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8*354- 24-5466 90(/#




Leonard 8ernsLeln's norLon LecLure Serles of 1973 have played an crlLlcal role ln helplng
Lo deflne a parLlcular landscape of LhoughL whlch mlghL be besL descrlbed by 8ernsLeln's own
(admlLLedly nonacademlc) Lerm, "muslco-llngulsLlcs".
1
Whlle noL a formal dlsclpllne, Lhe Lerm
characLerlzes and encompasses Lhe body of LhoughL upon whlch he speculaLes ln slx mulLl-hour
lecLures aL Parvard. lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe from Lhe ouLseL LhaL my research goals were lnlLlally
deslgned Lo documenL Lhe ways ln whlch a 8ernsLeln's Lhesls for a unlversal muslcal grammar
represenLed an ldlosyncraLlc muslcal worldvlew: flLLlng ln hls Llme buL no longer operaLlve ln
llghL of more recenL dlscoverles. Powever, a careful readlng of Lhe llLeraLure Lells a dlfferenL
sLory. 1he lecLures Lhemselves do noL represenL rlgorous scholarshlp, however, due Lo Lhelr
enormous culLural lnfluence vla naLlonwlde broadcasL,
2
l argue LhaL 8ernsLeln's perspecLlve as

1
Leonard 8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0& (Cambrldge: Parvard unlverslLy ress,
1976), 9.
2
2 !ackendoff, 8evlew: 1he unanswered CuesLlon by Leonard 8ernsLeln", 883.

SmlLh 2
porLrayed ln !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&1 2/3 !'45( '. 6'*7'*+ wenL on noneLheless Lo become a
meme LhaL has served Lo lnsplre, dlrecL and aL Llmes ouLrlghL deflne a course of scholarshlp for
many researchers across a dlverse range of dlsclpllnes. 1hls work conLlnues Lo yleld frulLful
dlscoverles ln areas such as Lhe sLudy of recurslon.
Whlle noL a dlsclpllne, Lhe Lerm muslco-llngulsLlcs" (hereafLer denoLed wlLhouL
quoLaLlon) can rlghLly be LhoughL of as a scholarly landscape, lL ls an lnLerdlsclpllnary
Lerraln over whlch Amerlcan scholars ln dlverse flelds as such as neurology, LlngulsLlcs, and
Muslc 1heory have explored nearly 40 years. very llLLle of Lhe source conLenL ls orlglnal, and
none of lL academlc. 1he work was noL unlversally well-recelved, !oseph PorowlLz wrlLes LhaL
8ernsLeln, sLralns for lnLellecLual credlblllLy as an orlglnal Lhlnker."
3
Lven ma[or proponenLs of
some of hls ldeas musL admlL of lLs numerous flaws. !ackendoff wrlLes,
.a reader who expecLs serlous lnLellecLual lnqulry wlll undoubLedly be
dlsappolnLed. lL ls a Lrlvlal, borlng, and someLlmes even embarrasslng exerclse Lo
flnd holes ln [8ernsLeln's] argumenLaLlon. 1he flnal effecL ls unforLunaLe:
[8ernsLeln] has greaL lnslghL lnLo Lhe essenLlal lssues, yeL he undermlnes hlmself
needlessly ln lneffecLual aLLempLs Lo make hls speculaLlons expllclL.
4

Powever, lL almosL lmmedlaLely began Lo make an lmpacL ln Lhe work of serlous
researchers who envlsloned Lhe meldlng of "Chomsklan"
3
llngulsLlcs wlLh so-called muslc Lheory
lnLo a new and more purely sclenLlflc Lheory of muslc. A cruclal llne of research developed. As

3
!oseph PorowlLz, rofessor Lenny," 8#) 90*5 :#7/#) 0; <005( 40.11 (1993),
Avallable: hLLp://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collecLlons/bernsLeln/lbarLlcle4.hLml.
4
!ackendoff, 8evlew: 1he unanswered CuesLlon by Leonard 8ernsLeln."
3
lred Lerdahl and 8ay !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/A (8osLon:
MassachuseLLs lnsLlLuLe of 1echnology, 1983), lx.
SmlLh 3
a resulL of Lhese [norLon] lecLures, many people ln Lhe 8osLon area Look a fresh lnLeresL ln Lhe
ldea of an alllance beLween muslc Lheory and llngulsLlcs."
6
lnsplred ln parL by Lhe serles,
rofessors uavld LpsLeln and lrvlng Slnger (one of Lhe few llngulsLs speclflcally credlLed by
8ernsLeln, buL only ln Lhe AuLhor's noLe prefaclng Lhe slx lecLure LranscrlpLs)
7
offered a one-
week semlnar aL Lhe MassachuseLLs lnsLlLuLe of 1echnology ln Lhe fall of 1974 sLudylng
llngulsLlcs, muslc, and aesLheLlcs.
ulgresslng brlefly, Ml1 was and ls also Lhe academlc home for llngulsLlcs professor noam
Chomsky, upon whose work ln generaLlve grammar (B'&C-'C# '&+ Mlnd, ln parLlcular)
8

8ernsLeln based much of hls lecLures.
9
lmporLanLly, Chomsky ls noL known Lo have endorsed or
encouraged Lhls work, nor dld 8ernsLeln clalm hlm as a collaboraLor. ln facL, Chomsky wroLe
LhaL, Lhe problem of exLendlng concepLs of llngulsLlc sLrucLure Lo oLher cognlLlve sysLems
seems Lo me, for Lhe momenL, ln noL Loo promlslng a sLaLe, alLhough lL ls no doubL Lo early for
pesslmlsm",
10
buL laLer, lL ls qulLe posslble LhaL Lhe lack of analogy LesLlfles Lo our lgnorance of
oLher aspecLs of menLal funcLlon, raLher Lhan Lo Lhe absoluLe unlqueness of llngulsLlc sLrucLure,
buL Lhe facL ls LhaL we have, for Lhe momenL, no ob[ecLlve reason for supposlng Lhls Lo be
Lrue."
11
1hls Lhreshold of ob[ecLlvlLy ls noL mlnlmally meL by 8ernsLeln, a polnL buLLressed by
Lhe llLeraLure, as seen above. noLwlLhsLandlng, Lhe lnLeresL generaLed by Lhese lecLures was
enough for Allan keller Lo warn, .cerLalnly Lhe aLLenLlon Lhey have recelved and Lhe

6
lbldD
7
8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&.
8
n Chomsky, B'&C-'C# '&+ @/&+, 3rd ed. (Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, 2006).
9
8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&.
10
Chomsky, B'&C-'C# '&+ @/&+E 66.
11
lbld., 79.
SmlLh 4
mlsconcepLlons Lhey are llkely Lo creaLe lf Laken Loo serlously or followed Loo closely warranL
dlscusslon."
12
lorLunaLely, Lhe exclLlng scholarshlp ln Lhe years Lo follow moderaLed Lhe lnlLlal
exclLemenL of scholars wlLh hard daLa and rlgorous analysls, as wlll be demonsLraLed.
lnvlLed Lo Lhls semlnar were LlngulsL 8ay !ackendoff and Composer lred Lerdahl, whose
subsequenL collaboraLlon produced a radlcal deparLure from muslc Lheory orLhodoxy besL
represenLed by Lhelr book, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE co-wrlLLen ln 1983. 1helr
collaboraLlon began aL Ml1, buL Lhe openlng phrase of Lhelr preface polnLs back Lo Lhe norLon
LecLures as Lhe lmpeLus for Lhe very exlsLence for Lhe semlnar.
13
WlLh Lhe work of Chomsky
expllclLly ln mlnd,
14
Lhe Lwo, .Look Lhe goal of a Lheory of muslc Lo be a ;0*F'4 +#(A*/G./0& 0;
."# F-(/A'4 /&.-/./0&( 0; ' 4/(.#&#* )"0 /( #3G#*/#&A#+ /& ' F-(/A'4 /+/0F" [emphasls ln
orlglnal].
13
1hls lnLroducLory deflnlLlon relays an undersLandlng of Lhe polnLs arlslng ouL of
keller, who wrlLes, 1he mosL baslc dlsLlncLlon LhaL underlles llngulsLlc research ls LhaL of
compeLence and performance, Lhe dlsLlncLlon beLween whaL ls known and how lL ls used."
16

1he lnLeracLlon beLween Lhese auLhors ls furLher made expllclL ln a fooLnoLe Lo a prevlous
sLaLemenL clLlng lmporLanL recenL and forLhcomlng research ln Lhe area, lncludlng a Lhen-
unpubllshed paper by Lhe duo LlLled 1oward a lormal 1heory of 1onal Muslc".
17


12
Allan keller, 8ernsLeln's '1he unanswered CuesLlon' and Lhe roblem of Muslcal
CompeLence," !"# @-(/A'4 ,-'*.#*4? (1978): 198.
13
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE xl.
14
lbld., xlll.
13
lbld., 1.
16
keller, 8ernsLeln's '1he unanswered CuesLlon' and Lhe roblem of Muslcal
CompeLence": 198.
17
l Lerdahl and 8 !ackendoff, 1oward a lormal 1heory of 1onal Muslc," H0-*&'4 0;
@-(/A !"#0*? (1977).
SmlLh 3
1hls paper laLer served as a foundaLlon for = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/A
(hereafLer referred Lo as C11M).
18
1hls Lhrough-llne from Chomsky's compeLence runs Lhrough
Lo Lhe deflned goals of C11M and Lhe preclse meanlng of experlenced," C11M hlghllghLlng
LhaL, 1he 'experlenced llsLener,' ls meanL as an ldeallzaLlon," and, 1he concepL of Lhe
'experlenced llsLener,' of course, ls no more Lhan a convenlenL dellmlLaLlon."
19
1hey are
cauLlous ln Lermlnology ln an efforL Lo be ln a poslLlon boLh Lo make use of llngulsLlc Lools
cusLomlzed for use ln Lhe sLudy of muslc, and be ln a poslLlon Lo make comparaLlve analysls
wlLh llngulsLlcs,
20
whlch ls preclsely whaL Lhey and oLhers laLer do.
21

WhaL follows ls a chapLer on rhyLhmlc sLrucLure, ln whlch Lhe noLlon of hlerarchlcal
organlzaLlon" beLween subordlnaLe and domlnaLlng groups" ls presenLed.
22
Lxamples are
glven of Lhe way ln whlch palrs of elghLh noLes pulses nesL lnLo quarLer noLes pulses, whlch may
ln Lurn nesL lnLo half noLes pulses,
23
demonsLraLlng LhaL wlLh Lhls, unlformlLy from level Lo
level, we can asserL LhaL grouplng sLrucLure ls *#A-*(/7#I LhaL ls, lL can be elaboraLed lndeflnlLely
by Lhe same rules" [emphasls ln orlglnal].
24
lL ls wlLh Lhls Lhe concepL of recurslon LhaL
slgnlflcanL progress ln Lhe undersLandlng of Lonal muslcal sLrucLure has come forward.
8ecurslon ls an ofLen-pondered phenomenon whlch could be sald Lo have been promoLed from

18
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 3/.
19
lbld., 3.
20
8 !ackendoff, arallels and nonparallels beLween language and muslc," @-(/A
G#*A#G./0& (2009).
21
A u aLel, @-(/AE B'&C-'C#E '&+ ."# <*'/& (new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2010),
280-283.
22
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 13.
23
lbld., 19-23.
24
ibid., 17.
SmlLh 6
a bug Lo a feaLure of human consclousness, a prlnclple LhaL ls slmple, humorous, and on Lhe
surface could seem almosL lnconsequenLlal. 1ake for example a humorous deflnlLlon:
kecurs|on (rl-kor-ZPon) &0-&D See recurs|on.
2S

Lxamp|e 1. kecurs|on |n Language
A maLhemaLlcal funcLlon learned by algebra sLudenLs ls LhaL of facLorlal, mosL ofLen
expressed as &! = & * (& - 1)!.
26
1he exclamaLlon mark denoLes a funcLlon, and by belng on boLh
sldes of Lhe equaLlon, lmplles LhaL Lhe funcLlon may only be descrlbed ln Lerms of lLself. lor
lnsLance:
4! = 4 * (4 - 1)!
= 4 * 3 * (3 - 1)!
= 4 * 3 * 2 * (2 - 1)!
= 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
= 24
Lxamp|e 2. kecurs|on |n Mathemat|cs

23
Mlchael C Corballls, !"# :#A-*(/7# @/&+1 !"# J*/C/&( 0; 6-F'& B'&C-'C#E !"0-C".E
'&+ K/7/4/L'./0& (rlnceLon: rlnceLon unlverslLy ress, 2011), 1.
26
lor maLhemaLlcal preclslon, lL should be added LhaL Lhe equaLlon holds Lrue only
where & > 0, and furLher where 0! = 1, Lhese condlLlons ln no way alLer or creaLe excepLlon Lo
Lhe recurslve properLles of Lhe ! funcLlon.
SmlLh 7

I|gure 1. S|erp|nsk| tr|ang|e. (fa|r use)
A graphlcal varlanL would be Lhe well-known Slerplnskl Lrlangle (see flg. 1), whlch can
lLself be expressed as a maLhemaLlcal algorlLhm. All of Lhese examples help Lo creaLe a worklng
deflnlLlon LhaL cases of recurslon, as Corballls puLs lL,
.can Lake lLs own ouLpuL as Lhe nexL lnpuL, a loop LhaL can be exLended
lndeflnlLely Lo creaLe sequences or sLrucLures of unbounded lengLh or
complexlLy. ln pracLlce, of course, we do noL geL caughL up ln lnflnlLe loops-llfe ls
slmply Loo shorL for LhaL. lor Lhe purposes of Lhls book, Lhen, we shall no be
lnLeresLed so much ln Lhe generaLlon of lnflnlLe sequences as ln a deflnlLlon LhaL
mlghL apply usefully Lo human LhoughL. A deflnlLlon LhaL meeLs Lhls requlremenL
ls suggesLed by SLeven lnker and 8ay !ackendoff, who deflne recurslon as a
procedure LhaL calls lLself, or .a consLlLuenL LhaL conLalns a consLlLuenL of Lhe
same klnd."
27


27
SLeven lnker and 8ay !ackendoff, 1he faculLy of language: whaL's speclal abouL lL?"
Mlchael C Corballls, !"# :#A-*(/7# @/&+1 !"# J*/C/&( 0; 6-F'& B'&C-'C#E !"0-C".E '&+
K/7/4/L'./0& (rlnceLon: rlnceLon unlverslLy ress, 2011),
SmlLh 8
8eflexlvely, ln composlng Lhls essay, l had orlglnally lnLended Lo glve Lhe earller porLlon
of LhaL quoLe, and sklp ahead Lo make a segue back lnLo Lhe scholarly Lhrough-llne of
8ernsLeln's muslco-llngulsLlc meme (vla !ackendoff) as Lhere ls no need Lo lnclude Lhe mlddle
porLlon descrlblng Lhe ouLlook of Lhe book. Powever, lL occurred Lo me whlle wrlLlng LhaL Lhls ln
lLself ls a perfecL example of Lhe laLLer lnker/!ackendoff deflnlLlon: ln order Lo deflne
recurslon, a passage from a source ls quoLed ln whlch: ln order Lo deflne recurslon, a passage
from anoLher source ls quoLed. lurLher, Lhe prevlous senLence lLself ls boLh a descrlpLlon of
recurslon and ls lLself recurslve. LasLly, and aL Lhe rlsk of absurdlLy, lL ls worLh polnLlng ouL LhaL
Lhe very acL of composlng Lhls paragraph occurred Lo me as an exerclse ln recurslon ln whlch l
am composlng a paragraph ln whlch l dlscuss Lhe acL of wrlLlng LhaL very same paragraph. 1hls
mulLlvalenL form of recurslon ls a llngulsLlc analog of Lhe famous M 6'&+( N*')/&C by M.C.
Lscher. Powever, ln order Lo proceed, Lhe advlce of Mr. Corballls musL be followed and Lhe
essay musL now wlLhdraw from Lhe loop ln order Lo proceed.


I|gure 2. M.C. Lscher, !"#$%&' )#&*+, 1948 (fa|r use)

SmlLh 9
8eLurnlng Lo C11M, lL ls no accldenL LhaL Lhe one of Lhe chlef muslcal examples chosen
Lo demonsLraLe Lhe prlnclples of recurslon as applled Lo muslc ls MozarL's C Mlnor Symphony,
k. 330. ln facL, lL ls preclsely Lhe same sLudy plece LhaL preoccuples Lhe flrsL Lwo of Lhe slx
norLon LecLures.
28
8elow are Lhe flrsL four measures of Lhe melody played by Lhe vlollns (Lhe
second vlollns play Lhe passage an ocLave lower), alLhough Lranscrlbed orlglnally for Lhe essay,
Lhey lL ls essenLlally ldenLlcal Lo one of Lhe many MozarL muslcal examples ln C11M, ln Lhls
case, example 3.19.
29


I|gure 3. W.A. Mozart, Symphony |n G M|nor, mm. 1-4 (me|ody on|y)

erhaps one of Lhe mosL pedagoglcally unlque and useful porLlons of Lhe flrsL Lwo
norLon LecLures demonsLraLes well Lhe llmlLs of recurslon for aesLheLlc purposes.
30
8y worklng
ouL Lhe openlng of Lhe openlng of Lhe Symphony, 'O(04-.#4? symmeLrlcal phrases, and by
playlng a performance of Lhls alLered verslon, 8ernsLeln lllusLraLes Lo Lhe layman and Lo Lerdahl
and !ackendoff's experlenced llsLener" Lo leL Lhelr lnLulLlon deLecL Lhe lnherenL non-aesLheLlc
naLure of such a pedanLlc passage.
31
8ernsLeln says:
Cf course my muslcal repeaLs were made ln Lhe name of symmeLry. 8uL
SymmeLry ls noL necessarlly balance: LhaL's a precepL we all learned long ago,

28
8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&E 39-113.
29
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 47.
30
8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&E 93-97.
31
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 3.
&
b
b
4
4
















&
b
b
5
!
J. Smith

Score
SmlLh 10
and lL's worLh saylng agaln. WhaL MozarL has done-as any greaL masLer does-ls
Lo make Lhe leap from prosy symmeLry lnLo poeLlc balance, LhaL ls, lnLo arL. And
he accompllshes Lhls leap Lhrough Lhose very prlnclples of LransformaLlon so
defLly enunclaLed by Chomsky, only MozarL achleves Lhereby noL Lhe mere
grammar of a senLence, buL Lhe (-G#*-grammar of an aesLheLlc surface.
[Lmphasls ln orlglnal]
32

Whlle 8ernsLeln ls aLLempLlng Lo speak Lo nonprofesslonal muslc lovers who don'L
know a sLreLLo from a dlmlnlshed flfLh",
33
lL ls lmporLanL Lo deLermlne whaL value Lhese
proposlLlons mlghL have Lo muslc scholars wlLh a rlgorous, analyLlcal approach Lo sLudylng
symmeLry. WhaL subsLanLlve value may Lhere be ln hls nesLed pyramld dlagrams, whlch are
very slmllar Lo Lhe aforemenLloned Slerplnskl Lrlangles (flg. 1) ln appearance.
34
ln reallLy, Lhls
has been Lhe work of a number of oLhers boLh before and afLer 8ernsLeln. Cruclally, Lhe
process of analyLlcal dlagrammlng hlerarchlcally nesLed muslcal phrase sLrucLures ls an ldea
wldely known Lo muslclans by assoclaLlon wlLh Pelnrlch Schenker, Lhe LheorlsL credlLed largely
for havlng developed whaL has laLer been called reducLlon.
33

LaLer, C11M Lackles preclsely Lhls Loplc ln Lhe flfLh chapLer, Lhe second secLlon of whlch
descrlbes formal approaches Lo reducLlon asklng plalnly whaL ls requlred Lo converL
Schenkerlan Lheory lnLo formal Lheory."
36
Cf course, an almosL endless serles of problems arlse

32
8ernsLeln, !"# %&'&()#*#+ ,-#(./0&E 97.
33
lbld., 33.
34
lbld., 92. AdmlLLedly, Lhe vlsual represenLaLlon seen here ls a blnary recurslve form
whlle Lhe Slerplnskl Lrlangles form an example of a Lernary recurslve form.
33
Pelnrlch Schenker, P/7# >*'G"/A @-(/A =&'4?(#( (new ?ork: uover ubllcaLlons, 1969).
36
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 111-113.
SmlLh 11
when aLLempLlng Lo apprehend Lo preclsely whaL degree Schenkerlan reducLlon ls an accuraLe
predlcLlon of whaL Lhe llsLener acLually Lakes ln. Cf 8eeLhoven's Q*0/A' Symphony, wrlLes
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, MosL llkely, he wlll hear falrly accuraLely Lhe deLalls (excepL when hls
mlnd wanders) and Lhe largesL connecLlons, buL wlll be vague abouL some lnLervenlng
relaLlonshlps."
37
1hls parenLheLlcal excepLlon ls unforLunaLely a Lremendous problem when
aLLempLlng Lo map an analyLlcal framework Lo acLual llsLener percepLlon.
38
WolperL sLaLes, 1he
quesLlon ls noL whaL people A'& hear glven speclflc dlrecLlons, buL whaL Lhey +0 hear when
llsLenlng Lo an lnLacL plece of muslc."
39
lL ls clear, accordlng Lo C11M, LhaL one hears muslc ln
organlzed paLLerns",
40
and research slnce LhaL Llme has focused ln large parL
1hough work such as LhaL by WolperL descrlbes experlmenLaLlon LhaL may seem Lo
make large-scale reducLlons, such as Lhe 1ree noLaLlon for 8educLlon",
41
lefL as yeL anoLher
posslbly useful analyLlcal Lool for muslclanly lnslghL Lhan an acLual predlcLlve percepLual model.
ln Lhls case lL would fall Lo serve Lhe auLhors' wlsh Lo accuraLely predlcL Lhe subsLance of
percepLlon for Lhe experlenced llsLener. Powever, Lhe auLhors admlL from Lhe beglnnlng LhaL
much work would remaln Lo be done ln any case.
42

1hls process of dlscovery has, as clLed, conLlnued wlLhouL pause. As Lhe C11M auLhors
sLaLed, lL was lnLendended as an lnvesLlgaLlon lnLo human cognlLlve capaclLy," and Lhe

37
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE 111.
38
!ordan SmlLh, Muslcal ercepLlon and Alban 8erg's N*#/ J*A"#(.#*(.RA5#, Cp. 6,"
unpubllshed (2007): 4. 1he meLhodology for Lhe research deslgn was based on 8lLa WolperL,
ALLenLlon Lo key ln a nondlrecLed muslc llsLenlng Lask: Muslclans vs. nonmuslclans," @-(/A
G#*A#G./0& (2000): 223-230.
39
lbld., 223.
40
Lerdahl and !ackendoff, = >#&#*'./7# !"#0*? 0; !0&'4 @-(/AE xll.
41
lbld.E 112.
42
lbld.E xlll.
SmlLh 12
Lheorles and llnes of reasonlng, so brllllanLly lnLulLlve buL germlnal and unpollshed ln 8ernsLeln,
so promlslng and developed buL unLesLed ln Lerdahl and !ackendoff, proceeded Lo rlpple across
dlsclpllnes furLher and furLher afleld, geLLlng deeper lnLo experlmenLal resulLs and sLlmulaLlng
new and more reflned Lheorles. As prevlously menLloned, 8ay !ackendoff, a llngulsL, wroLe
many oLher works ln Lhe fleld boLh alone and ln collaboraLlon wlLh oLhers lncludlng lred
Lerdahl, and Lhe aforemenLloned SLeven lnker. (1he prevlously menLloned collaboraLlon,
lncldenLally, was lLself a response and rebuLLal Lo work by Chomsky and company.)
43

lnker, a noLed psychollngulsL, cognlLlve sclenLlsL as well as popular sclence auLhor, ls
also noLed for work ln vlsual cognlLlon, whlch ls a naLural fleld Lo sLudy comparaLlvely wlLh
muslc cognlLlon. Pls worldvlew lnLeresLlngly leads hlm Lo a very dlfferenL place. ln hls
besLselllng book, 60) ."# @/&+ S0*5(E lnker-llke 8ernsLeln-speaks Lo a general readershlp
abouL Lhe lnner worklngs of Lhe mlnd as Lhrough Lhe prlsm of hls own speclalLles and ln llghL of
hls research and LhaL of oLhers Lo whlch he glves credence. Powever, he makes a polnL LhaL has
sLruck many as pecullar. Pe wrlLes LhaL, As far as blologlcal cause and effecL are concerned,
muslc ls useless.lL ls a Lechnology, noL an adapLaLlon."
44
LvoluLlonary blology may seem far
afleld from recurslon and furLher sLlll from muslco-llngulsLlcs, buL lL Lhls ls exacLly where
recurslon as an organlzlng properLy becomes powerful and meanlngful.
unllke lnker, LllzabeLh 1olberL argues for slmulLaneous evoluLlon of boLh language and
muslc ln her, Muslc and Meanlng: An LvoluLlonary SLory," demonsLraLlng how a wlde varleLy
muslco-culLural conLexLs across Lhe globe share ln common an undersLandlng of muslc as,

43
SLeven lnker and 8ay !ackendoff, 1he faculLy of language: whaL's speclal abouL lL?,"
K0C&/./0& 93.2 (2003): 201-236.
44
Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 529-539.
SmlLh 13
woven lnLo Lhe soclal fabrlc of everyday llfe, and ls valued prlmarlly for lLs exLra-muslcal
meanlngs.
43
lnLeresLlngly, 1olberL uses Lhe Lerm muslco-llngulsLlc genres", alLhough ln Lhls
case denoLlng hybrldlzed communlcaLlve forms LhaL conform sLrlcLly Lo nelLher paLLerns of
speech nor muslc buL share aLLrlbuLes of from each ldlom.
46
Also worLh noLlng ls LhaL lnker
and Chomsky flnd Lhemselves generally ln dlsagreemenL abouL evoluLlon's role ln language, Lhls
Llme Chomsky esLlmaLes perhaps a 100,000 year hlsLory of spoken language (only mlnlmally a
producL of adapLaLlon and lnker lmaglnes more llke slx mllllon years.
47

CenLral Lo lnLegraLlng seemlngly unrelaLed llnes of LhoughL ls yeL anoLher of Lhe mulLlple
Lhousands of documenLs whlch clLe C11M ls SLeven MlLhen's, !"# 2/&C/&C 8#'&+#*."'4(D
TU
ln lL,
he dlscusses Lhe evoluLlonary Lheorles LhaL llngulsLs llke Chomsky and hls colleagues (see noLe
47, below) poslL, Lhe role of recurslon ln complex language sLrucLures, and noLes LhaL,
recurslon ls one of Lhe mosL crlLlcal feaLures of muslc," a facL Lhey seem noL Lo noLlce.
49
1he
slgnlflcance here ls LhaL evldence conLlnues Lo bulld for Lhe noLlon of lnnaLe muslcal
compeLence. Llke Lhe more maLure llngulsLlcs, Lhere ls much debaLe. Llke language, Lhere ls
enough dlverslLy Lo offer excepLlons Lo mosL rules, buL essenLlally, lL seems LhaL a Lheory of

43
LllzabeLh 1olberL, Muslc and Meanlng: An LvoluLlonary SLory," V(?A"040C? 0; @-(/A
29.1 (2001): 83.
46
lbld.: 83-83.
47
Marc u. Pauser, noam Chomsky, and W. 1acumseh llLch, 1he laculLy of Language:
WhaL ls lL, Who Pas lL, and Pow uld lL Lvolve?," 2A/#&A# (2002): 1369-1379. Also, SLeven lnker
and 8ay !ackendoff, 1he faculLy of language: WhaL's Speclal abouL lL?," K0C&/./0& 93.2 (2003):
201-236.
48
SLeven !. MlLhen, !"# 2/&C/&C 8#'&+#*."'4( (London: Weldenfeld & nlcholson, 2003).
lull ulsclosure: 44 and 43 above are boLh slmllarly dlscussed here on p. 8, alLhough l came Lo be
famlllar wlLh 1olberL more Lhan a week before readlng MlLhen and l purchased and read Lhe
lnker a year prlor Lo LhaL.
49
lbld., 16-17.
SmlLh 14
unlversal muslcal compeLence (alLhough by no means a unlversally shared expresslon of LhaL
compeLence) has gradually become a credlble model whlch experlmenLaLlon can challenge,
renew, relnforce, and reLune.
lmporLanL Lo conslder, mosL of Lhe scholarshlp menLloned so far (wlLh Lhe excepLlon of
1olberL and WolperL) has been sequesLered from emplrlcal sLudy. krumhansl and almer, afLer
C118 ln 1983, raLher qulckly deslgned and lmplemenLed experlmenLs LhaL ylelded parLlal
conflrmaLlons of some of Lhe predlcLlons made by Lerdahl and !ackendoff, resulLs whlch Lhey
publlshed ln Lwo sLudles ln 1987.
30
krumhansl, ln her monumenLal K0C&/./7# P0-&+'./0&( 0;
@-(/A'4 V/.A" of 1990, herself documenLs Lhese sLudles ln a chapLer, A keyflndlng AlgorlLhm
8ased on 1onal Plerarchles".
31
She noLes LhaL:
.lmporLanL for Lhe presenL dlscusslon ls LhaL Lhese sLudles found LhaL [udgmenLs
of Lemporal paLLerns were lndependenL from [udgmenLs of plLch paLLerns. lor
Lhe parLlcular muslcal selecLlons employed, Lonally sLrong evenLs dld noL
conslsLenLly occur aL polnLs of rhyLhmlc sLress.
32


30
Carollne almer and Carol L. krumhansl, lLch and Lemporal conLrlbuLlons Lo muslcal
phrase percepLlon: LffecLs of harmony, performance Llmlng, and famlllarlLy," V#*A#G./0& W
V(?A"0G"?(/A( 41.6 (1987): 303-318. Also, Carollne almer and Carol L. krumhansl,
lndependenL Lemporal and plLch sLrucLures ln deLermlnaLlon of muslcal phrases.," H0-*&'4 0;
Q3G#*/F#&.'4 V(?A"040C?1 6-F'& V#*A#G./0& '&+ V#*;0*F'&A# 13.1 (1987): 116-126.
31
Carol L krumhansl, K0C&/./7# P0-&+'./0&( 0; @-(/A'4 V/.A" (new ?ork: Cxford
unlverslLy ress, 1990).
32
Carol L krumhansl, A keyflndlng AlgorlLhm 8ased on 1onal Plerarchles," ln K0C&/./7#
P0-&+'./0&( 0; @-(/A'4 V/.A" (new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 1990), 38.
SmlLh 13
She reLurns Lo furLher lend credlblllLy Lo C118 ln a laLer chapLer, lLch CrganlzaLlon and
lLch Memory," by uslng Lhe values predlcLed by C118 LhaL showed hlgh correlaLlon ln LesLs.
33

8y far Lhe mosL lnLeresLlng chapLer ln Lerms of Lhe relaLlon of krumhansl's experlmenLal work
Lo Lhe Lheorles and models of C118 ls Lhe chapLer, 1onal Plerarchles ln ALonal and non-
WesLern 1onal Muslc."
34
lL ls by far Lhe mosL speculaLlve and leasL cerLaln of Lhe chapLers
dlscussed. 1he aLonal muslc dlscussed mlrrors laLLer porLlons of Lerdahl's !0&'4 V/.A" 2G'A# of
2001E (anoLher hlghly lmporLanL LheoreLlcal LreaLlse bullL aLop C118 and equally deservlng of
Lhorough LreaLmenL equally as much aLLenLlon as C118). Whlle valuable and whlle a frulLful
dlrecLlon for furLher lnqulry, some of Lhe mosL relevanL conLenL comes ln Lhe sLudy of non-
WesLern 1onal Muslc. 8evealed Lhere Lhrough her work, and Lhrough Lhe work of her colleague
and someLlmes collaboraLor, !hamshad 8harucha, whlch provlde lnLeresLlng prospecLs for
fuLure research. krumhansl wrlLes, 1o summarlze, lndlan muslc Lheory suggesLs LhaL well-
deflned Lonal hlerarchles underlle lLs melodlc componenL."
33
Agaln, polnLlng Lo common
sLrucLural feaLures across dlsslmllar muslcal culLures. 1hen, surprlslng slmllarlLy ln performance
beLween lnexperlenced wesLern llsLeners and lndlan llsLeners ln forelgn muslc on cerLaln probe
Lone LesLs demonsLraLe Lhe flrsL hlnLs aL hard evldence leglLlmaLlng Lhe dlrecLlon 8ernsLeln seL
ouL Lo begln wlLh. krumhansl wrlLes:
1hls resulL lndlcaLes LhaL one sLraLegy Lhe lnexperlenced WesLern llsLeners
applled Lo Lhls sLyle was LhaL of reglsLerlng Lhe relaLlve sallence or emphasls

33
Carol L krumhansl, lLch CrganlzaLlon and lLch Memory," ln K0C&/./7# P0-&+'./0&(
0; @-(/A'4 V/.A" (new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 1990).
34
Carol L krumhansl, 1onal Plerarchles ln ALonal and non-WesLern 1onal Muslc," ln
K0C&/./7# P0-&+'./0&( 0; @-(/A'4 V/.A" (new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 1990).
33
lbld., 18.
SmlLh 16
glven Lhe varlous Lones ln Lhe muslcal conLexLs. ln Lhls case, Lhls sLraLegy
produced sLyle-approprlaLe Lonal hlerarchles. 1hus, lL could be used Lo achleve a
sense of Lonal organlzaLlon LhaL, when reflned solldlfled Lhrough experlence,
would serve as Lhe basls for appreclaLlng and rememberlng more complex and
subLle sLrucLural feaLures.
36

1hese are [usL a few lsolaLed LesLs. 1hese Lwo muslcal culLures seem Lo share a few raw
lngredlenLs LhaL happen Lo be sallenL cognlLlve feaLures when performlng Lhe Lasks requlred.
8uL lL ls Lhe flnal connecLlng llnk beLween llngulsLlcs, evoluLlonary blology, neurosclence,
eLhnomuslcology, and muslc cognlLlon. lL ls only Lhe flnal llnk ln LhaL some mlnlmal connecLlons
beLween Lhese dlsclpllnes demonsLraLe LhaL Lhere ls room Lo move along Lhem. 1hls alone
cannoL be Laken for granLed. 1ogeLher, Lhese varlous dlsclpllnes across Lhe Lerraln of Lhe so-
called muslco-llngulsLlc meme lnsLlgaLed by Leonard 8ernsLeln have slowly conLrlbuLed frulLful
collaboraLlons of whlch only a few have been enumeraLed here. 1hey have slowly buL sLeadlly
explored Lhe Lerraln and a worklng map across a few of Lhe well known arLerles beLween Lhem
can now serve Lo help furLher lnform and reflne Lhe approaches golng forward. 1he common
Lhread beLween Lhese approaches ls emerglng ln Lhe form of Lhe sLudy of recurslon, explored
here Lhrough Lhe lens of many dlsclpllnes. 8ecurslon lLself also serves as a lens Lhrough whlch
Lo undersLand Lhe slmllarlLles beLween muslc and language, and ln so dolng, sLeadlly ascerLaln
more knowledge abouL Lhe characLer of Lhe human muslco-llngulsLlc mlnd.



36
ibid., 23.
SmlLh 17
7(:6(*.34;#<
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B'&C-'C# '&+ @/&+. vol. 3rd ed. Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, 2006.
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lL, and Pow uld lL Lvolve?." (A/#&A# (2002).
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hLLp://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collecLlons/bernsLeln/lbarLlcle4.hLml.
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