MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENT ACTIVITY INTERESTS AND THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARD CURRICULUM, LEARNING ENVIRONMENT, AND ACHIEVEMENT GOALS

IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

A Dissertation submitted by James W. Wright

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Dowling College, School of Education, Department of Educational Administration, Leadership and Technology

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Dowling College Shirley, New York 2011

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UMI Number: 3459300

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ABSTRACT The increases in childhood illnesses such as Type II Diabetes and obesity are directly related to a lack of physical activity and poor nutrition. Physical education in schools has traditionally provided students with the knowledge necessary to live a healthy lifestyle by teaching them the importance of being physically fit and providing a curriculum that empowers students to grow and succeed. Because these numbers are on the rise, it is imperative that physical educators and administrators investigate why these diseases are on the rise and what schools can do to stem the tide through increasing awareness and activity.

based on the way it is presented in the curriculum and how the students perceive their

with perceptions of their abilities, how this translates into success in class, and how this motivates or dissuades them to participate in physical education class. Prior research has looked at issues relating to gender and why females and low skilled males begin to avoid physical education. Ultimately, it is their attitudes toward physical education that should have a direct effect on the types of activity interests in which they would feel comfortable participating. This study collected data of middle school students enrolled in regular physical education classes in a suburban school district on Long Island (A^ = 602) based on their gender and ethnicity. Their activity interests were compared to attitudes relating to curriculum, learning environment, and achievement goals in physical education. These variables were also used to predict the activity interests of students for the purpose of

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place in the physical education setting. Children also come to physical education class

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Children begin to make decisions on what activity they feel comfortable doing

iv noting that there are differences in interests and that there are commonalities in student expectations regardless of the activity. There were minimal effects on activity interests and attitudes based on ethnicity, yet gender difference was noted for all activity interests as well as differences in attitudes. There were small positive correlations between activity interests and selected attitudes at the p = .05 and p = .01 levels of significance. Based on preferred activity interests, students' attitudes can be used as a predictor satisfying the hypothesis that if a student has a certain amount of autonomy he/she will

becoming successful in that activity of interest.

These responses will assist administrators and teachers in writing curriculum that reflects the preferences of students and gives these same administrators and teachers' insight into how their attitudes are developed.

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choose activities that he/she feels comfortable participating in for the purpose of

DEDICATION None of this would have been possible without the support of my soul mate, Isabella, the one who reminds me what the big picture is and my children, Sabina, the true teacher and Christina, the one that puts the proper perspective on life and therefore I dedicate this work to them. This work is also dedicated to three men who have since passed; my father, Jim Wright Sr., who unknowingly drove me to be better, my father-in-law, Stephan Kurjanski who survived WWII as a Prisoner of War to share his stories with me, and to Dr. Jack

I would also like to dedicate this work to anyone that has been told that they are incapable of doing the improbable and to use this work as proof that the only one that can stop you from personal success is yourself.

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Foley, who was first a friend, then a mentor and lastly an inspiration.

vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to acknowledge my chair, Dr. Thomas Kelly. Our first day together ended in a golf outing, but I knew then that it would be your view of the world and the perspectives you held on education and religion that I would pull from to get to the finish line. To my design specialist. Dr. Richard Walter, I appreciate your sense of humor and knowledge of how education works. Your desire to help me succeed is something I have continually reflected on as I pushed through this work.

ability to make sense of the chaos of statistics is what keeps all of us at your doorstep. To Dr. Albert Inserra, you gave me direction when I needed it the most to find my research interest and followed me through the process of developing a coherent study. I would also like to thank Dr. Stephanie Tatum for making me see all sides of an issue and to see those sides as an observer without opinion so I can truly understand the

I would also like to offer a special thank you to Dr. Charles Rudiger and Dr. Robert Manley for providing exceptional leadership and guidance throughout the past 3 years. Finally, I want to thank nine of the brightest individuals I have ever been involved with throughout my many years as a student; Executive 9. Your support, tolerance, and teamwork combined with a superior sense of humor made every day in class a pleasurable one.

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culture.

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I would also like to acknowledge the brilliance of Dr. Elsa-Sofia Morote. Your

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION Introduction iii v vi vii xi 1 1

Statement of the Problem Research Questions Research Question One Research Question Two

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Purpose of the Study

10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14

Research Question Three Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six

Definition of Major Variables and Terms Activity Interests (TA, IA, and LA) Attitude toward physical education Curriculum Enjoyment (CE) Curriculum Perceived Usefulness (CPU) Learning Environment Perceived Challenge (LEPCH) Learning Environment Perceived Threat (LEPT)

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viii Learning Environment Perceived Internal Control (LEPIC) Learning Environment Perceived Competence (LEPC) Achievement Goals Performance Approach (AGPAP) Achievement Goals Mastery (AGM) Achievement Goals Performance Avoidance (AGPAV) Achievement Goals Social Approval (AGSA) Title IX Conceptual Rationale 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16

Limitations

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Significance of the Study

20 20 22 22 22 36 39 48 53 61 63 63 64 64 64 64

CHAPTER n - REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH Introduction

Activity Interests in Physical Education by Gender Ethnicity Differences in Physical Education

Learning Environment and Physical Education Achievement Goals in Physical Education Summary CHAPTER ni - METHODOLOGY Introduction Research Questions Research Question One Research Question Two Research Question Three

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Curriculum in Physical Education

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ix Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six Setting Description of the Subjects Data Gathering Procedure Instrumentation Validity 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 70

Raw Score Range Student Response Scale Data Analysis Research Questions

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Reliability

71 72 72 73 73 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 83

Research Question One

Research Question Three Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six

CHAPTER IV- DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Introduction Demographic Analysis Research Question One

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Research Question Two

Research Question Two Research Question Three Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six Summary CHAPTER V - SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction

83 86 90 94 97 102 105 105

Research Question One Research Question Two Research Question Three Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six Conclusions

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Summary

107 107 108 109 110 112 114 115 127 129 133 145 145 146 149

Recommendations

Recommendations for Future Research REFERENCES APPENDIX Al. Interest Inventory A2. Student Attitudes toward Physical education A3. NIH Completion Certification

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xi LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Variables with Corresponding Statements and Authors Table 3.2 Reliability Statistics Table 3.3 Raw Score Ranges of Variables with Coefficient Alpha Table 4.1 Respondents by Gender {N = 602) Table 4.2 Respondents by Ethnicity Table 4.3 Male Team Activity Preferences (N = 266) Table 4.4 Female Team Activity Preferences (TV = 336) 69 72 72 78 78 79 80 80 81 82 82 83 85

Table 4.6 Female Individual Activity Preferences (N = 336) Table 4.7 Male Lifetime Activity Interests {N = 266)

Table 4.8 Female Lifetime Activity Preferences ( N = 3 3 6 ) Table 4.9 Student Responses to Activity Interests in Physical Education Table 4.10 Student Attitudes toward Physical Education

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Table 4.11 Independent Samples t test Gender Differences for Activity Interests in Physical Education

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Table 4.5 Male Individual Activity Preferences (N= 266)

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Table 4.12 ANOVA Ethnicity Differences for Activity Interests in Physical Education: Team Activities, Individual Activities, and Lifetime Activities 88 Table 4.13 ANOVA for Individual Activity Preferences by Ethnicity (M = 24.00) Table 4.14 Individual Activities between Ethnic Groups Table 4.15 Independent Samples t test - Gender Differences for Attitudes toward Physical Education Table 4.16 ANOVAAttitudes toward Physical Education by Ethnicity Table 4.17 Significance for LEPIC and AGPAP by Ethnicity

88 89

91 92 92

xii Table 4.18 Post Hoc with Equal Variances Assumed using Scheffe for Significance in Ethnicity for LEPIC (ql8, q26, q28, q30) and AGPAP (q32, q33, q37, q49) 93 Table 4.19 Bivariate Correlation for Activity Interests and Attitudes toward Physical Education Table 4.20 Discriminant Analysis Tale 4.21 Eigenvalues Table 4.22 Wilk's Lambda Table 4.23 Structure Matrix Table 4.24 Functions at Group Centroids

96 99 100 100 101 102

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introduction The increases in the levels of Childhood Obesity and Type II Diabetes along with the avoidance of physical education by some females and low-skilled males have been the focus of studies conducted by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and researchers. These studies reaffirmed the importance of an active lifestyle that required physical

Mitchell, 1996; Portman, 2003; Hannon & Ratliff, 2005; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009;

related to factors such as genetics, culture in the home, nutrition, or a lack of motivation to participate in physical education on the part of the child (Lirgg, 1993, 1994; Bowyer, 1996; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). In the school system, physical education has the daunting task of providing a curriculum that not only focuses on combating these diseases, but also on reaching across the cultural divides that exist in school populations. Regardless of gender, ethnicity, level of skill, or physical disability, schools must ensure that the needs of these populations are being met at all levels. (Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). During the 1960s and as a part of the physical fitness initiatives sponsored by President Kennedy's Council on Physical Fitness programs, Methany (1965) studied the attitudes of female college students toward physical activity and proposed acceptable

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Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). These concerns might be directly

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education classes to provide a curriculum that addresses these concerns (Chen, 1996;

2 sports for girls that included individual activities and that emphasized aesthetics. This pre-Title IX (1972) approach to developing gender preferred activities was supported by future studies noting that girls tended to prefer dance and gymnastics while boys tended to prefer team sports (Griffin, 1981, 1983, 1985; Lirgg, 1993, 1994; Napper-Owen, Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrof, 1999). The issue of gender effects on participation began with the advent of Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act (1972). This was considered a large step in eliminating segregation of the sexes in physical education classes (Griffin, 1981; Lirgg, 1993, 1994;

assumption that Title IX (1972) did not do what it was intended for was challenged in studies that recorded gender responses and teacher interactions. In these instances, males began to show their dominance in the classroom either by getting more attention from teachers or by dominating the activity (Ritson, Smith, & Twa, 1982; Kirk, 2003). Various themes and sub-themes emerged from previous research such as: 1) Teachers expected students to increase their efforts and participation in physical education, 2) Boys were skillful and aggressive and created a competitive atmosphere in physical education, 3) Girls perceived themselves as being athletic and competitive regardless of skill-level (sub-theme), and 4) As children aged, their levels of activity decreased. (Griffin, 1983, 1985; Figley, 1985; Luke & Sinclair, 1991; Napper-Owen, et al., 1999, Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999; Kulinna, Martin, Lai, Kilber, & Reed, 2003; Hill & eleven, 2005; Hannon & Ratliff, 2005; Constantinou, Manson, & Silverman, 2009). While this was just a sample of themes that emerged, it represented the general characteristics of boys and girls in physical education class.

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Napper-Owen, et al., 1999; Derry & Phillips, 2004; Hill & Cleven, 2005). The

3 There were, however, significant studies on specific activities that recorded actual activity data (Kulinna, et al., 2003). Consequently, the physical assessment results called for a further analysis of female students' experiences in single gender and coeducational physical education classes. Addressing this need, research was conducted to compare teacher behaviors in these situations and provide a descriptive experience (Derry & Phillips, 2004). Engaged Skill Learning Time (ESLT) and Student-integrated Interactions testing was conducted as one part of the research and there was significance found ip < .05) favoring female

showed little or no significance, the mean scores for single sex classes were considerably higher (Derry & Phillips, 2004). The researchers felt that students should be offered a variety of choices that included single sex and coeducational settings, and that those curriculum offerings should be structured to permit students to become successful. Yet, the research did not specify how the curriculum should be structured, just that it should

With the focus centering on gender having an impact on how physical education curriculum was being delivered, specific standards attempted to guide teachers and administrators. While these standards did not consider gender appropriateness, activity levels, or curriculum design, there was a series of goals that students should aspire to if they wished to live a healthy lifestyle. Organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), and the American Alliance for Health, Physical education. Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), and states, such as New York, introduced standards and

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allow students to be successful (Derry & Phillips, 2004).

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students in the single sex class. While perceptions of students in coeducational classes

4 performance indicators to guide physical education teachers and directors in developing curriculum that focused on the general fitness and lifetime activities to which students should aspire (Macarle, 2003). The New York State Department of Education (NYSED) was clear on the presentation of the physical education standards and relied on schools to fit the curriculum to meet those standards (NYSED, Sec. 135.4). The NYSED endorsed a curriculum guide that gave physical educators a chance to assess student ability levels for the purpose of developing a competency requirement for graduation from high school. Initial reactions to the Physical education Profile, a new

were indications that teachers would be better prepared for assessments of skill, this particular physical education curriculum failed to address avoidance issues. These issues of avoidance became more prevalent as the incidents of lower participation rates of some female students and low-skilled male students (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999) seemed to be increasing. In fact, based on the attention given to team sports and

curriculum may have increased avoidance by females and low-skilled males. Studies on the perceptions of students towards physical education and what motivated them focused primarily on curriculum influences and skill development (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999; Burkhalter & Wendt, 2001; Shen & Chen, 2007, 1997) including certain perceptions of skill mastery and competence (Papaioannou, Tsigilis, Kosmidou, & Milos, 2007). Problems with developing a diversified curriculum came as a result of research that only dealt with analyzing activities such as basketball, soccer, and gymnastics, and

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appropriate skill proficiency within the Physical Education Profile, adhering to this

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curriculum with updated standards (NYSED, 2008), had not been studied. While there

5 student attitudes toward individual activities such as dance (Shen, Chen, Tolley, & Scrabis, 2003). It had been suggested that teachers must be open to change in order to meet the wide variety of needs and interests in a population of culturally diverse students (Strand & Scantling, 1994). Strand and Scantling (1994) recognized that school cultures were not limited to ethnic groupings, but incorporated student ability levels, physical appearance, and gender as some of the factors used in the development of a fulfilling physical education program. Traditionally, attitude measurement was considered a

assessments should be the focus of future research (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). To fully understand how attitudes and perceptions were developed, it was necessary to consider several variables including activity interests curriculum, learning environment, and achievement goals based on gender and ethnicity to determine how these attitudes related to student participation and their activity interests in physical

Subramaniam, 1999; Papaioannou, et al., 2007). Over the years, as Title IX (1972) provided opportunity for females in collegiate sports, it also placed educators in the position of providing a physical education curriculum that was gender neutral and still offered students an opportunity to select activities they found interesting and useful to help combat the increasing health problems in young children. Females also were provided greater access and similar experiences that could be measured in places such as public school physical education classes (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006).

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education (Strand & Scantling, 1994; Mitchell, 1996; Chen, 1996, 1998; Silverman &

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secondary data source to direct observation and the need to give attention to attitude

6 There was Uttle argument that Title DC (1972) affected how physical education curriculum was delivered (Kirk, 2003). In spite of these gains. Kirk (2003) hypothesized that the pre-Title IX mentality that only dealt with male physical educational concerns was removed and negative perceptions about physical education by female students was more a choice than a trend. Understanding the reason these negative decisions to participate in physical education class was made by females as well as low-skilled males became the basis for research that centered on gender attitudes. Early research conducted post-Title IX, during the years 1984-1999, showed that

education dissertations completed centered on teacher effectiveness in the classroom, with most of the focus on teaching methods compared to a student attitude variable (Silverman & Manson, 2003). This did not necessarily reflect poorly on ineffective teachers as student attitudes remained high when the curriculum fit and the selfperceptions of skill level were high (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000).

definitive lack of understanding of the motivating factors that inspired students to develop interests and how they actually learned under conditions that did not provide activities that interested students in physical education class. The research conducted in this area was limited, and studying the effects of learning acquisition on curriculum development by administrators must come to the forefront if they are to address the maladies of the 21^ century such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes (Chen & Ennis, 2004).

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Regardless of what may interest a student to like a particular activity, there was a

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there was a large emphasis on teaching methodology and that 92.5 percent of physical

7 The most significant effect of gender on these attitudes and perceptions focused on female students' perception on stereotyping and the incidences of similar negative attitudes toward physical education (Constantinou, Manson, & Silverman 2009). One accepted hypothesis was that as students entered adolescence, their approach to physical education changed as their perception of body image underwent a change (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006a). Students with low self-image would ultimately avoid activities unless they possessed a better than average level of skill in that activity. This fact precluded some females and low-skilled males with low self-image from fully avoiding

affected the level of intensity put into the activity, thereby creating the possibility that bad exercise habits would develop.

Studies showed, for example, how females' activity levels decreased while engaged in mandated coeducational physical education programs (Lirgg, 1993; 1994; Napper-Owen, Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrhof, 1999; Hannon & Ratliff, 2005). Similar

including those where the student felt that the activity was "feminine" or that the student had not yet mastered the skills necessary to participate (Carlson, 1995; Silverman, 1999). It had also been reported that those activity levels changed depending on the setting for the student either single gender or coeducational (Hannon & Ratliff, 2005). Rethinking the implementation of Title DC (1972) in physical education class was not readily discussed, but the research would offer that consideration for opening specific discussions about curriculum delivery was necessary (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999).

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studies for males tracked decreased activity levels during certain physical education units,

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participation in physical education class (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006b), but may have

8 The results of attitude surveys conducted on middle school students showed that satisfactory participation in activities resulting in increased skill development and physical conditioning were in direct correlation to students that possessed a positive selfefficacy (Shen & Chen, 2007; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). When the experiences are positive they could lead students to develop better attitudes about physical fitness and subsequently, higher activity levels (Mackenzie, Alcaraz, & Sallis 1994). If this was true, then female participation, or for that matter, full participation of the entire student body should be affected by a positive

The research continued to show that if students were able to develop positive attitudes towards physical education, it would be because physical educators understood the need to encourage participation and to become role models across the gender lines by exploring a non-traditional curriculum that moved away from contact team sports (Napper-Owen, Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrhof, 1999). This also tended to improve the self-

their interests (Napper-Owen, et al., 1999). Recorded incidents of lower participation numbers as a result of avoidance suggested the antithesis to motivation, which was amotivation. Amotivational research models have been developed to assess the reasons for student apathy towards physical education (Shen, Wingert, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010). Self-Determination Theory studied by Deci and Ryan (2002, 1985), asserted that an individual's behavior could be assessed on three factors related to motivation; extrinsic, intrinsic, and amotivation or an absence of motivation. By understanding why students avoid participating in physical

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image of students as they felt more comfortable in an environment that better reflected

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self-image and activities that encouraged participation (Mitchell, 1996).

9 education, teachers and administrators should look to how the curriculum is delivered and how students participate based on their activity interests (Strand & Scantling, 1994). There is additionally the case for standards being introduced that require competency and proficiency on the part of students to measure skill development in physical education. These standards tended to ignore student attitudes towards the curriculum and the pressure to achieve mastery in skill, which led to avoidance (Chen, 1998). High school students in the Pacific Northwest, revealed patterns showing that attitudes can be formed as a direct result of boredom based on curriculum offerings that

the United States reflected similar results, but physical education in these areas may or may not have been mandatory as it is in New York (NYSED Regulation 135.4) Although Silverman and Subramaniam (1999) found that instruments used to measure these attitudes were potentially flawed and failed to fully establish a correlation, they do contend that the premise for conducting attitude surveys was sound. The idea of recording attitudes over time would help develop a pattern of finding common themes for developing appropriate curriculum models (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). Luke and Sinclair (1991) reported that student attitude was directly affected by the physical educator and further stated that a student's positive or negative experience was correlated to the effectiveness of the physical educator. There were discrepancies in these findings when compared to Figley's (1985) attitude study. After comparing the research, the fact that Figley used college age students as opposed to Luke and Sinclair's study that focused on high school students did not make a case for either, but provided a need to focus on the attitudes of younger students.

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do not serve the interests of either gender (Chen, 1998). Similar studies in other areas of

10 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate middle school students' activity interests in three physical education activity categories: team activities, individual activities, and lifetime activities in physical education class. This study also explored their attitudes toward physical education curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence; and achievement goals on the dimension of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and

This study investigated the relationships between those interests and middle school student attitudes toward physical education curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence; and achievement goals on the dimension of performance approach, mastery,

ethnicity. The study also analyzed differences in middle school student activity interests and their attitudes toward curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence; and achievement goals on the dimension of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval by gender and ethnicity. Additionally, this study analyzed how middle school student attitudes toward curriculum, learning environment, and achievement goals by

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performance avoidance, and social approval and their activity interests by gender and

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social approval.

11 gender and ethnicity predict their activity interests in three physical education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities. Statement of the Problem There were several factors that contributed to the health problems children experienced as they grew into adolescence, such as lack of physical activity and poor diet. As researchers began to study effects of these factors and the potential for contracting health related diseases, a common theme arose: as children grew, their participation levels in physical education tended to decline.

education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities The study also measured their attitudes toward curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance approach, mastery,

ethnicity.

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performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education class by gender and

What were the activity interests of middle school students in the three physical education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities? Research Question Two What were the attitudes of middle school students toward curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the

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Research Questions Research Question One

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This study examined middle school student activity interests in three physical

12 dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education? Research Question Three How did middle school students differ in their activity interests in three physical education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities based on gender and ethnicity? Research Question Four

dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education based on their gender and ethnicity?

What were the relationships between middle school student attitudes toward curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education class, gender, ethnicity, and their activity interests in three physical education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities?

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Research Question Five

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How did middle school students differ in their attitudes toward curriculum on the