawn from circulation' it may enjoy an 'after-life' by being re-used from time
Jo Spence
photographs by Terry Dennett and others, depicting Jo Spence from the age of
eight-and-a-half months to her forties was displayed recently [i.e. 1979] in the
these images in two different contexts: the entrance hall of a public library in
Finsbury and as a cover/feature article in the feminist magazine Spare Rib which I
only in family albums (the private realm) into the public sphere. As her title makes
clear, the images may be private and personal but the conventions at work are
public and social. The frankness of the exposure, combined with the feminist
polemic and the transition from private to public, endows the series with
the black and white Spare Rib cover photograph - Spence at her plainest and with a
dour expression - with all the other women's magazines in the newsagent's racks
with their glamorous, smiling, full-colour, synthetic model girls or optimistic
housewives. In this context the feminist aspect of the critique really told, it seemed
to me.
Perhaps the most striking images of the series were two showing Spence
reclining nude as a baby and as a mature woman. This juxtaposition was extracted
from the set as a whole by the art press (they were reproduced on the art page of a
London evening newspaper and in Art & Artists). Wrenched from their context the
see me in a new way'. (3) In the Hayward Gallery Spence displayed her private
specific audiences (e.g. employers, typists as consumers). This device enabled her to
make visible the stereotyping of women taking place within various genres of
photography, and in particular the way in which the public/private division results
audiences of professionals for example, photographs of tired, ill, and anxious people
produced a different emphasis in their reading: in the magazine it was the feminist
dimension which was highlighted; in the public library it was the private/public,
context because the context is, of course, only one factor amongst many.
context.
It is clear from the above that Spence's exhibit had a didactic aim; the
Hayward Gallery became a learning centre. But before we can judge the efficacy of
Spence's exhibit we need to know more about the motivations of those who visit art
undertake research to discover whether in fact they learn anything from such
shows. (5)
can influence the meaning of the context. This reasoning lay behind John X.
Bcrger's comment at a Hayward Gallery evening discussion that the socialist and
feminist photography 'had radicalised the gallery space'. But the influence is two-
way: it could also be argued that the gallery - a High Art cultural institution
This issue cannot be settled in the abstract: a survey of visitors would help to
So far I have focussed principally upon the display and media contexts in which
someone; the artefact is only part of the work of art; hence, we must also take into
account what Ernst Gombrich calls 'the beholder’s share'. (6) A viewer approaches
an image not with a blank mind but with a mind already primed with memories,
For example, in John Berger's and Jean Mohr's book A Seventh Man, a
remind him of his family. Berger remarks: 'Seen in the darkroom when making
the print, or seen in this book when reading it, the image conjures up the vivid
presence of an unknown boy. To his father it would define the boy's absence.’ (7)
That is, people have different relations to the same image according to the
different places they occupy in society, determined by such factors as gender, race,
assaulted by racists. It has often been pointed out that the Front are photogenic, as
were the German Nazis before them. Their facial expressions, body language and
power - which are perceived by the Left as negative values but which may appear
positive to Front members. It may, therefore, be politically more valuable for the
Left photographer to stress the weak and pathetic aspects of the racists rather
than analysing photographs (the analyst is in fact reflecting upon his or her own
experience of the image); after all, what does go on inside other people's heads?
especially the fact that individuals belong to social groupings - above all social
responses to images which are similar for large numbers of the populace. The mass
media would simply find communication impossible if there were not common
stereotypes do not merely exist externally in the world of the mass media, they
inhabit us.
It is, however, problematic to judge the impact of a single image when we are
exposed to a veritable flood tide of visual imagery daily, in addition to all the other
imagery is having no effect at all. But it does serve to affirm and reinforce the
Only when the social context changes dramatically (as in a revolution) is the
elite, revealed; in such moments the icons of power are smashed by the people. For
example, in Paris during the 1871 Commune, the Vendome column, symbol of
temporary example: ever since the advent of the women's movement we have seen
advertising. This example reminds us that although our freedom to decode or read
images is highly restricted - the structure of the 'text' structures the way we
experience it - we can still make an oppositional response (this has been called
sented a gladiator stricken to death in the arena raising himself on his elbow to
draw his last breath. The populace of Warsaw understood its official meaning
lies outside their control. Left-wing theatre, film and community photography
groups are usually keen to exercise control in this area in order to ensure the most
favourable and appropriate conditions for the reception of their work. They are
also concerned with mental context in the sense that their work is generally
produced with the needs of specific audiences in mind or is adapted to suit local
circumstances. Recent film theory has addressed itself to problems of the subject's
relationship to the film text and also the more general relationship between film
and audience. (9) This appears to be one area in which practice is further
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(1) Andy Warhol's silk-screen paintings are exemplary in the way they insist upon
(2) See John Tagg's article 'The Currency of the Photograph’, Screen Education.
(3) Jo Spence, 'Facing up to Myself’, Spare Rib, (68) March 1978, pp. 6-9 plus front
cover.
(5) Many exhibitions are mounted with an educational aim in mind; for example,
the mammoth Dada & Surrealism Reviewed show at the Hayward Gallery in 1978
was organized on this basis; however, a sociological study of this exhibition -
Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978) - revealed that despite the fact that most
people attended the show to learn about Dada and Surrealism, they learnt very
little.
(6) E. H. Gombrich, 'Part Three: The Beholder's Share', in Art and Illusion: A
pp. 181-287.
(7) John Berger & Jean Mohr, A Seventh Man, (Harmondsworth, Middlesex:
(9) For a summary of this area, see R. Coward & J. Ellis, Language and
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977). See also M. McLoone 'Report of BFI summer
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John A. Walker is a painter and art historian. Thanks are due to Richard Platt and
Terry Smith for their comments upon early drafts of this article.
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This article was first published in the magazine Camerawork, no 19 August 1980, pp.
5-6.
Photography, ed. Jessica Evans (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1997), pp. 52-63. In
kinds. The 1980 article was prompted by a desire to clarify in my own mind the
role that context plays in modulating the meanings of photographs. Shortly before,
for Benson and Hedges cigarettes. (1) The 1980 article thus marked a logical
extension in my thinking from the internal, form and content of photos to their
During the 1970s and 1980s I was employed as a part-time lecturer in two art
colleges; therefore, one could say that my article was literally a contribution to the
'Contextual Studies' art and design students were expected to take. I found it
the article that prompted views of this kind: 'Individuals are unique therefore
are human beings'. Taken to an extreme, this argument seemed to imply that every
photo had, potentially, billions of meanings. But if an image had so many meanings,
did this not render it meaningless? The argument denied the fact that consensuses
that humans are social beings who are, in many respects, similar to one another and
who share many experiences. It also undermined the educational process by making
Naturally I was reluctant to agree with the students but they did have a point:
differently to the same stimulus. Clearly, the theoretical problem was, on the one
hand, to acknowledge the range of responses photos generate and, on the other
the duck/rabbit figure, for example - it is clear that some images are ambiguous (in
this case the same signifier has two signifieds: duck and rabbit. The viewer
oscillates back and forth between the two. Recognition depends, of course, on the
viewer already being familiar with the two animals). Most photographs are more
multiple interpretations but. it seems to me, the number of meanings derived will
not be enormous.
Ambiguity and complexity of the image itself was one reason for variations of
take into account the variability of viewers.) After the article was published, I
with the impact works of art make upon viewers, and with the way texts, images
and objects are differentially 'read', interpreted, evaluated, used and 'consumed'.
(2) Hence, this kind of analysis marked a shift of emphasis away from cultural
influential 1968 essay 'The Death of the Author' had appeared in an English
translation in 1977. The author's 'death' supposedly heralded 'the birth of the
reader'.) Reception theory tends to concern itself with the ideal reader implied by a
text or work of art, while reception history tends to be concerned with actual
insight into their responses to images is a problem. Only through discussion with
others can we learn about their thoughts and feelings regarding pictures. The
analyst does have privileged, intimate access to at least one response - his or her
own. Readers of this book will no doubt recall a famous example of a major
theorist who reflected in print upon the emotional impact of a family photograph:
Barthes writing about a photo of his mother (recently deceased) as a child, which,
paradoxically, was not reproduced in Barthes's book (3) While Barthes's response
to the family photo was a personal one, we have surely all experienced similar
contribution to reception studies. Re-reading it today, I feel that its arguments and
conclusions are still sound. The photographs used to illustrate the article may
require a word of explanation. Faced by the difficulty of finding photos showing the
British painter Derek Boshier, photos selected from an artist's book that showed
the same sculpture in sixteen, very different, settings. (See D. Boshier, Sixteen
Since 1980 there has been a greater awareness of context in various quarters.
For example, architects now speak of 'contextual architecture', that is, new
architecture that seeks to take the existing urban environment into account. Fine
artists and theorists have also become more conscious of the display context: witness
particular have shown an acute awareness of the ways the meanings of photographs
are governed by the contexts of encounter and the social class of the viewers. (5)
article, she was in effect asking me to re-contextualise it. In reflecting on the changes
that have taken place between then and now, I note with regret the demise of
Camerawork magazine itself and the death of that vibrant being Jo Spence, whose
Bourke-White' - in- Creative Camera, no. 16, May 1978, pp. 148-9, and 'All that
Glitters .. .' in Camerawork, no. 15, Sept 1979, pp. 4-5. In the first article I did pay
(2) Reception studies have been particularly associated with German literary
criticism since the mid-1960s, that is, the work of scholars such as Hans Jauss and
Germany', Critique, no. 10, Winter 1977, pp. 29-63; H. Jauss, Toward an Aesthetic of
equivalent studies in the field of visual culture. See, for example, my article: 'Pop
Art: Differential Responses and Changing Perceptions', in AND: Journal of Art and
Art Education, no. 26, 1991, pp. 9-16, and Over Here, vo1. 11 , no.2, Winter 1991, pp.
49-62.
(4) A publication based on the symposium was issued later: Nicholas de Ville and
Stephen Foster, eds, Space Invaders: Issues of Presentation, Context and Meaning in
Contemporary Art, John Hansard Gallery, Southampton, 1993.
(5) Allan Sekula's Photography Against the Grain, Press of the Nova Scotia College
of Art and Design, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1984. In his article 'Reading an Archive:
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Further Reading
Richard Bolton, 'In the American East: Avedon Incorporated', in R. Bolton, ed.,
Curran, N. Garnham et al., eds, Media, Culture Society: A Critical Reader, Sage,
London, 1986.
1984.
1986.
The Reader in the Text, eds Susan Suleiman and. D. Crosman, Princeton University