Topic

5
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Chemical Bonding

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: Demonstrate how to stabilise the noble gas structure using the octet rule; Summarise how ions are formed; Demonstrate how ionic bonds are formed using the Lewis diagram and chemical formulae; Demonstrate how covalent bonds are formed using the dot-cross formula or dash formula; Compare the structure and properties of ionic compounds and covalent compounds; Describe the strength and properties of metallic bonding; and Summarise the intermolecular forces between molecules.

X INTRODUCTION
Hi there and welcome to a new topic. Let us start this topic with something for you to ponder about: Do you know what holds atoms together in chemical compounds? How are these bonds formed? Surely, there must be some force holding them together, otherwise, they would simply fly apart. The forces that hold atoms together are called chemical bonds, which this topic has been titled. So what can you expect to learn in this topic?

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In this fifth topic, we will begin with a look at the stability of the noble gas structure and the octet rule that will help us to understand how bonding occurs between atoms and molecules. Then, we will look at the formation and structure of three general types of chemical forces that hold atoms together: ionic bonds, covalent bonds and metallic bonds. How these chemical bonds are formed help us to understand the properties of chemical substances. We will also examine the relationships among electronic structures of elements, intramolecular and intermolecular chemical bonding forces, and the properties of substances.

5.1

THE STABILITY OF NOBLE GAS STRUCTURE

Let us begin this topic by looking at noble gases. Do you know that the elements in Group 18 in the Periodic Table are known as noble gases? They consist of the elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon (McMurray & Fay, 2001). The noble gases are characterised by completely filled s and p sub shells. All these gases except helium (it has 1s2 configuration) have stable s2p6 electron configuration or eight electrons in their outer most shell.
Table 5.1: Electron Configuration of Noble Gases Name of the Element 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Symbol He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn Atomic Number 2 10 18 36 54 86 1s2 1s22s22p6 1s22s22p63s23p6 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d104f145s25p65d106s26p6 Electronic Configuration

Notice that the noble gases have stable electron configuration, making them extremely unreactive elements. Hence, they are also known as inert gases. In addition, do you know that the concentration of noble gases in the air is also extremely small? That is why they are also known as rare gases. Table 5.1 shows you the electron configuration of these noble gases.

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5.2

THE OCTET RULE

Let us move on now to the octet rule. Have you ever come across it? Let us analyse this most elements in the periodic table tend to undergo reactions to obtain eight outer-shell electrons or the stable electron configuration of the noble gases. The atoms of these elements may gain, lose or share electrons to obtain this stable configuration. This observation has led scientists to form a guideline known as the octet rule.
Octet rule defines that atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence electrons (Brown, LeMay & Burnsten, 2000).

Let us illustrate the octet rule by considering the electron configuration of sodium and chlorine ions in sodium chloride. The electron configuration of sodium atom is 1s22s22p63s1. In order to obtain eight valence electrons for stable electron configuration, the sodium atom sheds one of its electrons in the 3s sub shell. Sodium ion, Na+, is formed and it has a stable electron configuration of 1s22s22p6 like the noble gas, neon. Chlorine (Cl) atom, on the other hand, has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p5. In order for it to obtain eight valence electrons, chlorine atom needs one electron in its outermost third shell. The electron that is shed by sodium atom is taken up by chlorine atom. When chlorine atom receives an electron, it becomes the chloride ion, Cl, with a stable electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p6. This configuration is the same as the electron configuration of the noble gas, Argon.

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ACTIVITY 5.1
Read more about the octet rule from this website: Octet Rule Electron, Configuration, Electrons, and Eight JRank Articles at http://science.jrank.org/pages/4844/Octet-Rule.html#ixzz1uoTnTTlB Then, explain how the following elements can achieve the octet rule. (a) (b) (c) (d) Boron Calcium Sulphur Silicon

5.3

THE FORMATION OF IONS

How do we get an ion? When an atom gains or loses its electrons to attain the stable octet electron arrangement in chemical reactions, it becomes a charged particle or ion. Do you know that there are two types of ions? These are namely anion and cation. What does these two mean?
An anion is an ion with a negative charge and it is formed when an atom gains electrons.

How about cation? Can you define it?

On the other hand, a cation is an ion with a positive charge and it is formed when an atom loses electrons.

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You can refer to Figure 5.1 which shows you the formation of ions.

Figure 5.1: Formation of ions Source: http://images.google.com

Now, let us consider an example of a cation, which is sodium ion, Na+. Sodium atom has an electron configuration 1s22s22p63s1. There are 11 electrons in the outer shells of the atom. Its atomic number is 11 which means that there are 11 protons in the nucleus of its atom. Sodium atom is a neutral atom as the positive charges of the protons balance the negative charges of the electrons. What happened if sodium atom loses an electron? If sodium atom loses an electron, it will have more protons than electrons. This will result in a charge +1 and sodium ion is formed, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Loses one 11p+ Na atom 11e electron 11p+ Na+ ion 10e

Figure 5.2: The formation of the sodium ion, Na+, from a sodium atom, Na

Now, let us move on to an anion example, which is chloride ion, Cl. It is formed from a chlorine atom which has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p5, and atomic number 17. What does the number 17 mean? It means that there are 17 electrons in its outer shells and 17 protons in the nucleus of the atom. This makes chlorine atom a neutral atom since the positive charges of its protons balance the negative charges of its electrons. When chlorine atom gains an electron, there are now more electrons than protons, resulting in a charge of 1 as shown in Figure 5.3. This produces the chloride ion, Cl.

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Gains one 17p+ Cl atom 17e electron 17p+ Cl ion 18e

Figure 5.3: Producing the chloride ion, Cl

Do you know that ions can also be classified as monoatomic ion or polyatomic ion? What is the difference between them?
Monoatomic ion is an ion that consists of only one atom.

Examples are sodium ion, Na+, and chloride ion, Cl. How about a polyatomic ion?

A polyatomic ion is an ion that contains more than one atom.

Examples include the ammonium ion (NH4+), the hydroxide ion (OH), and the sulphate ion (SO42). Keep in mind that an ion has different chemical and physical properties from those of the atom from which the ion is derived. For example, the sodium atom, Na, is different from the sodium ion, Na+.

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5.4

IONIC BONDS

How is an ionic bond formed? An ionic bond is formed between ions of opposite charges. .

In general, ionic bonds are formed between metals of groups 1, 2 and 13 and nonmetals of Groups 15, 16 and 17 of the Periodic Table. In forming an ionic bond, the metal atoms lose valence electrons to form cations, while the non-metal atoms gain electrons to form anions. The electrons are then transferred from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. The cations and anions are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces forming an ionic bond.

5.4.1

Formation of Ionic Bonds in Magnesium Chloride

Now, let us look at how ionic bonds in magnesium chloride are formed. As mentioned earlier, ionic compounds generally resulted from the interaction of metals and non-metals. A typical example is magnesium chloride. Magnesium metal, Mg, reacts with chlorine gas, Cl2, producing magnesium chloride, MgCl2, Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) MgCl2 (s)

The magnesium atom has a proton number of 12 and electron configuration 1s22s22p63s2. In order for it to obtain stability, a magnesium atom loses two valence electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+, with an octet electron arrangement of 1s22s22p6. A chlorine atom has a proton number of 17 and an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p5. It needs one electron to form the chlorine ion, Cl , with an octet electron configuration, 1s22s22p63s23p6.

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Hence, the two valence electrons from the magnesium atom are transferred to two chlorine atoms (each receiving an electron). Electrostatic forces of attraction exist between the cation, Mg2+, and the two anions, Cl. As a result, an ionic bond is formed in magnesium chloride. Figure 5.4 shows the formation of ionic bonds in magnesium chloride. Note that only valence electrons are involved in this type of bonding.

Figure 5.4: Formation of ionic bond in magnesium chloride

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SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. With the help of electron structure diagrams, explain how an ionic bond can be formed between sodium atom and chlorine atom. Elements R and S have a proton number of 12 and eight respectively. What is the chemical formula and chemical bond produced from the reaction between R and S?

2.

5.4.2

Dot-and-cross Diagram (Lewis Diagram)

What do valence electrons mean? Can you define them?

Valence electrons are electons in the outermost shell of an atom.

Why are these electrons important? These electrons are important because they are involved in chemical bonding. One simple way of showing how the valence electrons of atoms are involved in bond formation during chemical reactions is to use the dot-and-cross diagram or Lewis diagram, named after the American chemist GN Lewis (18751946). How do we do that? First, write the chemical symbol for the element. Then, put a dot or a cross for each valence electron in the element. Let us write the Lewis diagram for oxygen atom as an example. The chemical symbol for oxygen atom is O. It has six valence electrons and they are represented by six dots arranged on the four sides of its chemical symbol, just like the one shown below: "Q"

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How about other elements? The Lewis diagrams of other elements are shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Lewis Symbols Element Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Fluorine Neon Electron Configuration 1s1 1s2 1s22s1 1s22s2 1s22s22p1 1s22s22p2 1s22s22p3 1s22s22p5 1s22s22p6 Lewis symbol

As we can see, Lewis electron-dot diagrams can be used to represent chemical reactions involving valence electrons. For example, the formation of ionic bonds in the magnesium chloride compound. This has been discussed in Section 5.4.1 and can be represented as follows (Figure 5.5).
Mg + 2 Cl Mg2+ 2 Cl

Figure 5.5: The formation of ionic bonds in the compound magnesium chloride The arrow in Figure 5.5 indicates the transfer of two valence electrons from the magnesium atom to two chlorine atoms. We have put a bracket around the chloride ion to emphasise that all the eight electrons are located exclusively on the Cl ion.

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SELF-CHECK 5.2
Lithium reacts with nitrogen to yield Li3N. What noble gas configuration does the nitrogen atom in Li3N have? Draw a Lewis diagram to show the reaction between lithium atom and nitrogen atom.

5.4.3

Chemical Formulae of Ionic Compounds

What do ionic compounds consist of? Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions joined by ionic bonds. Table 5.3 shows you the chemical formula of some ionic compounds.
Table 5.3: Chemical Formula of Ionic Compounds Name of Ionic Compound Lithium chloride Sodium bromide Potassium chloride Potassium dichromate Magnesium nitrate Zinc sulphate Calcium carbonate Copper(II) sulphate Cobalt(II) chloride Aluminium chloride Ammonium sulphate Chemical Formula LiCl NaBr KCl K2Cr2O7 Mg(NO3)2 ZnSO4 CaCO3 CuSO4 CoCl2 AlCl3 (NH4)2SO4 Cations Li+ Na+ K+ K+ Mg2+ Zn2+ Ca2+ Cu2+ Co2+ Al3+ NH4+ Anions Cl Br Cl Cr2O72 NO3 SO42 CO32 SO42 Cl Cl SO42

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5.4.4

Structure and Properties of Ionic Compounds

Let us look at the structure and properties of ionic compounds. Here are some properties which are usually associated with many simple ionic compounds: (a) They are solids with high melting points (typically more than 400qC). This is because of their ionic bonds. For example, sodium chloride, NaCl, has a high melting point of 800qC. It exists in a regular, extended network of oppositely charged ions, Na+ and Cl, in which each Cl ion is attracted to many surrounding sodium ions, and each Na+ ion is attracted to many surrounding chloride ions as shown in Figure 5.6. For sodium chloride to melt, every ionic attraction in the network must be overcome and this requires a lot of energy.

Figure 5.6: Crystal structure of sodium chloride Source: http://images.google.com

(b) (c)

Many are soluble in polar solvents such as water. Most are insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene, C6H6.

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(d)

Ionic liquids conduct electricity well because they contain mobile charged particles or ions. Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when melted and are free to move in an electric field, thus conducting electricity. For example, NaCl dissociates into ions Na+ and Cl when it is melted. NaCl (s)
Heat (melted)

Na+ (A) + Cl (A)

(e)

They conduct electricity in aqueous solutions. Ionic compounds dissociate into ions in solution and are free to move in an electric field, thus conducting electricity. They are often formed between a metal and a non-metal. We can represent the general reaction of the Group 1 metals and Group 17 non-metals as follows: 2 M (s) + X2 2 MX (s) M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X = F, Cl, Br, I

(f)

5.5

COVALENT BONDS

Let us move on to covalent bonds. How is it formed?

A covalent bond is a bond that is formed when atoms share electrons to attain the stable electron configuration with a duplet or an octet.

Usually, the covalent bonds are formed within or between non-metal atoms from Groups 15, 16 and 17 of the Periodic Table. In a covalent bond, each atom contributes an equal number of electrons for sharing. The types of covalent bond formed depend on the number of pairs of electrons shared between two atoms. For example, a single bond is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms; a double bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms; and a triple bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. Covalent bonds that involve sharing of one and three electrons are known but are relatively rare.

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5.5.1

Molecules of Elements

Do you know when covalent bonding occurs? Covalent bonding occurs in molecules of elements such as hydrogen molecule, chlorine molecule and oxygen molecule. Let us look at these molecules further one by one. (a) Hydrogen Molecule Hydrogen atom has an electron configuration 1s1 with one valence electron. In the formation of a hydrogen molecule, H2, from H atoms, each hydrogen atom contributes one electron to share a pair of electron between them, thus giving the stable configuration of the inert gas helium as represented in Figure 5.7 below.

Figure 5.7: Covalent bonding in hydrogen molecule

As for the H2 molecule, it can be represented by either one of the following diagrams (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8: Representation of H2 molecule

As you can see in Figure 5.8, the dash represents a single bond where a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. (b) Chlorine Molecule A chlorine molecule has two atoms of chlorine. This chlorine atom has a proton number of 17 and an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p5 with seven valence electrons. Each chlorine atom needs one more electron to attain a stable octet electron configuration similar to argon. Each chlorine

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atom contributes one valence electron from its outermost shell for sharing, thus producing a single covalent bond where a pair of electrons is shared between the two chlorine atoms in the chlorine molecule. The combination of these two chlorine atoms to form a molecule of chlorine, Cl2, is shown in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Covalent bonding in chlorine molecule

(b)

Oxygen Molecule Lastly, let us look at the oxygen molecule. How many oxygen atoms are there in this molecule? There are two atoms of oxygen in a molecule of oxygen. Each oxygen atom has a proton number of eight. Its electron arrangement of 1s22s22p4 shows that there are six valence electrons. Hence, to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon, two more electrons are needed by each oxygen atom. To achieve this, two pairs of electrons are shared between two oxygen atoms in the oxygen molecule, thus producing a double covalent bond. Each oxygen atom contributes a pair of electrons for sharing. Figure 5.10 shows you the formation of an oxygen molecule.

Figure 5.10: Covalent bonding in oxygen molecule

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5.5.2

Molecules of Compounds

Do you know that covalent bonding also occurs in compounds of non-metals such as water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide? Let us examine this by understanding the next sections. (a) Water Molecule Do you know what types of atoms are in a water molecule? A water molecule has one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. Each hydrogen atom has a proton number of one and an electron configuration of 1s1 with one valence electron. Each hydrogen atom needs one more electron to attain a stable duplet electron arrangement similar to helium. Oxygen atom has a proton number of eight and an electron configuration of 1s22s22p4 with six valence electrons. Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon. Each hydrogen atom contributes one electron for sharing while oxygen atom contributes two electrons. Thus, one oxygen atom shares two pairs of electrons with two hydrogen atoms in order to attain the stable noble gas electron arrangement for all three atoms. A water molecule has two shared electron pairs, that is, two single covalent bonds while the O atom has two unshared pairs of electrons. This bonding is represented as in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: Covalent bonding in water molecule

(b)

Ammonia Molecule Ammonia molecule has a nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom has a proton number of one and an electron configuration of 1s1 with one valence electron. Each hydrogen atom needs one more electron to attain a stable duplet electron arrangement similar to helium. Nitrogen atom has a proton number of seven and an electron arrangement of 1s22s22p3 with five valence electrons. Each nitrogen atom needs three more electrons to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon. Each hydrogen atom contributes one electron for sharing while nitrogen atom contributes three electrons. Thus, one nitrogen atom shares three pairs of electrons with three hydrogen atoms in order to attain the stable noble

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gas electron arrangement for all four atoms. As for an ammonia molecule, it has three shared electron pairs, that is, three single covalent bonds. There is one unshared pair of electrons. Figure 5.12 illustrates the covalent bonding in ammonia molecule for your understanding.

Figure 5.12: Covalent bonding in ammonia molecule

(c)

Methane Molecule Let us move on to methane molecule. Methane molecule has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Carbon atom has a proton number of six and an electron configuration 1s22s22p2 with four valence electrons. Carbon atom needs four more electrons to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon. Each hydrogen atom has a proton number of one and an electron configuration of 1s1 with one valence electron. Each hydrogen atom needs one more electron to attain a stable duplet electron arrangement similar to helium. Thus, one carbon atom shares four pairs of electrons with four hydrogen atoms in order to attain the stable noble gas electron arrangement for all five atoms. A methane molecule has four shared electron pairs, that is, four single covalent bonds. Figure 5.13 shows you the covalent bonding in methane molecule.

Figure 5.13: Covalent bonding in methane molecule

(d)

Carbon Dioxide Molecule What does a carbon dioxide molecule consist of? A carbon dioxide molecule has an atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Carbon atom has a proton number of six, an electron configuration 1s22s22p2, and four as its number of valence electrons.

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In order to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon, four more electrons are needed for the carbon atom. Oxygen atom has a proton number of eight with its electron arrangement of 1s22s22p4. Thus, its number of valance electrons is six. Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to attain a stable octet electron arrangement similar to neon. As for that, each oxygen atom contributes two electrons in order for these two oxygen atoms to attain the stable noble gas electron arrangement through sharing. Meanwhile, carbon atom contributes four electrons. Thus, one carbon atom shares four pairs of electrons in order to attain the stable noble gas electron arrangement for all three atoms. Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 , has four shared electron pairs in two double covalent bonds. As for the central atom carbon, it has no unshared pairs. Figure 5.14 illustrates the covalent bonding in a carbon dioxide molecule.

Figure 5.14: Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide molecule

The following diagram in Figure 5.15 shows you the two double bonds in carbon dioxide.

Figure 5.15: Two double bonds in carbon dioxide

SELF-CHECK 5.3
Explain the covalent bonding for the following molecular compounds: (a) (b) Nitrogen molecule; and Carbon tetrafluoride

Then, state the type of covalent bonds formed in each molecule.

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(e)

Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between two atoms. These electrons can be equally or unequally shared between the two atoms. The electrons in a covalent bond are equally shared between the two atoms. The bond that forms in those electrons is a non-polar covalent bond. A typical example is the covalent bond in a hydrogen molecule, in which each hydrogen atom equally shares the two electrons between each other. This is also true for other diatomic molecules of elements such as chlorine, oxygen, fluorine, and nitrogen. Covalent bonds in molecules of compounds such as the ones in water, ammonia and carbon dioxide in which electron pairs are shared unequally are called polar covalent bonds. For example, in a water molecule, the electron density is more towards the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom, resulting in unequal sharing of the electrons. As the electron density is pulled towards the oxygen atom, it leaves a partial positive charge on each hydrogen atom and a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom as represented in the diagram of Figure 5.16. w O w-"""""""""""""""""wH H
Figure 5.16: Polar covalent bonds in water

Notice that the + and symbolise the partial positive and negative charges respectively. These two charges of opposite sign and separated by a distance is called a dipole. It is indicated by a line as shown below:

HO

5.5.3 Structure and Properties of Covalent Compounds

As stated before, covalent compounds include molecular structures such as water, oxygen, ammonia and methane. Do you know that there are some properties which are usually associated with many simple covalent compounds?

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These properties are summarised in the following list: (a) They are low melting solids, liquids or even gases (typically less than 300qC). In predominantly covalent compounds, the covalent bonds between the atoms in a molecule such as water molecule are relatively strong. However, the forces or attraction between the water molecules are relatively weak. They require very little energy to break the forces between the molecules to cause melting and boiling. Many are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Most are soluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene, C6H6. Covalent liquids do not conduct electricity because they do not contain mobile charged particles or ions. Aqueous solutions are usually poor conductors of electricity because most do not contain mobile charged particles or ions. They are often formed between two elements with similar electronegativities, usually non-metals.

(b) (c) (d)

(e)

(f)

5.5.4

Giant Molecular Compounds

What do giant molecular compounds consist of? Giant molecular compounds consist of atoms that are held together in large networks or chains by covalent bonds. Can you think of any examples? Examples of giant molecular compounds are diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide (SiO2) and silicon carbide (SiC). (a) Diamond Can you name the element in diamond? The element in diamond is carbon, which has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p2 with four valence electrons. Thus, each carbon atom can form single covalent bonds by sharing each of its electrons with four other carbon atoms. The structure is tetrahedral with a carbon atom at the centre of a regular tetrahedron and linked to four other carbon atoms at its corners. In diamond, a giant molecule is built up in which each inner carbon atom is linked covalently to four other carbon atoms as shown in Figure 5.17.

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Figure 5.17: Structure of diamond

What are the properties of diamond? There are four physical properties which can be used to describe diamond. They are as follows: (i) It has a very high melting and boiling points, almost 4,000qC. The carbon atoms in diamond are strongly held together by covalent bonds. A lot of energy is required to break the forces between the carbon atoms to cause melting or boiling. It is very hard. This results from the arrangement of the carbon atoms held together by strong covalent bonds in a uniform tetrahedral structure.

(ii)

(iii) It does not conduct electricity even when molten because it does not contain mobile charged particles or ions. (iv) It neither dissolves in water nor organic solvents. (b) Graphite Now, we move on to graphite. Do you know what the element in graphite is? The element in graphite is also carbon but its structure is marked differently from that of diamond. In graphite, the carbon atoms lie in parallel layers, in which the carbon atoms are covalently combined in a network of regular hexagons as shown in Figure 5.18.

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Figure 5.18: Arrangement of atoms in a layer of graphite

These layers are held together only by weak forces of the Van der Waals type, which hold molecules together in giant molecular compounds. Figure 5.19 shows the layer structure of graphite.

Figure 5.19: Van der Waals forces in graphite Source: http://images.google.com

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How about the physical properties of graphite? Graphite has the following physical properties: (i) It has a high melting point and boiling point. The carbon atoms in each layer of graphite are strongly held together by covalent bonds. A lot of energy is needed to break up the strong covalent bonds. It is a soft substance. The forces between layers of graphite are very weak to the extent that they can slide readily on each other.

(ii)

(iii) It has a low density. The arrangement of atoms in graphite is in layers with spaces between the layers. (iv) It neither dissolves in water nor organic solvents. (v) (c) It is a good conductor of electricity.

Silicon Dioxide Lastly, let us look at silicon dioxide. Do you know that silicon dioxide is usually found in the form of sand and quartz? This means that it can be easily found around us. Silicon has an electron arrangement of 1s22s22p63s23p2 with four valence electrons available for bonding. In silicon dioxide, each silicon atom forms single covalent bonds with four oxygen atoms and this arrangement of atoms is built up to form a giant threedimensional structure, as shown in Figure 5.20.

Figure 5.20: Structure of silicon dioxide Source: http://images.google.com

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What can we say about its properties? Silicon dioxide has the following physical properties: (i) It has a high melting point around 1,700qC. The silicon and oxygen atoms are held strongly by covalent bonds. A lot of energy is needed to break the bonds before melting occurs. It is hard. This is due to arrangement of atoms held together by strong covalent bonds.

(ii)

(iii) It is not a conductor of electricity. (iv) It neither dissolves in water nor organic solvents.

5.6

METALLIC BONDS

In this subtopic, we will look at the strength of the metallic bonds and how metallic bonds are related to conductor and insulator.

5.6.1

Strength of Metallic Bonds

We learnt that metals such as sodium, iron and aluminium are made up of atoms. As discussed earlier, when these metal atoms lose their valence electrons, cations are formed. The electrons that are released are free to move in the metal and they surround the metal cations as shown in Figure 5.21.

Figure 5.21: Electron-sea model for metallic bonding

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Do you know that these electrons are also known as delocalised electrons? This is because they are free to move around. The metal cations and the electrons are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic forces forming metallic bonds that hold the metal atoms together. This is shown in Figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22: Metallic bonds

In general, the strength of the metallic bonds depends on the number of valence electrons available for bonding in the metals, resulting in a corresponding increase in melting points. Thus, sodium, which has only one valence electron per atom, melts at 97.5qC, whereas chromium, with six valence electrons melts at 1,890qC.

5.6.2

Conductors and Insulators

Metals conduct heat and electricity. Based on that, they are known as good conductors. As explained earlier, in a metal, there are delocalised electrons surrounding the metal cations that are mobile and they are free to move. The conduction of heat and electricity in metals is due to the mobility of the electrons. On the other hand, crystalline non-metals such as diamond are insulators; they do not conductor electricity. The reason for this is that non-metals are not surrounded by valence electrons that are mobile.

5.7

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

In addition to the covalent bonds within a molecule, there are also other forces of attraction between molecules. Do you know what they are? The forces within a molecule are called intramolecular forces and the forces between molecules are called intermolecular forces.

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Generally, intermolecular forces of attraction are much weaker than covalent bonds as shown in Figure 5.23, using hydrogen chloride, HCl molecule as an example.

Figure 5.23: Intermolecular and intramolecular forces Source: http://images.google.com

5.7.1

Van der Waals Forces

What do Van der Waals forces stand for?

Van der Waals forces are weak attractive forces between molecules.

Do you know that there are three types of Van der Waals forces? They are dipoledipole forces, London dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding forces. (a) Dipole-dipole Forces Earlier, we learnt about polar molecules that have dipoles. When we put polar molecules very close together, dipole-dipole forces exist between the molecules because the positive end of the dipole of one molecule will attract the negative end of the dipole of another molecule.

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(b)

London Dispersion Forces Do you know that molecules can still attract each other even in the absence of permanent dipoles? This is because an atom has positively charged protons in its nucleus and negatively charged electrons surrounding the nucleus. Generally, the electrons in an atom are spread evenly around the nucleus. However, at any given instant, the electron distribution in the atom may change, giving the atom a temporary dipole moment. After this occurs, the electrons in a neighbouring atom may be influenced to also produce a dipole. The newly formed dipole is called an induced dipole. The forces of attraction between the temporary dipole and induced dipole are called the London dispersion forces. An example is the forces between two helium atoms as shown in Figure 5.24.

Figure 5.24: London dispersion forces in Helium

As you can see, there are no dipole moments in helium atoms. The electron distribution in helium Atom 1 may fluctuate, giving the atom an instantaneous dipole moment which then induces a similar dipole on helium Atom 2, causing an electrostatic attraction between them. Another example is the London dispersion forces between layers of graphite as discussed in Section 5.5.4.

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(c)

Hydrogen Bonding Let us move on to hydrogen bonding. What is it?

Hydrogen bonding is a type of dipole-dipole attraction between molecules.

How does it occur? It can only occur between molecules which contain a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a small and highly electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen. For example, if two molecules of water are close to one another, the hydrogen atom of one molecule will be attracted to the oxygen atom of another molecule. Why does it occur? This occurs because of the electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom and partial negative charge on the oxygen atom as shown in Figure 5.25 below.

Figure 5.25: Hydrogen bonding Source: http://images.google.com

As you can see, the electrostatic attraction that holds the hydrogen atom of one molecule to the oxygen atom of another molecule is an example of hydrogen bonding.

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SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. Which type of intermolecular attractive force operates between: (a) (b) (c) All molecules Polar molecules The hydrogen atom of a polar bond and a nearby small, electronegative atom

2.

Which member of the following pairs has the largest dispersion forces? (a) (b) (c) H2O or H2S N2 or O2 CH4 or CCl4

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Noble gases possess a stable electron configuration characterised by completely filled s and p orbital. Octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence electrons. A cation is an ion with a positive charge. An anion is an ion with a negative charge. Ionic bonding is the attraction of oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) in large numbers to form a solid. The attraction of oppositely charged ions is also known as electrostatic force. The Lewis diagram/dot-and-cross diagram is the representation of a molecule, ion or formula unit by showing the atomic symbol and valence outer shell electrons. Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions joined by ionic bonds which can be written as the chemical formulae.

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Covalent bonding results from the sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms. Giant molecular compounds consist of atoms held together in large networks or chains by covalent bonds. Metallic bonding results from the electrostatic attractions among positively charged metal ions and mobile, delocalised electrons belonging to the crystal as a whole. Intermolecular forces are the forces between individual particles (atoms, molecules, ions) of a substance. Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular attractive forces between neutral molecules. They are namely dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding forces. When we put polar molecules very close together, dipole-dipole forces exist between the molecules because the positive end of the dipole of one molecule will attract the negative end of the dipole of another molecule. London dispersion forces are the forces of attraction between the temporary dipole and induced dipole. Hydrogen bonding is a special type of intermolecular attraction that exists between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond and an unshared electron pair on a nearby small electronegative ion and atom (usually F, O or N).

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Anions Cations Chemical formulae Covalent bonding Dash diagram Dot diagram Giant molecular compounds Hydrogen bonding Intermolecular forces

Intramolecular forces Ionic bonding Lewis diagram Metallic bonding Noble gas structure Octet rule Properties Structures Van der Waals forces

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Brown, T. L., Lemay, H. E., & Bursten, B. E. (2000). Chemistry: The central science (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. McMurray, J., & Fay, R. C. (2001). Chemistry (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Whitten, K. W., Davis, R. E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G. G. (2010). Chemistry (9th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole.