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TREE H !SE E"G#"EER#"G $ R C %E &PPR '&L

&n (er(iew )y Charles S. Greenwood, P.E. A. STRATEGIES FOR CODE APPROVAL AND THE NEED FOR SPECIFIC CODE LANGUAGE *+ilding Standards, an #C* p+)li,ation, presented in the -+ly.&+g+st 2000 edition an arti,le a+thored )y /ysel0 and %a(id *assett, P.E,. C.*. , entitled 1Ha)ita)le Treeho+ses2 "ot as Si/ple as Swiss $a/ily Ro)inson3. This s+//ari4ed nearly a de,ade o0 wor5 in this 0ield. #n the thirteen years sin,e there has )een an e6plosion in the ,onstr+,tion o0 tree7 /o+nted str+,t+res aro+nd the world. 8+,h has )een learned a)o+t what to do and what not to do. 8any per/its ha(e )een granted, e(en 0or large p+)li,7+se wheel,hair a,,essi)le pro9e,ts )y re0eren,ing #RC R202 :1;.other independent syste/s3<, R301.1.2 :1;..a,,epted engineering pra,ti,e3<, R =02.1 :1;rot7resistant wood 0o+ndations3<> li)eral +se o0 the per0or/an,e7)ased pro(isions as well as alternati(e testing pro,ed+res /ay also )e re?+ired. Howe(er, typi,al Codes are " T a good 0it to treeho+se engineering and ,onstr+,tion /ethodologies. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES COMPARED TO GROUND-MOUNTED STUCTURES INCLUDE: @@.@A $ TREE H !SES H&'E " T G "E THR !GH &" E"G#"EER#"G C %E RE'#EB. R

" "7C 8PL#&"CE *C TREE H !SE B"ERS C&" *E TR&CE% T :1< THE L&CD $ & RE&S "&*LE C %E PR CESS T $ LL B, &"% :2< THE#R " "7 C "$ R8#ST ETH#C. C "ST&"T CCCL#C L &%#"G &"% 8ET&L $&T#G!E C&" LE&% T C&T&STR PH#C $&#L!RE. *!#L%#"G PR $ESS# "&LS 8&C " T *E TR&#"E% #" TH#S TCPE $ &"&LCS#S. $LEE#"G #" *E&8S, B&LLS, - #STS, ETC., REF!#RE TH&T 8E8*ERS *E %ES#G"E% $ R 8&E#8!8 %E$LECT# " B#TH#" THE#R STRE"GTH L#8#T. L.3G0 #S L#DELC T CRE&TE !"S&$E ST#$$"ESS #" TREE H !SE STR!CT!R&L SCSTE8S. '&R#&T# "S #" L &% C LLECT# " &"% %#STR#*!T# " 8&C REF!#RE EF!&L#H&T# " *E&8S &"% THER !"!S!&L TECH"#F!ES.

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&LL *!T THE S#8PLEST TREE H !SES 8!ST *E E"G#"EERE% !S#"G $#"#TE ELE8E"T &"&LC#S PER$ R8E% *C &" EEPER#E"CE% PR&CT#T# "ER T %ETER8#"E %C"&8#C $LEE#*#L#TC &"% STRESS C "CE"TR&T# "S. &G&#", *!#L%#"G $$#C#&LS 8&C " T *E $&8#L#&R B#TH $E&. Code lang+age /ay ,reate pro)le/s rather than sol(e the/. $or e6a/ple, "$P& r+les regarding e/ergen,y power syste/s +sed in hospitals and other ,riti,al 0a,ilities +n0ort+nately ,ontri)+ted to +nne,essary in9+ry and death d+ring S+per Stor/ Sandy. Bhat sho+ld )e the intent o0 *+ilding CodesI Generally a,,epted as the 0irst )+ilding ,ode :3,J00 year agoK<, the Code o0 Ha//+ra)i pro(ided p+nish/ent to )e /ade proportional to the in9+ry, and +lti/ately R+le 22@ de,lares that 1#0 a )+ilder )+ilds a ho+se 0or so/eone, and does not ,onstr+,t it properly, and the ho+se whi,h he )+ilt 0alls in and 5ills its owner, then that )+ilder shall )e p+t to death3. The intent o0 /odern ,odes sho+ld )e to a(oid that o+t,o/e. DEVELOPMENT OF TREE HOUSE SPECIFIC CODE LANGUAGE SHOULD FOLLOW INTERNATIONALLY RECOGNIZED METHODOGIES FOR PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN. The per0or/an,e7)ased *C& :*+ilding Code o0 &+stralia< was dra0ted 0ollowing ,onsideration o0 n+/ero+s o(erseas /odels :in,l+ding the "ew Healand, *ritish, Swedish and %+t,h e6a/ples< to s+it the &+stralian )+ilding reg+latory en(iron/ent. This has /eant that the per0or/an,e7)ased *C& s+)stantially in,l+des the te,hni,al re?+ire/ents 0ro/ the pre(io+s *C&@0, with a Lper0or/an,e hierar,hyL )+ilt aro+nd the/. The hierar,hy o0 the *C& is shown )elow.

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See also &SCE.SE# J710, Chapter 1, where the ,on,ept o0 Per0or/an,e *ased %esign Engineering is introd+,ed, and the ter/inology o0 ,,+pan,y Category is repla,ed )y Ris5 Category. Please pro(ide yo+r ,onta,t in0or/ation i0 yo+ wo+ld li5e to wor5 on Tree Ho+se Code lang+age. This will )est )e a,,o/plished )y the P.E. and C.*. . ,o//+nity.

B. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING TREES Tree ste/s and li/)s are highly 0le6i)le (erti,al and hori4ontal ,antile(ers> they pro(ide the )iologi,al /ass transport syste/ 0or n+trients )etween the solar7powered 1engine3 0o+nd in the lea(es and the ,o/ple6 )io,he/i,al 10a,tory3 0o+nd in the root syste/. Roots also a,t as a di00+se soil an,horing syste/, ,apa)le in al/ost all ,ases o0 resisting enor/o+s repetiti(e loads witho+t 0ail+re. Please see 1#/pro(ing Tree Health2 8yths M Eli6ers3 )y la0 D. Ri)eiro, Ph.%. 0or an introd+,tion to root physiology. Trees grow +pward 0ro/ the top and o+tward 0ro/ their ,enterline. 1. The tree dia/eter a)o(e the root )+ttress, typi,ally e6pressed as 1%*H3 :%ia/eter at *reast Height<, /ay )e ta5en as the /ost a,,+rate /eas+re o0 the a,t+al strength o0 that parti,+lar tree> gi(en the spe,ie properties yo+ /ay

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,al,+late the pro)a)le /a6i/+/ strength and there0ore the load the tree is designed )y nat+re to resist. 2. Trees respond to i/posed loads, adding )oth ?+ality and ?+antity growth at stress points. This o,,+rs ?+ite rapidly, e(en in one season. Try that with yo+r typi,al engineering /aterials. 3. Co+ng trees grow +pward witho+t any sa0ety 0a,tor as nat+re dee/s it /ore i/portant to esta)lished solar ,onta,t at its ,rown. Ste/ 0ail+re will si/ply pla,e the n+trients )a,5 into the ,ar)on ,y,le and a new tree will try again to rea,h the s+nlight. =. The sa0ety 0a,tor 0or an esta)lished tree is appro6i/ately 1.N. This is in0erred 0ro/ the a)ility o0 the tree to s+,,ess0+lly resist loads that it has ne(er pre(io+sly e6perien,ed. N. Hyper7elasti, )eha(ior is de0ined as the a)ility to te/porarily withstand loads that are well a)o(e the la)oratory deri(ed r+pt+re strength. This is si/ilar to the )eha(ior o0 in9e,tion /olded plasti, parts where the addition o0 water in,reases the short7ter/ load resistan,e, al)eit at lower total strength. G. The 8 E o0 li(ing trees is a)o+t J0A or less o0 the sa/e tree ,+t and dried 0or l+/)er. 7. Load *earing *iologi,al Str+,t+res always try to grow in to a state o0 ,onstant /e,hani,al stress. The ,orollary to this is a /ar5ed red+,tion in strength a0ter ,+tting the li(ing tree into ,on(enient shapes O two thirds o0 the li(ing strength /ay )e lost. P. Trees do not ne,essarily e6hi)it si/ilar de0le,tions and nat+ral 0re?+en,ies in response to wind loads. They +se torsional os,illation :/+,h li5e an egg )eater< to d+/p energy )y 0ri,tion into the ,o/parati(ely thi,5 (is,o+s air, and i0 ne,essary, they shed li/)s pre0erentially to preser(e the /ain ste/. This /a5es )eha(ior +npredi,ta)le, e(en 0or the sa/e spe,ies and si4e. The e6a,t /e,hanis/s ,ontrolling li(ing tree )eha(ior are yet to )e 0+lly +nderstood, )+t this does not inter0ere with +sing what we ha(e learned a)o+t pla,ing signi0i,ant loads into li(ing trees o(er the last twenty years. LetQs loo5 at the engineering properties o0 the tree itsel02

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Th+s a /o+nting syste/ pla,ed 3GQ a)o(e grade in two trees with ,hara,teristi,s de0ined a)o(e /+st a,hie(e eight 0eet o0 total translation ,apa)ility. Red+,tions in tree dia/eter will o0 ,o+rse in,rease de0le,tion )+t this is li/ited )y the +lti/ate r+pt+re strength o0 the ste/. Li/)s ,an )e analy4ed in a si/ilar /anner. Be /+st a,,ept the root 0o+ndation strength on the )asis o0 pre(io+s s+r(i(al o0 the spe,i0i, tree in ?+estion and o0 si/ilar trees at the site. Discussion of the Derivation of Allowable Working Stresses:

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3.1 U.S.F.S Circular #213, presented in Mechanical Engineers' Handboo , !ionel S. Mar s, Editor in Chie", First Edition, Se#enth $%pression, 1&1' ()lso re"er to %ore recent in"or%ation* Species Fiber Stress (psi* )t elastic li%it 330310301212)t +upture '2-02-11-01-M,E (1,---'s o" psi* Co%p. .erp. /rain, psi 1&310&22111013411232'1-

Cedar, $ncense (green* Cedar, +ed (green* 3ouglas Fir (green* Spruce, Sit a (green*

3.2. Unit Stresses in Structural Materials, ) S5%posiu%, 6ransactions o" the )%erican Societ5 o" Ci#il Engineers, 7ol. &1, 1&21 containing 8Unit Stresses in 6i%ber8, 9. ). :e;lin, U.S.F.S. Forest .roducts !aborator5 :e;lin had at that ti%e conducted 1--,--- strength tests o" ;ood at the U.S.F.S. Forest .roducts !aborator5. He states that .20 reduction "or 8#ariabilit58, .20 "or %a<i%u% de"ect allo;able in grade, and .232 "or long ter% dead load. 6his creates an allo;able ;or ing stress "or dead loads applied to shapes cut "ro% ;hole logs at 31.2= o" test #alues. 3.3 7alues "or "iber stress in bending at rupture ;ere obtained "or %an5 species in green and dr5 condition "ro% tests conducted o#er a "ort5 5ear period b5 the U.S.F.S. Forest .roducts !aborator5. 6heir research lead to the ;idel5 adopted de>rated nu%bers ;e see in toda5's codes. For e<a%ple, i" rupture occurs at ',32- psi and ;e use 31.2= o" that as the design li%it, ;e get a design #alue o" 1,&14 psi. !i#ing (or cut ;hole* trees ha#e b5 de"inition gro;n their "ibers to achie#e e?ual stress distribution. :ature pro#ides %an5 do@ens (hundreds in so%e cases* o" tightl5 spaced la%inations naturall5, each gro;n in response to the actual stress "ound at that point in the tree. We can de-rate the tree itself, based upon its ultimate rupture strength x 0 !" #sing this value as the $%ree Design Strength& we can calculate the acceptable maximum moment at ground level 'ature establishes an approximate safet( factor of " ) for an established tree* using the same de-rating logic suggests that an( loads added to the living tree should not exceed 0 !" x )0+ ,the $extra& strength- %his is the basis of the $")+ .ule& that has been respected as the /aximum 0oad in most engineered designs %his can also be applied to the vertical strength of the stem 1 2'34'22.2D S#556.% S7S%2/S A'D /6#'%4'3 4' %.22S

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or a s%all tree house ;e can assu%e an e""ecti#e !D3 (including ;alls and supporting bea%s, etc.* o" 1-- .SF in %ost cases. )bo#e 10- S.F. a %ore detailed tall5 ;ill be re?uired. 6his %eans the 6)Es ;ill need to support 10 Fips, and ;ith true ratings in the 3,--- pound range or less, at least 2 or 0 o" the %ost co%%on t5pe ;ill be re?uired. 6he design is e""ecti#el5 the co%bination o" a 3I ,.3. b5 1I long 6EC,>li e shear ring %ounted on a threaded stud, usuall5 1.20I in dia%eterH lengths and collar details %a5 #ar5 ;idel5. ) one inch dia%eter lag bolt ;ith a 'I long thic ;alled tube (holobar* ;G 2I ,.3. < 1I $.3., ;ith at least 3I i%bedded into co%petent sap;ood and heart;ood, ;ill support 0 or ' Fips and allo; "or so%e "uture tree dia%eter gro;th. $t is also easier to install and less e<pensi#e. 6his 6)E design ta es ad#antage o" the %uch greater pull>out resistance o" the lag thread, and there"ore %a es a great upper %ounting point "or a turnbuc le attached to a long sha"t lo;er 6)E. Since it is pre"erable to eep the load centered upon the #ertical a<is o" the tree ste%, it is good practice to %ount support bea%s on both sides o" the host tree. ,n s%all trees the onl5 option is to use a through "astener st5le 6)E, ;hich can si%pl5 be a solid sha"t placed through a suitable hole bored through the tree ;ith a ship auger. 3M 3. 1&epo<5 is "re?uentl5 used to "i< the through "astener to the tree, as ;ell as to seal the ;ound. 6his %ethod is gaining ground ;hen used ;ith larger trees, and is essentiall5
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%andator5 ;hen lateral tension loads are attached to the tree such as @ip lines, cable and chain bridges, etc. !arge co%petent hard;ood trees can utili@e a pair o" Jside %ountI 6)Es rather than a through "astener, but the %a<i%u% a#ailable co%pression strength perpendicular to the grain %ust be ;atched closel5. 6he total !D3 load is the best deter%inant o" the 6)E sha"t dia%eter. Strength increases b5 the ratio o" the s?uare o" the dia%eter, so a 1.10I dia%eter sha"t greatl5 e<ceeds the load capabilit5 o" a 1.20I dia%eter sha"t, and so on. Since the sha"t itsel" is supported b5 its o;n bending strength plus the support pro#ided b5 the collar bearing upon the crushing strength o" the grain (both "or #ertical and hori@ontal loads*, it is ob#ious that large and long collars pro#ide substantial increase in 6)E load rating. For a critical non>redundant pri%ar5 support 6)E, it %ust be assu%ed that load re#ersals during the li"e o" the structure ;ill e<ceed %an5 tens o" thousands, i" not %ore. 6his %eans that spring steel is %andator5, and that is acco%plished b5 speci"5ing the proper allo5 "ollo;ed b5 proper heat treat%ent. Such a part should :,6 be installed ;ith a pipe ;rench or si%ilar tool since scarring ;ill allo; stress crac s to "or%, potentiall5 leading to catastrophic "ailure. $t is not di""icult to pro#ide a %ounting sche%e on the end o" a 6)E that eli%inates this dangerous practice. /4'4/4;4'3 %82 %6%A0 '#/<2. 6= %A<S 4S 4/56.%A'% %6 %.22 82A0%8 For each 3I collar 1 in. s?. o" the ca%biu% la5er is sacri"iced "or the 6)E. For an eighteen inch dia%eter tree ;ith t;o si%ilar 6)E penetrations, 'I o" the 0'.0I total circu%"erence, or about 1-=, has been sacri"iced. $" the 1.10 inch dia%eter JH!I st5le 6)E is used in a co%petent tree, as %uch as 3- Fips can be supported rather than about ' Fips ;ith the short>collared 1.20 inch dia%eter 6)E. 6he practice o" ;rapping the tree ;ith cable cinched around ;ood bloc s, as is done in so%e areas, is a particularl5 egregious "or% o" %ounting since little #ertical support is de#eloped ;hile at the sa%e ti%e causing a %assi#e a%ount o" inKur5 to the ca%biu% la5er b5 s?uee@ing it enough to stop biological transport "lo;. :e#er do this. ) better approach is possible ;hen used onl5 "or hori@ontal load supportH this approach places a "or%ed steel ring around the tree so%e distance a;a5 "ro% the bar , ;ith at least three threaded pins tightened into the sap;ood to position the de#ice. $t o""ers little #ertical support "or tree house and plat"or% loads, but achie#es better tree health than the cinched bloc %ethod. 32'2.A0 D4S1#SS46' 6= %.22 86#S2 2'34'22.4'3 4SS#2S

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Charles S. Greenwood, P.E., LLC, /a5es no ,lai/ or warranty that the in0or/ation presented herein is dire,tly appli,a)le to any other sit+ation or ,ir,+/stan,e sa(e 0or the ed+,ational e6er,ise o0 the attending engineers and )+ilders. #0 yo+ are ,onsidering )+ilding a tree ho+se that /ay need *+ilding Code appro(al, it is ne,essary that yo+ e/ploy a Pro0essional Engineer who has de/onstrated their s5ills in this area o0 pra,ti,e. #t is 0ar /ore e6pensi(e to engineer an as7)+ilt str+,t+re than to properly engineer it prior to ,onstr+,tion. #0 yo+ need these ser(i,es, /y ,onta,ts are N=1 N@2 =100 and gnwdengR,a(enet.,o/.

L &% C LLECT# "2 How )ig is itI Bhat do the ,o/ponents weighI Bhat does it all weighI How is the weight distri)+tedI BhatQs the seis/i, loadI BhatQs the 1sail area3 :wind load<I How a)o+t the li(e loadI Snow loadI

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L &% TR&"S$ER2 How do yo+ ta5e that entire load yo+Q(e ,olle,ted and p+t into a 0ew rather s/all 0asteners and ha(e it wor5 properlyI Be are seeing a (ariety o0 pro)le/s with inade?+ate /o+nting /ethods. Bhat ,an )e done a)o+t itI L &% S!PP RT2 "ow yo+r loads are )earing on the trees the/sel(es. How do trees rea,t to e6ternal loadsI How /+,h is too /+,hI Bhen is a tree too s/all to a,t as part o0 the s+pport syste/I Bhat happens when we /i6 1,r+t,hes.helpers3 and trees togetherI PER8#TS2 %o yo+ need oneI How do yo+ get a per/it i0 yo+ need itI Bhy is the #nternational Residential Code not (ery +se0+l, )+t #nternational *+ilding Code isI S#"GLE TREE S!PP RT SCSTE8S Tree Ho+ses /o+nted in a single tree will +se the ,lassi, 15nee )ra,e3 or 1hanging ,a)le3 sol+tion> so/e o0 the (erti,al loads and typi,ally all o0 the hori4ontal loads /ay )e trans0erred dire,tly into the ste/ o0 the host tree. The /a9or disad(antage is that at so/e point the tree /+st penetrate the plan (iew, and pro)a)ly :e6,ept in the ,ase o0 (ery large s+pport trees< the roo0 as well. %e0le,tion o0 the host tree o(er the (erti,al distan,e o0 the triangle ,reated )y a 5nee )ra,e syste/ will atte/pt to )end the )+ilding 0ra/e and.or the 5nee )ra,e itsel0 as the tree is li5ely to )e a great deal stronger than the 5nee )ra,e.0ra/e syste/. So/ething has to gi(e. Ca)les o0 ,o+rse are laterally non7s+pporting )+t all o0 the hori4ontal load /+st )e resisted )y the inter0a,e )etween the ho+se 0ra/e and the tree itsel0> so/e 5ind o0 0astening syste/ will at least pre(ent destr+,ti(e 1)ar5 )anging3. 'ery s/all )a,5yard tree ho+ses are good ,andidates 0or an ade?+ate single tree. TB TREE S!PP RT SCSTE8S

& se,ond s+pport tree o00ers /a9or ad(antages, along with a 0ew added di00i,+lties. Si/ple twin7)ea/ s+pport syste/s will o0ten s+00i,e, ,losely /o+nted at ea,h side o0 larger dia/eter trees, or with the additional ,o/ple6ity o0 a /o/ent 0ra/e :pro)a)ly steel< with /+ltiple 0astening points. Ro)+st 9oists or ,ross )ea/s ,an ,antile(er o+tward in a )alan,ed ,on0ig+ration on ea,h side o0 the parallel )ea/ lines, pro(iding 0loor area ?+i,5ly. n,e again, so/ething has to gi(e, so it is typi,al pra,ti,e to /o+nt the )ea/s solidly to one tree and with !H8B :!ltra High 8ole,+lar Beight Polyethylene< wear plates at the other. $or ,o//er,ial and p+)li, +se pro9e,ts it is re,o//ended to ,o/pletely en,lose )oth the 0i6ed and sliding ,onne,tions with steel 1,lasp )ra,5ets3 that in,l+des !H8B on all s+r0a,es> this will allow /o(e/ent &"% pre(ent /oist+re ind+,ed )ea/ rot as will )e the ,ase in a steel7to7wood inter0a,e.
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Bhile this arrange/ent 0a(ors a re,tang+lar plan (iew, one /ay easily get ,reati(e. &dding 5nee )ra,es to this type o0 s+pport syste/ ,an pro(ide 0or greater spans, )+t re/e/)er that so/ething has to gi(e and it will pro)a)ly )e the 0ra/e itsel0 O so/e a/o+nt o0 twisting and de0le,tion is ine(ita)le as the trees will rarely a,t in ,on,ert d+ring wind e(ents. Torsional loads also ,o/e in play with /+ltiple s+pport tree designs and this ine(ita)ility /+st )e pro(ided 0or. $ort+nately, i0 the s+pport )ea/s are ro)+st and not too rigid in plan (iew, and well7/o+nted with the )ea/ /o+nts des,ri)ed a)o(e, there will li5ely )e s+00i,ient 0le6i)ility to allow 0or nor/al tree /o(e/ents. THREE TREE S!PP RT SCSTE8S "ow weQre getting ,reati(e, as the )+ilding and str+,t+ral design ,an )e,o/e /+,h /ore interesting. !s+ally one tree will a,t as the 1/aster3 and the others will a,t as 1sla(es3 as 0ar as di00erential /otions are ,on,erned. *ea/ ,onne,tions /+st )e 0ree to /o(e with respe,t to ea,h other. This is where the analogy to early &/eri,an railway lo,o/oti(e design )e,o/es signi0i,ant. The E+ropean pra,ti,e was to )+ild (ery pre,ise rail align/ent on (ery sta)le road)ed, while the &/eri,an pra,ti,e was 9+st the opposite O there was a lot o0 distan,e to ,o(er, and the in(estors wanted to /a5e the highest rate o0 ret+rn as soon as possi)le, so they /ade the ,rappiest tra,5 possi)le. !n0ort+nately, the engines in parti,+lar le0t the rails o0ten. Rather than i/pro(e the tra,5, designers reali4ed that ,le(er 0loating s+pport lin5ages a/ongst the wheels and engine 0ra/e O s+spension with load distri)+tion and e?+ali4ation O wo+ld 5eep the lo,o/oti(es on the tra,5 /ost o0 the ti/e. $or tree ho+ses, /+ltiple sliding ,onne,tions :with =7)ar 5nee )ra,e lin5s when re?+ired< pro(ide load e?+ali4ation d+ring translation. $ !R : R 8 RE< TREE S!PP RT SCSTE8S &ll o0 the a)o(e applies when yo+ are )lessed :or ,+rsed< with n+/ero+s s+pport trees. Re/e/)er, the translational ,o/ple6ity goes +p geo/etri,ally with the n+/)er o0 s+pport trees in(ol(ed. &RT#$#C#&L TREES O GR !"% 8 !"TE% S!PP RT P STS This ,an )e a handy way o+t when yo+ are +nwilling to /a5e yo+r design 0it what nat+re has pro(ided, or yo+r ,onstr+,tion is too hea(y to )e s+pported )y the a(aila)le trees. & 1tether )all pole3 is a good starting point 0or this dis,+ssion, as /ost o0 +s ha(e p+t ,on,rete aro+nd a ,ar wheel and /o+nted a pipe to it and then ro,5ed its world. The idea here is to 5eep the syste/ 0ro/ a,ting li5e a )owling pin> these pins are also a gra(ity sta)ili4ed syste/, )+t one that is li5ely to 0all o(er i0 the hori4ontal 0or,e e6,eeds the (erti,al sta)ility /o/ent. Bind /a,hine and +tility towers, and 0or that /atter, s5y

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s,rapers, are large e6a/ples o0 a gro+nd s+pported and gra(ity sta)ili4ed (erti,al ,antile(ers. Tree ho+se posts ,an )e rigid with slider tops, or 0le6i)le i0 yo+r design is elegant. TREE H !SE &TT&CH8E"T * LTS &"% THER $&STE"ERS

Trees s+pport (erti,al and hori4ontal loads )y resisting the ,r+shing 0or,es a,ting on the grain o0 the 0or/erly li(ing wood O (ery little load is resisted )y the li(ing and 1re,ently li(ing3 tiss+e. Bood is /+,h stronger parallel to the dire,tion o0 the grain, and this presents a signi0i,ant pro)le/ when atte/pting to s+pport hori4ontal loads s+,h as 4ip lines, )ridges, wind and seis/i, 0or,es 0ro/ str+,t+res, as the hori4ontal ,r+shing strength drops typi,ally to 10A o0 the a)o(e. There0ore, this engineer re,o//ends eli/inating as /+,h as possi)le the s+pport o0 e6ternally i/posed hori4ontal loads> o)(io+sly, a signi0i,ant a/o+nt o0 hori4ontal load will trans0er in any ,ase 0ro/ the tree ho+se itsel0 into the tree. Co/pression against the grain :loads are parallel to the grain< s+pports gra(ity loads in tree ho+ses. The /ost typi,al ,ase is an inserted pin o0 so/e dia/eter, ad !"at #$% t& '$ad( )*+$'+ d> this ,an )e a nail, a lag s,rew, an ar)orist sha,5le /o+nt, a spe,ial lag s,rew or st+d with an integral shear ,ollar, or a pipe or t+)e going part way or all the way thro+gh the tree. &ll ha(e )een +sed, and all wor5 when applied ,orre,tly. &ll penetrations ,an in(ol(e ris5 to the health o0 the tree, so proper pra,ti,e is to /ini/i4e the total area o0 ins+lt to the li(ing ,a/)i+/ layer, and to treat and.or seal the in9+ry. Cin,h rings da/age a /+,h larger area o0 the ,a/)i+/ and there0ore sho+ld not )e +sed. #t is re,o//ended pra,ti,e to +se do+)led 0asteners O one o(er the other O either in a si/ple pin with t+rn)+,5le, or a do+)le T&* with integral /o/ent )earing )ea/ s+pport 0ra/e. Re/e/)er that when a ,a)le s+pport is +sed, the +pper 0astener now has a p+ll7o+t load added )y the triang+lation inherent in that design. &lso, the ,a)le /o+nt ,an end +p s+pporting a large portion o0 the load and there0ore needs to )e as strong as the lower T&*. $inally, all loads in trees ,reate a )iologi,al response that ind+,es the tree to add signi0i,ant 1)olstering3 at the point o0 stress> this ,an o,,+r in as little as one year and /ay )e,o/e the do/inant ,ons+/ption /e,hanis/. Spea5ing o0 ,ons+/ption :where the tree literally eats the 0astener<, one /+st de,ide how /any years o0 ser(i,e yo+r tree ho+se is going to pro(ide )e0ore /a9or re7/o+nting is re?+ired. E6perien,e is showing that this )e,o/es an iss+e /+,h sooner than /ost )+ilders e6pe,t. E6tenda)le T&*s are now ,o/ing into +se to pro(ide 0or easier 1planned3 re7/o+nting> ha(ing oneQs )ea/ lines and 9oists laid o+t in an easily /o(a)le pattern helps to 0a,ilitate this. 0 ,o+rse, /any older tree ho+ses ha(e si/ply )een partially ,ons+/ed )y the host tree:s< )+t the 9+ry is still o+t on the e00e,t o0 this type o0

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da/age. ne s,hool o0 tho+ght is i0 yo+ /a5e the )ea/s o+t o0 the sa/e /aterial as the tree they /ay not re9e,t the tiss+e as they are ,ons+/ed. Good l+,5 with that. Cr+shing s+pport 0ro/ the end grain into the T&* is analogo+s to a syste/ o0 ,oil springs :literally ea,h ring< s+pporting a hori4ontal lea0 spring that is al/ost rigidly atta,hed at its inner end. Th+s at the inner end so/e o0 the ,o/pression 0or,e /+st )e resisted at the top o0 the 0astener to ,o+nter )alan,e the +pward s+pport along the shan5 :or ,ollar< as it nears the o+tside s+r0a,e. There is al/ost no )earing strength o(er the o+tside in,h o0 the 0astener pilot hole, so it is +p to the ,r+shing strength o0 the wood se(eral in,hes in to the tree to s+pport yo+r tree ho+se. This why it is ,o//on pra,ti,e to in,rease the )earing area )y +sing large dia/eter ,ollars o0 s+00i,ient length O indeed, the sa/e 33 dia/eter penetration thro+gh the ,a/)i+/ layer /ay pro(ide three or 0o+r ti/es as /+,h s+pport )y +sing a long ,ollar. Be sho+ld dis,+ss the proper /etall+rgi,al properties 0or T&*s. Spe,i0i,ations ad(o,ated )y this engineer are to anneal a0ter /a,hining 0ollowed )y ?+en,h and te/pering to prod+,e a Ro,5well 1C3 hardness o0 appro6i/ately R, S 3N. Bith =1=0 alloy this will a,hie(e yield strengths a)o(e 100,000 psi. Sin,e stress re(ersals o0ten o,,+r /any ti/es per day, it is predi,ta)le that witho+t proper alloying and heat treat/ent, the steel will 0ail O 9+st li5e p+tting a pie,e o0 /etal in a (i,e and )ending it )a,5 and 0orth +ntil it 0ra,t+res. Sin,e the 0ra,t+re will )egin at a dis,ontin+ity on the s+r0a,e, it is :or sho+ld )e< a)sol+tely 0or)idden to install T&*s with pipe wren,hes or other de(i,es that ,an in9+re the highly7stressed 0astener s+r0a,e.

Relati(e ,o/pression strength parallel to the grain is shown in the 0ollowing ,hart. & 9+(enile Bhite a5 was +sed 0or load7to70ail+re tests.

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& spe,ial tool was de(eloped to ta5e the a)o(e data :Pro(isional Patent &ppli,ation 0iled<. Bith this tool an installer ,an ,he,5 and (eri0y the (erti,al grain ,o/pressi(e strength o0 the spe,i0i, hole )eing +sed to s+pport a T&*. Rotating the tool @0 degrees o00ers a si/ilar set o0 readings 0or the hori4ontal ,r+shing properties. Pre,ise load rating is then /ade possi)le )y /athe/ati,ally analy4ing the a)o(e data> this prod+,es res+lts that are spe,i0i, to the parti,+lar 0astener design and to the a,t+al lo,ation into the tree in ?+estion. #0, 0or e6a/ple, the design load is greater than the load ,al,+lated 0ro/ the a)o(e data, then a se,ond 0astener ,an )e added so/e distan,e a)o(e or )elow. $#"#TE ELE8E"T &"&LCS#S $ TREES &"% TREE H !SES

$or any )+t the /ost )asi, tree ho+se designs, si/ple 27di/ensional stati,s7)ased analysis, typi,ally done )y hand, is inade?+ate. %+e to dyna/i, loads, trees and tree ho+ses are )est analy4ed as 37di/ensional 0le6i)le o)9e,ts a5in to wooden )oats or e(en spa,e ,ra0t. This engineer has de(eloped spe,i0i, $E& te,hni?+es appropriate to tree ho+se engineering that allows all /anner o0 load ,o/)inations to )e e6plored and de/onstrated.

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THE $!T!RE $ TREE H !SE L#'#"G2 How do yo+ plan 0or the long ter/ +se o0 yo+r tree ho+seI #s this a trend that will ,ontin+eI Bhat /+st yo+ do when itQs ti/e to re7/o+nt yo+r tree ho+seI The pi,t+re shows the initial stage o0 re7/o+nting a large tree ho+se.

The 0asteners +sed in the installation o0 the a)o(e tree ho+se ha(e )eg+n to )e aggressi(ely ,ons+/ed )y the s+pport trees. Bor5/en shown a)o(e are e(al+ating
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/ethods that /ight )e +sed to re7/o+nt this str+,t+re in a /anner that will not re?+ire additional /a9or wor5 in the 0+t+re. "ote the 1te/porary3 ,a)le )ra,ing added d+ring ,onstr+,tion to s+pport the (ery hea(y loads en,o+ntered in this three7story str+,t+re. This 1)and7aid3 ,an also )e per/anently re/o(ed )y e/ploying s+ita)le )ea/s in the re7/o+nt. The 1EL SCSTE83 was e/ployed to re7/o+nt that tree ho+se and will )e a(aila)le 0or si/ilar re7/o+nting pro9e,ts and new ,onstr+,tion. #t represents a )rea5 0ro/ pre(io+s /ethodologies and pro(ides n+/ero+s engineering i/pro(e/ents in,l+ding load ,apa)ility, speed o0 installation and ,ost per ton o0 load s+pported. See treeho+seengineering.,o/ 0or details or ,onta,t Greenwood Engineering. GE"ER&L R!LES $ R TREE H !SE E"G#"EER#"G The 11NA R+le3 7 Trees are ,on0ig+red )y nat+re to s+pport all o0 their pro)a)le loads while /aintaining so/e 0a,tor o0 sa0ety 0or i/pro)a)le loads, or 0or ,ir,+/stan,es where the tree itsel0 is ,o/pro/ised thro+gh in9+ry or disease. There is general agree/ent that a)o+t N0A sa0ety 0a,tor is a,hie(ed with trees o0 hardy spe,ies O )+t only a0ter the tree has esta)lished itsel0 a/ongst the ,o/peting ad9a,ent trees. This engineer has ad(o,ated ,ons+/ing no /ore than 1.3 rd o0 that sa0ety 0a,tor when adding a tree ho+se load :' and.or H<. 3Tree ste/ dia/eters allow load ,al,+lation thro+gh re(erse engineering3 O gi(en the spe,ies and dia/eter it is possi)le to ,al,+late the wind drag and weight load o0 the tree +nder st+dy. This is a,t+ally /+,h /ore a,,+rate than esti/ating the wind drag and weight. The )ending /o/ent a)o+t this dia/eter is the starting point 0or the a)o(e 11NA R+le3. PER8#TS2 There is no pres,ripti(e path 0or tree ho+se ,onstr+,tion, nor is there li5ely to )e any ti/e soon, i0 e(er. There are si/ply too /any (aria)les and too /any ,reati(e sol+tions to ,ondense this s+)9e,t into a pro,ed+re ,hart. n the other hand, the #nternational *+ilding Code /ay allow pro0essionals to propose di00erent /ethodologies i0 they are a)le to s+pport the/ with /athe/ati,al analysis and testing. This is why the #*C is +sed to s+pport yo+r Code tree ho+se, while the #RC /ay )e +sed to de0ine 0eat+res and ,o/ponents. #t wo+ld )e (ery help0+l to ha(e a 0+n,tional and separate do,+/ent spe,i0i,ally written to /eet the spe,i0i, and +ni?+e ,hallenges o0 tree ho+se ,onstr+,tion. Load red+,tions ,o//only e/ployed in Code analysis are not appropriate in tree ho+se design. 8ethods that red+,e 0or e6a/ple the i/posed wind load to so/e arti0i,ially low (al+e are si/ply as5ing 0or tro+)le. The lia)ility iss+es o0 tree ho+se ,onstr+,tion and +se are not to )e tri(iali4ed. n the other hand, the "ational %esign Standards and ti/)er engineering pra,ti,e in general are a good design re0eren,e, as is 1Bood Properties3 :-. Binandy, 1@@=<, !.S.$.S. $orest Prod+,ts La)oratory, Bis,onsin, !S&.
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