Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Mathematical Models, Solutions, and Direction Fields
1.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
For y > 3/2, the slopes are negative, and, therefore the solutions decrease. For y < 3/2, the
slopes are positive, and, therefore, the solutions increase. As a result, y 3/2 as t
2.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
For y > 3/2, the slopes are positive, therefore the solutions increase. For y < 3/2, the slopes
are negative, therefore, the solutions decrease. As a result, y diverges from 3/2 as t if
y(0) = 3/2.
3.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
For y > 3/2, the slopes are positive, and, therefore the solutions increase. For y < 3/2,
the slopes are negative, and, therefore, the solutions decrease. As a result, y diverges from
the equilibrium 3/2 as t
4.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
For y > 1/2, the slopes are negative, therefore the solutions decrease. For y < 1/2, the
slopes are positive, therefore, the solutions increase. As a result, y 1/2 as t .
5.
1.1. MATHEMATICAL MODELS, SOLUTIONS, AND DIRECTION FIELDS 3
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
For y > 1/2, the slopes are positive, and, therefore the solutions increase. For y < 1/2,
the slopes are negative, and, therefore, the solutions decrease. As a result, y diverges from
the equilibrium 1/2 as t
6.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
For y > 2, the slopes are positive, therefore the solutions increase. For y < 2, the slopes
are negative, therefore, the solutions decrease. As a result, y diverges from 2 as t .
7. For the solutions to satisfy y 3 as t , we need y

< 0 for y > 3 and y

> 0 for
y < 3. The equation y

= 3 y satises these conditions.

8. For the solutions to satisfy y 2/3 as t , we need y

< 0 for y > 2/3 and y

> 0 for
y < 2/3. The equation y

= 2 3y satises these conditions.

9. For the solutions to satisfy y diverges from 2, we need y

> 0 for y > 2 and y

< 0 for
y < 2. The equation y

= y 2 satises these conditions.

10. For the solutions to satisfy y diverges from 1/3, we need y

> 0 for y > 1/3 and y

< 0
for y < 1/3. The equation y

= 3y 1 satises these conditions.

11.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y = 0 and y = 4 are equilibrium solutions; y 4 if initial value is positive; y diverges from
0 if initial value is negative.
12.
4
2
0
2
4
6
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y = 0 and y = 5 are equilibrium solutions; y diverges from 5 if the initial value is greater
than 5; y 0 if the initial value is less than 5.
13.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
1.1. MATHEMATICAL MODELS, SOLUTIONS, AND DIRECTION FIELDS 5
y = 0 is equilibrium solution; y 0 if initial value is negative; y diverges from 0 if initial
value is positive.
14.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y = 0 and y = 2 are equilibrium solutions; y diverges from 0 if the initial value is negative;
y 2 if the initial value is between 0 and 2; y diverges from 2 if the initial value is greater
than 2.
15. (j)
16. (c)
17. (g)
18. (b)
19. (h)
20. (e)
21.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y is asymptotic to t 3 as t
22.
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y 0 as t .
23.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y , 0, or depending on the initial value of y
24.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y or depending whether the initial value lies above or below the line y = t/2.
25.
1.1. MATHEMATICAL MODELS, SOLUTIONS, AND DIRECTION FIELDS 7
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y or or y oscillates depending whether the initial value of y lies above or below
the sinusoidal curve.
26.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y or is asymptotic to

2t 1 depending on the initial value of y.

27.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y 0 and then fails to exist after some t
f
0
28.
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
y or depending on the initial value of y.
29.
(a) Using the dierential equation and the given approximation, we obtain that
u(t
j
) u(t
j1
)
t
= k(u(t
j1
) T
0
).
Multiplication by t yields u(t
j
) u(t
j1
) = kt(u(t
j1
) T
0
), which gives us u(t
j
) =
(1 kt)u(t
j1
) + ktT
0
.
(b) We use induction. The statement is true for n = 1: u(t
1
) = (1kt)u
0
+kT
0
t. Suppose
the statement is true for n, i.e. that u(t
n
) = (1 kt)
n
u
0
+ kT
0
t

n1
j=0
(1 kt)
j
.
This implies that for n + 1 we get
u(t
n+1
) = (1kt)u(t
n
)+ktT
0
= (1kt)[(1kt)
n
u
0
+kT
0
t
n1

j=0
(1kt)
j
]+ktT
0
=
= (1 kt)
n+1
u
0
+ kT
0
t
n

j=0
(1 kt)
j
,
which is exactly what we wanted to show. We know that

n1
j=0
r
j
= 1 +r +. . . +r
n1
=
(r
n
1)/(r 1) = (1r
n
)/(1r); let r = 1kt, then 1r = kt and we obtain that
u(t
n
) = (1 kt)
n
u
0
+ kT
0
t

n1
j=0
(1 kt)
j
= (1 kt)
n
u
0
+ T
0
(1 (1 kt)
n
).
(c) ln(1kt/n)
n
= nln(1kt/n) = ln(1kt/n)/(1/n), so using LHospitals rule we obtain
that the limit of this sequence is the same as the limit of (1/(1kt/n))(kt/n
2
)/(1/n
2
),
which is clearly kt as n , so the sequence (1kt/n)
n
converges to e
kt
as n .
Let t = t/n and we obtain immediately that u(t
n
) = (1 kt/n)
n
u
0
+ T
0
(1 (1
kt/n)
n
) e
kt
u
0
+ T
0
(1 e
kt
) = e
kt
(u
0
T
0
) + T
0
as n .
30. With
(t) = T
0
+
kA
k
2
+
2
[k sin(t) + cos(t)] + ce
kt
,
1.1. MATHEMATICAL MODELS, SOLUTIONS, AND DIRECTION FIELDS 9
it is straightforward to see that

(t) + k(t) = kT
0
+ kAsin(t).
31. Using the fact that
Rsin(t ) = Rcos sin(t) Rsin cos(t)
where R
2
cos
2
+ R
2
sin
2
= R
2
= A
2
+ B
2
, the desired result follows.
31. Let R =

A
2
+ B
2
. Using the fact that sin( ) = sin cos cos sin , we obtain
that Rsin(t ) = Rcos sin t Rsin cos t = Asin t +Bcos t. The value for which
Rcos = A and Rsin = B exists because R
2
= A
2
+ B
2
.
32.
(a) The general solution is p(t) = 900 +ce
t/2
. Plugging in for the initial condition, we have
p(t) = 900+(p
0
900)e
t/2
. With p
0
= 850, the solution is p(t) = 90050e
t/2
. To nd the
time when the population becomes extinct, we need to nd the time T when p(T) = 0.
Therefore, 900 = 50e
T/2
, which implies e
T/2
= 18, and, therefore, T = 2 ln 18

= 5.78
months.
(b) Using the general solution, p(t) = 900 + (p
0
900)e
t/2
, we see that the population will
become extinct at the time T when 900 = (900p
0
)e
T/2
. That is, T = 2 ln[900/(900p
0
)]
months.
(c) Using the general solution, p(t) = 900 + (p
0
900)e
t/2
, we see that the population after
1 year (12 months) will be p(6) = 900 + (p
0
900)e
6
. If we want to know the initial
population which will lead to extinction after 1 year, we set p(6) = 0 and solve for p
0
.
Doing so, we have (900 p
0
)e
6
= 900 which implies p
0
= 900(1 e
6
)

= 897.8.
33.
(a) The solution of the dierential equation p

= rp, when p(0) = p

0
is p(t) = p
0
e
rt
. If the
population doubles in 30 days, then p(30) = p
0
e
30r
= 2p
0
, so r = ln 2/30 (day
1
).
(b) The same computation shows that r = ln 2/N (day
1
).
34.
(a) The general solution of the equation is Q(t) = ce
rt
. Given that Q(0) = 100, we have
c = 100. Assuming that Q(1) = 82.04, we have 82.04 = 100e
r
. Solving this equation
for r, we have r = ln(82.04/100) = .19796 per week or r = 0.02828 per day.
(b) Using the form of the general solution and r found above, we have Q(t) = 100e
0.02828t
.
(c) Let T be the time it takes the isotope to decay to half of its original amount. From part
(b), we conclude that .5 = e
0.2828T
which implies that T = ln(0.5)/0.2828

= 24.5
days.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
35.
(a) The direction eld is the same as in Problem 1, except the equilibrium solution (where
the arrows are horizontal) is at mg/. We obtain this value by setting mv

= 0:
mg v = 0, so v = mg/. The direction eld shows that the velocity of a falling
object does not grow without bound, it approaches this equilibrium velocity. We can
also see that the smaller the drag coecient > 0 is, the higher the terminal velocity
the object reaches.
(b) First, mv

= m(v
0
+ mg/)(/m)e
t/m
= (v
0
+ mg/)e
t/m
. Also, mg v =
mg ((v
0
+ mg)e
t/m
mg/) = (v
0
+ mg/)e
t/m
. So the function satises
the given dierential equation. We can also see that v(0) = (v
0
+ mg/) mg/ = v
0
.
(c) The ball reaches its maximum height when v = 0. This will happen when (v
0
+
mg/)e
t/m
= mg/. Dividing both sides by e
t/m
mg/, we obtain v
0
/(mg) + 1 =
e
t/m
. Taking the logarithm of both sides and dividing by /m we get that t = t
max
=
(m/) ln(1 + v
0
/(mg)).
(d) Using the previous parts, = mg/v
term
= 0.1459.8/(33)(kg/sec) 0.0431(kg/sec).
(e) Using the expression for the velocity, we can get the function describing the height of the
thrown ball. Because v = h

, we get that h(t) = (m/)(v

0
+mg/)e
t/m
mgt/+h
0
+
(m/)(v
0
+mg/), where the constant was chosen to satisfy the initial condition h(0) =
h
0
. Using part (c), the time needed to reach maximum height is (m/) ln(1+v
0
/(mg)),
by plugging this into the height function we obtain that h
max
31.16 (m).
36.
(a) Following the discussion in the text, the equation is given by mv

= mg kv
2
.
(b) After a long time, v

0. Therefore, mg kv
2
0, or v
_
mg/k.
(c) We need to solve the equation
_
.025 9.8/k = 35. Solving this equation, we see that
k = 0.0002 kg/m.
37.
(a) Let q(t) denote the amount of chemical in the pond at time t. The chemical q will
be measured in grams and the time t will be measured in hours. The rate at which
the chemical is entering the pond is given by 300 gallons/hour .01 grams/gallons =
300 10
2
grams/hour. The rate at which the chemical leaves the pond is given by
300 gallons/hour q/1, 000, 000 grams/gallons = 300 q10
6
grams/hour. Therefore, the
dierential equation is given by dq/dt = 300(10
2
q10
6
).
(b) As t , 10
2
q10
6
0. Therefore, q 10
4
grams. The limiting amount does not
depend on the amount that was present initially.
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 11
38. The surface area of a spherical raindrop of radius r is given by S = 4r
2
. The volume
of a spherical raindrop is given by V = 4r
3
/3. Therefore, we see that the surface area
S = cV
2/3
for some constant c. If the raindrop evaporates at a rate proportional to its
surface area, then dV/dt = kV
2/3
for some k > 0.
39.
(a) Let q(t) be the total amount of the drug (in milligrams) in the body at a given time t
(measured in hours). The drug enters the body at the rate of 5 mg/cm
3
100 cm
3
/hr
= 500 mg/hr, and the drug leaves the body at the rate of 0.4q mg/hr. Therefore, the
governing dierential equation is given by dq/dt = 500 0.4q.
(b) If q > 1250, then q

< 0. If q < 1250, then q

> 0. Therefore, q 1250.

1.2 Linear Equations: Method of Integrating Factors
1.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4 6 8 10
t
(b) All solutions seem to converge to an increasing function as t .
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
3t
. Then
e
3t
y

+ 3e
3t
y = e
3t
(t + e
2t
) = (e
3t
y)

= te
3t
+ e
t
= e
3t
y =
_
(te
3t
+ e
t
) dt =
1
3
te
3t

1
9
e
3t
+ e
t
+ c
= y = ce
3t
+ e
2t
+
t
3

1
9
.
We conclude that y is asymptotic to t/3 1/9 as t .
2.
(a)
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
t
(b) All slopes eventually become positive, so all solutions will eventually increase without
bound.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
2t
. Then
e
2t
y

2e
2t
y = e
2t
(t
2
e
2t
) = (e
2t
y)

= t
2
= e
2t
y =
_
t
2
dt =
t
3
3
+ c
= y =
t
3
3
e
2t
+ ce
2t
.
We conclude that y increases exponentially as t .
3.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
t
(b) All solutions appear to converge to the function y(t) = 1.
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 13
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t
. Therefore,
e
t
y

+ e
t
y = t + e
t
= (e
t
y)

= t + e
t
= e
t
y =
_
(t + e
t
) dt =
t
2
2
+ e
t
+ c
= y =
t
2
2
e
t
+ 1 + ce
t
.
Therefore, we conclude that y 1 as t .
4.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
(b) The solutions eventually become oscillatory.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = t. Therefore,
ty

+ y = 3t cos(2t) = (ty)

= 3t cos(2t)
= ty =
_
3t cos(2t) dt =
3
4
cos(2t) +
3
2
t sin(2t) + c
= y =
3 cos 2t
4t
+
3 sin 2t
2
+
c
t
.
We conclude that y is asymptotic to (3 sin 2t)/2 as t .
5.
(a)
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
t
(b) All slopes eventually become positive so all solutions eventually increase without bound.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
2t
. Therefore,
e
2t
y

2e
2t
y = 3e
t
= (e
2t
y)

= 3e
t
= e
2t
y =
_
3e
t
dt = 3e
t
+ c
= y = 3e
t
+ ce
2t
.
We conclude that y increases or decreases exponentially as t .
6.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
(b) For t > 0, all solutions seem to eventually converge to the function y = 0.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = t
2
. Therefore,
t
2
y

+ 2ty = t sin(t) = (t
2
y)

= t sin(t)
= t
2
y =
_
t sin(t) dt = sin(t) t cos(t) + c
= y =
sin t t cos t + c
t
2
.
We conclude that y 0 as t .
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 15
7.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
(b) For t > 0, all solutions seem to eventually converge to the function y = 0.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t
2
. Therefore, using the techniques shown above, we
see that y(t) = t
2
e
t
2
+ ce
t
2
. We conclude that y 0 as t .
8.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
(b) For t > 0, all solutions seem to eventually converge to the function y = 0.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = (1 + t
2
)
2
. Then
(1 + t
2
)
2
y

+ 4t(1 + t
2
)y =
1
1 + t
2
= ((1 + t
2
)
2
y) =
_
1
1 + t
2
dt
= y = (arctan(t) + c)/(1 + t
2
)
2
.
We conclude that y 0 as t .
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
9.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
(b) All slopes eventually become positive. Therefore, all solutions will increase without
bound.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/2
. Therefore,
2e
t/2
y

+ e
t/2
y = 3te
t/2
= 2e
t/2
y =
_
3te
t/2
dt = 6te
t/2
12e
t/2
+ c
= y = 3t 6 + ce
t/2
.
We conclude that y 3t 6 as t .
10.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
(b) For y > 0, the slopes are all positive, and, therefore, the corresponding solutions increase
without bound. For y < 0 almost all solutions have negative slope and therefore decrease
without bound.
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 17
(c) By dividing the equation by t, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = 1/t. Therefore,
y

/t y/t
2
= te
t
= (y/t)

= te
t
=
y
t
=
_
te
t
dt = te
t
e
t
+ c
= y = t
2
e
t
te
t
+ ct.
We conclude that y if c > 0, y if c < 0 and y 0 if c = 0.
11.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
2 1 1 2
t
(b) The solution appears to be oscillatory.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t
. Therefore,
e
t
y

+ e
t
y = 5e
t
sin(2t) = (e
t
y)

= 5e
t
sin(2t)
= e
t
y =
_
5e
t
sin(2t) dt = 2e
t
cos(2t) + e
t
sin(2t) + c = y = 2 cos(2t) + sin(2t) + ce
t
.
We conclude that y sin(2t) 2 cos(2t) as t .
12.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
2 1 1 2
t
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
(b) All slopes are eventually positive. Therefore, all solutions increase without bound.
(c) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/2
. Therefore,
2e
t/2
y

+ e
t/2
y = 3t
2
e
t/2
= (2e
t/2
y)

= 3t
2
e
t/2
= 2e
t/2
y =
_
3t
2
e
t/2
dt = 6t
2
e
t/2
24te
t/2
+ 48e
t/2
+ c
= y = 3t
2
12t + 24 + ce
t/2
.
We conclude that y is asymptotic to 3t
2
12t + 24 as t .
13. The integrating factor is (t) = e
t
. Therefore,
(e
t
y)

= 2te
t
= y = e
t
_
2te
t
dt = 2te
2t
2e
2t
+ ce
t
.
The initial condition y(0) = 1 implies 2 +c = 1. Therefore, c = 3 and y = 3e
t
+2(t 1)e
2t
14. The integrating factor is (t) = e
2t
. Therefore,
(e
2t
y)

= t = y = e
2t
_
t dt =
t
2
2
e
2t
+ ce
2t
.
The initial condition y(1) = 0 implies e
2t
/2 + ce
2t
= 0. Therefore, c = 1/2, and
y = (t
2
1)e
2t
/2.
15. Dividing the equation by t, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = t
2
. Therefore,
(t
2
y)

= t
3
t
2
+ t = y = t
2
_
(t
3
t
2
+ t) dt =
_
t
2
4

t
3
+
1
2
+
c
t
2
_
.
The initial condition y(1) = 1/2 implies c = 1/12, and y = (3t
4
4t
3
+ 6t
2
+ 1)/12t
2
.
16. The integrating factor is (t) = t
2
. Therefore,
(t
2
y)

= cos(t) = y = t
2
_
cos(t) dt = t
2
(sin(t) + c).
The initial condition y() = 0 implies c = 0 and y = (sin t)/t
2
.
17. The integrating factor is (t) = e
2t
. Therefore,
(e
2t
y)

= 1 = y = e
2t
_
1 dt = e
2t
(t + c).
The initial condition y(0) = 2 implies c = 2 and y = (t + 2)e
2t
.
18. After dividing by t, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = t
2
. Therefore,
(t
2
y)

= 1 = y = t
2
_
t sin(t) dt = t
2
(sin(t) t cos(t) + c).
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 19
The initial condition y(/2) = 1 implies c = (
2
/4)1 and y = t
2
[(
2
/4)1t cos t+sin t].
19. After dividing by t
3
, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = t
4
. Therefore,
(t
4
y)

= te
t
= y = t
4
_
te
t
dt = t
4
(te
t
e
t
+ c).
The initial condition y(1) = 0 implies c = 0 and y = (1 + t)e
t
/t
4
, t = 0
20. After dividing by t, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = te
t
. Therefore,
(te
t
y)

= te
t
= y = t
1
e
t
_
te
t
dt = t
1
e
t
(te
t
e
t
+ c) = t
1
(t 1 + ce
t
).
The initial condition y(ln 2) = 1 implies c = 2 and y = (t 1 + 2e
t
)/t, t = 0.
21.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
The solutions appear to diverge from an oscillatory solution. It appears that a
0
1.
For a > 1, the solutions increase without bound. For a < 1, the solutions decrease
without bound.
(b) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/2
. From this, we conclude that the general solution
is y(t) = (8 sin(t) 4 cos(t))/5+ce
t/2
, where c = a+4/5. The solution will be sinusoidal
as long as c = 0. The initial condition for the sinusoidal behavior is y(0) = (8 sin(0)
4 cos(0))/5 = 4/5. Therefore, a
0
= 4/5.
(c) y oscillates for a = a
0
22.
(a)
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
All solutions eventually increase or decrease without bound. The value a
0
appears to be
approximately a
0
= 3.
(b) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/2
, and the general solution is y(t) = 3e
t/3
+ ce
t/2
.
The initial condition y(0) = a implies y = 3e
t/3
+(a +3)e
t/2
. The solution will behave
like (a + 3)e
t/2
. Therefore, a
0
= 3.
(c) y for a = a
0
.
23.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
Solutions eventually increase or decrease without bound, depending on the initial value
a
0
. It appears that a
0
1/8.
(b) Dividing the equation by 3, we see that the integrating factor is (t) = e
2t/3
. Therefore,
the solution is y = [(2 +a(3 +4))e
2t/3
2e
t/2
]/(3 +4). The solution will eventually
behave like (2 + a(3 + 4))e
2t/3
/(3 + 4). Therefore, a
0
= 2/(3 + 4).
(c) y 0 for a = a
0
24.
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 21
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 2 3 4 5
t
It appears that a
0
.4. As t 0, solutions increase without bound if y > a
0
and
decrease without bound if y < a
0
.
(b) The integrating factor is (t) = te
t
. The general solution is y = te
t
+ce
t
/t. The initial
condition y(1) = a implies y = te
t
+ (ea 1)e
t
/t. As t 0, the solution will behave
like (ea 1)e
t
/t. From this, we see that a
0
= 1/e.
(c) y 0 as t 0 for a = a
0
.
25.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
5 4 3 2 1
t
It appears that a
0
.4. That is, as t 0, for y(/2) > a
0
, solutions will increase
without bound, while solutions will decrease without bound for y(/2) < a
0
.
(b) After dividing by t, we see that the integrating factor is t
2
, and the solution is y =
cos t/t
2
+
2
a/4t
2
. Since lim
t0
cos(t) = 1, solutions will increase without bound if
a > 4/
2
and decrease without bound if a < 4/
2
. Therefore, a
0
= 4/
2
.
(c) For a
0
= 4/
2
, y = (1 cos(t))/t
2
1/2 as t 0.
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
26.
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t
It appears that a
0
2. For y(1) > a
0
, the solution will increase without bound as t 0,
while the solution will decrease without bound if y(t) < a
0
.
(b) After dividing by sin(t), we see that the integrating factor is (t) = sin(t). As a result,
we see that the solution is given by y = (e
t
+ c) sin(t). Applying our initial condition,
we see that our solution is y = (e
t
e + a sin 1)/ sin t. The solution will increase if
1 e + a sin 1 > 0 and decrease if 1 e + a sin 1 < 0. Therefore, we conclude that
a
0
= (e 1)/ sin 1
(c) If a
0
= (e 1) sin(1), then y = (e
t
1)/ sin(t). As t 0, y 1.
27. The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/2
. Therefore, the general solution is y(t) = [4 cos(t) +
8 sin(t)]/5 +ce
t/2
. Using our initial condition, we have y(t) = [4 cos(t) +8 sin(t) 9e
t/2
]/5.
Dierentiating, we have
y

= [4 sin(t) + 8 cos(t) + 4.5e

t/2
]/5
y

= [4 cos(t) 8 sin(t) 2.25e

t/2
]/5.
Setting y

= 0, the rst solution is t

1
= 1.3643, which gives the location of the rst stationary
point. Since y

(t
1
) < 0, the rst stationary point is a local maximum. The coordinates of
the point are (1.3643, .82008).
28. The integrating factor is (t) = e
2t/3
. The general solution of the dierential equation
is y(t) = (21 6t)/8 + ce
2t/3
. Using the initial condition, we have y(t) = (21 6t)/8 +
(y
0
21/8)e
2t/3
. Therefore, y

(t) = 3/4 (2y

0
21/4)e
2t/3
/3. Setting y

(t) = 0, the
solution is t
1
=
3
2
ln[(21 8y
0
)/9]. Substituting into the solution, the respective value at the
stationary point is y(t
1
) =
3
2
+
9
4
ln 3
9
8
ln(21 8y
0
). Setting this result equal to zero, we
obtain the required initial value y
0
= (21 9e
4/3
)/8 = 1.643.
29.
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 23
(a) The integrating factor is (t) = e
t/4
. The general solution is
y(t) = 12 + [8 cos(2t) + 64 sin(2t)]/65 + ce
t/4
.
Applying the initial condition y(0) = 0, we arrive at the specic solution
y(t) = 12 + [8 cos(2t) + 64 sin(2t) 788e
t/4
]/65.
As t , the solution oscillates about the line y = 12.
(b) To nd the value of t for which the solution rst intersects the line y = 12, we need
to solve the equation 8 cos(2t) + 64 sin(2t) 788e
t/4
= 0. The time t is approximately
10.0658.
30. The integrating factor is (t) = e
t
. The general solution is y(t) = 1
3
2
cos(t)
3
2
sin(t) +ce
t
. In order for the solution to remain nite as t , we need c = 0. Therefore,
y
0
must satisfy y
0
= 1 3/2 = 5/2.
31. The integrating factor is (t) = e
3t/2
and the general solution of the equation is y(t) =
2t4/34e
t
+ce
3t/2
. The initial condition implies y(t) = 2t4/34e
t
+(y
0
+16/3)e
3t/2
.
The solution will behave like (y
0
+16/3)e
3t/2
(for y
0
= 16/3). For y
0
> 16/3, the solutions
will increase without bound, while for y
0
< 16/3, the solutions will decrease without bound.
If y
0
= 16/3, the solution will decrease without bound as the solution will be 2t4/34e
t
.
32. By equation (42), we see that the general solution is given by
y = e
t
2
/4
_
t
0
e
s
2
/4
ds + ce
t
2
/4
.
Applying LHospitals rule,
lim
t
_
t
0
e
s
2
/4
ds
e
t
2
/4
= lim
t
e
t
2
/4
(t/2)e
t
2
/4
= 0.
Therefore, y 0 as t .
33. The integrating factor is (t) = e
at
. First consider the case a = . Multiplying the
equation by e
at
, we have
(e
at
y)

= be
(a)t
= y = e
at
_
be
(a)t
= e
at
_
b
a
e
(a)t
+ c
_
=
b
a
e
t
+ ce
at
.
Since a, are assumed to be positive, we see that y 0 as t . Now if a = above,
then we have
(e
at
y)

= b = y = e
at
(bt + c)
and similarly y 0 as t .
34. We notice that y(t) = ce
t
+ 3 approaches 3 as t . We just need to nd a rst-
order linear dierential equation having that solution. We notice that if y(t) = f + g, then
y

+ y = f

+ f + g

+ g. Here, let f = ce
t
and g(t) = 3. Then f

+ f = 0 and g

+ g = 3.
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Therefore, y(t) = ce
t
+3 satises the equation y

+y = 3. That is, the equation y

+y = 3
has the desired properties.
35. We notice that y(t) = ce
t
+ 3 t approaches 3 t as t . We just need to nd a
rst-order linear dierential equation having that solution. We notice that if y(t) = f + g,
then y

+ y = f

+ f + g

+ g. Here, let f = ce
t
and g(t) = 3 t. Then f

+ f = 0
and g

+ g = 1 + 3 t = 2 t. Therefore, y(t) = ce
t
+ 3 t satises the equation
y

+ y = 2 t. That is, the equation y

+ y = 2 t has the desired properties.

36. We notice that y(t) = ce
t
+2t 5 approaches 2t 5 as t . We just need to nd a
rst-order linear dierential equation having that solution. We notice that if y(t) = f + g,
then y

+ y = f

+ f + g

+ g. Here, let f = ce
t
and g(t) = 2t 5. Then f

+ f = 0
and g

+ g = 2 + 2t 5 = 2t 3. Therefore, y(t) = ce
t
+ 2t 5 satises the equation
y

+ y = 2t 3. That is, the equation y

+ y = 2t 3 has the desired properties.

37. We notice that y(t) = ce
t
+ 4 t
2
approaches 4 t
2
as t . We just need to nd a
rst-order linear dierential equation having that solution. We notice that if y(t) = f + g,
then y

+ y = f

+ f + g

+ g. Here, let f = ce
t
and g(t) = 4 t
2
. Then f

+ f = 0 and
g

+ g = 2t + 4 t
2
= 4 2t t
2
. Therefore, y(t) = ce
t
+ 2t 5 satises the equation
y

+ y = 4 2t t
2
. That is, the equation y

+ y = 4 2t t
2
has the desired properties.
38. Multiplying the equation by e
a(tt
0
)
, we have
e
a(tt
0
)
y + ae
a(tt
0
)
y = e
a(tt
0
)
g(t)
= (e
a(tt
0
)
y)

= e
a(tt
0
)
g(t)
= y(t) =
_
t
t
0
e
a(ts)
g(s) ds + e
a(tt
0
)
y
0
.
Assuming g(t) g
0
as t ,
_
t
t
0
e
a(ts)
g(s) ds
_
t
t
0
e
a(ts)
g
0
ds =
g
0
a

e
a(tt
0
)
a
g
0

g
0
a
as t .
For an example, let g(t) = e
t
. Assume a = 1. By undetermined coecients, we look
for a solution of the form y = ce
at
+ Ae
t
. Substituting a function of this form into the
dierential equation leads to the equation
[A + aA]e
t
= e
t
= A + aA = 1.
Therefore, A = 1/(a 1) and y = ce
at
+
1
a1
e
t
. The initial condition y(0) = y
0
implies
y(t) = (y
0

1
a1
)e
at
+
1
a1
e
t
0 as t .
39.
(a) The integrating factor is e

p(t) dt
. Multiplying by the integrating factor, we have
e

p(t) dt
y

+ e

p(t) dt
p(t)y = 0.
Therefore,
_
e

p(t) dt
y
_

= 0
1.2. LINEAR EQUATIONS: METHOD OF INTEGRATING FACTORS 25
which implies
y(t) = Ae

p(t) dt
is the general solution.
(b) Let y = A(t)e

p(t) dt
. Then in order for y to satisfy the desired equation, we need
A

(t)e

p(t) dt
A(t)p(t)e

p(t) dt
+ A(t)p(t)e

p(t) dt
= g(t).
That is, we need
A

(t) = g(t)e

p(t) dt
.
(c) From equation (iv), we see that
A(t) =
_
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C.
Therefore,
y(t) = e

p(t) dt
__
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C
_
.
40. Here, p(t) = 2 and g(t) = t
2
e
2t
. The general solution is given by
y(t) = e

p(t) dt
__
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C
_
= e

2 dt
__
t
0

2
e
2
e

2 d
d + C
_
= e
2t
__
t
0

2
d + C
_
= e
2t
_
t
3
3
+ c
_
.
41. Here, p(t) = 1/t and g(t) = 3 cos(2t). The general solution is given by
y(t) = e

p(t) dt
__
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C
_
= e

1
t
dt
__
t
0
3 cos(2)e

d
d + C
_
=
1
t
__
t
0
3 cos(2) d + C
_
=
1
t
_
3
4
cos(2t) +
3
2
t sin(2t) + C
_
.
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
42. Here, p(t) = 2/t and g(t) = sin(t)/t. The general solution is given by
y(t) = e

p(t) dt
__
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C
_
= e

2
t
dt
__
t
0
sin()

d
d + C
_
=
1
t
2
_
_
t
0
sin()

2
d + C
_
=
1
t
2
__
t
0
sin() d + C
_
=
1
t
2
(sin(t) t cos(t) + C) .
43. Here, p(t) = 1/2 and g(t) = 3t
2
/2. The general solution is given by
y(t) = e

p(t) dt
__
t
0
g()e

p() d
d + C
_
= e

1
2
dt
__
t
0
3t
2
2
e

1
2
d
d + C
_
= e
t/2
__
t
0
3
2
2
e
/2
d + C
_
= e
t/2
_
3t
2
e
t/2
12te
t/2
+ 24e
t/2
+ C
_
= et
2
12t + 24 + ce
t/2
.
1.3 Numerical Approximations: Eulers Method
1. The Euler formula is given by y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(3 + t
n
y
n
) = (1 h)y
n
+ h(3 + t
n
).
(a) 1.2, 1.39, 1.571, 1.7439
(b) 1.1975, 1.38549, 1.56491, 1.73658
(c) 1.19631, 1.38335, 1.56200, 1.73308
(d) The dierential equation is linear with solution y(t) = 2 + t e
t
.
1.19516, 1.38127, 1.55918, 1.72968
2. The Euler formula is given by y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(2y
n
1) = (1 + 2h)y
n
h.
(a) 1.1, 1.22, 1.364, 1.5368
(b) 1.105, 1.23205, 1.38578, 1.57179
(c) 1.10775, 1.23873, 1.39793, 1.59144
1.3. NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS: EULERS METHOD 27
(d) The dierential equation is linear with solution y(t) = (1 + e
2t
)/2.
1.1107, 1.24591, 1.41106, 1.61277
3. The Euler formula is given by y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(0.5 t
n
+ 2y
n
) = (1 + 2h)y
n
+ h(0.5 t
n
).
(a) 1.25, 1.54, 1.878, 2.2736
(b) 1.26, 1.5641, 1.92156, 2.34359
(c) 1.26551, 1.57746, 1.94586, 2.38287
(d) The dierential equation is linear with solution y(t) = 0.5t + e
2t
.
1.2714, 1.59182, 1.97212, 2.42554
4. The Euler formula is given by y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(3 cos(t
n
) 2y
n
) = (1 2h)y
n
+ 3hcos(t
n
).
(a) 0.3, 0.538501, 0.724821, 0.866458
(b) 0.284813, 0.513339, 0.693451, 0.831571
(c) 0.277920, 0.501813, 0.678949, 0.815302
(d) The dierential equation is linear with solution y(t) = (6 cos(t) + 3 sin(t) 6e
2t
)/5.
0.271428, 0.490897, 0.665142, 0.799729
5.
0
1
2
3
4
5
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
The solutions converge for y 0. Solutions are undened for y < 0.
6.
28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
The solutions converge for y 0. They diverge for y < 0.
7.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
All solutions converge.
8.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
1 1 2 3 4 5
t
The solutions converge for |y(0)| < 2.37 (approximately). They diverge otherwise.
9.
1.3. NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS: EULERS METHOD 29
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
All solutions diverge.
10.
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
All solutions diverge except when y(0) = 0.
11. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
3h

y
n
+ 5h. The initial value is y
0
= 2.
(a) 2.30800, 2.49006, 2.60023, 2.66773, 2.70939, 2.73521
(b) 2.30167, 2.48263, 2.59352, 2.66227, 2.70519, 2.73209
(c) 2.29864, 2.47903, 2.59024, 2.65958, 2.70310, 2.73053
(d) 2.29686, 2.47691, 2.58830, 2.65798, 2.70185, 2.72959
12. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= (1 + 3h)y
n
ht
n
y
2
n
. The initial value is (t
0
, y
0
) = (0, 0.5).
(a) 1.70308, 3.06605, 2.44030, 1.77204, 1.37348, 1.11925
(b) 1.79548, 3.06051, 2.43292, 1.77807, 1.37795, 1.12191
(c) 1.84579, 3.05769, 2.42905, 1.78074, 1.38017, 1.12328
(d) 1.87734, 3.05607, 2.42672, 1.78224, 1.38150, 1.12411
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
13. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+ h
(4tnyn)
(1+y
2
n
)
with (t
0
, y
0
) = (0, 2).
(a) 1.48849, 0.412339, 1.04687, 1.43176, 1.54438, 1.51971
(b) 1.46909, 0.287883, 1.05351, 1.42003, 1.53000, 1.50549
(c) 1.45865, 0.217545, 1.05715, 1.41486, 1.52334, 1.49879
(d) 1.45212, 0.173376, 1.05941, 1.41197, 1.51949, 1.49490
14. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= (1 ht
n
)y
n
+ hy
3
n
/10, with (t
0
, y
0
) = (0, 1).
(a) 0.950517, 0.687550, 0.369188, 0.145990, 0.0421429, 0.00872877
(b) 0.938298, 0.672145, 0.362640, 0.147659, 0.0454100, 0.0104931
(c) 0.932253, 0.664778, 0.359567, 0.148416, 0.0469514, 0.0113722
(d) 0.928649, 0.660463, 0.357783, 0.148848, 0.0478492, 0.0118978
15. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+ h3t
2
n
/(3y
2
n
4) with initial value (t
0
, y
0
) = (1, 0).
(a) 0.166134, 0.410872, 0.804660, 4.15867
(b) 0.174652, 0.434238, 0.889140, 3.09810
(c) Since the line tangent to the solution is parallel to the yaxis when y

= 1.155, Eulers
formula can be o by quite a bit. As the slope tends to , using that slope as an
approximation to the change in the function can cause a large error in the approximation.
16. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+h(t
2
n
+y
2
n
) with (t
0
, y
0
) = (0, 1). A reasonable estimate
for y at t = 0.8 is between 5.5 and 6. No reliable estimate is possible at t = 1 from the
specied data.
17. The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+h(y
2
n
+2t
n
y
n
)/(3+t
2
n
) with (t
0
, y
0
) = (1, 2). A reasonable
estimate for y at t = 2.5 is between 18 and 19. No reliable estimate is possible at t = 3 from
the specied data.
18.
(a) See the direction eld in exercise 8 above.
(b) The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(t
n
y
n
+ 0.1y
3
n
). For y
0
< 2.37, the solutions
seem to converge, while the solutions seem to diverge if y
0
> 2.38. We conclude that
2.37 <
0
< 2.38
19.
(a)
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 31
4
2
0
2
4
y(t)
4 2 2 4
t
(b) The Euler formula is y
n+1
= y
n
+ h(y
2
n
t
2
n
). For y
0
< 0.67, the solutions seem to
converge, while the solutions seem to diverge if y
0
> 0.68. Therefore, we conclude that
0.67 <
0
< 0.68
1.4 Classication of Dierential Equations
1. The dierential equation is second order, since the highest derivative in the equation is
of order two. The equation is linear since the left hand side is a linear function of y and its
derivatives and the right hand side is just a function of t.
2. The dierential equation is second order since the highest derivative in the equation is of
order two. The equation is nonlinear because of the term y
2
d
2
y/dt
2
.
3. The dierential equation is fourth order since the highest derivative in the equation is of
order four. The equation is linear since the left hand side is a linear function of y and its
derivatives and the right hand side does not depend on y.
4. The dierential equation is rst order since the only derivative in the equation is of order
one. The equation is nonlinear because of the y
2
term.
5. The dierential equation is second order since the highest derivative in the equation is
of order two. The equation is nonlinear because of the term sin(t + y) which is not a linear
function of y.
6. The dierential equation is third order since the highest derivative in the equation is of
order three. The equation is linear because the left hand side is a linear function of y and
its derivatives, and the right hand side is only a function of t.
7. y
1
= e
t
= y

1
= e
t
= y

1
= e
t
. Therefore, y

1
y
1
= 0. Also, y
2
= cosh t = y

2
=
sinh t = y

2
= cosh t. Therefore, y

2
y
2
= 0.
8. y
1
= e
3t
= y

1
= 3e
3t
= y

1
= 9e
3t
. Therefore, y

1
+2y

1
3y
1
= (963)y
1
= 0.
Also, y
2
= e
t
= y

2
= y

2
= e
t
. Therefore, y

1
+ 2y

1
3y
1
= (1 + 2 3)e
t
= 0.
9. y = 3t + t
2
= y

= 3 + 2t. Therefore, ty

y = t(3 + 2t) (3t + t

2
) = t
2
.
10. y
1
= t/3 = y

1
= 1/3 = y

1
= y

1
= y

1
= 0. Therefore, y

1
+ 4y

1
+ 3y = t. Also,
y
2
= e
t
+ t/3 = y

2
= e
t
+ 1/3 = y

2
= e
t
= y

2
= e
t
= y

2
= e
t
.
32 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Therefore, y

2
+ 4y

2
+ 3y = e
t
4e
t
+ 3(e
t
+ t/3) = t.
11. y
1
= t
1/2
= y

1
= t
1/2
/2 = y

1
= t
3/2
/4. Therefore, 2t
2
y

1
+ 3ty

1
y
1
=
2t
2
(t
3/2
/4) + 3t(t
1/2
/2) t
1/2
= (1/2 + 3/2 1)t
1/2
= 0. Also, y
2
= t
1
= y

2
=
t
2
= y

2
= 2t
3
. Therefore, 2t
2
y

2
+ 3ty

2
y
2
= 2t
2
(2t
3
) + 3t(t
2
) t
1
= (4 3
1)t
1
= 0.
12. y
1
= t
2
= y

1
= 2t
3
= y

1
= 6t
4
. Therefore, t
2
y

1
+ 5ty

1
+ 4y
1
= t
2
(6t
4
) +
5t(2t
3
)+4t
2
= (610+4)t
2
= 0. Also, y
2
= t
2
ln t = y

2
= t
3
2t
3
ln t = y

2
=
5t
4
+ 6t
4
ln t. Therefore, t
2
y

2
+ 5ty

2
+ 4y
2
= t
2
(5t
4
+ 6t
4
ln t) + 5t(t
3
2t
3
ln t) +
4(t
2
ln t) = (5 + 5)t
2
+ (6 10 + 4)t
2
ln t = 0.
13. y = (cos t) ln cos t +t sin t = y

= (sin t) ln cos t +t cos t = y

= (cos t) ln cos t
t sin t+sec t. Therefore, y

+y = (cos t) ln cos tt sin t+sec t+(cos t) ln cos t+t sin t = sec t.

14. y = e
t
2
_
t
0
e
s
2
ds + e
t
2
= y

= 2te
t
2
_
t
0
e
s
2
ds + 1 + 2te
t
2
. Therefore, y

2ty =
2te
t
2
_
t
0
e
s
2
ds + 1 + 2te
t
2
2t(e
t
2
_
t
0
e
s
2
ds + e
t
2
) = 1.
15. Let y = e
rt
. Then y

= re
rt
. Substituting these terms into the dierential equation, we
have y

+ 2y = re
rt
+ 2e
rt
= (r + 2)e
rt
= 0. This equation implies r = 2.
16. Let y = e
rt
. Then y

= re
rt
and y

= r
2
e
rt
. Substituting these terms into the dierential
equation, we have y

y = (r
2
1)e
rt
= 0. This equation implies r = 1.
17. Let y = e
rt
. Then y

= re
rt
and y

= r
2
e
rt
. Substituting these terms into the dierential
equation, we have y

+y

6y = (r
2
+r 6)e
rt
= 0. In order for r to satisfy this equation,
we need r
2
+ r 6 = 0. That is, we need r = 2, 3.
18. Let y = e
rt
. Then y

= re
rt
, y

= r
2
e
rt
and y

= r
3
e
rt
. Substituting these terms into
the dierential equation, we have y

3y

+ 2y

= (r
3
3r
2
+ 2r)e
rt
= 0. In order for r to
satisfy this equation, we need r
3
3r
2
+ 2r = 0. That is, we need r = 0, 1, 2.
19. Let y = t
r
. Then y

= rt
r1
and y

= r(r 1)t
r2
. Substituting these terms into
the dierential equation, we have t
2
y

+ 4ty

+ 2y = t
2
(r(r 1)t
r2
) + 4t(rt
r1
) + 2t
r
=
(r(r 1) +4r +2)t
r
= 0. In order for r to satisfy this equation, we need r(r 1) +4r +2 = 0.
Simplifying this expression, we need r
2
+ 3r + 2 = 0. The solutions of this equation are
r = 1, 2.
20. Let y = t
r
. Then y

= rt
r1
and y

= r(r 1)t
r2
. Substituting these terms into
the dierential equation, we have t
2
y

4ty

+ 4y = t
2
(r(r 1)t
r2
) 4t(rt
r1
) + 4t
r
=
(r(r 1) 4r +4)t
r
= 0. In order for r to satisfy this equation, we need r(r 1) 4r +4 = 0.
Simplifying this expression, we need r
2
5r + 4 = 0. The solutions of this equation are
r = 1, 4.
21.
(a) Consider Figure 1.4.1 in the text. There are two main forces acting on the mass: (1) the
tension in the rod and (2) gravity. The tension, T, acts on the mass along the direction
of the rod. By extending a line below and to the right of the mass at an angle with
the vertical, we see that there is a force of magnitude mg cos acting on the mass in
that direction. Then extending a line below the mass and to the left, making an angle
of , we see the force acting on the mass in the tangential direction is mg sin .
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 33
(b) Newtons Second Law states that

F = ma. In the tangential direction, the equation

of motion may be expressed as

= ma

. The tangential acceleration, a

is the
linear acceleration along the path. That is, a

= Ld
2
/dt
2
. The only force acting in the
tangential direction is the gravitational force in the tangential direction which is given
by mg sin . Therefore, mg sin = mLd
2
/dt
2
.
(c) Rearranging terms, we have
d
2

dt
2
+
g
L
sin .
22.
(a) The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m is given by T =
1
2
mv
2
where v is its speed. A
particle in motion on a circle of radius L has speed L(d/dt) where d/dt is its angular
speed. Therefore,
T =
1
2
mL
2
_
d
dt
_
2
.
(b) The potential energy of a particle is given by V = mgh where h is the height above some
point. Here we measure h as the height above the pendulums lowest position. Since
L h
L
= cos , we have h = L(1 cos ). Therefore,
V = mgL(1 cos ).
(c) Since the total energy is conserved, we know that for E = T + V , dE/dt = 0. Here,
E =
1
2
mL
2
_
d
dt
_
2
+ mgL(1 cos )
implies
dE
dt
= mL
2
d
dt
d
2

dt
2
+ mgLsin
d
dt
= 0.
Simplifying this equation, we conclude that
d
2

dt
2
+
g
L
sin = 0.
23.
(a) Angular momentum is the moment about a certain point of linear momentum, which is
given by
mv = mL
d
dt
.
The moment about a pivot point is given by
M
p
= mL
2
d
dt
.
34 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
(b) The moment of the gravitational force is
M
g
= mg Lsin .
Then dM
p
/dt = M
g
implies
mL
2
d
2

dt
2
= mgLsin .
Rewriting this equation, we have
d
2

dt
2
+
g
L
sin = 0.