SDH Concepts & Principle

Principle of DWDM,
Synchronization
DLC
 SDH Concepts And Principle

Introduction
It is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing
method. The name of hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method
which is synchronous by nature. The evolution of this system will assist in
improving the economy of operability and reliability of a digital network.

1. Historical Overview
In February 1988, an agreement was reached at CCITT (now ITU-TS)
study group XVIII in Seoul, on set of recommendations, for a synchronous digital
hierarchy representing a single world wide standard for transporting the digital
signal. These recommendations G-707, G-708, G-709 cover the functional
characteristic of the network node interface, i.e. the bit rates and format of the
signal passing over the Network Node Interface (NNI).
For smooth transformation from existing PDH, it has to accommodate the
three different country standards of PDH developed over a time period. The
different standards of PDH are given in Fig.1.
The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started
in U.S.A. as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network). The aim of these standards
was to simplify interconnection between network operators by allowing inter-
connection of equipment from different vendors to the extent that compatibility
could be achieved. It was achieved by SDH in 1990, when the CCITT accepted
the recommendations for physical layer network interface. The SONET hierarchy
from 52 Mbit per second rate onwards was accepted for SDH hierarchy (Fig.1).

2. Merits of SDH
(i) Simplified multiplexing/demultiplexing techniques.
(ii) Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to
multiplex/demultiplex the entire high speed signal.
(iii) Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance and
provisioning capabilities.
(iv) Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of
transmission technology.

(v) Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.

(vi) Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates.
(vii) Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator
environment.
3. Advantages
(i) Multi-vendor environment (mid span meet) : Prior to 1988
international agreement on SDH all vendors used proprietary non-
standard techniques for transporting information on fibre. The only
way to interconnect was to convert to the copper transmission
standards (G702/703/704). The cost and complexity levels were
very high.
(ii) Synchronous networking : SDH supports multi-point or hub
configurations whereas, asynchronous networking only supports
point-to-point configurations.
(iii) Enhanced OAM&P : The telecoms need the ability to administer,
surveil, provision, and control the network from a central location.
(iv) Positioning the network for transport on new services : LAN to
LAN, HDTV, interactive multimedia, video conferencing.
(v) HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed
to 3 or more spur. It allows the nodes to communicate as an angle
network, thus reducing the back-to-back multiplexing and
demultiplexing.

4. S.D.H. Evolution
S.D.H. evolution is possible because of the following factors :
(i) Fibre Optic Bandwidth : The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be
increased and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for
using SDH.
(ii) Technical Sophistication : Although, SDH circuitary is highly
complicated, it is possible to have such circuitary because of VLSI
technique which is also very cost effective.

(iii) Intelligence : The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.

(iv) Customer Service Needs : The requirement of the customer with respect
to different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much
additional equipment. The different services it supports are :
1. Low/High speed data.
2. Voice
3. Interconnection of LAN
4. Computer links
5. Feature services like H.D.T.V.
6. Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)
5. S.D.H. Standards
The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH
networks namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals
(time for 1 byte in 64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH.
The frame structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte units
as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. As the speed increases, the number of bits increases
and the single line is insufficient to show the information on Frame structure.
Therefore, this representation method is adopted. How the bits are transmitted
on the line is indicated on the top of Fig.2. The Frame structure contains 9 rows
and number of columns depending upon synchronous transfer mode level
(STM). In STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270 columns. The reason for 9 rows
arranged in every 125 micro seconds is as follows :
For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard), there
are 25 bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, there are
32 bytes in 125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for supervisory
purposes, 27 bytes can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second signal, i.e.
9 rows x 3 columns. Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36 bytes are
allotted in 125 micro seconds, i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it could be said
9 rows are matched to both hierarchies.
A typical STM-1 frame is shown in Fig. 3. Earlier this was the basic rate
but at present STM-0 which is just 1/3rd of STM-1, i.e. 51.840 Mbit per second
has been accepted by CCITT. In STM-1 as in Fig.3 the first 9 rows and 9
columns accommodate Section Overhead (SOH) and 9 rows x 261 columns
accommodates the main information called pay load. The interface speed of the
STM-1 can be calculated as follows :
(270 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits x 1/125 s) = 155.52 Mbps.
The STM-0 contains just 1/3rd of the STM-1, i.e. 9 rows x 90 columns out
of that 9 rows x 3 columns consist of section overhead and 9 rows x 87 columns
consist of pay load. The STM-0 structure was accepted so that the radio and
satellite can use this bit rate, i.e. 51.840 Mbit/s across their section.
The different SDH level as per G-707 recommendations is as given in
Fig.4.

Principles of SDH
• SDH defines a number of “Containers”, each corresponding to an
existing plesiochronous rate.
• Each container has a “Path Overhead” added to it
– POH provides network management capability.
• Container plus POH form a “Virtual Container”.
 • All equipment is synchronised to a national clock.
• Delays associated with a transmission link may vary slightly with
time–causing location of VC within the STM–1 frame to move.
• Variations accommodated by use of a Pointer
– points to beginning of VC.
– pointer may be incremented or decremented.
• G.709 defines different combinations of VCs which can be
accommodated in the “payload” of an STM–1 frame.
• When STM–1 payload is full, more network management capability
is added to form the “Section Overhead”.
• SOH remains with payload for the fibre section between
synchronous multiplexers.
• SOH bytes provide communication channels to cater for :
– OA&M facilities.
– user channels.
– protection switching.
– section performance
– frame alignment
– other functions.

6. Basic Definitions

(i) Synchronous Transport Module

This is the information structure used to support information pay load and
over head information field organised in a block frame structure which repeats
every 125 micro seconds.

(ii) Container
The first entry point of the PDH signal is the container in which the signal
is prepared so that it can enter into the next stage, i.e. virtual container. In
container (container-I) the signal speed is increased from 32 bytes to 34 bytes in
the case of 2.048 Mbit/s signal. The additional bytes added are fixed stuff bytes
(R), Justification Control Bytes (CC and C’), Justification Opportunity bytes (s).
In container-3, 34.368 Mbit/s signal (i.e., 534 bytes in 125 seconds) is
increased to 756 bytes in 125 seconds adding fixed stuff bits(R). Justification
control bits (C-1, C-2) and Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2).
 Detail follows : 756 bytes are in 9 x 84 bytes/125 seconds frame. They
are further subdivided into 3 sub frames 3 x 84 (252 bytes or 2016 bits). Out of
this
1431 information bits (I),
10 bits (two sets) (C-1, C-2)
2 Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2)
573 (fixed bits)
In container-4, 139.264 Mbit/s signal (2176 bytes in 125 seconds) is
increased to 9 x 260 bytes. Details as follows :
9 x 260 bytes are partitioned into 20 blocks consisting of 13 bytes each. In
each row one justification opportunity bit(s) and five justification control bit(s) are
provided.
The first byte of each block consists of either
eight information bit (I)

or
eight fixed stuff bits (R)
or
One justification control bit (C) plus five fixed stuff bits (R) plus two
overhead bits (o).
or
Six information bits (I) plus one justification opportunity bit (s) plus one
fixed stuff bit (R).
The last 12 bytes of one block consists of information bits (I).

(iii) Virtual Container

In Virtual container the path over head (POH) fields are organised in a
block frame structure either 125 seconds or 500 seconds. The POH
information consists of only 1 byte in VC-1 for 125 seconds frame. In VC-3,
POH is 1 column of 9 bytes. In VC-4 also POH 1 column of 9 bytes. The types
of virtual container identified are lower orders VCs VC-1 and VC-2 and higher
order VC-3 and VC-4.

(iv) Tributary Unit

A tributary unit is a information structure which provides adaptation
between the lower order path layer and the higher order path layer. It consists of
a information pay load (lower order virtual container) and a tributary unit pointer
which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start relating to the higher order
VC frame start. Tributary unit 1 for VC-1 and Tributary unit 2 is for VC-2 and
Tributary unit 3 is for VC-3, when it is mapped for VC-4 through tributary group-
3. TU-3 pointer consists of 3 bytes out of 9 bytes. Three bytes are H1, H2, H3
and remaining bytes are fixed bytes. TU-1 pointers are one byte interleaved in
the TUG-2.

(v) Tributary Unit Group

One or more tributaries are contained in tributary unit group. A TUG-2
consist of homogenous assembly of identical TU-1s or TU-2. TUG-3 consists of
a homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or TU-3. TUG-2 consists of 3 TU-12s (For
2.048 Mbit/sec). TUG-3 consists of either 7 TUG-2 or one TU-3.

(vi) Network Node Interface (NNI)

The interface at a network node which is used to interconnect with
another network node.

(vii) Pointer
An indicator whose value defines frame offset of a VC with respect to the
frame reference of transport entity, on which it is supported.

(viii) Administrative Unit

It is the information structure which provides adaptation between the
higher order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of information
pay load and a A.U. pointer which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start
relating to the multiplex section frame start. Two AUs are defined (i) AU-4
consisting VC-4 plus an A.U. pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-4 with
respect to STM-N frame, (ii) AU-3 consisting of VC-3 plus A.U. pointer indicating
phase alignment of VC-3 with respect to STM-N frame. A.U. location is fixed with
respect to STM-N frame.

(ix) Administrative Group

AUG consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.

(x) Concatenation
The procedure with which the multiple virtual container are associated
with one another, with the result their combined capacity could be used as a
single container across which bit sequence integrity is maintained.
7. S.D.H. Layer Structure
The S.D.H. can be based on layered concept as shown in Fig.5. The Fig.6
shows the layer interconnection in detail.

8. Multiplexing Principles
The basic multiplexing principles and processing stage by stage, the
information signal is shown in Fig.7. In C-11, 1.544 Mbit per sec is mapped. In C-
12 container, the entry is 2.048 Mbit/sec. In C-2 container the entry, i.e. 6.312
Mbit/sec which is of American standard. These three containers passes through
their respective virtual containers and tributary unit pointers. At TUG-2 it can be
either 4VC-11 with TU-11 or 3VC-12 with TU-12 or 1 VC-2 with TU-2. The C-3
container takes the input 34 Mb/s or 44.7 Mb/s of the American Standard. These
through VC-3 container and with tributary unit-3 goes to Tributary Unit Group–3.
3 Nos. VC-3 with AU-3 can directly go to AUG and enter STM-frame. Similarly, 7
TUG-2 can be mapped into one VC-3. Otherwise one VC-3 with TU-3 or 7 TUG-
2 can go to TUG-3 and 3 TUG-3 are mapped into one VC-4. A 139.264 Mbit/sec
signal can be mapped into one VC-4 through C-4. VC-4 with AU-4 goes to AUG
and then to STM-frame. The different possibilities are shown in Fig.7.

The details of processing and adding pointers from the base level to VC–4
container and then to AUG and then to STM–N is given in Fig.8, where the entry
2M bit/sec is shown. In the Fig.8, it can be noted that pointers gives the phase
alignment between the shaded and unshaded areas, i.e. the pointer locates the
position of the virtual container which are floating in the STM–frames. Figure 9
shows the processing of 34 M/bit signal through VC–3 container and going to
Administrative group unit and then to STM frame.

In Fig.10, it is shown that 140 M/bit signal is mapped into VC–4 container
and then enter into STM frame through AUG. Figure 11, gives the details of
processing 2.048 M/bit signal into VC–3 container and then directly through AUG
entering into STM frame. This method is also posssible.

9. Section Overhead Brief Description

The section overhead portion of the STM-1 frame with their relevant bytes
are indicated in Fig. 12. From the figure, it is seen that 4th row 9 bytes are
reserved for AU pointers and this will be discussed separately. The top 3 rows x
9 columns of STM-1 frame reserved for Regenerator Section Overhead (R
SOH). From the 5th row to 9th row with 9 columns are reserved for Multiplex
Section Overhead (M SOH). A brief idea of the different bytes in regenerator
section overhead and multiplex overhead are given below :
A-1, A-2 are framing bytes. Their values are :
A1 : 11110110
A2 : 00101000
(i) These two types of bytes form 16 bit Frame Alignment Word
(FAW). FAW formed by the last A-1 byte and the adjacent A-2
byte, in the transmitter sequence defines the frame reference for
each of signal rates. There are 3 A-1 bytes in STM-1 and 3 A-2
bytes in STM-1. In higher order STM their number increases with
the STM order, i.e. in STM-4, there will be 12 A-1 bytes and 12 A-2
bytes.
(ii) STM Identifier with C-1 Byte : In STM-1 there is a single C-1 byte
which is used to identify each of inter-leaved STM’s and in an
STM-N signal. It takes binary equivalent to the position in the inter-
leave.
(iii) D-1 or D-12 : These bytes are for data communication channel.
Inthis D-1, D-2 and D-3 are for regenerator section. It can support
192 kilo bit per section. D-4 to D-12 are for multiplex section. They
can support 576 kilo bit per second.
(iv) E-1, E-2 for order wire purposes.
E-1 is for regenerator section order wire.
E-2 is for multiplex section order wire.

(v) F-1 is used for fault control purposes.

(vi) B-1 byte are called bit inter-leave parity-8. This is used for error
monitoring in the regenerator section. There is only 1 byte in STM-
1 or STM-4 or STM-16. On line monitoring can be done in this
case.
(vii) B-2 bytes. These are used for error monitoring in the multiplex
section. There are 3 bytes for STM-1, STM-4 and 16 will have
more number of B-2 bytes as per their order.
(viii) K-1, K-2 bytes. There are 2 bytes for STM-1, 4 or 16. These are
used for co-ordinating the protection switching across a set of
multiplex section organised as protection group, they are used for
automatic protection switching.
(ix) Z-1, Z-2 : These bytes are located for functions and yet defined, as
per CCITT recommendations.
 Fig. 1
Network Reference Model and Standardization of Digital Hierarchies
 One frame

Fig. 2
SDH Interface Frame Representation Method
 Fig. 3
STM-N Frame Structure
 Fig. 4
SDH Standards – Bit Rates (G.707 Recommendation)
 Fig. 5
SDH–based Transport Network Layered Model
 Fig. 6(a)
SDH Layers
 Fig. 6(b)
Layer Interaction
 Fig. 7(a)
Generic Multiplexing Structure
 Fig. 7(b)
Reduced Multiplexing Structure
 Fig. 12
Section and High Order Path Overhead Bytes

The purpose of individual bytes is detailed below.

A1,A2 Frame Alignment.

B1,B2 Parity bytes for errors monitoring.
D1…D3 Data communication channel (DCC) network management.
D4…D12 Data communication channel (DCC) network management.
E1,E2 Orderwire channel.
F1 Maintenance
J0 Trace identifier
K1,K2 Automatic protection switching (APS) channel.
M1 Transmission error acknowledgement.
S1 Clock quality indicator.
* Media dependent bytes.
H.O. POH : PATH OVER HEAD (VC3/VC4)
MODE 1 – A 64 BYTE FIXED LENGTH STRING
J1 J – PATH TRACE BYTE
(LIKE FAW)
MODE 2 – 15 BYTE STRING & 1 BYTE HEADER
B3 B – BIT INTERLEAVED PARITY CODE (BIP–8) BYTE FOR PATH ERR.
MON. CALCULATED OVER ALL BITS OF PREVIOUS VC BEFORE
SCRAMBLING.

C2 C – PATH SIG. LABEL BYTE TO INDICATE, SPE EQPD (1) OR NOT (0)
ATM – 00010011, MAN – 00010100, FDDI – 00010101, LOCKED TU –
00000011.

G1 G – PATH STATUS BYTE OR REMOTE STN. (BIT 1–4 FEBE, BIT 5 –

FERF, BIT 6–8 NOT USED)

F2 F – E.O.W. BETWEEN PATH

H4 H – MULTIFRAME ALIGNMENT BYTE OR DENOTE STARTING

POSITION OF ATM CELL

Z Z – FUTURE USE
(F3)

Z K3 – APS FOR PROTN. SWG. (b1 …. b4) SPARE (b5 …. b8) TO

INCREASE
(K3) N/W CAPABILITY

Z N1 – TANDOM CONN. MON AND PATH DATA BYTE

(N1)

L.O. P.O.H (FOR VC–11, VC–12, VC–2)

V5 BIP–2 FEBE PT L1 L2 L3 FERF

FEBE – FAR END BLOCK ERROR.
FERF – FAR END RECEIVE FAILURE
PT – PATH TRACE
L1 – MAPPING IS IN ASYNCH. MODE
L2 – MAPPING IS IN BIT SYNCH. MODE
L3 – MAPPING IS IN BYTE SYNCH. MODE

J2 PATH TRACE

K–4 PATH APS

N–2 TANDOM CONNECTION

 Fig.
STM–N Alarm Scheme
 Fig.
In Service Alarm Events

In–Service Maintenance Signals

The wide range of alarm signals and parity checks built into the SDH
signal structure support effective in–service testing. Major alarm conditions such
as Loss of Signal (LOS), Loss of Frame (LOF), and Loss of Pointer (LOP) cause
Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) to be transmitted downstream. Different AIS
signals are generated depending upon which level of the maintenance hierarchy
is affected. In response to the different AIS signals, and detection of major
receiver alarm conditions, other alarm signals are sent upstream to warn of
trouble downstream.

Far End Receive Failure (FERF) is sent upstream in the Multiplexer

Section Overhead after Multiplexer Section AIS, or LOS, or LOF has been
detected by equipment terminating in a Multiplexer Section span; a Remote
Alarm Indication (RAI) for a high order path is sent upstream after Path AIS or
LOP has been detected by equipment terminating a Path, and similarly, a
Remote Alarm Indication (RAI) for a Low Order Path is sent upstream after Low
Order Path AIS or LOP has been detected by equipment terminating a Low
Order Path.

Fig. 11
Synchronous Multiplexers
Optional Tributary Interfaces

Fig. 12
Add Drop Multiplexer
10.0 Network Elements in SDH
Before the evolution of the standards covering synchronous transmission
systems, networks had to be built up from separate multiplex and line terminal
equipment. These are characterized by defined formats and electrical interfaces
at each level of the transmission hierarchy; whereas optical interfaces were
entirely proprietary. This gave rise to large amounts of multiplex and separate
optical line equipment.
On the other hand in SDH, multiplexers performs both multiplexing and
line terminating functions. Synchronous multiplexers can accept a wide range of
tributaries and offer a number of possible output data rates. Though the
regeneration of signal at repeaters is similar to PDH, there are some additional
equipment in SDH to perform function like cross–connection and OA&M
functions as explained in following sections.

10.1 Terminal Multiplexers

Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and
synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM–N signals as shown in Fig.13
below. On the tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be
accommodated. On the aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STM–N
signals.

Fig. 13
Terminal Multiplexer

10.2 Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted
from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This
feature makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage
that automatic back–up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in
the event of a fault.
 Fig. 14 Add/Drop Multiplexers

10.3 Digital Cross–Connects (DXC)

Cross connection is a synchronous network involves setting up semi–
permanent interconnections between different channels enabling routing to be
performed down to a VC level. This network element can have widest range of
functions such as mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers and
switching of various containers up to and including VC–4.

Fig. 15 Digital Cross–Connects

10.4 Regenerators
Regenerators, as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock
and amplitude of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and
distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data
stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g.
service channels E1, F1, etc. in RSOH) and also can be output using these
channels.
 Synchronisation
The role of synchronisation plan is to determine the distribution of
synchronisation in a network and to select the level of clocks and facilities to be
used to time the network. This involves the selection and location of master
clocks for a network, the distribution of primary and secondary timing through out
the network and an analysis of the network to ensure that acceptable
performance levels are achieved. Improper synchronisation planning or the lack
of planning can cause severe performance problems resulting in excessive slips,
long periods of network downtime, elusive maintenance problems or high
transmission error rates. Hence, a proper synchronisation plan which optimises
the performance, is a must for the entire digital network. The status of
synchronisation in the BSNL network is as follows :
3 nos. of cesium clocks at VSNL Bombay provide the Master National
Reference Clock (MNRC). The back up NRC is available at Delhi. The MNRC
feeds the reference signal to the VSNL GDS at Mumbai and from the GDS both
the new technology TAXs at Mumbai are synchronised. From these two TAXs at
Mumbai, all the other TAXs are to be synchronised. Part of this work has already
been done. However, all the Level–I TAXs are yet to be synchronised. A direct
synchronisation link is also available between GDS Mumbai and Karol Bagh TAX
at Delhi.
For synchroisation of the SDH network, it has been decided to use the
clock source available through the TAXs at the major stations. The
synchronisation plan is based upon provision of Synchronisation Supply Units
(SSUs) which will be deployed as an essential component of the synchronisation
network which will support synchronised operation of the SDH network. The
architecture employed in the SDH requires that the timing of all the network
clocks be traceable to Primary Reference Clock (PRC) specified in accordance
with ITU Rec.G.811. The classical method of synchronising network element
clocks is the hierarchical method (master–slave synchronisation) which is
already adopted in the BSNL network for the TAXs. This master–slave
synchronisation uses a hierarchy of clocks in which each level of the hierarchy is
synchronised with reference to a higher level, the highest level being the PRC.
The hierarchical level of clocks are defined by ITU as follows :
– P.R.C.
– Slave Clock (Transit Node)
– Slave Clock (Local Node)
– SDH Network Element Clock.
Architecture for Primary Rate Networks

SDH Equipment Clock

 Each node is associated with a particular hierarchical level of clock
prescribed above and is referred to as a nodal clock. The SSU is an important
component of this hierarchical master–slave synchronisation network scheme
and of a slave clock belonging to the transit node level or the local node level as
defined in ITU Rec. G.812.

4.4 The BSNL, therefore, has decided to go in for 10–20 nos. of SSUs to
provide a clean reference primary source for other stations. These SSUs are
basically high stability filter clocks which eliminate phase transients, jitter and
wander and provide the exact sync. signal needed for every network element.
 DWDM

1. Evolution of Transmission Capacity

In the 80’s, it was possible to transmit 140 Mbit/s with optical PDH
– systems. SDH technology in the 90’s has improved this capacity. SDH
can transmit the capacity of 16 times 140 Mbit/s or 155 Mbit/s (16 X STM
1 = STM 16, 2.5 Gbit/s) or up to 64 times 140 Mbit/s or 155 Mbit/s (64 X
STM 1 = STM 64, 10 Gbit/s).
Currently, it is possible with WDM wavelength division multiplex
systems to transmit between 32 and 96 times 10 Gbit/s (320 Gbit/s) over
very large distances. Soon we will have 160 times 10 Gbit/s, and in the
laboratory it is possible to transmit in the terabit range (10 X 1012).
In the case of optical systems the available bandwidth can exceed several
Terahertz (1012Hz). TDM could not be used to take advantage of this
tremendous bandwidth due to limitations on electrical technology.
Electrical circuits simply cannot work on these frequencies.
The solution was to use frequency multiplexing at the optical level or
Wavelength Division Multiplexing. The basic idea is to use different optical
carriers or colours to transmit different signals in the same fibre.
Consider a highway analogy where one fibre can be thought of as a
multi-lane highway. Traditional TDM systems use a single lane of this
highway and increase capacity by moving faster on this single lane. In
optical networking utilizing DWDM is analogues to accessing the unused
lanes on the highway (increasing the number of wavelengths on the
embedded fibre base) to gain access to an incredible amount of untapped
capacity in the fibre. An additional benefit of optical networking is that the
highway is blind to the type of traffic that travels on it. Consequently the
vehicles on the highway can carry ATM packets, SDH and IP.
A distinction is made between WDM and DWDM (Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing). With WDM the spacing between
channels can be relatively large.
In Dense multiplexing the frequency spacing between channels can be as
small as 50 GHz or less, increasing the overall spectral density of the
transmitted signal.

TDM

FDM

WDM

Fig. 1 Comparison between TDM, FDM and

2. Transmission Windows
Today, usually the second transmission window (around 1300
nm) and the third and fourth transmission windows from 1530 to
1565 nm (also called conventional band) and from 1565 to 1620 nm
(also called Long Band) are used. Technological reasons limit
DWDM applications at the moment to the third and fourth window.
The losses caused by the physical effects on the signal due by
the type of materials used to produce fibres limit the usable
wavelengths to between 1280 nm and 1650 nm. Within this usable
 range the techniques used to produce the fibres can cause
particular wavelengths to have more loss so we avoid the use of
these wavelengths as well.

0.4 nm
50 GHz

1510.0 nm 1528.77nm 1560.61 nm

198.6THz 196.10THz 192.1 THz
1480.0 nm
202.6THz
Fig.2. Wavelength Plan for 50 GHz Grid

3. Application Advantages
Optical networks are opening up new horizons for
telecommunication operators. Technologies such as wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM) and optical amplification are giving them a multitude of ways
to satisfy the exploding demand for capacity. New architectures will increase
network reliability and decrease the cost of bit rates and distance, therefore,
creating economic benefits for network operators and users alike. Based on
existing fibre optic backbone networks, the idea of an all optical network (AON) is
revolutionizing the structures of our communication networks. In short, optical
networks are the future of the information superhighway.

The biggest advantages of such an optical network would be :

 Properties Applications
Multiple use of fibres Ideal in cases of fibre shortage
Extremely high transport Multiple use of optical amplifiers
capacity at low cost yielding decreased investments and
maintenance costs.
Format and bitrate Data, video and voice over a common
transparency transport network

4. Transponder Applications
A Transponder Terminal can be used to transmit a wide variety of signal types,
like SDH, ATM or PDH signals.
The Transponder adapts to the arbitrary bit rate of the incoming optical
signal, and maps its wavelength to the chosen WDM channel. Its main
function is OEO. It converts wavelength (say 1550 nm) coming from user
equipment to electrical signal and electrical signal is converted into optical
signal of a specific wavelength, which forms an optical channel for particular
user.
Optical transparency yields a multitude of new application options and
enables network operators to utilize existing network resources in a far more
flexible manner. It provides major advantages such as :
• Greatly enhanced transmission capacity.
• New services offered.
• Transmission of restructured signals.
• Use of devices and interfaces from other vendors.
The semitransparent transponder keeps one of the major advantages of
the DWDM i.e. Protocols are transmitted transparently, providing a very high
flexibility.
 SDH NE Regenerators SDH NE

Fig.3. Situation without WDM

SDH NE SDH NE

Optical Terminal Optical Terminal

MUX MUX
Optical Amplifier

Fig. 4. Situation with

WDM

Fig.4 Situation without WDM

 IP IP
Tr Tr

DW DM DW DM
SD H T ra n sp o n er M UX M UX T ra n sp o n er SD H

ATM ATM

PDH PDH

SD H M U X SD H M U X

Fig.5.
F ig .5 Transponder
. T ra n sp o n er A p p lic a tio n

5. Optical NE Types
We have already met following NEs :
(a) Optical Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing of different wavelength signals.
(b) Optical Amplifiers
Pure optical 1R regeneration (just amplification) of all transmitted signals.
(c) Transponders
Wavelength “change” and 2R regeneration (reshaping and
amplification) or 3 R regeneration (reshaping retiming and
amplification).
(d) Regenerators
Real 3 R regeneration (reshaping, retiming and amplification)
of the signal. Therefore, the signals have to be demultiplexed,
electrically regenerated and multiplexed again. They are necessary
if the length to be bridged is too long to be covered only by optical
amplifiers, as these only perform reshaping and retiming.
(e) Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
Adding and Dropping only specific wavelengths from the joint optical signal. This
may use complete de-multiplexing or other techniques.
(f) Optical cross-connects
To cater for the huge amount of data expected in an optical network even the
cross-connects have to work on a purely optical level.
6. Future Trends
(a) Use of Optical Amplifier – The best developed optical amplifiers are
Erbium doped fibre amplifier (EDFA) which operate at 1550 nm and
praseodymium doped fibre amplifiers operating at 1300 nm.
(b) Use of non-zero dispersion shifted fibre (NZ - DSF).
(c) Use of passive optical components (PON).
(d) Wave Division Multiplexing of Optical Signal (WDM).
7. Description of Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer :
An optical demultiplexer can be built as an association of optical filters or as a
single stand device. The purpose is to extract the original channels from a
DWDM signal. The requested properties of this device are the same as for the
optical filter : isolation and signal distortion. However channel number and
spacing must be considered now because demultiplexers can impose
limitations on the number of channels or the total available bandwidth. Most
demultiplexers are symmetrical devices and can also be used as multiplexers.

(a) By using Prism

The easiest and best-known optical demultiplexer is the prism.
Using the effect of dispersion (different speed of light for different wavelengths),
light is split into its spectral components.

(b) By using Diffraction Grating

The function of a diffraction is very similar to that of a prism, only here
interference is the important factor. A mixture of light is also split into its
contributing wavelengths.
With such a grating sometimes also called a bulk grating channel spacings
of done to 50 GHz can be achieved.
 Red
White

Blue

Effect of a prism

Effect of a grating
 8. Optical Amplifiers
(a) Introduction
Fiber loss and dispersion limit the transmission distance of any fibre-optic
communication system. For long-haul WDM systems this limitation is overcome
by periodic regeneration of the optical signal at repeaters, where the optical signal
is converted into electric domain by using a receiver and then regenerated by
using a transmitter. Such regenerators become quite complex and expensive for
multichannel lightwave systems. Although regeneration of the optical signal is
necessary for dispersion-limited systems, loss limited systems benefit
considerably if electronic repeaters were replaced by much simpler and potentially
less expensive, optical amplifiers which amplify the optical signal directly. Several
kinds of optical amplifiers were studied and developed during the 1980 s. The
technology has matured enought that the use of optical amplifiers in fiber-optic
communication systems has now become widespread.

(b) Optical Amplifier Applications

(i) In-line amplifiers
(ii) Booster amplifiers
(iii) Pre-amplifiers
In-line amplifiers are used to directly replace optical regenerators. Booster
amplifiers are used immediately after the transmitter or multiplexer to increase the
output power. Pre-amplifiers are used before the receiver or demultiplexer to
increase the received power and extend distance. The use of each
configuration as advantages and disadvantages that must be considered by the
systems designer. The problems come when considering non-linear effects in
the transmission fiber and also generated by the amplifiers.
Some of the requirements for optical amplifiers for DWDM purpose are :
• high gain
• low noise
• flat amplification profile
 ODM X OMX

O /E /O

O /E /O

O /E /O

O p tical A m p lifier

F ig.8. P assage from optical/electrical regen erators to op tical am plifiers

B ooster

Tx Rx

P ream p lifier

Tx Rx
Fi
In -lin e am plifier

Tx Rx
F ig.9. A pp lications for optical am p lifiers
 DIGITAL LOOP CARRIER SYSTEM
The digital loop carrier (DLC) system is a small to medium
size pair - gain system (Pair-saving system) which consists of a central
office terminal (COT) Remote Terminal (RT) and digital transmission
system. In order to accommodate rural subscribers into the existing public
telephone net work the RT collects subscriber lines around the target area
and transfers the collected telephone signals to the existing local
switching equipment (central office) through digital transmission line. At
the central office side the COT receives the signals from the RT and after
demultiplexed the receipt signals the COT transfers them to the local
switching equipment through its subscriber line terminals. In this way the
DLC system can expand subscriber line up to rural area without any
degradation of signal quality.
Both terminals COT and RT are connected by PCM metallic
transmission line or optical fibre cable transmission line preferable
transmission network type to DLC system is in line type and tree type.
The DLC system collects plenty of traffic from remote subscribers and
carries them to the local switching office of the public telecommunication
network. It can provide various modern telecommunication services to
remote subscribers with high quality.
Today, the fibre optic transmission system becomes popular
in technical and its material and equipment cost becomes reasonable
then the combination of the DLC system and fiber optic transmission
system can provide feasible rural telephone system. This section
describes the Digital Loop Carrier system (DLC) as the optimum rural
telephone subscriber accommodation method. Features of the digital
Loop carrier (DLC) system are summarized below:
A typical DLC system consists of a Central Office Terminal
(COT) installed in an existing local switching office a Remote Terminal
(RT) installed at the subscriber lines collection Point, and digital multi-
channel transmission link. individual subscriber is connected to the RT
with usual metallic line (drop wire).
• Various types of interface condition for subscriber and signaling are
acceptable. Mixed use of them are permitted in a group (a channel bank)
• An elementary group of the DLC transmission is the digital primary
group produced by PCM-30, and it can be transmitted over an existing
digital transmission line.
• The fibre optic transmission line can extend subscriber lines up to
about 50 Km without a repeater
• The DLC system has remote testing functions for convenience of
maintenance the connection from a subscriber to RT and the multi-
channel transmission link between RT to COT can be tested at the COT.
The connection from COT to the subscriber line link frame of telephone
switching equipment will be tested from the test board of the switching
system,
• The RT equipment can be installed in a special outdoor cabinet
and it saves the construction fee and period
• The configuration of digital transmission line can be a in line type or
tree type. The DLC system can be applied to discrete type or
homogeneous type of subscriber distribution.
• The multi-channel transmission line equipment of the DLC system
has the same technical specifications as the digital toll connection line
equipment.

TYPICAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

Fig.1 typical DLC system configuration . This figure is
illustrated under following imaginary conditions :

• The urban area is provided good telephone service and LS-1 has
enough extra subscriber accommodation capacity.
• The trunk capacity and transmission capacities of the junction line
between LS are enough for newly added traffic from sub-urban and rural
areas.
• The sub-urban area is newly developed business center and it has
emergent demand of the 200-300 subscriber lines this means that the
demand is emergent but too small to introduce a new local switching
center.
• The urban area and suburban area is connected by well designed
highway that has good roadside space for cable duct construction.
• Each rural area has telephone demand of several tens subscriber
lines but they are 5-10 kilometers away from the main road . The main
road has enough space for buried cable laying.
• The subscriber distribution radius of each rural area is smaller than
2-3 kilometers.
• Existing wooden poles of open wire transmission line are available
for overhead optical fiber cable installation between main road and rural
areas.
• At each rural area, commercial power supply is available for RT.
 Fig.1
Typical Configuration of DLC System
 Generally, the radius of a service area belonged to a local
switching office will be limited within 4-5 kilometers but introduction of
DLC system expands the service area radius up to 50-60 kilometers. This
will require some modifications of the charging system and maintenance
system.
A simplified block diagram of the DLC system is shown in fig-2
Both terminal equipment, COT and RT consist of channel bank (CH), line
terminal multiplexer (LTM) and fiber optic transmission line .DC power
supply is necessary for the Remote Terminal Equipment .The Channel
bank consist of four PCM-30 multiplexer with signalling function. The line
terminal multiplexer (LTM) consists of higher order multiplexer and optical
line terminal which converts the electronic signal to / from the optical
signal.

Fig. 2
Simplified Block Diagram of DLC System
CH - Channel Bank
LTM - Line Terminal & Multiplexer
SV - Supervisory facility
• 1. Subscriber end interface
• 2. Office end interface
• 3. Analog (VF) interface (Digital or Analog Switching
Equipment)

Further descriptions are given by using of the details Fujitsu Digital loop
Carrier Equipment, Model DLC-120 and Line Terminal Multiplexer
Equipment Model LTM-8. LTM- The digital hierarchy bit rates of the DLC-
120 conforms to the CCITT recommendations G 702.
The model DLC -120 is major equipment of COT and RT of a DLC
system. It is deigned as subscriber line interface unit which has 120 lines
capacity for larger capacity system, the unit system will be stacked up to
the capacity and higher order multiplexer and optical line terminal are
combined.
The model LTM- 8 is used for 8Mb/s (equivalent to 120 telephone
channels) digital data transmission line and LTM-34 is used for 34Mb/s
(equivalent to 480 telephone channels) digital data transmission line.
More larger capacity system can be established by combining the
140Mb/s higher order multiplexer equipment 140 Mb/s optical line terminal
equipment and DLC-120S. This combination can provide subscriber
accommodation capacity up to 1920 lines No larger capacity than 1920
subscriber lines might be required in rural area application.

1. Model DLC -120 equipment

2. Typical terminal configuration (COT,RT)

Fig. 3
Typical configuration of DLC 120 & Terminal of DLC System
As shown in Fig 3 the DLC -120 consists of four channel banks and
together with a Multiplexer and optical line terminal it composes a major
part of COT or RT of the DLC system The channel bank is a PCM -30
equipment with respective subscriber interface The 2Mb/s digital group
transmission interface of the channel bank conforms to the CCITT
recommendation G.703 Central Office Terminal and Remote Terminal
have similar equipment’s configuration except for the interface condition
of their channel cards.
In the Figs. 4, 5, 6, three application examples of DLC–120 are shown. In
each example 2Mb/s standard interface condition is applied between
DLC–120 and LTE (LTM)
 Fig. 4
2Mb/s System Over Metallic Pair Cable

Fig. 5
8 Mb/s System Over Optical Fibre Cable
 Fig. 6
34Mb/s System over Optical Fibre Cable

APPLICATION AREA ESTIMATION

The DLC system application area is estimated which is made under bold
manner such as
• Existing local switching equipment has enough extra capacity and no
additional cost is needed for new accommodation of the rural subscriber.
• Subscriber distribution radius of each rural is less than 1 Km.
• There are no difficulties for the construction work such as cable laying,
antenna and tower construction.
• No need of access road construction for radio station is estimated.
• AC commercial power is available at every rural area.
• All cables and wires are installed in overhead type.

In this figure, those application area of each system is estimated by

comparison of the estimated initial investment cost referring to the
experience. At the less demand area, there will be a big discrepancy
between actual cost estimation and an expectation by this figure, because
a little difference from above assumptions will cause a big difference of
the cost estimation results In actual feasibility study, detail cost estimation
should be done under the particular conditions.
 From this figure, it is clearly shown that the DLC system has very
broad application area if there is an existing local switching center near
the target rural community, the number of subscriber are more than 50
and their distribution area is limited with in 1 Km radius .The upper border
of the DLC will be determined by the application area of an RSU (Remote
Switch Unit) and the border number of subscriber will be about 2000.