Aqaba Liquifaction in Aqaba Region

A GIS-Based Assessment of Liquefaction Potential of the City of Aqaba, Jordan
NASSER M. MANSOOR
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, 195 University Avenue, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102
TINA M. NIEMI
Department of Geosciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, MO 64110
ANIL MISRA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, MO 64110
Key Terms: Liquecation, GIS, Aqaba, Jordan, Earthquake, Dead Sea Transform
historically experienced liquefaction were found to exist within the high susceptibility zone as well, supporting the ndings of this study.
ABSTRACT The city of Aqaba, Jordan, located along the northern shore of the Gulf of Aqaba, is built over the seismically active Dead Sea Transform plate boundary fault system. The subsurface stratigraphic sequence underlying the city is composed of alluvial fan deposits containing varying amounts of clay, silt, sand, and gravel interbedded within the coastal areas with aeolian and beach sand. Groundwater levels along the coastal areas are very shallow. The groundwater levels increase to the north and northeast to depths greater than 17 m about 5 km from the shore. The liquefaction potential of the city of Aqaba soils was analyzed using the Simplied Procedure of Youd and Idriss and the modied Chinese criteria of Wang. Maps of the liquefaction susceptibility of areas in the city of Aqaba were displayed using the Geographic Information System (GIS). Application of the modied Chinese criteria indicates that the cohesive subsurface layers are predominantly nonliqueable. The types of sediments most susceptible to liquefaction are saturated silt and sand deposits. Two classication schemes were developed in this liquefaction analysis. Our results indicate that the coastal areas of Aqaba have a high potential to liquefy, whereas the eastern parts of the city lie predominantly within a nonliquefaction zone. The critical facilities were overlaid with the liquefaction hazard map of the city and show that only the hotel and the commercial districts lie within a zone of high susceptibility to liquefaction. The areas that have INTRODUCTION The modern city of Aqaba lies at the north shore of the Gulf of Aqaba, in southwestern Jordan, about 320 km south of the capital Amman. It is the only port for the country of Jordan and is a vital commercial, economic, and tourism center. The city straddles the seismically active Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system (Figure 1). Historical accounts and other macroseismic data suggest that Aqaba has experienced severely damaging earthquakes in the past (e.g., Ambraseys and Melville, 1989; Ghawanmeh, 1992; and Ambraseys et al., 1994). The archaeological record conrms that major destruction in Aqaba occurred to the Late Roman-Byzantine structures in the AD 363 earthquake (Parker, 1999) and to the Islamic city of Ayla, located within the hotel district in the central part of the city, in the AD 1068 earthquake (Whitcomb, 1994). Maps of modern seismicity show that the city of Aqaba lies within a zone of high seismic hazard and is potentially susceptible to major damage in a future earthquake (Figure 2). Based on previous observations at other sites, the types of seismic damage that the city could expect include surface rupture, soil differential compaction, and soil liquefaction. Liquefaction can cause reduction of foundation bearing capacity, lateral spreading, ground settling, and other destructive ground failures. Earthquake awareness was signicantly heightened in the countries bordering the Gulf of Aqaba after the Nuweiba earthquake of November 22, 1995. This magnitude MW 7.3 event (Dziewonski et al., 1997) (MW 7.2 in Hofstetter et al., 2003) was the largest earthquake
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. X, No. 4, November 2004, pp. 297320
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Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra
Figure 1. Regional map of the tectonic setting of the study area (modied after Garfunkel and Ben-Avraham, 1996). J, Jordan Valley fault; E, Ed Damur fault; R, Rachaya fault; Y, Yammouneh fault; G, Ghab fault; CN-S, Central Negev Sinai shear belt.
on the DST during the 20th century. The earthquake was felt over an area greater than 1,000 km2 (Malkawi et al., 1999c). More than 150 aftershocks with M . 4 were recorded during the 2 years following the Nuweiba earthquake (Rabinowitz and Steinberg, 1998; Malkawi et al., 1999c). The Nuweiba earthquake ruptured along a NNE-trending, left-lateral strike-slip fault (Figure 2). The distribution of aftershocks lies predominantly along the eastern side of the Gulf of Aqaba and suggests that the main fault rupture occurred on a 45- to 70-km length of the strike-slip fault along the Aragonese and Elat bathymetric deeps (Figure 2) (Hofstetter et al., 2003; Klinger et al., 1999). The rupture propagated from south to north in at least two subevents (Klinger et al., 1999; Pinar and Tu rkelli, 1997; and Hofstetter et al., 2003).
Seismological and synthetic aperture radar interferometry data indicate about 1.4 to 3.2 m of sinistral slip in the earthquake (Baer et al., 1999). During the 12 years preceding the Nuweiba earthquake, there were three discrete periods (1983, 1990, and 1993) of increased seismic activity within the Gulf of Aqaba (El-Isa et al., 1984; Alamri, 1991; and Amrat, 1996). These earthquake swarms migrated from north to south and dene the approximate rupture boundaries of the Nuweiba 1995 rupture trace (Klinger et al., 1999). The maximum magnitude event during all the swarms was the MW 6.1 earthquake of August 3, 1993. A focal plane mechanism and the alignment of microseismicity epicenters indicate that the 1993 rupture occurred on a N328W-trending, normal fault (Dziewonski et al., 1994; Pinar and Tu rkelli, 1997). This is particularly interesting because similar cross-fault structures are mapped in Aqaba (Niemi and Smith, 1999; Mansoor, 2002; and Slater and Niemi, 2003) and because the Nuweiba earthquake nucleated near the August 3, 1993 earthquake. Damage from the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake was concentrated in the cities on the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), the Saudi Arabian coastline, and the cities of Aqaba (Jordan) and Elat (Israel) located 70 km to the north of the epicenter. The hotel districts located near the beaches in Elat and Aqaba sustained the most damage from the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake as a result of local amplication of the peak ground acceleration (Wust, 1997; Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999; and Al-Tarazi, 2000). High ground water conditions, resulting in saturated sand layers, make this region also susceptible to liquefaction. Although liquefaction sand blows were observed in Elat (Wust, 1997), subsidence was the only observable evidence of potential liquefaction in Aqaba (Malkawi et al., 1999c). Other damage in Aqaba included lateral spreading and differential settlement. Wust (1997) concluded that damage to structures built on alluvial fan sediments appeared to be more extensive in Aqaba, as compared to buildings on the same substrate in Elat. Several reasons were suggested for this, including different construction standards, amplication within alluvial fan sediments, and potential reactivation of faults buried in the alluvium (Wust, 1997). Two strong motion accelerographs were stationed in Aqaba at the time of the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake (Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999; Malkawi et al., 1999c). These instruments were stationed on the ground oors of the Aqaba Hotel, located at the beach, and the Civil Defense Building, located on alluvial fan deposits 3 km north of the beach. Maximum acceleration recorded at the beach location was signicantly higher (0.16 g) than at the inland site (0.06 g) (Saffarini and Kabalawi, 1999; Malkawi et al., 1999c). The low-rise residential and commercial structures within Aqaba are constructed predominantly of reinforced concrete. The houses and apartment complexes are two
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Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan
Figure 2. (A) Map of recorded earthquakes along the Dead Sea Transform (Jordan Seismological Observatory, Natural Resources Authority). (B) Schematic diagram of the structure of the Gulf of Aqaba showing location of active faults, pullapart basins, and the epicenter and rupture length of the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake (map modied after Ben-Avraham, 1985; epicenter and rupture length after Baer et al., 1999).
to three stories high, whereas commercial structures vary from one story to ve stories high. A few 10- or more story buildings exist in the central part of the city, within the hotel district, along the beachfront. Using catalogues of instrumentally recorded and historical earthquakes, Malkawi and Fahmi (1996) developed a ground motion attenuation model for Jordan that relates peak ground acceleration (PGA) to epicentral distance, surface wave magnitude, and Mercalli intensity. A PGA model in conjunction with a model for probabilistic earthquake recurrence was used by Malkawi and others (1995) and Fahmi and others (1996) to produce seismic zonation maps of Jordan. However, according to Saffarini and Kabalawi (1999), although the Jordanian building code adopted in 1985 has earthquake-resistant
specications, provisions for site amplication or other site-specic seismic response spectra do not exist. Most buildings are designed to carry only gravitational load, not lateral acceleration (Malkawi et al., 1999b). Seismic engineering ground-motion data for specic locations, such as the Port of Aqaba (Fahmi and Malkawi, 1998), are part of ongoing efforts by the Aqaba Region Authority to upgrade the building code of Jordan. Calculation of local expected PGA is one of the most relevant parameters for use in structural design of buildings. PGA is calculated based on expected magnitude and distance to the epicenter of a future earthquake. Other elements of seismic hazard analysis involve assessment of seismically induced ground failure, including landslides, liquefaction, and lateral spreading, as
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TECTONIC AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING Aqaba lies within a major active seismic region, along the plate boundary of the Dead Sea Transform fault system (DST). The transform extends for about 1,100 km and separates the Arabian Plate on the east from the Sinai subplate on the west (Figure 1). The transtensional motion and the en echelon fault geometry have created several pull-apart basins. According to models of gravity data collected across the DST presented by Ten Brink and others (1999), the fault valley between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba is composed of several small depositional basins. These en echelon basins are oriented at a clockwise angle to the axis of the transform and are shallow toward the north. The average minimum late Quaternary slip rate for the DST is about 47 mm/year (Zhang, 1998; Klinger et al., 2000; and Niemi et al., 2001). The city of Aqaba is built on alluvial sediments derived from the Wadi Yutim, located east of the city between the rugged mountains of Ash Shahabi and Al Akhdar, and alluvial fans emanating from the eastern plateau (Figure 3). Niemi and Smith (1999) divided the Wadi Yutim surcial deposits into four mappable Quaternary fan units, based on air photo interpretations. The subsurface stratigraphy of the various alluvial fan units was investigated in several trench excavations and soil pits of up to 4 m deep (Mansoor, 2002; Niemi and Mansoor, in preparation). Existing boring logs, up to 20 m in depth, and several hand auger cores of depths up to 4 m were also analyzed to provide essential information about the lithology and the groundwater conditions. LIQUEFACTION PRINCIPLE AND OCCURRENCE Liquefaction is dened as the process by which the saturated sediments temporarily lose their shear strength and behave as a viscous uid rather than as a solid (Seed and Idriss, 1982; Kramer, 1996). Consequently, structures may tilt or sink, and buried pipelines may oat to the surface. Ground ssures and lateral spreading can also be a result of the liquefaction phenomenon. The liquefaction susceptibility of soil deposits may be affected by factors such as grain size, relative density, depth and thickness of the strata, age of sediments, presence of overlying nonliqueable layers, and the previous seismic history (Seed, 1979; Seed and Idriss, 1982; and Obermeier and Pond, 1999). Generally, three conditions must exist for liquefaction to occur: (1) soil type susceptible to liquefaction; (2) presence of a shallow water table resulting in a saturated condition, and (3) strong ground shaking (Kramer, 1996). The sediments most susceptible to liquefaction are saturated silts and sands. If the silt and sand sediments are overlain by a nonliqueable stratum, the liquefaction
Figure 3. Quaternary geologic map of the region along the Dead Sea Transform north of the Gulf of Aqaba showing the geometry of faults in the region of Aqaba, Jordan and Elat, Israel (modied after Garfunkel, 1970).
well as site effects of ground shaking such as amplication. In this paper we evaluate the liquefaction hazard in the city of Aqaba based on subsurface geotechnical data obtained from various sources. The results are presented in a point-based Geographic Information System (GIS) format that can be updated easily and interpolated across areas that lack geotechnical information but have similar subsurface conditions. This study will provide the city planners and the engineering designers with numerical values of the liquefaction hazard that can be used to help rene the building code provisions and improve the safety of structures and critical facilities.
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susceptibility may be very high because high pore pressure will not dissipate to the surface. Several recent studies also indicate that gravel may be liqueable, and instances have been reported in Japan, China, New Zealand, and the United States (e.g., Seed et al., 1985; Stokoe et al., 1988; and Obermeier and Pond, 1999). Most commonly, liquefaction originates at depths of 2 to 5 m below the ground surface, but it can also originate at depths of up to 20 m or more (Seed and Idriss, 1982). Liquefaction can be explained as the process of trapping excess pore pressure as a result of cyclic loading generated by ground shaking. The overburden pressure of a non-cohesive soil produces contact forces between each grain and its neighboring particles, creating soil strength. When water saturates the soil, pore pressure counters the overburden pressure. If a rapid loading such as that of seismic ground shaking is applied, the particles tend to move into a denser conguration as a result of shearing and temporary loss of grain-to-grain contact. The loss of grain-to-grain contact temporarily transfers some or all of the overburden stress to the pore water. As a result, the pore pressure reduces the contact forces between the particles, and consequently, the shear strength of the soil will decrease, and the soil may behave as a uid. Literature on liquefaction-induced features and the associated damage within the city of Aqaba and the adjacent areas is very limited. Most of the reported liquefaction damage is related to the Nuweiba earthquake of November 1995 (Wust, 1997; Malkawi et al., 1999c). Other studies concerned with archeological structures within the city reveal evidence of paleoseismic events associated with liquefaction (Ghawanmeh, 1992; Whitcomb, 1994; and Al-Homoud and Tal, 1998). Damage assessment reports from the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake (as previously discussed) indicate that several areas experienced liquefaction damage as well as liquefaction-induced features. Wust (1997) surveyed the post-seismic damage from this earthquake within and around Aqaba, Elat, and the eastern Sinai Peninsula. He reported that the failure features and lateral spreading within Elats hotel district were caused by liquefaction as a result of local amplication of ground acceleration in the unconsolidated alluvial fan and sabkha material on which the city is built. Sand boils were reported both in natural environments and in conjunction with man-made structures such as landlls, ramps, ditches, and levees. This suggests that liquefaction (accompanied by water-table uctuations) was an active process during this earthquake. On the other hand, the damage within the city of Aqaba, according to Wust (1997), was most severe along the shoreline areas around the Alcazar Hotel, Miramar Hotel, and Aqaba Gulf Hotel because of different construction standards and reactivation of the fault lines in the alluvial fans under Aqaba. Earthquake damage in Aqaba was reported by Malkawi and others (1999c) and included
differential settlement, lateral spreading, and separation of foundations, mostly along the shoreline area. They did not observe any direct evidence of liquefaction such as sand boils or dikes. In an archeological study, Whitcomb (1994) excavated the ancient walled city of Ayla that is located adjacent to the beach and extends a few tens of meters north of the shoreline (Figure 3). Ayla was founded in the eighth century AD. Whitcomb (1994) shows, from detailed mapping of the ancient architecture, that this ancient city experienced subsidence caused by several earthquakes. Historical records describe the subsidence of the ancient Ayla City as swallowed by the earth after the AD 1068 earthquake (Ghawanmeh, 1992). This description of the damage can possibly be explained by the liquefaction phenomenon. Geotechnical research at ancient Ayla by Al-Homoud and Tal (1998) indicates that tilting and sinking of portions of the exterior walls may have been the result of liquefaction. BOREHOLE DATA An evaluation of the liquefaction hazard in Aqaba was conducted based on Seed and Idrisss stress approach (1971, 1982), updated by Seed and others (1985) and Youd and Idriss (1997). This method utilizes Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count data. This common technique uses the corrected blow count for an energy ratio of 60 percent and an effective overburden pressure of 1 ton/ft2 (95.76 kPa) as a function of the soil type, (N1)60. The total and the effective overburden pressure at the point of interest, as well as the earthquake magnitude, must be established to perform an empirical correlation between the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and the corrected blow count of the SPT to estimate the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR). The borehole data included in this study consist of the logs of 109 boreholes compiled from different studies and geotechnical investigations carried out in the city of Aqaba. The data were compiled mainly from Malkawi and Fahmi (1996), Malkawi and others (1997), Al-Homoud and Tal (1998), the Jordanian Natural Resources Authority (NRA) in collaboration with the Royal Scientic Society (RSS), and private geotechnical companies. The borehole logs contain detailed stratigraphic descriptions and different geotechnical test data, especially SPT data. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 2.3 m to 20 m. The NRA drilled only three boreholes to the depth of bedrock (Malkawi and Fahmi, 1996). In addition, three boreholes were drilled using a hand auger to aid in determination of the shoreline areas, subsurface stratigraphy and to conrm the depth to groundwater. The data include coordinates of the borehole, surface elevation, the variation of the soil prole with depth, groundwater depth, and laboratory test results performed
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Figure 4. Cross section trending NNWSSE showing the elevation of the different stratigraphic layers along the gulf shoreline, groundwater elevations, and the N-value of the SPT where tested. See Figure 15 for cross section location.
on samples from specic depths. These laboratory tests included Atterberg limits and natural moisture content. The eld N-value of the standard penetration test data is recorded as a separate parameter included in the borehole logs. Figure 4 presents a generalized cross section constructed from boreholes located along the shoreline. The cross section shows a detailed stratigraphic sequence, water levels, and the N-value of the SPT. The correlation between soil consistency and Pecks N-value of 1974 were also used in this study (Table 1). A semiquantitative description of the relative density or compactness, ranging from very loose to very dense, is correlated to the N-value. The analyses involved evaluating the subsurface stratigraphy and the groundwater conditions, analyzing the geotechnical borehole data, and using various values for earthquake magnitudes and PGA derived from recorded accelerometers and response spectra developed by previous studies (Fahmi and Malkawi, 1998; Malkawi et al., 1999b,c). The average soil unit weights (dry and saturated) of Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) were used in the liquefaction evaluation (Table 2) to calculate the vertical overburden stress. A multi-layer spatial analysis was conducted to provide the rst point-based liquefaction hazard map of the region.
The geological, hydrological, and geotechnical data were entered into a computer-based GIS. The database included a base map of the city of Aqaba, digitized at a scale of 1:10,000, including roads, utilities, and various critical features. Three layers were spatially registered to the base map: (1) geologic map with fault locations, (2) groundwater levels from borehole data, and (3) geotechnical data and subsurface lithology based on borehole data. The analysis component included total and effective overburden stress calculations, ground motion parameters, and liquefaction evaluations. These steps are discussed in more detail in the following sections. GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS Groundwater depth plays a key role in liquefaction evaluation because it results in increased saturation and reduces the effective vertical stress. Shearing disrupts the depositional grain packing and results in a more closely packed grain structure, forming a denser material. Mapping groundwater conditions within the city of Aqaba is based on a compilation of groundwater level data from geotechnical borehole logs that have been drilled, for engineering purposes, throughout the city.
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Table 1. Correlation between soil consistency and the N-value of the SPT. Cohesionless Soils Consistency Very loose Loose Medium dense Dense Very dense N-Value ,4 410 1030 3050 .50 Cohesive Soils Consistency Very soft Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Hard N-Value ,2 24 48 815 1530 .30 Void Ratio Soil Type Uniform granular soil Equal spheres Standard Ottawa sand Clean uniform sand Uniform inorganic silt Well-graded granular soil Silty sand Clean ne to coarse sand Micaceous sand Silty sand and gravel Silty or sandy clay Graded silty clay with gravel or larger Well-graded gravel, sand, silt, and clay Clay (30 to 50 percent ,2 lm) Colloidal clay (over 50 percent ,2 lm) Organic silt Organic clay (30 to 50 percent ,2 lm) emax emin Dry, cdry/cw Avg Saturated, csat/cw Avg Table 2. Typical soil unit weights used for calculating the overburden pressure. Normalized Unit Weight
After Peck et al. (1974).
0.92 0.80 1.00 1.10 0.90 0.95 1.20 0.85 1.80 1.00 0.70 2.40 12.00 3.00 4.40
0.35 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.40 0.14 0.25 0.20 0.13 0.50 0.60 0.55 0.70
1.62 1.62 1.59 1.72 1.79 1.57 1.89 1.56 1.80 1.99 1.30 0.96 1.20 1.04
1.80 1.77 1.74 1.85 1.88 1.72 1.96 1.98 2.13 2.25 1.82 1.60 1.75 1.65
The data were used to generate a groundwater contour map of the study area that was used in the liquefaction evaluation within Aqaba (Figure 5A). A compiled cross section in the northeastsouthwest direction shows the general elevation of the groundwater levels within the study area (Figure 5B). The groundwater level surface shows that the area is characterized by shallow water levels at the south and southwest along the gulf shoreline from about 1.4 m below ground surface to about 17 m to the north and northeast (Figure 5A). Most of the boreholes located about 3 km to the north and northeast portions of the gulf shoreline are characterized by dry conditions up to 20 m deep. The study area portrays both unconned and conned conditions, caused by the presence of local clay lenses, within the subsurface stratigraphic sequence (Figure 4). Groundwater movement is mainly from the northeast to the southwest in the northern parts of the city and from east to west in the southern parts of the city, as indicated in the groundwater contour map and the cross section (Figure 5A and B). Municipal use of the groundwater may affect future groundwater levels of the study area and, consequently, may reduce the liquefaction hazard.
Note: cw 9.80 kN/m3. Modied after Kulhawy and Mayne (1990).
Malkawi and Fahmi (1996) evaluated the MPE for the Aqaba region and calculated a horizontal peak ground acceleration (PGA) of about 200 cm/second2 (0.2 g), which corresponds to 100 years of exposure time at 90 percent probability of not being exceeded. Malkawi and Fahmi (1996) derived an instrumentally based PGA attenuation equation that combines the surface magnitude (MS) and the hypocentral distance as follows: PGA in cm=second2 837:0 e0:89Ms R 251:73 1 Applying this equation to the most recent earthquake of November 1995 (MS of 7.2; Wust, 1997) yielded a PGA of 0.16 g. If the epicenter of a future earthquake of MS 7.2 is located within a 50-km radius of Aqaba at the same focal depth, the PGA is expected to reach at least 0.3 g based on the previous empirical equation of Malkawi and Fahmi (1996). This scenario is highly likely because the city of Aqaba is built on top of faults that may rupture in the future. Therefore, the liquefaction hazard analysis is based on applying four different earthquake scenarios with an average PGA of 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, and 0.4 g. A PGA of 0.3 g will be presented in more detail because it
SEISMICITY, GROUND MOTION PARAMETERS, AND PGA In order to perform a liquefaction hazard evaluation at a specic site, the magnitudes of both a Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE) and a Maximum Probable Earthquake (MPE) must be estimated. According to guidelines issued by the California Division of Mines and Geology (1975), the MCE is the maximum earthquake that appears capable of occurring under the presently known tectonic framework at any time. The MPE is the maximum earthquake that is likely to occur during a 100year interval. The MCE should be regarded as a magnitude not less than the maximum that has occurred within a historic time.
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Figure 5. (A) Contour of the depth to the water table in meters, derived from modeling the groundwater depth recorded in borehole data. See Figure 14 for detailed location of boreholes. Coordinates in the Palestine Belt Grid. (B) Cross section showing the general groundwater elevation within the study area (see next page).
may be considered very reasonable, based on the previous discussion of the tectonic setting and the historical records as well as the most recent PGA attenuation equation by Malkawi and Fahmi (1996). LIQUIFACTION ANALYTICAL METHOD A basic method to evaluate liquefaction (called the Simplied Procedure) was rst proposed by Seed and
Idriss (1971). This procedure has been revised and updated by several studies (Seed and Idriss, 1982; Seed et al., 1983, 1984; NRC, 1985; NCEER, 1997; and Youd and Idriss, 2001). The method of evaluating a soils ability to resist liquefaction, expressed in terms of the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR), is based on the correlation between the seismic demand placed on a soil layer, expressed as the cyclic stress ratio (CSR), and the corrected blow count of standard penetration resistance
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Figure 5. (continued)
(N1)60. Figure 6 presents the relationship between the CSR causing liquefaction and the (N1)60 values for an earthquake of magnitude 7.5. The plot of the CRR shows the calculated CSR and (N1)60 data from different sites where liquefaction effects were or were not noted following major earthquakes, along with the variations in nes content (Seed et al., 1984). The curve represented by ne grain-size content less than 5 percent is the basic criterion for the simplied procedure and is referred to as the simplied base curve. This curve is valid only for earthquakes of magnitude 7.5. A magnitude scaling factor (MSF) recommended by the National Center of Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER, 1997) is used to adjust the CRR7.5 curve to CRR for other magnitudes as shown in Figure 7 and the following equation: MSF 102:24 =M2:56 2
of silt and clay is controlled by grain size, water content, and liquid limit. Perlea and others (1999) modied the Chinese Criteria (Wang, 1979) based on the difference between the soil index properties determined by the Chinese standards and the American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) methods. Their results to delineate liquefaction and non-liquefaction based on the soil index properties are presented in Figure 8. The Simplied Procedure for liquefaction evaluation and the modied Chinese Criteria are used in this study to evaluate the liquefaction hazard, taking into account the revision and the updates, where possible, based on the available data. According to Seed and Idriss (1971), the CSR is expressed as the ratio of the average shear stress to the initial vertical effective stress as follows: CSR s=rV 9 8 0:65amax =grV8 =rV 9 8 rd 3
On the other hand, Wang (1979) suggested the Chinese Criteria method based on observations made during strong earthquakes in China between 1966 and 1976. This method suggests that the liquefaction potential
where: s the average shear stress in the soil. rV 9 8 the total effective overburden stress at the depth of consideration.
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Figure 6. Relationship between CSR causing liquefaction and the corrected blow count of SPT (N1)60 for clean sands in an M7.5 earthquake showing the Simplied Base Curve for calculating CRR (modied from NCEER, 1997; after Seed et al., 1985).
amax the peak horizontal acceleration at the ground surface generated by an earthquake. g the gravitational acceleration. rV8 the total overburden stress at the same depth. rd the stress reduction coefcient. The vertical effective stress acting at a point of interest below the ground surface can be estimated as follows:
rV 9 8 rV8 u
where: r9 V8 the total vertical effective overburden stress at the point of interest. u the pore pressure. rV8 the total overburden stress acting at the same point.
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Figure 7. Magnitude Scaling Factor (MSF) derived by various investigators (after NCEER, 1997).
The pore pressure can be calculated based on Eq. 5, and the total overburden stress can be estimated using Eq. 6 as follows: u cw 3 hw 5
where: cw the water unit weight. hw the depth below the water table to the point of interest.
Nm the measured eld blow count. CN the correction expression for the effective overburden pressure. CE hammer energy ratio. CB borehole diameter. CR drilling rod length. CS type of sampler. Because the available borehole data lack information regarding borehole diameter and drilling rod length, a more simplied equation is used in this study. The factor CS is taken as 1.0 for a standard sampler, and an average value for the energy ratio of 60 percent given by Seed and others (1985) is assumed, then the corrected SPT blow count can be calculated using the following equation: N1 60 Nm CN ERm =60 8
rV8 c1 3 h1 c2 3 h2 ci 3 hi
where: c1, c2, ci the unit weight of soil layers 1, 2, and ith. h1, h2, hi the thickness of layer 1, 2, and ith. According to NCEER (1997), the (N1)60 of the standard penetration test used in this evaluation is the eld blow count corrected to an energy ratio of 60 percent and an effective overburden pressure of 1 ton/ft2 (95.76 kPa). Several factors should be accounted for in calculating the (N1)60 blow count as expressed in the following equation: N1 60 Nm CN CE CB CR CS 7
where: ERm the corresponding energy ratio in percent (60 percent). The overburden correction factor (CN) is based on applying the following equation (Liao and Whitman, 1986a): CN 9:781=rV 9 8 0:5 2 9
where: (N1)60 the corrected blow count for an energy ratio of 60 percent and an effective overburden pressure of 1 ton/ft2.
The stress reduction factor (rd) used in Eq. 3 provides a correction of the soil prole as proposed by Seed and Idriss (1971) (Figure 9). According to the NCEER workshop of 1997, the following equations may be used
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Figure 8. Chinese Criteria adapted to ASTM denition of index soil properties (after Perlea et al., 1999).
to estimate the average values of rd, considering the depth below the ground surface (Z) as proposed by Liao and Whitman (1986b): rd 1:0 0:00765 Z for Z 9:15 m 10 11
rd 1:174 0:0267 Z for 9:15 , Z 23 m
To plot the results accurately and to calculate the factor of safety against liquefaction initiation, an empirical equation that represents the simplied base curve was required. In this study, the following formula, derived by Robertson and Fear (1995) and recommended by the NCEER, is used to plot the results of the liquefaction analyses. The equation allows us to compare the CSR and the CRR7.5 to present the results at a detailed scale where the liquefaction hazard can be subdivided along several boundaries. This equation, according to Robertson and Fear (1995), is valid only for (N1)60 less than 30 as follows: 100 3 CRR7:5 95=34 N160 N160 =1:3 0:5 12
Finally, the factor of safety (FS) against liquefaction initiation is expressed in the following equation. It takes into consideration the magnitude scaling factor (MSF) correction as proposed by Seed and Idriss (1982): FS CRR7:5 =CSR MSF 13
The previous method of analysis using the Simplied Procedure and the index soil properties of the modied
Chinese Criteria (Perlea et al., 1999) is simplied by the ow chart presented in Figure 10. Figure 10 shows how liquefaction hazards data were generated. Each soil prole is divided into several sublayers based on stratigraphic variation and saturation condition in order to calculate the overburden stresses used in the analysis. For the analyses at each location, the depth was determined based on the groundwater depth because liquefaction cannot be generated under dry conditions. The liquefaction analyses were also based on applying four different cyclic loading scenarios at PGA equal to 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, and 0.4 g. Laboratory tests carried out on the different cohesive layers encountered at the borehole locations are characterized by high liquid limit values and low moisture content. These values fall in the non-liqueable zone based on the modied Chinese Criteria presented in Figure 8. On the other hand, the same layers play a major role in trapping the excess pore pressure after liquefaction within the cohesionless layers. The results of the liquefaction hazard evaluation, as determined by applying the modied Simplied Procedure to the cohesionless layers encountered in all boreholes, are presented in Figure 11 for different values of PGA as point-based values for each borehole location. These results lack the spatial distribution of the liquefaction hazard within Aqaba City. To overcome this problem, a GIS approach is used to overlay the result onto a base map as discussed later. A PGA of 0.1 g reveals only one location that may be susceptible to liquefaction, as shown in Figure 11A, but signicantly more locations pose a liquefaction hazard if
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Figure 9. The stress reduction coefcient (rd) versus depth curves developed by Seed and Idriss (1971) (after NCEER, 1997).
a higher PGA is applied as indicated in Figure 11BD. Subsurface conditions within the city of Aqaba reveal three zones of liquefaction hazard. These zones are nonliquefaction zones, marginal liquefaction zones, and liquefaction zone. Some areas that have a tendency to liquefy, or are considered as marginal liquefaction areas under high PGA, pose no liquefaction hazard under a lower PGA. On the other hand, certain locations in the central parts of the city tend to liquefy under a PGA of 0.2 g and higher. Therefore, specic classication criteria that combine different PGA values are required to present the liquefaction results, taking into consideration a hazard magnitude (e.g., low or high liquefaction hazard) to simplify the numerical results. SPATIAL INPUTS USING GIS One of the main goals of this study is to present the liquefaction hazards in Aqaba in a form that is clear, easy to access, and capable of being updated as a result of future work and acquisition of new data. GIS technologies provide an important method to achieve such goals. With GIS, large amounts of data can be processed easily, and the results can be updated when additional data are acquired. Several recent studies have used GIS to incorporate site-specic engineering, geological, and seismological information to areas likely to experience liquefaction hazards (e.g., Rockaway et al., 1997; Hitch-
cock et al., 1999). GIS is able to handle a large volume of data, display maps at different scales, combine source data, and perform unique analyses to display these data in a form that conveys the results used in decision making. GIS technologies are used in this study to combine different base maps with geotechnical data, groundwater levels, and PGA to provide a point-based and zonation liquefaction hazard map for Aqaba. Input to the GIS system consists of four main layers: (1) base map of the city of Aqaba, displaying different land uses such as residential areas and critical facilities, (2) geologic map with the location of active faults, (3) geotechnical database that includes subsurface soil proles and various engineering properties, and (4) groundwater level data. Output includes the following: (1) liquefaction hazard maps using several hazard-rating schemes, (2) liquefaction potential reported in table and chart formats, (3) overlays of critical facilities (hospitals, hotels, and schools) in Aqaba with hazard ranking, and (4) interpolation between the pointbased results to cover areas that lack geotechnical data. Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram of all the spatial layers and types of data used in this study to perform the liquefaction analyses. The base map used in this study is a regional planning map at a scale of 1:10,000, provided by the Aqaba Region Authority, of the city of Aqaba. This paper map is displayed in an equal-area geographic projection set based on the local Palestine Belt Grid Coordinate System. The
309
Figure 10. Flow chart showing the process of performing the liquefaction analysis.
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Figure 11. Liquefaction hazards results from Aqaba. Results based on a PGA of 0.1 g (A), 0.2 g (B), 0.3 g (C), or 0.4 g (D).
paper map was digitized using a Calcomp tablet running under ArcView version 3.2 GIS software. The digitizing process included converting point, line, and polygon features into spatial data stored in a GIS format. The error limit used in the digitizing process was set to 0.004 in. (0.1 mm). The base map covers an area of about 75 km2 and includes the following themes within Aqabas municipal boundary: gulf shorelines, residential, hotels, commercial and industrial areas, community service institutions, city port, government institutions, tourism and camping locations, park area, stadiums, sewage treatment plant, mosques and churches, schools, and hospitals (Figure 13).
The Quaternary fan units of the Wadi Yutim surcial deposits were digitized in a separate spatial layer based on the aerial photograph interpretations of Niemi and Smith (1999). These digitized features included (1) different Quaternary fan units, (2) bedrock boundary, (3) location and extent of active fault segments, and (4) location of archeological sites. The edge matching and rubber sheeting processes were very tedious herein because of distortion in the aerial photographs to match the exact location of the supercial deposits with their corresponding eld locations and according to selected coordinate points. Sites that experienced liquefaction,
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Figure 12. Schematic diagram showing the types of spatial layers and data used in the liquefaction analyses.
based on the damage reports of the Nuweiba earthquake of 1995 and several previous studies, were also added to the map, in a separate polygon theme, to validate the nal liquefaction hazard results within Aqaba. The tabular database input consists of four main categories: (1) geotechnical information, (2) groundwater levels, (3) trenching locations, and (4) considered earthquake magnitude. The geotechnical information contains 109 point-based subsurface data including soil
texture description, SPT and laboratory tests obtained directly from drill reports with laboratory data from boreholes located within the study area. Each borehole is georeferenced spatially, corresponding to the local Palestine Belt Grid Coordinate System and surface elevation based on mean sea level. The database compiled from the boreholes was summarized and added into a separate theme table. The data include (1) the type and depth of the different subsurface soil units, (2) depth to
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Figure 13. Base GIS map of the city of Aqaba showing facilities within the municipal boundary. Source of map: Aqaba Town (Land Use and Transportation Revised Master Plan 19952020), Royal Jordanian Geographic Centre, September 1995, scale 1:10,000. Provided by Aqaba Regional Authority.
groundwater, (3) the N-value of the Standard Penetration Test, and (4) the soil index properties from laboratory tests, where available, as well as the normalized unit weight of the different soils, based on the estimations of Kulhawy and Mayne (1990).
LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES The Simplied Procedure forms the basis of the liquefaction analysis process used in this study. The modied Chinese Criteria were also used to depict liqueable areas within the cohesive soil units. Limited laboratory data are available regarding the subsurface cohesive units; therefore, application of the modied Chinese Criteria was not included in the GIS analysis component but was performed separately to depict the liquefaction hazard results. Two classication schemes were developed for this study. The rst scheme is a combined method based on
different earthquake scenarios resulting in different PGAs. Figure 14 presents a ow chart explaining the details of the rst scheme. Six liquefaction susceptibility classes were used in the rst scheme, from extremely susceptible to non-liqueable. Each considered PGA value was applied in the analysis component to calculate the ratio between the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) and the cyclic stress ratio (CSR). If the ratio of the CRR to CSR is less than 1, the site is considered to be susceptible to liquefaction; i.e., the correlation between the (N1)60 and the CSR falls within the liquefaction boundary based on Figure 6. If the ratio is equal to or more than 1 at low PGA, then the site is non-liqueable under the considered PGA and should be tested under a higher PGA. The subsequent analyses involved applying the higher PGA to determine the liquefaction susceptibility at the considered depth on the same bases used before. The combination of these application processes forms the nal concept in displaying the liquefaction hazard results. In order to interpolate the results into areas that lack point-based geotechnical information, several factors
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Figure 14. Flow chart showing the combined classication scheme used to display the point-based liquefaction hazards.
should be considered in a classication scheme because the geotechnical properties can vary signicantly from one location to another, and, therefore, interpolation and extrapolation may represent false conditions. To overcome this problem, the boundaries between the Quaternary fan units, the gulf shoreline, and the groundwater
contours were used to set barriers to divide areas that may represent similar subsurface conditions. This interpolation process requires a different classication scheme, using a unique PGA value in order to depict the liquefaction susceptibility results under similar conditions. Table 3 presents the second classication scheme
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Table 3. Liquefaction susceptibility classication scheme based on applying 0.3 g PGA. FS CRR/CSR .1.101 1.0001.100 0.8010.999 0.6500.800 ,0.65 Liquefaction Susceptibility Non-liqueable Marginal liquefaction Low susceptibility Moderate susceptibility High susceptibility
developed for this purpose, in which the ratio between the CRR and the CSR was divided into ve different classes based on considering a PGA of 0.3 g. This classication scheme was used in displaying the liquefaction hazard and thereafter performing interpolation between these
values to present a hazard zonation map within areas that represent similar subsurface conditions. The areas that are susceptible to liquefaction were identied and displayed using the spatial analyses and the classication techniques of the GIS. The liquefaction susceptibility overlays within Aqaba are presented in several forms that can be used according to the users interest. The results are presented in four displays as follows: (1) liquefaction susceptibility overlays based on the combined classication scheme presented in Figure 15 at each borehole location, (2) liquefaction susceptibility display based on the developed scheme presented in Table 3 by applying a PGA of 0.3 g, (3) point-based liquefaction results with location of the critical facilities, and (4) a liquefaction susceptibility zonation map that interpolates
Figure 15. Point-based liquefaction susceptibility map of the city of Aqaba based on the combined classication scale. Locations of all boreholes are shown.
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Figure 16. Point-based liquefaction susceptibility map of the city of Aqaba based on a PGA of 0.3 g.
the point-based hazard results into other areas that may have similar subsurface conditions. Each of these maps can be presented at a smaller scale to display liquefaction susceptibility within a limited area for design considerations. The data can also be represented in tables, charts, and reports. This is accomplished by selecting a specic area with known coordinates or within a specic facility or geologic theme. These reports and charts provide numerical values of the liquefaction hazards and the subsurface conditions at each location used in the various design calculations and the settlement considerations. The point-based liquefaction susceptibility results based on applying the developed classication scheme are presented in Figure 15. The analyses show that most of the considered boreholes along the gulf shoreline are
characterized mainly by moderate to high susceptibility. The same result of mostly moderate to high susceptibility is also found based on applying a PGA of 0.3 g as shown in Figure 16. In order to get a clear idea about specic structures and facilities that are likely to be affected by liquefaction within Aqaba, only critical facilities including hospitals, schools, and the high-rise buildings represented by hotels and commercial structures were extracted from the base map and overlaid on the pointbased liquefaction susceptibility hazard map, as shown in Figure 17. The map shows that hospitals and schools are located within areas not susceptible to liquefaction but that the hotel and the commercial district lie within a high liquefaction hazard zone and should be reconsidered from a design point of view.
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Figure 17. Liquefaction susceptibility zonation map within the hotel and commercial district of Aqaba within the coastal zone.
On the basis of the subsurface data from the boreholes supplemented by the mapped Quaternary alluvial units and the depth of the groundwater levels around the hotel and the commercial areas, similar subsurface conditions may be assumed within this particular region. If this assumption is valid, the results can be interpolated into areas that lack geotechnical data. The interpolation process is based on considering the nearest 12 calculated values of the ratio between the CRR and the CSR, and the results are presented in Figure 17. The overlay shows that the liquefaction susceptibility decreases toward the north and east, where the groundwater depth decreases and the age of Quaternary fan deposits becomes older. These data suggest that the schools apparently lie within a nonliqueable hazard zone. However, site-specic studies should be conducted at these locations to verify the interpolated data at these important facilities. Finally, overlaying the areas that experienced subsidence in the Nuweiba earthquake of 1995 with the liquefaction hazard results shows good agreement between the results obtained in this study and their investigations (Figure 17). These previous studies concluded that areas within the hotel district are most susceptible to liquefaction and are characterized by major earthquake damage. The historical liquefaction-induced features documented by Ghawanmeh (1992) and AlHomoud and Tal (1998) for the archaeological ruins of the ancient city of Ayla also agree with the liquefaction
susceptibility results derived from this study. Ayla is located within a zone of high liquefaction susceptibility, as shown in Figure 17. CONCLUSIONS Subsurface data from Aqaba indicate that the sedimentary deposits underlying the city consist predominantly of poorly consolidated silt, sand, and gravel with occasional lenses of clay. Sorted, wind-blown, beach sand becomes more dominant along the gulf shoreline. Groundwater levels along the coastal areas are very shallow. Groundwater levels increase to the north and northeast to depths . 17 m at about 5 km from the shoreline. Application of the modied Chinese Criteria indicates that the cohesive layers are non-liqueable, but they can trap excess water pressure induced by seismic shaking. Different stratigraphic units are divided into liquefaction, marginal liquefaction, and non-liquefaction zones by applying the Simplied Procedure. Certain locations that have a tendency to liquefy or are considered as marginal liquefaction under high PGA pose no liquefaction threat under lower PGA. Areas that are susceptible to liquefaction were identied and displayed using the analyses and the classication techniques of GIS. Hazard maps can be updated by acquiring additional geotechnical data and groundwater levels to depict the liquefaction potential within areas that lack information in this study.
317
Most of the soils considered, as represented in boreholes along the gulf shoreline, are characterized mainly by moderate to high susceptibility, in agreement with the conclusions of Malkawi and others (1999a). The soils represented in boreholes located to the north and northeast, within the older Quaternary alluvial fan deposits, are predominantly non-liqueable. The critical facilities extracted from the base map of Aqaba were overlaid with the liquefaction potential. These maps show that the hospital and the schools apparently are located within areas not susceptible to liquefaction. However, these sites should be veried with site-specic investigations. The hotels and the commercial district lie within a high-liquefaction-hazard zone. Overlaying the liquefaction susceptibly maps derived from this study with the areas that had documented damage in the 1995 Nuweiba earthquake, and the historically-documented liquefactioninduced features in the archaeological ruins show a good agreement between the results of this study and the damage assessment reports. Further geotechnical exploration is required along the gulf shorelines north of the hotel district and within the port location to get a comprehensive understanding about the liquefaction hazards within these locations. The additional data could be incorporated simply in the GIS techniques used for this study. We strongly recommend that the Jordanian National Building Codes require reconsidering or updates of their provisions relevant to the seismic conditions for the city of Aqaba as well as enforcement of those new regulations and improvement of engineering construction practices. We recommend careful evaluation of the existing structures to nd out whether or not they are capable of withstanding the seismic hazard and performing a comprehensive seismic retrot process where required, if possible. The subsurface stratigraphy should be considered carefully to perform interpolation between the point-based results to extend the liquefaction hazard maps to areas that lack geotechnical information and must be used as a preliminary or a supplementary parameter for design purposes.
the University of Missouri-Kansas City. Funding for this project was made possible through an American Association of Petroleum Geologists Grant-in-Aid of Research to N. M. Mansoor. We are extremely grateful to Dr. S. Thomas Parker, director of the North Carolina State Universitys Roman Aqaba Project archaeological excavation, for providing room and board and other logistic support during eld research for this project.
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A GIS-Based Assessment of Liquefaction Potential of the City of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

After Peck et al. (1974).

Note: cw 9.80 kN/m3. Modied after Kulhawy and Mayne (1990).

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

rd 1:174 0:0267 Z for 9:15 , Z  23 m

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

Liquefaction Potential of Aqaba, Jordan

Mansoor, Niemi, and Misra

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