Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol.

, 32, 527}534 (1999)

Thermal Properties of Restructured Beef Snack Sticks Throughout Smokehouse Processing*

Nan UnklesbayR, Kenneth Unklesbay and Andrew D. Clarke Food Science Department, College of Agriculture, Food & Natural Resources, University of Missouri-Columbia, 122 Eckles Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 (U.S.A.) Electrical & Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211 (U.S.A.) (Received October 12, 1998; accepted August 10, 1999)

Restructured snack sticks with two levels of citric acid were heat processed in a smokehouse for 9 h. Samples were removed at 30 min intervals for laboratory analyses of pH, yield, moisture, lipid, density, specixc heat, thermal conductivity and shear force. Thermal diwusivity was calculated. A randomized complete block design with four replications and a control were used. Throughout processing, pH values for all three samples were signixcantly diwerent, validating the need for comparisons. Incorporation of citric acid decreased product yields. After 540 min of smokehouse processing, density values ranged from 0.95 to 0.97 g/cm3; speci,c heat values for all three products were 3 kJ/kg 3C; thermal conductivity values ranged from 0.25 } 0.33 =/m ) 3C; and thermal di+usivity, from 0.89 to 1.1 (m3/s) ) 10\7. Factors a+ecting each of the changes in these thermal properties were discussed with implications for product development.

1999 Academic Press Keywords: beef snack sticks; thermal conductivity; thermal di!usivity; smokehouse; speci"c heat

Introduction Recent research on restructured beef snack sticks and jerky (1, 2, 3) has focused on increasing the share of the snack food market held by meat snacks (5%). Beef jerky is a high protein, light-weight and shelf-stable meat snack that has traditionally been made from thinly sliced whole muscles which are brined and dried. Current developments have involved developing snack sticks or restructured meats (2, 3), thereby increasing the value of alternative meat tissues. Knowledge of thermal properties is essential for the design, modelling and evaluation of food processing operations involving heat transfer, especially when energy costs, food quality and safety are considered (4). Knowledge of thermal properties is also important for mathematical modelling and computer simulation of heat and moisture transport. Advanced simulation models can incorporate real physical and thermal properties of the product as opposed to the average values over the whole process. This research project was designed to determine the e!ect of varying pH levels in restructured

beef snack sticks on changes in thermal and textural properties throughout smokehouse processing.

Materials and Methods Beef muscles (semimembranosus and biceps femoris) from top and bottom rounds, respectively, were obtained from Grade A maturity carcasses processed at the University of Missouri abattoir (US Estab. F5777), ground once through a coarse plate (15.9 mm.) and then a "ne plate (3.2 mm.) and chilled overnight (4 3C). A fat content of ca. 199 g/kg was estimated by visual inspection and con"rmed by Babcock analysis (5). Seasoning (Colorado Beef Jerky Seasoning, GU-0423, Heller Seasonings and Ingredients, Bedford Park, IL, U.S.A.), jerky cure (Witt's Speed Cure No. 0404 w/n series with colour, F. W. Witt and Co., Yorkville, IL, U.S.A.) and encapsulated citric acid (citric acid and partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, F. W. Witt and Co.) were added at one of two levels, and mixed for 9 min (Leland Double Action Food Mixer, Model L-100 OA, Leland Detroit Mfg. Co., Detroit, MI, U.S.A.) for the three formulae given in Table 1. Products were stu!ed through a C9 stu$ng horn (6.6 mm inside diam.) using a Robot 500 Vacuum Stu!er (Model 500, Robert Reiser Co., Inc., Boston, MA, U.S.A.). The casings used were Superfry edible collagen casings (13.7 mm,

*Contribution from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Journal Series Number 12,780. RTo whom correspondence should be addressed. Telephone: (573)8824113; Fax (573)882-0596; e-mail: UnklesbayN@Missouri.edu

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Table 1 Formulae for restructured beef snack sticks

Ingredients Beef (kg) Jerky cure (g) Speed cure (g) Citric acid (g) Control 11.4 317 28.25 0 Low acid 11.4 317 28.25 28.4 High acid 11.4 317 28.25 56.8

water with a 100 mL buret. The volume of water added was immediately recorded to avoid any water di!usion. Density was calculated using the equation recommended by Szczesniak (9): M " 60%< (1)

Devro, Summerville, NJ, U.S.A.). Thermocouples (Type K, 28 gauge, Kapton coating) attached to an Omega datalogger (Model OM-500, Omega Engineering, Inc., Stamford, CT, U.S.A.) were inserted into the geometric centre of the raw products. A 1 m length of stu!ed product for each treatment was weighed and looped (15 } 20 cm coils) onto a separate stainless steel smokehouse stick and randomly placed in a smokehouse (Processing Oven Smokehouse, Model STH-600, Smith Equipment Co., Inc., Clifton, NJ, U.S.A.). The smokehouse was set for the following conditions: 57.2 3C, no relative humidity (RH), 45 min; 76.7 3C, 20% RH, 2 h with smoke; and 76.7 3C, 20% RH, 6.5 h. These procedures were adapted from those recommended by Barbut and Mittal (6), who suggested starting smokehouse processing at 55 3C and increasing the temperature by 5 } 6 3C every 10 min until 83 3C was attained. They found that the hardness of meat batters was a!ected by the smokehouse RH increase more than the smokehouse temperature increase. Samples (one complete length of snack stick; 1 m) were quickly removed by rapidly opening and closing the smokehouse door every 30 min. Internal product temperatures and mass were recorded. A portion of the samples was left intact (15 cm) and the remainder was ground for analysis, using a homogenizer (Model 4, Robot Coupe USA Inc., Ridgeland, MS, U.S.A.). Samples were placed in polyethylene bags, sealed and stored at !60 3C until needed.

where "density (g/cm); M"mass of sample (g); <"volume of water added (mL). Values were converted to kg/m by multiplying by 10.

Specixc heat A 1L Dewar thermos #ask "lled with an insulating plastic foam lid was used. A thermocouple (Type K, 28 gauge, Kapton coating) was placed through the lid to the midpoint of the #ask which had been calibrated with known amounts of hot and cold distilled water. A known mass (100 g) of heated distilled water (80 3C) was placed into the #ask and equilibrated. This temperature was recorded (Omega digital thermometer, Model 2176A, Omega Engineering, Inc., Stamford, CT, U.S.A.). A sample (50 g at 22 3C) was added to the water and its temperature was recorded after equilibration. The equation used was recommended by McProud and Lund (10): (C H O)(M )( ! ) U G C C" M  (2) M (M )( ! ) Q C Q where C "speci"c heat of sample (cal/g3C); M C H O"heat capacity of water (cal/g3C) obtained from M  the calibration; M "mass of water (g); "initial temU G perature of hot water in thermos (3C); "equilibrium C temperature of hot water and sample (3C); M "mass of Q sample (g); and "sample temperature (3C). Values Q were converted to kJ/kg 3C by multiplying by the factor 4.1868 (11).

Analyses AOAC method 950.46 was used for moisture analysis (7). AOAC method 991.36 was used to determine fat (crude) in the samples (8). Soluble material was extracted from the dried samples by two-step treatment with petroleum ether solvent, recovered by condensation, leaving extracted soluble material determined by weight after drying. Sample pH was measured by procedure recommended by Koniecko (8). Samples (10 g) were blended with 90 ml of double distilled water for 30 s in a blender (Model 33BL79, Waring Products, New Hartford, CT, U.S.A.) A #uted "lter paper (Whatman C1) was inserted to separate the meat slurry and solution. The pH of the "ltered solution was measured with a calibrated pH meter (Model 124, Corning Science Products, Med"eld, MA, U.S.A.) and recorded as the pH of the beef products.

Density A ground beef sample (5 g) was put into a 60 mL widemouth volumetric #ask and "lled to volume with distilled

Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity of snack stick samples was determined using a line-heat source thermal conductivity probe (12). The probe was interfaced to a PC computer system for automated thermal conductivity analysis, using software developed by Altaf (13). The probe contained resistance heater and was powered by a DC power supply set at 3.5 V with current in the heater circuit ranging from 235 to 240 mA. An ice water "lled thermos #ask functioned as the reference junction for the probe thermocouple (Type T). When measuring thermal conductivity of products with large inhomogeneities, such as exist between pieces of fat and lean, placement of the probe is crucial to avoid the introduction of variation into the data (14). Thus, the probe was positioned in the geometric centre of the beef snack stick (12 cm) to cover the full length of the probe (7.2 cm) and visually inspected for any deviations. The power supply was activated and the temperature rise was recorded. Elapsed time and temperature values were sampled at 2 s intervals for 2 min and the slope between the pair of points was calculated. By examining the values of slopes, the nonlinear

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segments of the curve were rejected. Linear regression was performed on the remaining values to determine the best "t which was used to compute thermal conductivity (12).

Thermal diwusivity Thermal di!usivity was calculated from density, speci"c heat and thermal conductivity of product samples using the equation by Singh (15): K (3) C M where "thermal di!usivity (cm/s); K"thermal conductivity (W/m 3C); "density (kg/m); and C " M speci"c heat (kJ/kg 3C). Values were converted to m/s by multiplying by 10\. "

Texture (shear force) A V-shaped Warner-Bratzler shear blade attached to an Instron Universal Testing Machine (Model A1026A, Instron Corp., Canton, MA) was used for the shear force analysis of the samples. Each sample (13.7 mm to 10.1 mm diam;1 cm length) was cut perpendicular to the length (across) and the shear force was recorded as a peak on a chart recorder. The Warner} Bratzler shear force was measured by relating the height of the peak of the sample curve to the height and force of a standard curve, representing the force required to rupture the samples into two pieces (16).

Fig. 1 Time } temperature pro"les during smokehouse processing

Experimental Design and Statistical Analyses A randomized complete block design was used for the three products (control, low acid, high acid) with four replications. Rep 1 and 2 were performed at the same time. Rep 3 and 4 were performed together, 7 days later. Product location in the smokehouse was randomized. Thermal and texture properties (n"4) were analysed using analysis of variance procedures and means were separated using Fisher's least signi"cant di!erence (17).

Results and Discussion Physical changes with processing Mean product temperatures for the four trials are given in Fig. 1. During smokehouse processing, the diameter of the product slowly decreased from 13.7 mm to 10.1 mm, re#ecting physical shrinkage of 73.7%. After 125 min of processing, the product temperatures were above 70 3C indicating that appropriate smokehouse parameters had been selected. Some of the small temperature variations occurred because the smokehouse door was opened and rapidly closed at 30 min intervals for sample retrieval. Other temperature variations were caused by the oven controller. Variations in the heat processing time, from about 72 3C to 76 3C, were small enough to enable an evaluation of the thermal property measurements.

Although there was a slight increasing trend, sample pH for the control and the two levels of encapsulated citric acid (Fig. 2) were signi"cantly di!erent (P(0.05) from each other throughout most of the heat processing period. The pH of cooked products increases as compared to raw ones. Thermal processing contributes to an increase in pH as the myo"brillar proteins denature and more basic amino groups are exposed. Clarke et al. (18) found increases of 0.1 } 0.3 pH units even in situations when PO was not included. Data in Fig. 3 illustrate that  product comparisons could be made for the e!ect of pH over the 540 min of smokehouse processing. Correia and Mittal (18) found that pH of di!erent meat emulsions ranged from 6.10 at a product temperature of 30 3C, to 6.25 at 70 3C. They did not "nd any signi"cant di!erences in two ranges 30 } 40 3C and 60 } 70 3C and a second-order polynomial described the product temperature dependence of pH. The mechanisms of pH changes during heating may be caused by charge changes, or hydrogen bonding, or both, within the myo"brillar proteins, by splitting of hydrogen bonds, releasing additional positive charges (19). Product yield (Fig. 3) demonstrated the e!ect of varying pH levels. Without additional citric acid (either low or high levels), the product yields were slightly higher after 360 min of smokehouse processing. Product yields for high acid levels were signi"cantly (P(0.05) lower than the controls after 300 min of processing. These "ndings demonstrated a possible tradeo! between product mass and consumer acceptance. Moisture content (Fig. 4) re#ected changes in yield, although some interaction occurred between the low and high acid samples. Signi"cant (P(0.05) di!erences in percentage moisture did not occur until after 180 min of processing. At most of the 30 min intervals thereafter, the high acid products had a lower moisture content. The

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Fig. 2 pH of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

Fig. 3 Yield of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

Fig. 4 Water content (g/100g) of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

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Fig. 5 Lipid content (g/100g) of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

Fig. 6 Density of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

high acid treatment with its lower pH was expected to have a greater rate of moisture loss during thermal processing. As a consequence, the total water content was reduced (Fig. 4). Factors such as product yield, shelf stability and water activity are in#uenced by moisture loss. Thus, as the objective with restructured beef snack sticks is to quickly lower moisture content, encapsulated citric acid was demonstrated to be a processing aid. Water has the major in#uence on temperature dependence of thermal properties (20). Percent lipid content (Fig. 5) demonstrated an upward trend in response to a decrease in moisture content (Fig. 4), with the control samples having lower levels as processing times increased. Although relatively small, lipid losses accounted for the minor discrepancies between product yield and moisture loss percentages. These "ndings would a!ect the caloric values of the "nal products, and would impact the shear-force values. Lipid values after 30 min of smokehouse processing were similar to those (9.33%) reported by Carr et al. (3) for intact beef jerky. As the moisture content of the sausage de-

creases, the relative percent of fat with its more plastic nature increases, contributing to the decline in the elasticity of products (14).

Thermal property changes with processing No published literature values for thermal properties of restructured beef snack sticks were located. After 30 min of smokehouse processing at 57.2 3C without the RH controls turned on, density values ranged from 0.90 to 0.99. After 540 min of processing, density values (g/cm) for the control, low acid and high acid products were 0.95, 0.95 and 0.97, respectively (Fig. 6). A decrease in density values is important due to causative changes in other thermal properties (21). Speci"c heat is the enthalpy change associated with a change in temperature and may be considered constant over narrow temperature ranges. Signi"cant di!erences (P(0.05) occurred after 30 min of smokehouse processing and at most of the other sampling intervals (Fig. 7). When the products were "nally removed after 540 min of

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Fig. 7 Speci"c heat of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

Fig. 8 Thermal conductivity of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

processing, however, they all had similar values for speci"c heat (kJ/kg 3C). Numerous statistical interactions occurred over time, with values ranging from 2.90 to 3.68 kJ/kg 3C. As water content a!ects the speci"c heat more than the other formula components (21), the lower speci"c heat values generally occurred with the lower moisture content values (Fig. 4). Thermal conductivity varies with water content, composition, structural orientation, temperature and pressure (21). Structural orientation is not an in#uential factor for restructured beef products. Thermal conductivity values decreased throughout the processing period, ranging from 0.485 to 0.250 W/m 3C (Fig. 8). Thermal conductivity values of the control samples were generally higher, con"rming a trend observed by Sweat (23) that thermal conductivity increases with moisture content. When Ziegler et al. (14) measured thermal conductivity of seven commercial sausages, their values ranged from 0.26 to 0.41 W/m 3C. Thermal di!usivity is used in the determination of heat transfer rates in solid foods. Physically, it relates the ability of a material to conduct heat to its ability to store

Table 2 Thermal di!usivity (m/s ) 10\) of beef snack sticks throughout heat processing
Thermal di!usivity (ms ) 10\) Heat processing time (min) 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510 540 Control 1.651 1.338 1.228 1.182 1.037 1.075 1.066 0.955 0.996 0.935 0.973 0.937 0.984 0.933 1.083 1.051 1.111 1.100 Low citric acid 1.326 1.488 1.379 1.231 1.298 1.184 1.276 1.227 1.150 1.077 1.132 1.182 1.167 0.991 1.042 1.117 1.024 1.046 High citric acid 1.372 1.194 1.104 1.139 1.175 1.125 1.133 1.146 1.067 0.950 0.877 0.825 0.944 0.965 1.072 0.971 1.011 0.890

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Fig. 9 Shear force (g) of products during smokehouse processing. (}}) control; (}}) low-acid; (}}) high-acid

heat (23). Thermal di!usivity values ranged from 1.651 (m/s) ) 10\ for the control sample after 30 min of processing to 0.890 (m/s) ) 10 after the high acid sample was processed for 540 min (Table 2). Beef snack products with a high thermal di!usivity can be heated quickly, indicating that the heat can be transferred easily through the product (15). Thermal di!usivity tended to vary in a manner similar to that for thermal conductivity (Fig. 8), being a!ected by water content, temperature, composition and porosity (15).

References
1 MILLER, M. F., KEETON, H. R., CROSS, H. R., GOMIZ, F. AND WILSON, J. J. Evaluation of physical and sensory properties of jerky processed from beef heart and tongue. Journal of Food Quality, 11, 63 } 65 (1988) 2 MCKEE, L. H., RAY, E. E., REMMENGA, M. AND CHRISTOPHER, J. Quality evaluation of chile-#avored, jerky-type extruded products from meat and potato #our. Journal of Food Science, 60, 587 } 591 (1995) 3 CARR, M. A., MILLER, M. F., DANIEL, D. R., YARBROUGH, C. E., PETROSKY, J. D. AND THOMPSON, L. D. Evaluation of the physical, chemical and sensory properties of jerky processed from emu, beef, and turkey. Journal of Food Quality, 20, 419 } 425 (1997) 4 RICE, P., SELMAN, J. D. AND ABDUL-REZZAK, R. K. E!ect of temperature on thermal properties of &Record' potatoes. International Journal of Food Science and echnology, 23, 281 } 286 (1988) 5 KONEICKO, E. S. Handbook of Meat Analysis 2nd Edn. Wayne, NJ: Avery Publications (1985) 6 BARBUT, S. AND MITTAL, G. S. E!ect of heating rate on meat batter stability, texture and gelation. Journal of Food Science, 55, 334 } 337 (1990) 7 AOAC. Moisture-o$cial "nal action. I. Drying under vacuum air 95 } 100 3C. 950.46. In: O.cial Methods of Analysis 15th Edn. Washington, DC: Association of O$cial Analytical Chemists (1990) 8 AOAC. Fat (crude) in meat and meat products. Solventextraction (Submersion) method. First action. 991.36 Chap. 39. In: O.cial Methods of Analysis 16th Edn. Washington, DC: Association of O$cial Analytical Chemists p. 3 (1995) 9 SZCZESNIAK, A. S. Physical properties of foods: what they are and their relation to other food properties. In: PELEG, M. AND BAGLEY, E. B. (Eds), Physical Properties of Foods, Westport, CT: AVI Publishing Co., pp. 7 } 16 (1983) 10 MCPROUD, L. M. AND LUND, D. B. Thermal properties of beef loaf produced in foodservice systems. Journal of Food Science, 42, 1492 } 1495 (1983) 11 TOLEDO, R. T. Fundamental of Food Process Engineering 2nd Edn. New York: Van Nostand Reinhold (1991) 12 SWEAT, V. E. AND HAUGH, C. G. A thermal conductivity probe for small food samples. ransactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 17, 56 } 58 (1974)

Texture changes with processing Shear force (g) values (Fig. 9) increased with processing, with limited di!erences found among the low and high acid samples, indicating that energy required to break 0.25% and 0.50% citric acid samples changed little at these levels. Values ranged from 1225 to 10,500 g, with toughening being associated with dehydration. Moisture removal in dehydration compacts the aggregate structure (14). Shear force values during sausage drying have been shown to signi"cantly correlate to drying time, moisture, salt, sausage diameter and the initial grinding procedure (14). The force required to shear summer sausage was also shown to increase with drying time (14). Ziegler et al. (14) found a nonlinear relationship between moisture content and texture parameters and demonstrated that, within limits, a desired texture might be achieved by drying sausage to a predetermined moisture content. The shrinkage of collagen after heating above 60 3C causes a contracture of the collagen sheath and an exudation of moisture from the myo"brils which is responsible for the toughening of the myo"brils between 65 and 75 3C. (23). This loss of water during heating allows greater interaction of the proteins and greater possibilities of crosslinking and hardening reactions (24).

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13 ALTAF, U. Automated thermal conductivity probe for relatively small food samples. M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri Columbia (1993) 14 ZIEGLER, G. R., RIZVI, S. S. H. AND ACTON, J. C. Relationship of water content to textural characteristics, water activity and thermal conductivity of some commercial sausages. Journal of Food Science, 52, 901 } 905 (1987) 15 SINGH, R. P. Thermal di!usivity in food processing. Food echnology, 36, 87 } 91 (1982) 16 BREENE, W. M. Application of texture pro"le analysis to instrumental food texture evaluation. Journal of exture Studies, 6, 53 } 82 (1974) 17 SAS. SAS/Stat ;ser1s Guide. Cary, NC: Statistical Analysis System Institute, Inc. (1994, Version 6) 18 CLARKE, A. D., SOFOS, J. N. AND SCHMIDT, G. R. In#uence of varying pH and algin/calcium binders on selected physical and sensory characteristics of structures beef. Journal of Food Science, 53, 1266 } 1279, 1677 (1988).

19 CORREIA, L. R. AND MITTAL, G. S. Kinetics of pH and colour of meat emulsions containing various "llers during smokehouse cooking. Meat Science, 29, 353 } 364 (1991) 20 MORLEY, M. J. hermal Properties of Meat: abulated Data. Meat Research Institute, Langford, Bristol U.K. (1972) 21 MOHSENIN, N. N. hermal Properties of Foods and Agricultural Materials. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers (1980) 22 LEWIS, M. J. Density and speci"c gravity. In: Physical Properties of Foods and Food Processing Systems. Chiceska, U.K.: Ellis Horwood Ltd. (1987) 23 SWEAT, V. E. Thermal properties of foods. In: RAO, M. A. AND RIZVI, S. S. H. (Eds), Engineering Properties of Foods. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. (1986). 24 SEIDEMAN, S. C. AND DURLAND, P. R. The e!ect of cookery on muscle proteins and meat palatability: a review. Journal of Food Quality, 6, 291 } 314 (1984)

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