THERMAL MODELING OF ELECTRICAL UTILITY TRANSFORMERS

A Dissertation By Haritha V V S S Reg. No. 200742002

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (by Research) in IT in Power Systems Faculty Advisors Dr. M. Ramamoorty and Dr. Amit Jain

International Institute of Information Technology Hyderabad, India November 2011

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Hyderabad, India

Certificate

It is certified that the work contained in this thesis, titled Thermal Modeling of Electrical Utility Transformers by Haritha V V S S has been carried out under our supervision and is not submitted elsewhere for a degree.

Dr. M. Ramamoorty (Advisor)

Dr. Amit Jain (Advisor)

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my advisers Dr. Amit Jain and Dr. M. Ramamoorty for their guidance and support during the entire course of my research. The regular discussions with them and their constant feedback helped me immensely in completing this thesis work satisfactorily. I would like to thank Vijai Electricals, Hyderabad, INDIA for their technical support at several stages of the work. I thank my friends in the Power Systems Research Center, for their constant encouragement and joyous company. I would like to thank my family and friends back home. Without their support and encouragement this thesis would not have seen the light of day. My acknowledgment would not be complete without mentioning my friends from MS and M. Tech (2007 batch). Their company throughout my stay in IIIT, sharing the joys during the highs and providing comfort during the lows is unforgettable. I thank them for this humbling experience.

Abstract

The importance of transformers, with their role in transmission and distribution of electrical power and with the effect of their performance on the system, is an obvious axiom in the modern days power systems. In addition to their momentous share in the capital investment of a power system, transformer outages have a considerable economic impact on the operation of the power systems. In the course of continuous efforts to make the existing power network smarter and efficient, thermal modeling and monitoring of transformers has become important in the field of transformer engineering. With all the advances in the design techniques as well as material engineering, it is the transformer thermal limitations that decide the loading and designing of the transformer from the purview of user as well as manufacturer. With the research in power systems on the whole progressing towards development of a smart grid, which infers that each of the equipment should be smart, that includes that the monitoring of each individual equipment should be intelligent, accurate as well as fast and economical, the problem of thermal Modeling of transformers has been gaining momentum all the more. The maximum temperature in the transformer interior is a significant parameter governing a transformers performance and life expectancy. Though the temperature rise in the transformer interior by itself may not have immediate effects, it does trigger other undesirable consequences like excessive deterioration of insulation, which in the long run will reduce the life of the transformer, thus affecting the economics of the power system. Thus the possible maximum temperature rise in the transformer for certain kind of loading needs to be estimated so as to be able to decide on the operational conditions as well as estimate the remaining life of the transformer and plan accordingly. In the perspective of the user, temperatures in a transformer are important to determine the amount and duration of over load it can sustain, and to estimate the effects on the life of the transformer by operation at various temperatures.

For a transformer design engineer, prediction of temperatures at various points becomes necessary to determine the amount of copper to place in the coils, leads and outlet bushings, type of cooling and ducts, position of ducts, insulation class, design and settings of control equipment. Apart from this, increased market competency demands for accurate determination of the thermal profile across the transformer, which might result in a more economical as well as efficient manufacturing. Existing thermal models calculate the winding hotspot temperature and top oil temperature using the lumped values of heat generation inside the transformer and the rate of heat transfer and retention in the surrounding media that finally result in the temperature rise. The heat generation is due to the energy losses in the transformer which are the iron losses in the core and ohmic losses in the coils. These temperatures served as an index for the interior temperature rise in the transformer. To calculate the hotspot temperatures, the existing models used the lumped values of losses and lumped values of heat transfer and retention in the different media that surrounded the heat generating elements and the loss distribution across the transformer geometry was not calculated and used in those models. However, advancements in computing capabilities and ever ongoing research enables better transformer interior temperature modeling, which may be a better indicator of transformer thermal status. In the current work, the use of finite element analysis technique was made to calculate the loss distribution across the transformer geometry, which is a different approach. With the calculation of loss distribution across the transformer geometry, the current work proposes a new approach for thermal model of transformer and discusses the development of this thermal model that aims at computing the interior temperatures at different as well as desired points across the transformer geometry. The proposed thermal model has been successfully implemented on four real transformer data to calculate the thermal profiles of transformers that show the real life use of proposed thermal model.

Table of Contents

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................ iii LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................................................V 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 TRANSFORMER AN OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................. 1 THESIS CONTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................................ 2 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS ....................................................................................................................... 2

THERMAL BASICS HEAT BUILDUP IN A TRANSFORMER ...................................................... 4 2.1 HEAT GENERATION AND DISSIPATION IN A SOLID BODY ........................................................................ 4 Heat Dissipation............................................................................................................................ 4 Modes of Heat Dissipation............................................................................................................ 5

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.2 2.3

NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING .................................................................................................................. 8 THEORY OF SOLID BODY HEATING AND COOLING ................................................................................. 9 Heating and Cooling Curves....................................................................................................... 11

2.3.1 2.4

HEAT IN A TRANSFORMER ...................................................................................................................... 12 Heat Generation in the Transformer .......................................................................................... 12 Heat Dissipation in the Transformer Cooling Arrangements................................................. 13 Heat Build Up in the Transformer .............................................................................................. 14

2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5

CONSEQUENCES OF EXCESSIVE HEAT BUILDUP ..................................................................................... 15 Arrhenius Law of Insulation Ageing ........................................................................................... 16 LITERATURE SURVEY ................................. 18

2.5.1 3

TRANSFORMER THERMAL MODELING 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

TECHNIQUES TO MEASURE TRANSFORMER INTERIOR TEMPERATURES................................................ 18 IEEE FORMULAE FOR CALCULATING HOTSPOT TEMPERATURES......................................................... 19 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS ............................................................... 21 THERMAL MODELS TO CALCULATE HOTSPOT TEMPERATURES ........................................................... 22 TECHNIQUES BASED ON COMPUTER BASED SIMULATIONS .................................................................. 24 TECHNIQUES BASED ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................. 25 OBSERVATIONS AND COMMENTS .......................................................................................................... 26

TRANSFORMER THERMAL MODELING USING LOSS DISTRIBUTION................................ 28 4.1 4.2 PROPOSED METHOD OF THERMAL MODELING ...................................................................................... 28 OBTAINING THE LOSS DISTRIBUTION FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS.................................................... 31 Obtaining the Flux Density Distribution by Finite Element Analysis........................................ 32 Obtaining the Loss Distribution.................................................................................................. 33

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3

DEVELOPMENT OF THERMAL MODEL ................................................................................................... 35 Thermal Electrical Analogy ........................................................................................................ 35 Electrical Equivalent Model for Thermal Behavior................................................................... 36 Calculation of Parameters of Thermal Model............................................................................ 38 Modeling of Radiators................................................................................................................. 39 Modeling the Convection in Oil .................................................................................................. 40 Modeling the Ambient ................................................................................................................. 43

4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.4 5

OBTAINING THE THERMAL PROFILE ...................................................................................................... 44

IMPLEMENTATION ON DIFFERENT TRANSFORMER DESIGNS............................................ 46 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 15 KVA SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER MODEL AND RESULTS ............................................................ 46 25 KVA CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER MODEL AND RESULTS .............................................................. 59 16 KVA SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER MODEL AND RESULTS ............................................................ 67 45 KVA THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER MODEL AND RESULTS ......................................................... 75 DISCUSSIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 83

CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................................... 84 6.1 6.2 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 84 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE WORK ............................................................................................................... 87

APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................................. 88 7.1 7.2 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS NISA....................................................................... 88 INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIM ............................................................................................................ 89

PUBLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 90 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 91

ii

LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1: Heating Curves 11 Fig. 2.2: Cooling Curves 12 Fig. 2.3: Arrhenius Law of Insulation Ageing 17 Fig. 4.1: Thermal Model of a single element.. 28 Fig. 4.2: Steady state thermal model showing interconnection of elements. 29 Fig. 4.3: Calculation of resistances Thermal Model for single element.38 Fig. 4.4: Modeling the convection Modified thermal model of oil element.. 42 Fig. 4.5: Modeling the convection Thermal model of oil element with diode..43 Fig. 5.1: Transformer 1: Geometry... 47 Fig. 5.2: Transformer 1: Elemental Division.. 48 Fig. 5.3: Transformer 1: FEA Implementation in NISA. 49 Fig. 5.4: Transformer 1: Flux Density distribution. 50 Fig. 5.5: Transformer 1: Loss Distribution.... 51 Fig. 5.6: Transformer 1: Numbering of Elements.. 52 Fig. 5.7: Transformer 1: Thermal Model... 57 Fig. 5.8: Transformer 1: Thermal Profile... 58 Fig. 5.9: Transformer 2: Geometry.... 60 Fig. 5.10: Transformer 2: Elemental Division.... 61 Fig. 5.11: Transformer 2: FEA Implementation in NISA.. 62

iii

Fig. 5.12: Transformer 2: Flux Density distribution... 63 Fig. 5.13: Transformer 2: Thermal Model.. 65 Fig. 5.14: Transformer 2: Thermal Profile..66 Fig. 5.15: Transformer 3: Geometry...68 Fig. 5.16: Transformer 3: Elemental Division.... 69 Fig. 5.17: Transformer 3: FEA Implementation in NISA..70 Fig. 5.18: Transformer 3: Flux Density distribution... 71 Fig. 5.19: Transformer 3: Thermal Model..73 Fig. 5.20: Transformer 3: Thermal Profile..74 Fig. 5.21: Transformer 4: Geometry..76 Fig. 5.22: Transformer 4: Elemental Division....77 Fig. 5.23: Transformer 4: FEA Implementation in NISA... 78 Fig. 5.24: Transformer 4: Flux Density distribution...79 Fig. 5.25: Transformer 4: Thermal Model.. 81 Fig. 5.26: Transformer 4: Thermal Profile. 82

iv

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Thermal Electrical Analogy. 35 Table 2: Dimensions of the considered Transformer 1.. 46 Table 3: Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 1.49 Table 4: Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 1.. 51 Table 5: Calculation of Thermal Model Parameters for Transformer 1.. 52 Table 6: Calculation of Tank to Ambient Resistances for Transformer 155 Table 7: Thermal Model Implementation-Comparison with test values for Transformer 1. 59 Table 8: Dimensions of the considered Transformer 2.. 59 Table 9: Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 2.62 Table 10: Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 2. 64 Table 11: Thermal Model Implementation-Comparison with test values for Transformer 2... 67 Table 12: Dimensions of the considered Transformer 3.67 Table 13: Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 3.70 Table 14: Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 3.72 Table 15: Thermal Model Implementation-Comparison with test values for Transformer 3... 75 Table 16: Dimensions of the considered Transformer 4.... 75 Table 17: Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 4.78 Table 18: Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 4. 80 Table 19: Thermal Model Implementation-Comparison with test values for Transformer 4... 83

Chapter 1
1 INTRODUCTION

1.1

Transformer An Overview

A transformer is a highly efficient static machine operating on the principle of mutual induction. It transforms ac power in a circuit from one voltage level to another through inductively coupled electrical conductors and is available in a variety of power ratings. The transformer principle was revealed by Michael Faraday in 1831 and it was William Stanley in the year 1886 that first developed a transformer for commercial use. It is the most efficient device in the power system with values of efficiency ranging up to 99.8% [1]. Large rated power transformers and distribution transformers form a major part of the todays power system network. However, the problem in large rating transformers is heat dissipation. More the heat is accumulated without being dissipated lesser is the life of the transformer. The insulating oil circulating inside the transformer absorbs heat from the interior of transformer through conduction and this heat is dissipated to the ambient through natural means or by cooling methods using suitable coolants. But there may be some areas inside the transformer where the oil might not reach properly or somehow the heat might not be dissipated properly, or heat dissipation is slow (or less) in comparison to heat generation, and hence gets accumulated. Such heat accumulation results in high temperature, which reduces the life of the transformer drastically. It is very important for the transformer to be operating within the safe limits for the power system operation to be safe and reliable. The safe operation and loading of the transformer is decided by the thermal limits of the insulation used in the design of the transformer. For the manufacturer, given a certain loading condition, it has to be ensured that the particular loading 1

will not cause the transformer interior temperature exceed the thermal limits of insulation and accordingly design the amount of insulation such that the worst case of operation also will not cause the interior temperatures to exceed the thermal limits of materials. From the user side, given a transformer, it has to be ensured that the loading on the transformer doesnt cause the interior temperatures go beyond the threshold limits. In either case, calculating interior temperatures of a transformer for a particular loading condition, which is termed as thermal modeling is important with respect to transformer.

1.2

Thesis Contribution

With the significance of thermal modeling stated, it is important to have a good thermal model that can calculate the temperatures at desired location inside the transformer. Earlier works in this area concentrated on developing models that calculate the winding hotspot temperature as well as top oil temperature using the design values of transformer. While the importance of hotspot temperature and top oil temperature in indicating the transformer thermal status is maintained, the current work primarily focuses on developing a thermal model that can calculate the temperature profile across the transformer geometry, thus giving a better picture of thermal status of transformer interior. With such a model, the temperature at desired location in the transformer interior can be calculated, besides obtaining the general thermal profile. In addition, besides obtaining the maximum temperatures, the model can provide the location of the maximum temperature. This would certainly help in better understanding of the thermal status of transformer and would also help in the optimization of insulation ratings used inside the transformer. With further modifications and improvement this model can also be used for thermal monitoring of transformers.

1.3

Organization of Thesis

This thesis presents the development of an electrical equivalent model simulating the thermal behavior of the transformer based on the thermal-electrical analogy with the application of 2

Finite Element Analysis to the transformer geometry to derive the distribution of losses. The thesis is organized in to six chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction to the problem and explains the significance of the problem along with the contribution of the work to research in the field of transformer thermal modeling. The second chapter provides the thermal basics. It is very important to understand how heat is generated and dissipated and also the different modes of heat dissipation in a solid body in general, so as to understand the problem with respect to transformers. The axioms guiding the heating and cooling processes in the transformer, that is, the Newtons laws of cooling are explained. The consequences of heat buildup and deterioration of insulation are also discussed. The third chapter gives a wide literature survey of the previous research attempts made in this area. Various techniques are classified broadly and presented accordingly. The fourth chapter presents the proposed method. Obtaining the loss distribution with the application of finite element analysis technique to the transformer geometry is discussed first followed by the development of the thermal model. The various assumptions and modeling issues are discussed. The fifth chapter discusses the implementation of this method on four different standard transformer designs. An implementation of this method to a three phase transformer design is also presented along with obtained results. Observations and conclusions from previous chapters are given in chapter six. This chapter provides a summary of the work done for the thesis and gives the possible scope for future research in this area.

Chapter 2
2 THERMAL BASICS HEAT BUILDUP IN A TRANSFORMER

2.1

Heat generation and Dissipation in a Solid Body

This section presents a few thermal concepts related to generation and dissipation of heat. This is very important to analyze the thermal behavior of transformers, or for that matter, any electrical device. Heat dissipation is a pronounced problem in transformers because transformers are enclosed devices and because transformers have no rotating parts which provide inherent ventilation. Any solid body with losses occurring in it generates heat inherently, because, any form of energy loss in a body is dissipated in the form of heat. The loss can be either magnetic loss, due to interaction of fluxes or hysteresis loss, or ohmic loss, due to the current passing through a conductor and the resistance being offered by it or mechanical loss, due to moving parts and the friction between the surfaces in contact. 2.1.1 Heat Dissipation

The heat generated in any body is dissipated to the surrounding media and finally to the ambient. The usage of the term ambient medium or ambient temperature is similar to reference point in an electrical circuit. As far as radiation is concerned, the ambient temperature is the temperature of sky and the ground to which the heat is radiated by the hot bodies. For the other forms of heat dissipation like conduction, natural and artificial convections, the ambient temperature is the temperature of the bulk of the air at a distance too remote to be affected by the thermal field of the heated body. The use of air temperature as ambient temperature is justified only where most of the heat dissipated is by convection, as in

the case of transformers. In any case, the heat generated in a body is dissipated to the surrounding medium through one or more of the possible modes of heat dissipation, namely conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction: Conduction can be defined as the transfer of heat because of the temperature difference between two bodies in contact. Convection: Convection can be defined as the heat transfer in a gas or liquid by the circulation of fluid currents from one region to another. Radiation: Radiation of heat may be defined as the emission and propagation of energy in the form of rays or waves. 2.1.2 Modes of Heat Dissipation

The section mathematically explains the various modes of heat dissipation. Conduction: This mode of dissipation of heat is important in the case of solid parts of machine like copper, iron and insulation. The equation of heat flow by conduction between two surfaces separated by a heat conducting medium is given in equation 2.1.

Qcon =

(1 2 )
R

( 2.1)

Where, Qcon = Heat dissipated by conduction, J.

1, 2 = Temperatures of two bounding surfaces, oC. R = Thermal resistance of the conducting medium, thermal ohm
The term thermal resistance may be defined as the resistance offered by the element for heat flow which causes a drop of 1oC per watt of heat flow. The equation 2.1 shows the analogy between thermal and electrical behavior of a body and permits heat conduction problems to

be solved by methods of calculation similar to those used in electrical circuits. The thermal resistance, like electrical resistance can be written as in equation 2.2.

R =

t
S

( 2.2 )

Where, = thermal resistivity of the material, (thermal)m or oC-m/W

= 1/ = thermal conductivity, W/ oC-m

t = Length of the medium, m S = Area of the surface separated by the medium, m2. Convection: Convection can be either natural with the heat transfer taking place by means of natural fluid currents or forced with the heat transfer taking place by means of induced or forced fluid currents. a) Natural Convection: Liquid and gas particles near the heater body become lighter and rise, giving place to cooler particles, which in turn get heated and rise. This natural process, due to changes in fluid density, is known as natural convection. The heat dissipated per unit surface by natural convection is given by equation 2.3.

Qconv = K c (1 0 )

( 2.3 )

Where, Qconv = Heat dissipated by convection, J.

Kc = a constant depending on the shape and dimensions of hot body

n = a constant depending upon shape and dimensions of hot body; its value lies between 1 and 1.25 1 = temperature of emitting surface, oC 0 = temperature of ambient medium, oC Convection is more complicated phenomenon and the amount of the heat convected depends upon many variables such as power density, temperature difference between the heated surface and coolant, thermal conductivity of the fluid and gravitational constants.

b) Forced Convection: In modern machines where there is too much of heat generation, artificial circulation of the cooling medium is done to enhance the convection and hence the increase in heat dissipation. For example, a transformer tank may be cooled by blasting air on it or a turboalternator may be cooled by circulating hydrogen. This is known as cooling by artificial convection. The problem of calculation of heat dissipation by artificial convection is even more complex as it mainly depends upon the constructional features of the machine. These constructional details are different for every machine and so no exact relationship can be given for artificial convection. Radiation: The heat dissipated by radiation from a surface depends upon its temperature and its other characteristics like color, roughness etc. For the case of a very small spherical radiating surface inside a large and or black spherical shell, the heat radiated per unit of surface is given by Stefan Boltzmann law given in equation 2.4.

Q rad = 5.7 10 8 e (T14 T04 )

Where, Qrad = Heat dissipated by radiation per unit area, J per unit area.

( 2.4 )

T1, T0 = Absolute temperatures of the emitting surface and the ambient medium
respectively, K e = Coefficient of emissivity; 1 for perfect black bodies, and is always less than unity for others. In general, the heat transfer in any body is by conduction and convection assisted by radiation. The above equations help in quantizing the heat transferred by each of these modes of heat transfer. [2]

2.2

Newtons Law of Cooling

Losses are produced in various parts of electrical machines due to which the machine temperature rises. After sometime, the machine attains a steady temperature rise, at which, the heat produced in the machine is equal to the heat leaving its surface by convection and radiation. This is known as Newtons law of cooling. It is another form of energy conservation principle. The equation 2.4 for heat dissipated by radiation can be simplified as given in equation 2.5 with suitable assumptions.

Qrad = rad S
Where, Qrad = the heat emitted out by radiation, J. rad = Emissivity of the radiating surface.

( 2.5 )

= Temperature difference between the radiating surface and the ambient, oC. S = Area of the radiating surface, m2 If temperature rise remains within normal conventional limits for electrical machines, it may be assumed that artificial convection would not be necessary and the heat dissipated by convection can be approximated as given in equation 2.6.

Qconv = conv S
Where, Qconv = the heat dissipated by natural convection, J. conv = Specific heat dissipation by natural convection = The temperature difference between the two media, oC. S = Area of the surface separating the two media, m2

( 2.6 )

Therefore, total heat dissipated by radiation plus convection is as given in equation 2.7. 8

Q = Qrad + Qconv = rad S + conv S = ( rad + conv ) S = S

Where, = rad+conv = Net Specific heat dissipation or emissivity.

( 2.7 )

This equation represents the Newtons law of cooling. It should be noted that the Newtons law of Cooling is strictly true only for the cases where the body is acted upon by a uniform current of air, i.e, only for the natural convection case. [2]

2.3

Theory of Solid Body Heating and Cooling

The temperature of a machine rises when it is loaded, starting from cold condition. The temperature, in the beginning, increases at a rate determined by the power loss. As the temperature rises, the active parts of the machines dissipate heat partly by conduction, partly by radiation and in most cases, largely by means of air cooling. The higher the temperature rise, the greater would be the effect of these methods of cooling. Therefore, as the temperature rises, the rate at which the temperature rises falls off owing to better heat dissipating conditions. The temperature of any part of a machine, not only depends on the heat produced in it, but also on the heat produced in other parts. This is because there is always a heat flow from one part to another. For example, the heat produced in the part of the winding embedded in the slot flows partially through the insulation to the laminations and partially to the end windings. Thus the end windings have to transfer to the air, not only the heat produced in them but also a part of the heat produced in the slot portion of the winding. That is why the determination of temperatures is difficult, particularly in compactly enclosed devices like transformers. Electrical machines are not homogenous bodies and their parts are made up of different materials like copper, iron and insulation which have different thermal resistivities. Due to this, it is rather difficult to calculate the temperature of a part of the machine. However, it is worthwhile taking the theory of heating of homogeneous bodies as the basis for analyzing the process of machine heating. The results obtained from such a theory are applicable to a certain degree, to the different parts of the machine as a whole. 9

The equation of temperature rise with time of any body is given by equation 2.8.
t tT T = m 1 e + i e
h h

( 2.8 )

Where, = temperature rise at any time t, oC m = final steady temperature rise while heating, oC i = initial temperature rise over ambient, oC t = time, sec Th = Heating time constant, sec. The heating time constant of a machine is the index of time taken by the machine to attain its final steady temperature rise and is given by equation 2.9.

Th = G h

...(2.9)

Where, G = Weight of the active parts of the machine, kg h = Specific heat, J/Kg-oC S = Cooling surface area, m2 = Specific heat dissipation, W/m2-oC From the equation 2.9, it can be concluded that the time constant is inversely proportional to and since the value of is large for well-ventilated machines, the value of their heating time constant is less. Also, with the relation of the heating time constant with the dimensions of the machine, it can be concluded that large sized machines have large heating time constants. Another issue is that for the same loss, the machine would attain a higher temperature rise if its dissipating surface is small or, if its ventilation is poor. If the machine has started from cold conditions, then i = 0, which modifies equation 2.9.

= m 1 e

Th

...( 2 .1 0 )

The cooling mechanism is also guided by a similar equation given as equation 2.11

10

 = i e

Tc

...( 2 .1 1)

where, Tc = Cooling time constant, sec and Tc = Gh/S From equations 2.10 and 2.11, it is evident that both heating and cooling processes are exponential in nature. Despite having similar mathematical expressions, the heating and cooling time constants of a machine may have different values owing to the difference in specific heat dissipation in heating and cooling conditions. The cooling time constant is usually larger owing to poorer ventilations conditions, when the machine cools. [2] 2.3.1 Heating and Cooling Curves

The heating and cooling curves are graphical representation of equations 2.10 and 2.11 and are illustrated in figures 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.

FIG 2.1: HEATING CURVE

11

FIG 2.2: COOLING CURVE

2.4

Heat in a transformer

A transformer has to be continuously in operation. By virtue of its construction, it has no moving parts and is a closely packed and sealed device. As a result, the dissipation of the generated heat inside the transformer is a rather difficult problem compared with any of the other machines. 2.4.1 Heat Generation in the Transformer

The process of energy transfer in the case of transformers involves currents in the conductors and fluxes in the ferromagnetic parts. Thus, there are I2R losses in the windings and core losses in the ferromagnetic cores. The core losses include the hysteresis losses which are due to the magnetic inertia of the core material and eddy current losses, which are due to the circulating currents developed in the flux carrying parts of the transformer, mainly the core. The losses taking place in the transformer cores and windings, during conversion of energy from one voltage to another voltage level, are converted into thermal energy and cause heating of the corresponding transformer parts. In addition to this, losses occur in tank walls and end plates on account of leakage flux. All these losses appear as heat and the temperature of every 12

affected part of the machine rises above the temperature of the ambient medium, which is normally the surrounding air. The heat generated inside the transformer must be dissipated without allowing the windings to reach a temperature, which will cause excessive deterioration of the insulation. So, care should be taken that the heat generated in a machine is properly dissipated without being accumulated. The heat generated in any equipment is dissipated into its surroundings by convection and conduction assisted by radiation. 2.4.2 Heat Dissipation in the Transformer Cooling Arrangements

The heat generated in various parts of the transformer is dissipated to the ambient in various stages. The heat generation, majorly occurs in the core and coils and it is this heat that has to be transferred to the external ambient in the first place. The heat transfer within the core and coils and from the core and coils to the oil is by conduction. The heat transfer within the oil is by convection and the heat transfer between the hot oil and the heat exchanger is through conduction. When the insulating oil is involved in the heat transfer, since perfect contact with the heated surface is rare, the heat transfer is mainly dependent upon the fluid flow conditions, i.e., whether the flow is stream line or turbulent and upon the condition of the surface. The thermal conductivity of the coolant is much smaller than that of the metals. Apart from the heat being dissipated by means of heat exchanger surfaces, the transformer tank also partly dissipates the heat generated by radiation. Radiation in transformers, does not normally occur by itself and in almost every case, it is accompanied by convection. Since dull metallic paints cause more radiation, all the electrical machines are painted with dull metallic paints usually grey in color in order to have large heat dissipation from radiation and thus reduce temperature rise. The transformer oil, in the process of heat transfer gets heated up and its temperature rises which is detrimental to its operation. Through external means, this heat in the oil should be dissipated and then cooled oil should be circulated back into the transformer. Here, no moisture, or gases should enter the transformer. This makes the cooling in the transformer a

13

major issue. Different cooling methods, with suitable heat exchangers are used depending upon the quantity of heat to be handled. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling: Heat transfer in oil occurs because of the natural thermal head generated due to convection in the oil. The hot oil at the top of the tank is circulated back to the bottom of the tank through tubes, passing through which the oil gets cooled because of cooler ambient around the tubes. It can be enhanced by the usage of radiators and fins. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling: For larger transformers, where the amount of heat carried by the oil is huge, the heat exchange between the hot oil and cooler ambient via the radiator tubes can be augmented by means of an air blast achieved through the usage of fans. They blow air through the hollow spaces, drive the hot air out and suck cooler oil in and thus cause better heat exchange between oil and external air. Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF) Cooling: The radiator tubes can be cooled by water instead of using an air blast as water is more effective in transferring heat, but only when a natural water head is already available. This method proves cheaper and efficient for transformers at hydro power stations Forced and Directed Oil Cooling: In large transformers, the natural circulation of oil is insufficient for cooling the transformer and forced circulation is employed. Also, guiding vanes are used to direct the oil flow in the cooling ducts in paths that ensure quicker and efficient heat transfer from the coils to the oil. The choice of cooling system is made depending on the loading of the transformer. Accordingly, a transformer is given different ratings with different cooling methods. 2.4.3 Heat Build Up in the Transformer

With all the losses being generated in the transformer and the cooling system efficiently transferring this heat to external ambient, the problem of heat buildup in the transformer still 14

remains. A major reason for this is that with all the guiding vanes and cooling ducts, there might be still some areas in the transformer where the coolant might not reach and the heat might not be dissipated and hence gets accumulated. Apart from this, the transformer may be operating at worse conditions of operations with load and frequency fluctuations, which might cause increased losses that the cooling system may not dissipate effectively. It is a very usual condition that the transformer is over loaded frequently for shorter durations or continuously for longer durations. The losses, based on which the cooling system performance is anticipated, may be practically different from the calculated values. Iron loss may change because of change in grain orientation due to punching, clamping of laminations and the pressures during these actions. Due to all or any of the above reasons, heat does get built up in the transformer despite the existence of the cooling system. On the top of all these, ambient temperatures do decide the rate of heat dissipation, since heat dissipation is linearly proportional to the temperature difference between the transformer and external ambient. Hence, it is obvious that the transformer cannot be loaded as much on hotter days as on cooler days and on hotter days even lesser temperature rise of the transformer oil may not be properly dissipated and might result in heat accumulation. 2.5 Consequences of Excessive heat buildup

The excess heat build-up results in undesirable consequences as given. Deterioration of winding Insulations which may elicit winding short circuits Deterioration of Insulating oil, which might reduce the quality of insulation It may affect the chemical properties of oil causing its dissociation and generation of moisture and gases This may increase the pressure in the tank, and in the worst case, this might cause the explosion of the tank. Chance of fire hazards This may change the thermal and electrical properties of the windings and core 15

Though most of the consequences seem to have very little possibility of occurrence, they cannot be neglected because, transformers are usually installed in remote locations unlike other machines, where frequent maintenance is not always possible. Also, regular monitoring of the device is not possible. The above consequences are not sudden in nature; they are gradual, cumulative and related to each other. Also, it is difficult to identify any of these happening unless an apparent damage takes place. So, if one of the above consequences happens, it eventually causes the others to happen, and result in a permanent and irreparable damage. [3] 2.5.1 Arrhenius Law of Insulation Ageing

In all the consequences that follow the heat buildup in the transformer, the major one is the insulation deterioration. It is the first thing that happens with the excessive heat buildup and it is the one that triggers other undesirable consequences/damages. Also, insulation is very costly and is a major contributor in the cost of the transformer. The insulation of the transformer tends to age and deteriorate when heated. The higher is the temperature, the faster is the insulation deterioration. During periods of subnormal operating temperature, the loss of life of the insulation will be less than normal. But when, the operating temperatures are greater than normal, the loss of life will be higher than normal. Consequently, the transformer may be safely operated for a time at above normal temperatures provided the loss of insulation life during this period is adequately compensated for, by operation for a sufficiently long time at temperatures lower than normal. This deterioration of life of insulation with temperature is mathematically given by Arrhenius law of Insulation Ageing, which is a non linear relation, given in equation 2.12.
L ife = e
B A+ T

...( 2 .1 2 )

Where A and B are constants, derived by experiment and T is the absolute temperature.

16

In the range of 80oC to 120oC, which is the usual winding hot spot temperatures, this law can be expressed in a more convenient form called Montsinger relation as given in equation 2.13.

Life = e p

...(2.13)

Where p is a constant and is the temperature in oC. Practical observations and investigations reveal that between 80 oC to 120 oC the rate of loss of life due to ageing of transformer insulation is doubled for every 6 oC rise in temperature [2]. Figure 2.3 gives the graphical representation of Arrhenius law of Insulation ageing.

FIG 2.3: ARRHENIUS LAW OF INSUALTION AGEING

17

Chapter 3
3 TRANSFORMER THERMAL MODELING LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1

Techniques to Measure Transformer Interior Temperatures

There are broadly three ways to measure transformer interior temperatures, namely, the usage of empirical formulae (IEEE and IEC standard formulations), direct measurement using fiber optic sensors and usage of suitable computer based mathematical thermal models. Empirical formulae to calculate maximum interior temperatures assume the heating process of oil and winding to be similar to the charging and discharging process of a capacitor. Using the measurements obtained from the transformers heat run test, the formulae calculate Hot Spot Temperature (HST) and Top Oil Temperature (TOT) at rated load and predict the value of HST and TOT for any loading condition and see if the transformer thermal limits are observed, thus ensuring the safe feasibility of such a loading condition. While IEEE formulae give precise formula to calculate the value of HST, IEC standards stipulate a factor to be multiplied with the measured average temperature rise over TOT to calculate the winding hottest spot rise. On the other hand, direct measurement involves embedding the fiber optic sensors at various locations inside the transformer and then by running the transformer at desired loading conditions, the value of HST is directly recorded from the sensor measurements. The HST is checked with the thermal limits of the transformer to see if the particular loading condition is safe for the transformer. Both of these methods have their own limitations. Empirical formulae are derived based on certain assumptions which are made to generalize the formulae to suit to any transformer. The other side of the coin is that, since the transformer design, construction and loading 18

conditions change the transformer thermal response in a non linear way, generalizing the formulae makes the formulae unspecific for a transformer and hence the transformer thermal response is poorly tracked. Moreover, including too many constraints and coefficients make the formulae too complex to be solved. However, they are cost efficient techniques. In contrast, direct measurement techniques using sensors are quite accurate but costly. The sensors themselves are costly and embedding them inside the transformer for testing and then removing them after the testing is done are cost involving processes. Moreover, placement locations for sensors also play their part as even after placing many sensors, one may miss the hottest location. So, it can be understood that both the conventional methods are not the optimal answers to the problem of transformer thermal monitoring. Constant improvement of technology in the field of computer science and its applications in wide range of research areas enables the problem to be solved with the application of suitable software techniques. So, software based simulations and modeling prove to be cost effective as well as efficient techniques to answer this problem.

3.2

IEEE Formulae for Calculating Hotspot Temperatures

The IEEE formulae give the possible value of hot spot temperature inside the transformer using the value of top oil temperature measured from the heat run test so as to guide the user (or the designer) to decide the safe loading conditions of the transformer. Applications of loads in excess of nameplate rating involve some degree of risk. IEEE formulae are designed to identify these risks and to establish limitations and guidelines, the application of which will minimize the risks to an acceptable level [4]. The basic equation for the calculation of the hottest-spot temperature is as given in equation 3.1.

H = A + TO + H
Where, H is the winding hottest spot temperature, C A is average ambient temperature during the load cycle to be studied, C 19

...(3.1)

TO is the top-oil rise over ambient temperature, C H is the winding hottest-spot rise over top-oil temperature, C. The top oil temperature is given by the equation 3.2.

TO = A + TO

...(3.2)

The top-oil temperature rise at a time after a step load change is given by the following exponential expression containing an oil time constant. TO = ( TO ,U
1 T 0 TO , I ) 1 e

+ TO , I

...(3.3)

Where, TO,U is the ultimate top oil temperature rise over the ambient for load L, C TO,I is the initial top oil temperature rise over the ambient, C T0 is the oil thermal time constant, sec. The winding hot spot rise over the top oil temperature H is calculated using similar exponential expression as in equation 3.3 while the value of rated hotspot temperature rise above top oil temperature is given by equation 3.4.
H , R = H / A, R TO , R ...(3.4)

Where, H/A,R is the rated hot spot temperature rise above ambient, oC TO,R is the rated top oil temperature rise above ambient, oC H/A,R can be measured by embedded detectors or is usually supplied by the manufacturer on test report and TO,R is usually supplied by the manufacturer on test report [4]. While the IEEE formulae seem to give a general and simple formula that can be applied to any transformer, on the other hand, it can be seen that the constants used in the formulae are not that easily available. The accuracy of the testing procedure to determine the various constants used in the formulae also affect the accuracy of the final estimated hot spot 20

temperature value. A more accurate but iterative method is also given in the IEEE Loading guide, but that is too elaborative and time consuming and requires lot number of measurement data [5]. Also the IEEE model, while it accounts for the thermodynamic effect of load on Hot Spot Temperature (HST), it does not accurately account for the effects of Top Oil Temperature (TOT) variations on HST. From the formulae, it can be seen that if TOT changes instantaneously, then HST will also change instantaneously. Thermodynamically, HST cannot change instantaneously even if TOT changes instantaneously and there must be a time lag due to the winding time constant. It has also been noticed that the top-oil temperature time constant is shorter than the time constant suggested by the present loading guide. These are the noticeable drawbacks of the above discussed IEEE standard [1], [6], [7].

3.3

Fiber Optic Sensors for Temperature Measurements

Fiber optic sensors use optical fiber as the sensing element. Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wave length or transit time of light in the fiber. Temperature can be measured by an optical fiber using its evanescent loss that varies with temperature. Thus they were an answer to the increased need of accuracy in temperature measurements and fiber optic sensors for effective measurement of high temperatures were designed. However, in the case of transformers, survival of these sensors from the interior stresses was a problem due to their fragility in the initial days. In response to this important need, fiber optic sensors have significantly improved to the point that direct measurement of winding temperature is now becoming the preferred method to measure the Hot Spot Temperature (HST) than using standard empirical formulae. Compatibility of fragile fiber optic sensor with transformer factory environment which had been a problem in the past, is now resolved with sturdy fiber jackets, proper spooling of sensor during factory work and simplified through-wall connections.

21

But the fiber optic sensors are costly and so this has effect on the final cost of transformer. However, the demand for quality and accuracy of measurements is more prominent in the market, which indicates that the measurement of temperatures through methodologies that have possibilities of giving better quality results are being looked forward than using only the present IEEE and IEC standards in the industry.

3.4

Thermal Models to Calculate Hotspot Temperatures

References [5] [24] present the various attempts made to develop the thermal model for a transformer based on thermal electrical analogy that can calculate the hot spot temperatures better than what the IEEE thermal model does. A basic thermal model that uses thermal electrical analogy, which states that the thermal parameters of heat flow, temperature, heat storage and heat dissipation are analogous respectively to the electrical parameters of current, potential difference (voltage), capacitance and resistance, is used as a basis to build lumped parameter models that simulate the thermal behavior of the transformer that is exponential [9], [10]. One model represents the winding to oil heat transfer and the other represents oil to external air heat transfer. All the heat generated inside the transformer due to the losses is represented by current sources and all the heat storage inside the transformer is represented by a single capacitance, claiming that the single capacitance as a lump represents the total heat storage inside the transformer. The resistance connected in each of the models represents the heat dissipation from winding to oil or oil to external ambient as the case may be. This resistance is modeled to be non linear because of the fact that heat transfer from the winding to transformer oil as well as from the transformer oil to external ambient depends upon whether the transformer oil is directed (or forced) or natural and whether the external air is natural or forced respectively. The required parameters like rated load top oil temperature rise over the ambient, the top oil time constant and the value of exponent that determines the nonlinearity of the resistance were found from the technique of minimization of the integral-squared-error over one day 22

of test data. Such a method of determination of thermal model parameters would be quite practical for an on-line parameter determination calculation that automatically and continually estimates the key thermal model parameters. A sudden change in the value of one of the parameters such as the rated top oil rise could indicate that the fans or pumps have failed. A gradual increase in the calculated rated top oil rise might indicate that the radiators are becoming increasingly fouled in some way. Therefore this method helps to make the transformer monitoring online [10]. As this model doesnt consider the oil viscosity as well as temperature dependence on the transformer oil thermal parameters, ref. [6] presents an improvisation with the inclusion of a nonlinear thermal resistance in the model, which takes into account changes in the transformer oil thermal characteristics and viscosity with temperature using an experimentally determined constant. Ref. [7] presents a further improvisation of this model which includes the effect of temperature dependence of the losses generated inside the transformer, using a loss correction factor as well as the specific design of the transformer windings and their influence on the oil circulation and the temperature gradient at the top of the winding stack. Also, the oil viscosity changes with temperature are also modeled. The method of calculating the transformer time constants and the changes in their values is refined. Ref. [11] suggests the simultaneous solving of the two exponential equations derived from the winding to oil and oil to ambient models. An online transformer monitoring system based on this model is presented in ref. [12]. Ref [13] gives similar online transformer monitoring model, but, instead of including the effect of external cooling on the transformer by means of non linearity in the resistor, it has been separately dealt as an equation. All the models discussed hitherto, use top oil temperature as reference to calculate the hotspot temperature. Instead, since bottom oil temperature which is the temperature at the winding oil ducts just below the winding, might properly track the temperature of oil adjacent to the winding, especially in the case of transient over loads, usage of bottom oil temperature to calculate the hotspot temperatures might improve the accuracy of 23

calculations [8], [14]-[16]. Since measurement of bottom oil temperature is considered a difficult task, an alternative method for calculation of bottom oil temperature without disturbing the oil flow has also been explained in the [14], [15]. Apart from these models, modifications in the existing IEEE loading guide by including the temperature dependence of losses, viscosity dependence on heat transfer and oil temperature as well as non linearity of temperature distribution along the winding height is suggested in [14]. Ref [5] gives a modified version of the IEEE Hot Spot Temperature (HST) model to account for the effects of dynamic variations of the top-oil temperature (TOT) on HST. Attempts have also been made to improve the method of measuring various parameters such that the non-linearity is understood and measured properly. While ref. [17] presents a method for accurate calculation of eddy current loss using a two dimensional finite element formulation, ref. [18], [19] present an attempt to apply Finite Element Analysis to the accurate calculation of losses in the windings, so that the resulting losses can be used in conventional models to calculate the hot spot temperatures. Ref [20], [21] present two dimensional models aiming at accurate calculation of the magnetic properties of the magnetic material, flux densities and the grain orientation which would help in saving energy as well as avoiding unnecessary heat generation in the core material.

3.5

Techniques Based on Computer Based Simulations

With the advent of computers in every domain of engineering sciences and with the development of computer simulations, solving of complex problems has become easy along with increased accuracy and controllability over the solution process. In the field of power system engineering, complex multi variable problems which demanded either a compromise in the solution accuracy or solution speed or the cost of solution have been properly catered by these computer simulations. In the field of thermal modeling of transformers to calculate the interior temperatures of the transformers, some work has been done to simulate the transformer interiors using standard software packages. A technique used in these software 24

packages for such problems is Finite Element Analysis (FEA). In the recent past, some work has been done in using the computer simulations and FEM packages in the transformer analysis and are presented in [25] [28]. Ref. [25] describes a computer model, which can predict hot-spot temperatures for different types of cooling regimes and transformer winding geometries coded using FORTRAN. Ref. [19] presents a model that uses Finite Element Analysis for the accurate determination of stray losses stating the fact that underestimation of losses inside the transformer particularly the stray loss is one of the possible reasons for the hotspot inside the transformer. Ref [26] presents a 3 dimensional model that aims at accurate estimation of the stray losses in a power transformer using an Integral Equation Method (IEM) and Finite Element Method (FEM) owing to the fact that stray losses in a large rated transformer can be around 20% to 25% of the total losses.

3.6

Techniques Based on Artificial Intelligence

The rationalism and reasoning which have been human assets are now being attempted to be imbibed to the machines with the progressing development in the field of computation. A few recent research attempts to answer the problem of transformer thermal modeling through the use of artificial intelligence methods of fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and neural networks, are discussed in [29] [32]. Ref [29] presents an equivalent heat circuit based thermal model of an oil-immersed power transformer and a methodology for model construction using intelligent learning, based on real-world data. A genetic algorithm is used as a search method, based on a few on-site measurements, to determine the thermal model parameters. The proposed thermal model can continuously calculate temperatures of the main parts of an ONAN or OFAF cooled power transformer under various ambient and load conditions. Ref [30] presents a further simplified thermal-electric analogous thermal model of an oil-immersed power transformer rooted on the principles of heat exchange and electric circuit laws. Ref. [31] gives the application of neural networks to the transformer 25

analysis as well as fault diagnosis and ref. [32] gives the application of fuzzy logic algorithms as well as expert systems.

3.7

Observations and Comments

Economic and operation motivations have been the reason for the research for accurate thermal modeling of transformers and the possible approaches are to measure the hot-spot temperature using the sensors or to calculate it using standard empirical formulae or a thermal model. In order to ensure that the conventional IEEE and IEC standards cope up with the improvements in the design technology as well as to improve their accuracy in the modeling of overloads etc. they are constantly being revised with more accurate and advanced models aiming at a better representation of oil temperature inside the winding, considering variations in the winding resistance, oil viscosity and oil inertia. Direct measurement of winding temperature with fiber optic sensor provides a good alternative, but they are costly. This makes evident the fact that neither the IEEE standards nor the fiber optic sensors could be an optimal solution to address the problem of transformer thermal modeling and transformer interior temperature calculations, to be specific, the hot spot temperature calculations. With the improved capabilities of computer automations, constant efforts are being made to derive software based thermal models for accurate measurement of hot spot temperatures. Improvisation is needed not only in the model for measurement of temperatures but also in the methods of accurate determination of eddy current losses, stray losses, cooling mechanism etc. A thermal model for a transformer can be created to deliver either the temperature distribution across the transformer geometry, or the characteristic temperatures (HST, TOT) that indicate the thermal status of the transformer interior. The current market competency demands more research insight into the problem of transformer thermal modeling and calls for even more precise, intelligent, accurate and above all economic solutions. The past research focused on 26

the development of lumped parameter thermal models that calculated only the HST and TOT and there is no evident attempt on obtaining a temperature distribution profile across the geometry of transformer. An attempt has been made in this work to calculate the temperature distribution across the transformer geometry which can give a better understanding of the thermal conditions inside the transformer.

27

Chapter 4
4 TRANSFORMER THERMAL MODELING USING LOSS DISTRIBUTION

4.1

Proposed Method of Thermal Modeling

The proposed method is based on thermal electrical analogy and the basic guideline is the fact that the losses in the transformer are distributed across the geometry and not concentrated at a single point and hence the model uses distributed values of losses instead of lumping them. The principle is that each point-element in the transformer generates heat because of the loss in it. The heat transferred to that element or from that element depends upon the temperature of neighboring elements. The element stores a little amount of heat, which is the cause of temperature rise of that element and dissipates the rest into surrounding medium as long as its temperature is greater than that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of each pointelement, therefore, depends on heat generation in that element and also the temperature of the surrounding elements. Thus, each point element is considered to have a loss causing heat generation in it, a heat conductor dissipating heat to neighboring elements and a heat retaining element that causes heat storage inside it.

FIG 4.1: THERMAL MODEL OF A SINGLE ELEMENT

28

As stated, there exists an analogy between the thermal and electrical parameters and the thermal parameters of heat flow, temperature, heat storage and heat dissipation are analogous respectively to the electrical parameters of current, potential difference (voltage), capacitance and resistance. Based on this analogy, the behavior of every point element in the transformer can be represented in the form of an electrical circuit as shown in fig. 4.1. The dissipation of heat to neighboring elements in all the directions is modeled making use of two resistors representing the heat flow in either direction. If the loading on the transformer is steady with no major variations, the temperature rise would follow an exponential pattern and gets constant in the steady state. In the case of such a condition, the capacitance can be ignored and the model can be simulated. In this way, every point element can be modeled and can be connected to neighboring elements modeled similarly as shown in fig. 4.2.

FIG 4.2: STEADY STATE THERMAL MODEL SHOWING INTERCONNECTION OF ELEMENTS

Implementation wise, since modeling of each point element is difficult practically, the transformer geometry is divided into finite number of sections or elements (as referred to hereafter) and each element is modeled accordingly as given in fig. 4.1. Each element can be a part of core, winding, tank or oil, geometry wise with dimensions different from the surrounding elements and hence the value of parameters of the model changes for each element. The division of the geometry into elements can be based on the change in the loss

29

concentration in the part of the geometry and smaller the size of the each element, higher is the complexity in the model and finer is the thermal profile obtained. The current source represents the heat generated in the element because of electrical loss occurring in it. If the element is a part of core, the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss summed up forms the value of current source in the model of that element and if the element is a part of winding, the ohmic loss occurring in that part of winding is used as the value of current source in the model of that element. Oil elements will not have current sources as there are no losses occurring in the oil. The resistors used in the model to represent the heat dissipation of an element to neighboring elements are calculated using the values of thermal conductance of the material, which is the property of the material. The capacitor value, which represents the heat storage inside the transformer, if used, is calculated using the value of specific heat capacity of the material of the element. As straightforward as the model might look, the complexity lies in determining the loss in each element. Though it is an obvious fact that the loss is not uniformly distributed across the geometry of the heat generating elements (core and windings), determination of the loss distribution pattern and the gross loss in each of element division is not easy. Copper loss is more or less uniformly distributed and hence the loss in each element division of the winding geometry can be proportionally a fraction of the total ohmic loss in the winding. The problem of obtaining the loss distribution across the core is a more complex issue and has to be addressed using high end computational techniques. In the current work, the technique of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is applied to obtain the flux distribution, which is non uniform across the core and calculate the core losses from the values of flux density grossed across each element division. Each element is thus modeled accordingly and the individually modeled elements are interconnected to form the total geometry of the transformer. The electrical mesh circuit, thus

30

formed is the thermal model of transformer and solving the model gives the temperature at each node, thus giving the thermal profile for the transformer geometry.

4.2

Obtaining the Loss Distribution Finite Element Analysis

The ohmic loss in the winding can be grossed as the product of the square of the current passing through the winding with the resistance offered by the winding (Copper) and the loss in each element division of the winding can be proportionally a fraction of the ohmic loss in the entire winding. The core loss in the transformer is the sum of hysteresis loss as well as eddy current loss. The hysteresis loss is because of the magnetic inertia of the magnetic material, or in technical terms, due to the remnant magnetization left over in the magnetic dipoles during alternate cycles of magnetization and demagnetization caused by sinusoidal alternating current. Similarly, as the magnetic material also would have got certain inherent electrical conductivity, circulating alternating currents are generated in the magnetic material due to alternating magnetic flux in it. As less as the electrical conductivity of the magnetic material may be, still these circulating currents termed as eddy currents would exist and the ohmic losses due to these currents are termed as eddy current losses. For a given transformer core material, given frequency of excitation, the core loss is dependent on the flux density in the core cross section defined mathematically. So, if the flux density is known, the core loss can be determined. Hence, if the flux density distribution across the core as well as in each element division of its geometry is known, the core loss can be determined by means of mathematical substitutions and calculations. It is here that the Finite Element Method (FEM) is made use of. The Finite Element Analysis (FEA), sometimes referred to as finite element method (FEM), is a computational technique used to obtain approximate solutions of boundary value problems in engineering.

31

4.2.1

Obtaining the Flux Density Distribution by Finite Element Analysis

The concept of FEM deals with applying the differential equations over smaller sub domains of the entire large domain area, and then building up the solution of next layer of sub domains using the already calculated values of field variables of the neighboring domains as boundary conditions and this is extended to the current problem. Flux density in the core is associated with the development of magnetic field in and around the core due to the alternating current generating an alternating electric field. The values of flux densities at various points in the transformer are governed by Maxwells differential equations given in equations 4.1 to 4.3. In addition, equations 4.4 to 4.6 give the necessary constitutive relations. These equations give the value of flux density in terms of current densities. Depending on the value of current densities in the element and the value of boundary conditions on the element, the FEA tool calculates the flux densities in each element. The boundary conditions for the elements on the outer end of the geometry would be the user defined limiting value of the field variable on the boundary of the geometry and here assumed to be the value of field variable (magnetic field) being zero. (Dirichlet boundary condition)
E = B t D t ...(4.1) ...(4.2) ...(4.3)

H = J +

D =

D =E B = H J =E
Where, E is the electric field strength, V/m H is the magnetic field strength, A/m D is the electric flux density, C/m2 32

...(4.4) ...(4.5) ...(4.6)

B is the magnetic flux density, Wb/m2 J is the electric current density, A/m2 is the electric charge density, C/m3 is the permittivity, F/m is the conductivity, mho/m is the permeability, H/m Since the transformer geometry is divided into fixed number of elements to be modeled individually, the same elemental division is followed in the FEA implementation also, so that the tool directly gives the averaged flux density in each element. Implementation wise, the transformer geometry is divided into elements, and the excitation and boundary conditions, which are respectively the current densities in the windings and the values of magnetic field at the boundaries of geometry are given. The tool implements the Maxwells equations starting from the outer boundary and works towards the inner elements and finally calculates the flux densities in all the elements. 4.2.2 Obtaining the Loss Distribution

The loss in the transformer is majorly in core and windings. The losses in the other parts are negligible and can be ignored with no loss of accuracy of the results.

Loss distribution in the windings: The losses in the windings are the ohmic losses due

to current flowing in the conductors. As superior as the electrical conductivity of the copper may be, still, there would be good amount of ohmic loss in the windings owing to the high values of currents flowing through the windings. The general expression for the calculation of ohmic loss is given in equation 4.7.
W
2 l = ( J A) A

Cu

...(4.7)

Where, Wcu is the copper loss occurring in the element, Watts 33

J is the current density in the element, A/m2 A is the surface area through which the current flows, m2 is the electrical conductivity of the material, mho/m l is the length of the path the current has to travel, m The winding geometry is divided into elements and the ohmic loss in each element is to be calculated. The current density will have a uniform distribution (this can be ensured with the implementation of FEA also) and hence, the ohmic loss will have a uniform distribution across the winding geometry. Hence the ohmic loss in each element can be calculated directly from equation 4.7. Since the current density remains the same through entire winding, substituting the value of A from the dimensions of each element gives the ohmic loss in each element. This value of loss would be used for the current source in the thermal model for each element.

Loss distribution in the core: The finite element analysis of the transformer geometry is

performed and the flux density distribution across the transformer geometry as well as the average flux density across each element is obtained. Now, the core losses are to be calculated using the flux density values. The mathematical expressions for the core losses, which comprise of hysteresis and eddy current loss are given in the equations 4.8 and 4.9.
1.6 Wh = K h Bm f

Watts / kg

...(4.8)

2 2 2 We = K e K 2 f Bm f t n

Watts / kg

...(4.9)

Where, Wh and We are hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively, Watts Ke and Kh are material constants that are found out experimentally f is the frequency of the alternating flux, Hz Bm is the maximum value of operating flux density, Wb/m2 Kf is the form factor of the ac wave form 34

t is the thickness of each lamination of the core, m n is the number of laminations in the core. The sum of Wh and We give the value of core losses. Since the flux density across each element is obtained from the FEA implementation, the values of core losses can be calculated from the mathematical formulae given in equations 4.8 and 4.9. Though the flux is supposed to be limited to the magnetic material, i.e., the core itself, there would be some leakage flux existing in the tank, coils as well as very feebly in the rest parts. Though the FEA gives the values of this leakage flux also, however, the losses contributed by these leakage fluxes are very negligible and can be ignored. The value of core losses in each element, thus calculated, will serve as the value of current source in the thermal model for the elements. 4.3 Development of Thermal Model

The principle behind the thermal model is explained in section 4.1 and the development of thermal model for the entire transformer is on the same lines. The section elaborates the thermal modeling process. 4.3.1 Thermal Electrical Analogy

The analogy between the thermal and electrical parameters is given in table 1.
Sl. No 1 2 3 4 Element Through Variable Across Variable Dissipation element Storage element Thermal parameter Heat transfer rate, q Watts/s Temperature, oC Thermal Resistance Rth oC/Watt Electrical Parameter Current, i ampere Voltage, v volts Electrical Resistance, Rel Electrical Capacitance, Cel Farads

Thermal Capacitance Cth J/oC Table 1. Thermal Electrical Analogy

35

The development of thermal model and solving of it to obtain the thermal profile is based on the analogy between the thermal and electrical parameters of a material and the similarity between the development of electrical potential in the conductor with the flow of charge and the temperature rise in the body because of the flow of heat. The two important thermal parameters of a substance or a material are its specific heat capacity and its thermal conductivity. These are general properties which can be made specific to a specific volume of the material in which case they become thermal capacitance and thermal resistance of that particular volume of the material. This holds good for metals, but for fluids (transformer oil), additional modeling considerations and coefficients are needed to model the heat transfer. This is because, besides being guided by the thermal conductance and the temperature difference, the heat transfer in liquids is affected majorly by heat convection and fluid viscosity. 4.3.2 Electrical Equivalent Model for Thermal Behavior

The basic model for each element, whatever the division of element might be, is explained in the section 4.1. All the individually modeled elements are to be connected together to form an electrical mesh circuit which is the thermal model for the entire transformer geometry. This connection is needed because, the temperatures and the dissipation of heat in each element are not independent and these depend on the temperature and heat dissipation of all the neighboring elements. But while integrating individual elements geometrically to form the thermal model, few modeling constraints would have to be observed.

The loss generated in each of these elements is independent of the neighboring blocks. So

the current source of every element, which is the heat generated in that element must be separately connected to the ambient.

The oil sections will not have source since there are no losses in the oil sections. In the

transformer, oil functions as insulating as well as cooling liquid and is used as a medium of heat transfer. It has no effect on heat generation. 36

The outer tank section also dissipates the heat to the ambient, which is modeled by

thermal resistances connected between each element on the tank boundary to the ambient. In this way, ambient is modeled separately.

Ambient serves the purpose of ground in conventional electrical circuits. But the

difference here is that in conventional electrical circuits, ground is at zero potential, whereas ambient in this electrical equivalent for simulating the thermal model is the surrounding atmosphere which is not at zero temperature. The ambient temperature is in the range of 20oC or 30 oC depending on the surrounding atmosphere temperature. It can be as high as 45 oC - 50
o

C and as low as 5 oC - 10 oC. Hence the temperature values obtained from the thermal model

is the temperature rise of the corresponding locations above the ambient and not the temperatures themselves.

Symmetry is observed in the circuit for heat dissipation. The heat generating elements in

the middle of geometry dissipate in both the directions, while the elements on either side dissipate in the respective direction only. This does not restrict in any way the heat flow in any direction; it is just that the circuit is made symmetrical.

Since the model is two dimensional, in a way, we are studying the heat dissipation in two

directions, while the losses that are generated in the transformer dissipate in all the three directions equally. So, since we limit the model to two-directional (X-Y) heat dissipation, the heat to be dissipated must also be proportionally reduced, i.e., made two thirds of the total heat generation.

In the figure 4.1, there are two resistors. The resistor in the horizontal direction represents

the heat flow along X-direction and the resistor in the vertical direction represents the heat flow in the Y-direction.

37

4.3.3

Calculation of Parameters of Thermal Model

Calculation of Sources: For the core elements, the value of core loss in each element will

form the current source and for the winding elements, the value of ohmic loss will be the value of current source. For the other elements, there will be no current sources as there is no heat generation in the other parts of the transformer. The leakage fluxes and the loss due to them may help improve the accuracy and help in transformer design analysis, but the contribution to heat generation by them is not so significant.

Calculation of Resistances: The thermal resistance of an element represents the

opposition offered by the element to the flow of heat through it. This resistance is offered in both X and Y directions for either directions of heat flow and hence the thermal resistance of each element is represented by two resistances corresponding to the opposition offered in each direction of heat flow. The resistance along the X direction represents the opposition offered by the element to the heat transfer in horizontal direction to neighboring elements. Similarly the resistance placed in the Y-direction is the opposition offered to the heat flow in vertical direction. The thermal resistance of each element depends on the material property of thermal conductivity (Watts/mK), specific to the material of the element. Consider a single element as shown in the figure 4.3.

FIG 4.3: CALCULATION OF RESISTANCES THERMAL MODEL FOR SINGLE ELEMENT

38

If x and y are the dimensions of the element in X and Y directions respectively, z is the Zdirection depth and is the thermal conductivity of the material of the element, the thermal resistance offered by the element to the heat flow in either direction is given by the equations 4.10 and 4.11.
Rhorizontal =
Rvertical =

x yz

...(4.10)
...(4.11)

y xz

Calculation of Capacitance: The capacitance can be included in the thermal modeling

circuit, if the transient thermal performance is of interest or if the load is so non uniform that the thermal transients might affect the transformer. In any case, the method to calculate the thermal capacitance values is presented. The thermal capacitance of an element represents its capacity to store the heat, which causes a rise in its temperature. This is determined by the material property of specific heat capacity. The thermal capacitance of each element is calculated by multiplying the value of specific heat capacity of the material of the element with the mass of the block. So, if an element of dimensions x, y and z in X, Y and Z directions respectively as in figure 4.3 is considered, whose specific heat capacity is s J/kg0C and density is d kg/m3, then the value of thermal capacitance of the material is given by equation 4.12.

C = s.( xyz ).d

...(4.12)

4.3.4

Modeling of Radiators

Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating. In the transformer, radiators help draw out heat from the hot oil in the top and re-circulate the cooled oil back into the tank from the bottom. They are commonly used for ONAN, ONAF/ONAN and OFAF/ONAF/ONAN types of cooling for slightly larger transformers, while for smaller transformers, corrugations on the 39

tank surface itself serve as radiators. Radiators are tubes or fins through which the oil from the top of the tank is circulated through, to the bottom of tank and while the oil is circulated the heat from the oil is drawn out. They have heat exchanging elements joined to top and bottom headers which are connected to the transformer tank by welding and consist of previously rolled and pressed thin steel sheets to form a number of channels or flutes through which the oil flows. The surface area available for heat dissipation is increased by the use of radiators. As the oil passes downwards, due to natural circulation heat is carried away by the surrounding atmospheric air. This cooling of oil is augmented by blowing air onto the radiator tubes and this is what happens in forced air cooling. While modeling, the effect of radiator is modeled by means of thermal conductance path provided from the top and bottom oil to the ambient, which is represented by means of resistors connected to the top and bottom oil on either side of the tank. The dissipation occurs through the radiator surface and hence the thermal conductivity of the radiator metal (same as the tank metal) is to be used in the calculation of radiator resistance. The diameter of the radiator tube would be the length of the heat transfer path and the surface area of the radiators would be the surface area of dissipation 4.3.5 Modeling the Convection in Oil

The heat transfer process in the transformer is by conduction, convection and sometimes by radiation. The heat transfer within inside the core and windings is by conduction, which is a linear process depending on the thermal conductivity of the material as well as the temperature difference between the surfaces in contact for heat conduction. The heat transfer from the core and windings to the oil is also conduction since they are designed to be in good contact and there exists a temperature difference between them. But when it comes to heat transfer within the oil (heat gets transmitted within the oil to reach the outside cooling system from the transformer interiors) the process is not entirely linear. Due to fluid currents in the oil, the heat transfer within the oil is due to convection as well as conduction. Convection is a complicated 40

phenomenon depending upon many variables such as density and viscosity of the liquid, temperature difference between the heated surface and coolant, thermal resistivity of the fluid and gravitational constants. However, it is to be noted that the convection takes place only in the oil and only in the vertical direction (Y-direction) and hence doesnt affect the heat transfer in horizontal direction (X-direction). In order to model the convection, the effect of convection is to be understood. Convection in the transformer oil has effect heat transfer in a manner such that the heat tends to rise up and thus top portion of oil is at a relatively higher temperature than the bottom portion. As the oil gets heated, the molecules become lighter and hence rise up giving place to cooler and hence heavier oil molecules which, by gravity come down. Hence, within the oil, the heat transfer in the upward direction is more than the heat transfer in the downward direction and hence the top oil is always at a higher temperature than the bottom oil. The amount of convection fluid currents also depends upon the viscosity of the fluids, here, the oil. More the viscosity of the oil, lesser is the convection. The viscosity of a fluid is in turn dependent on the temperature of the fluid and this makes convection a complex process to explain mathematically. Hence the increase in the heat transfer due to convection is to be observed practically and a multiplicative factor to the vertical resistance in the thermal model of oil elements is to be decided to simulate this increase in heat transfer. As oil is a viscous liquid, there cannot be too much convection as in the case with non viscous liquids. The convection, as observed experimentally could increase the heat transfer by 100% and not much more than that in any case and hence the heat transfer within the oil in the vertical direction now becomes twice of the original value. Hence, the resistances in the vertical direction (Y-direction) of oil blocks are modified, i.e., halved to include this convection effect. Thus, an increase in heat transfer is achieved by reducing the resistance which accounts for increased heat transfer due to convection. Therefore, if x, y and z are the dimensions of an oil block with as the thermal conductivity, the horizontal resistance Rh and vertical resistance Rv would be as in equations 4.13 and 4.14. 41

Rh = Rv =

x yz

...(4.13)

y 2 xz

...(4.14)

The tendency is of the hotter oil to go up against gravity, leaving the cooler oil at the bottom of the tank is to be simulated. So, in other words, it can be stated that the convection in oil doesnt allow heat flow downwards as far as convection effect is concerned. It is not that the bottom portion of oil does not have any temperature rise, but relatively, the heat concentration is towards the upper portion of oil. This phenomenon also takes place only in the vertical direction and is modeled by partly obstructing the oil flow in downward direction. This is achieved by using diodes in the thermal model, because the resistors will not simulate this behavior and this obstruction has to be partial only. In order to ensure the convenience of modeling, the oil blocks are modified as given in figure 4.4. Here Rh represents the horizontal direction thermal resistance while Rv represents the vertical direction thermal resistance after the multiplicative factor accounting for the increase in the heat transfer because of convection fluid currents being incorporated.

FIG 4.4: MODELING THE CONVECTION MODIFIED THERMAL MODEL OF OIL ELEMENTS

42

Since the two vertical resistors equivalent to one single vertical direction thermal resistance stand parallel to each other, their value has to be double the value of a single vertical resistor that can equivalently replace them. In order to present partial obstruction to the downward flow of heat, thus modeling convection, a diode is included in one of the arms of the model shown in fig. 4.4. Diode, by nature, allows only unidirectional flow of charge, which by analogy, means heat and hence the downward flow of heat is obstructed. The other arm does not contain any diode, thus allowing the bidirectional flow of heat. In this way, the summed effect of viscosity as well as fluid convection is pronounced in the model. A single oil element modeled in this way is shown in fig. 4.5.

FIG 4.5: MODELING THE CONVECTION THERMAL MODEL OF OIL ELEMENTS WITH DIODE

All the oil blocks are modeled in the same way. This totally would present the summed effect of viscosity as well as convection. 4.3.6 Modeling the Ambient

The heat transfer from the surface of the tank to ambient is both by convection (air currents) and radiation (tank radiates heat to ambient). In transformers, radiation does not normally occur by itself and in almost every case, it is accompanied by convection. The surface of the tank radiates heat to the ambient and acts like a heat sink dissipating the heat to the open ambient. With the completion of modeling of all the blocks and the total thermal model being 43

assembled, the ambient has got to be modeled. The heat dissipation from the tank surface to the ambient, i.e., the heat sink behavior of the tank surface is modeled by resistors connecting the elements on the outer surface of the tank elements to ground (ambient). The resistance offered by heat sink is given in terms of ohm-m2. So, for each element on the outer surface of the tank to which the resistor modeling the heat dissipation from the tank is connected to, if ohm-m2 is the heat sink resistance and A is the area of surface through which it dissipates heat to the ambient in m2, (A= lz, where l and z are the dimensions of the element to which the resistance is connected to; l can be either x or y depending on the location of the element), then the resistance offered by that element of heat sink is given by equation 4.15.
R=

ohms =

lz

ohms

...(4.15)

While calculating the ambient resistances to be connected to each element of the tank, if the tank element is situated on the vertical section of the tank, the dimension l would be the Ydimension, where as if it is on the horizontal portion of the tank geometry, then l would be the X-dimension of the element. Accordingly, since, the corner blocks have two dissipating surfaces, there will be resistances on both X and Y direction. Thus, the values of ambient resistors can be determined. 4.4 Obtaining the Thermal Profile

The entire transformer geometry thus modeled as an electrical mesh circuit consisting of current sources and resistors (and capacitors) has to be solved for potentials at each node, which, by analogy are the temperature rises of the corresponding points on the transformer geometry above the ambient. Summing the ambient temperature value to each of these values of temperature rise, the value of temperatures at each corresponding location on the transformer can be obtained.

44

Since the transformer thermal model would be too big to be solved by hand, suitable software can be made use of to solve the electrical circuit to yield potentials at each node. MULTISIM is the software package used in the current work.

45

Chapter 5
5 IMPLEMENTATION ON DIFFERENT TRANSFORMER DESIGNS

The modeling, explained theoretically in chapter 4 is discussed with its practical implementation on four transformer designs, which would explain the model better. Every step that has been discussed in the chapter 4 is elaborated in the section 5.1 (the implementation of the model on the first transformer design) and the implementation results on three more designs are presented in sections 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4.

5.1

15 KVA Shell type Transformer Model and Results

The considered transformer is 15 KVA, 11KV/250V, single phase shell type (3-limb two winding) transformer with the winding wound on the central limb. The current density in the LV and HV winding is 2A/mm2 and 0.95A/mm2 respectively. The dimensions of this transformer (mentioned as transformer 1 now onward in this thesis work) are given in table 2. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 Description Winding Stack Height (LV) Winding Stack Height (HV) Core Limb width (Diameter of core limb) Width of the top yoke and bottom base of the core Space between the limbs (measured between the centre of a limb and centre of adjacent limb) Dimension 230 mm 230 mm 90 mm 90 mm 190 mm

46

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Height of each limb (without the top and bottom yokes) Tank wall thickness Tank length (Outer) Tank height (Outer) Oil duct width between core central limb and LV winding Oil duct width between LV and HV Coils Thickness of LV winding Thickness of HV winding
Table 2. Dimensions of the considered transformer 1

240 mm 5 mm 540 mm 580 mm 10 mm 10 mm 15 mm 30 mm

The dimensions of the transformer are represented pictorially in figure 5.1.

FIG 5.1: TRANSFORMER 1: GEOMETRY

47

The considered geometry here represents the two dimensional cross section of the transformer in the XY plane. As the Z-direction depth would be needed for calculations and taking the Z direction depth as unity, which means 1 meter, is not a likely case, a better consideration of the Z-direction depth of the considered plane is maintained that is same as the core thickness. So, the plane that is being modeled through the thermal modeling process is that of core thickness transformer cross section in the XY plane. The transformer geometry is divided into finite number of elements and this virtual elemental division with the dimensions is as shown in figure 5.2.

FIG 5.2: TRANSFORMER 1: ELEMENTAL DIVISION

On performing the finite element analysis on the transformer using the FEA Software tool following the same elemental division shown in fig. 5.2, the flux density distribution across the transformer geometry is obtained. Figure 5.3 shows the transformer modeled in the FEA tool

48

NISA and figure 5.4 shows the flux density distribution obtained after performing Finite Element Analysis on the considered transformer geometry.

FIG. 5.3: TRANSFORMER 1: FEA Implementation in NISA

The material properties used in the analysis in the implementation are as given in table 3. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 MATERIAL Windings (Copper) Transformer oil Core (CRGO steel) Tank (Structural steel) MUXX(1/or) SIXX(1/) 795800 795800 400 800 58000000 0 4000000 4000000

Table 3. Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 1

49

FIG. 5.4: TRANSFORMER 1: Flux density distribution

From the flux density distribution and the values of flux density grossed over each element, as generated by the tool, the values of core losses are calculated in each element division of the core as explained in the equations 4.8 and 4.9. The values of Kh and Ke of the core are 0.0062 and 3.48 respectively. The value of form factor Kf is taken as 1.1 while the thickness of lamination t was 0.27mm. The loss in the each element division of the winding is calculated from the ohmic loss calculations given in equation 4.7. The electrical conductivity of copper is 58x106 mho/m. The loss distribution across the considered transformer geometry is as shown in figure 5.5. 50

FIG. 5.5: TRANSFORMER 1: Loss Distribution

The values given are the losses in the corresponding blocks in rate of heat transfer W/sec. These values of losses are used for current sources in the model. In the calculation of the parameters of the thermal model the values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity of the different materials used in the transformer, as given in table 4, are used. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 Material CRGO steel Copper Mineral Oil Structural Steel Description Core Windings Transformer Insulating oil Tank Thermal conductivity Specific Heat (W/mK) Capacity (J/kgoC) 26 400 0.72 45 450 386 2060 400

Table 4. Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 1

Using the values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity, the values of resistances as well as capacitances to be used for modeling of each element are calculated. The 51

value of z wherever required is used as 0.09m and x and y would be the geometrical dimensions of the element in the XY plane. The modeling discussed in the current work aims at steady state temperature profile for a uniform loading on the transformer and so the capacitors are eliminated from the thermal model. The numbering of elements for reference is as shown in figure 5.6 and the corresponding calculation of resistances is shown in Table 5.

FIG. 5.6: TRANSFORMER 1: Numbering of Elements

Sl. no. 1 2 3 4

MATERIAL LV Winding HV Winding

ELEMENTS 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6, 7, 8 83, 95, 108, 120 84, 94, 109, 119

RH() 0.004 0.0073 0.43 0.167 0.143 0.048

RV() 0.213 0.107 0.43 1.1 1.29 3.87

Current Source (A) 6.6 3 0.601 0.434 0.376 0.1255

Core outer limbs 5 6 85, 93, 110, 118 86, 92, 111, 117

52

7 8 9 10 11 12 Core inner limbs 13 14 Oil between core and LV Oil between LV and HV Core Outer Limbs

87, 91, 112, 116 88, 90, 113, 115 89, 114 96, 98, 105, 107 99, 101, 102, 104 97, 106 100, 103 21, 22, 27, 28

0.072 0.048 0.43 0.774 0.337 0.774 0.337 1.62

2.58 3.87 0.43 0.24 0.55 0.24 0.55 212.4

0.187 0.1258 1.141 0.61 1.39 2.172 5.07

15 16 17 18

20, 23, 26, 29 9, 18, 31, 40 10, 17, 32, 39 11, 16, 33, 38

1.62 12.96 11.124 3.7 5.55 3.7 1.4 18.51 10.2 18.51 33.33 12.96

212.4 26.4 30.84 92.4 61.68 92.4 15.18 18.51 33.312 18.51 10.3 26.4 0

Inner Oil sections 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Outer oil section 12, 15, 34, 37 13, 14, 35, 36 19, 24, 25, 30 41, 59, 62, 80 42, 58, 63, 79 43, 57, 64, 78 44, 56, 65, 77 45, 55, 66, 76

53

27 28 29 Outer Oil Section 30 31 32 33 34 35 Tank 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Tank

46, 54, 67, 75 47, 53, 68, 74 48, 52, 69, 73 49, 51, 70, 72 50, 71 60, 61, 81, 82 121, 143, 146, 168 122, 142, 147, 167 123, 141, 148, 166 124, 140, 149, 165 125, 139, 150, 164 126, 138, 151, 163 127, 137, 152, 162 128, 136, 153, 161 129, 135, 154, 160 130, 134, 155, 159 131, 133, 156, 158 132, 157 144, 145, 169, 170

11.124 3.7 5.55 3.7 33.24 8.1 0.043 0.024 0.215 0.43 0.86 7.74 3.01 2.58 0.86 1.29 0.86 3.87 0.02

30.84 92.4 61.68 92.4 10.2 33.33 4.3 7.74 0.86 0.43 0.215 0.024 0.06 0.072 0.215 0.143 0.215 0.048 9.9 0

Table 5. Calculation of Thermal Model Parameters for Transformer 1

54

Now, the tank to ambient heat dissipation and the heat sink behavior of tank surface is to be modeled. The heat sink resistivity of the transformer tank is taken as 0.05 ohm /m2. And the correspondingly calculated value of resistance connected to each element is as given in table 6. Tank element to ambient resistance value () 11.4 6.335 57 114 57 6.335 21.285 19 57 38 57 12.66 4.955

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Tank Element 121, 143, 146, 168 122, 142, 147, 167 123, 141, 148, 166 124, 140, 149, 165 125, 139, 150, 164 126, 138, 151, 163 127, 137, 152, 162 128, 136, 153, 161 129, 135, 154, 160 130, 134, 155, 159 131, 133, 156, 158 132, 157 144, 145, 169, 170

Table 6. Calculation of Tank to Ambient Resistances for Transformer 1

55

Regarding the modeling of radiator resistances, the radiator tubes are made of pressed steel and the cross sectional thickness is low so as to allow quicker and efficient transfer of heat to the external ambient. The thermal conductivity of radiator tube material is taken as 0.12W/mK. The diameter of the radiator tube, which is the length of heat transfer path, is 0.01m. The surface area of the tank to which the radiators are connected is equal to the height of the tank lz multiplied by ly, which is 0.54 x 0.09 m2. As explained in the section 4.3.4, the value of radiator resistance would be as given in equation 5.1.
1 0.01 = 1.7 0.12 0.54 0.09

Rrad =

...(5.1)

This resistance has to be connected both to the top oil as well as bottom oil and hence the value of resistance connected at each point (top oil and bottom oil) will be 3.4 , as the total resistance has to be split into two. The different modeling constraints discussed in section 4.3.2 are taken care of and the convection in the oil is also modeled as explained in section 4.3.5 and the final thermal model of the transformer is constructed as shown in figure 5.7. This electrical equivalent mesh circuit has to be solved for potentials at each node, which are the temperature rise of the corresponding point on the transformer geometry above the ambient. MULTISIM has been used for the purpose of solving the network. An introduction to the software is provided in the appendix. The problem geometry is modeled in the schematic GUI of the software and the simulations are run, which gives the value of potential at desired node or the potential at every node as desired in our study. The values of temperature rise thus noted and superposed on the geometry of the transformer for enhancing the understanding is given in figure 5.8, which is the Thermal Profile across the considered geometry of the transformer

56

FIG. 5.7: TRANSFORMER 1: Thermal Model

57

FIG. 5.8: TRANSFORMER 1: Thermal Profile

58

The critical points have been tabulated and compared against the practical test values as given in table 7. Sl. No. 1 2 Value from thermal profile 42.660C 31.20C

Parameter Winding temperature Top Oil Temperature

Test data 550C 400C

Table 7. Thermal Model Implementation - Comparison with test values for transformer 1

5.2

25 KVA Core type Transformer Model and Results

The considered transformer is 25 KVA, 33KV/250V rating, single phase, core type (2-limb two winding) transformer with the winding wound on the both the limbs one over the other. The dimensions of this transformer (mentioned as transformer 2 now onward in this thesis work) are given in table 8. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Winding Stack Height (LV) Winding Stack Height (HV) Core Limb width (Diameter of core limb) Width of the top yoke and bottom base of the core Space between the limbs (measured between the centre of a limb and centre of adjacent limb) Height of each limb (without the top and bottom yokes) Tank wall thickness 59 Dimension 250 mm 210 mm 100 mm 100 mm 260 mm 300 mm 5 mm

8 9 10 11 12 13

Tank length (Outer) Tank height (Outer) Oil duct width between core central limb and LV winding Oil duct width between LV and HV Coils Thickness of LV winding Thickness of HV winding
Table 8. Dimensions of the considered Transformer 2

612 mm 610 mm 4.5 mm 17 mm 13 mm 36.5 mm

The dimensions of the transformer are represented pictorially in figure 5.9.

FIG 5.9: TRANSFORMER 2: GEOMETRY

60

The transformer geometry is divided into finite number of elements and this virtual elemental division with the dimensions is as shown in figure 5.10 (elements are shown as same size in figure only for the clarity purpose though in the simulation they are considered according to the actual dimensions).

FIG 5.10: TRANSFORMER 2: ELEMENTAL DIVISION

On performing the finite element analysis on the transformer using the FEA Software tool following the same elemental division shown in fig. 5.10, the flux density distribution across the transformer geometry is obtained. It is not necessary to limit the elements to minimum number and if required, more number of divisions can be made. Figure 5.11 shows the transformer modeled in the FEA tool NISA and figure 5.12 shows the flux density distribution obtained after performing Finite Element Analysis on the considered transformer geometry.

61

FIG. 5.11: TRANSFORMER 2: FEA Implementation in NISA

The material properties used in the analysis in the implementation are as given in table 9. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 MATERIAL Windings (Copper) Transformer oil Core (CRGO steel) Tank (Structural steel) MUXX(1/or) SIXX(1/) 795800 795800 400 800 58000000 0 4000000 4000000

Table 9. Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 2

62

FIG. 5.12: TRANSFORMER 2: Flux density distribution

From the flux density distribution and the values of flux density grossed over each element, as generated by the tool, the values of core losses are calculated in each element division of the core as explained in the equations 4.8 and 4.9. The values of coefficients Kh and Ke of the core are 0.005 and 2.523 respectively. The value of form factor Kf is 1.1 while the thickness of lamination t was 0.27mm. The loss in the each element division of the winding is calculated from the ohmic loss calculations given in equation 4.7. The electrical conductivity of copper is 58x106 mho/m. The values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity of the different materials are given in table 10. 63

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4

Material CRGO steel Copper Mineral Oil Structural Steel

Description Core Windings Transformer Insulating oil Tank

Specific Heat Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Capacity (J/kgoC) 26 400 0.72 45 450 386 2060 400

Table 10. Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 2

Using the values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity, the values of resistances as well as capacitances to be used for modeling of each element are calculated. The value of z wherever required is used as 0.1m. The tank to ambient heat dissipation and the heat sink behavior of tank surface is modeled using the heat sink resistivity of the transformer tank as 0.05 ohm /m2. The radiators are modeled and the value of each resistance to be connected both to the top oil as well as bottom oil is calculated as 2.732 . The different modeling constraints discussed in section 4.3.2 are taken care of and the convection in the oil is also modeled as explained in section 4.3.5 and the final thermal model of the transformer is constructed as shown in figure 5.13 and the obtained Thermal Profile across the considered geometry of the transformer is given in figure 5.14.

64

FIG. 5.13: TRANSFORMER 2: Thermal Model

65

FIG. 5.14: TRANSFORMER 2: Thermal Profile

66

The critical points have been tabulated and compared against the practical test values as given in table 11. Sl. No. 1 2 Value from thermal profile 69.940C 47.150C

Parameter Winding temperature Top Oil Temperature

Test data 600C 550C

Table 11. Thermal Model Implementation - Comparison with test values for Transformer 2

5.3

16 KVA Shell type Transformer Model and Results

The considered transformer is 16 KVA, 11KV/433V rating, single phase, shell type (3-limb two winding) transformer with the winding wound on the both the limbs one over the other. The current density in the LV winding is 3.071 A/mm2 and the current density in the HV winding is 2.795 A/mm2.The dimensions of this transformer (mentioned as transformer 3 now onward in this thesis work) are given in table 12. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description Winding Stack Height (LV) Winding Stack Height (HV) Core Limb width (Diameter of core limb) Width of the top yoke and bottom base of the core Space between the limbs (measured between the centre of a limb and centre of adjacent limb) Height of each limb (without the top and bottom yokes) 67 Dimension 163 mm 135 mm 84 mm 84 mm 365 mm 175 mm

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Tank wall thickness Tank length (Outer) Tank height (Outer) Oil duct width between core central limb and LV winding Oil duct width between LV and HV Coils Thickness of LV winding Thickness of HV winding
Table 12. Dimensions of the considered Transformer 3

5 mm 600 mm 530 mm 3.5 mm 11 mm 10.5 mm 19 mm

The dimensions of the transformer are represented pictorially in figure 5.15.

FIG 5.15: TRANSFORMER 3: GEOMETRY

68

The transformer geometry is divided into finite number of elements and this virtual elemental division with the dimensions is as shown in figure 5.16 (elements are shown as same size in figure only for the clarity purpose though in the simulation they are considered according to the actual dimensions).

FIG 5.16: TRANSFORMER 3: ELEMENTAL DIVISION

On performing the finite element analysis on the transformer using the FEA Software tool following the same elemental division shown in fig. 5.16, the flux density distribution across the transformer geometry is obtained. It is not necessary to limit the elements to minimum number and if required, more number of divisions can be made. Figure 5.17 shows the transformer modeled in the FEA tool NISA and figure 5.18 shows the flux density distribution obtained after performing Finite Element Analysis on the considered transformer geometry.

69

FIG. 5.17: TRANSFORMER 3: FEA Implementation in NISA

The material properties used in the analysis in the implementation are as given in table 13. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 MATERIAL Windings (Copper) Transformer oil Core (CRGO steel) Tank (Structural steel) MUXX(1/or) SIXX(1/) 795800 795800 400 800 58000000 0 4000000 4000000

Table 13. Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 3

70

FIG. 5.18: TRANSFORMER 3: Flux density distribution

From the flux density distribution and the values of flux density grossed over each element, as generated by the tool, the values of core losses are calculated in each element division of the core as explained in the equations 4.8 and 4.9. The values of coefficients Kh and Ke of the core are 0.0052 and 2.82 respectively. The value of form factor Kf is 1.1 while the thickness of lamination t was 0.27mm. The loss in the each element division of the winding is calculated from the ohmic loss calculations given in equation 4.7. The electrical conductivity of copper is

71

58x106 mho/m. The values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity of the different materials are given in table 14. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 Thermal conductivity Specific Heat (W/mK) Capacity (J/kgoC) 26 400 0.72 45 450 386 2060 400

Material CRGO steel Copper Mineral Oil Structural Steel

Description Core Windings Transformer Insulating oil Tank

Table 14. Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling of Transformer 3

Using the values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity, the values of resistances as well as capacitances to be used for modeling of each element are calculated. The value of z wherever required is used as 0.084m. The tank to ambient heat dissipation and the heat sink behavior of tank surface is modeled using the heat sink resistivity of the transformer tank as 0.05 ohm /m2. The radiators are modeled and the value of each resistance to be connected both to the top oil as well as bottom oil is calculated as 3.8 . The different modeling constraints discussed in section 4.3.2 are taken care of and the convection in the oil is also modeled as explained in section 4.3.5 and the final thermal model of the transformer is constructed as shown in figure 5.19 and the obtained Thermal Profile across the considered geometry of the transformer is given in figure 5.20.

72

FIG. 5.19: TRANSFORMER 3: Thermal Model

73

FIG. 5.20: TRANSFORMER 3: Thermal Profile

74

The critical points have been tabulated and compared against the practical test values as given in table 15. Sl. No. 1 2 Parameter Winding temperature Top Oil Temperature Test data 550C 500C Value from thermal profile 42.380C 36.760C

Table 15. Thermal Model Implementation - Comparison with test values for Transformer 3

5.4

45 KVA Three Phase Transformer Model and Results

The considered transformer is 45 KVA, 11 KV/250 V rating, three phase, core type (3-limb three winding) transformer with each phase of the winding wound on each of the limbs one over the other. The current density in the LV winding is 2 A/mm2 and the current density in the HV winding is 0.95 A/mm2.The dimensions of this transformer (mentioned as transformer 4 now onward in this thesis work) are given in table 16. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Winding Stack Height (LV) Winding Stack Height (HV) Core Limb width (Diameter of core limb) Width of the top yoke and bottom base of the core Space between the limbs (measured between the centre of a limb and centre of adjacent limb) Height of each limb (without the top and bottom yokes) Tank wall thickness Dimension 230 mm 230 mm 90 mm 90 mm 255 mm 240 mm 5 mm

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8 9 10 11 12 13

Tank length (Outer) Tank height (Outer) Oil duct width between core central limb and LV winding Oil duct width between LV and HV Coils Thickness of LV winding Thickness of HV winding
Table 16. Dimensions of the considered Transformer 4

800 mm 580 mm 10 mm 10 mm 15 mm 30 mm

The dimensions of the transformer are represented pictorially in figure 5.21.

FIG 5.21: TRANSFORMER 4: GEOMETRY

The transformer geometry is divided into finite number of elements and this virtual elemental division with the dimensions is as shown in figure 5.22 (elements are shown as same size in 76

figure only for the clarity purpose though in the simulation they are considered according to the actual dimensions).

FIG 5.22: TRANSFORMER 4: ELEMENTAL DIVISION

On performing the finite element analysis on the transformer using the FEA Software tool following the same elemental division shown in fig. 5.22, the flux density distribution across the transformer geometry is obtained. It is not necessary to limit the elements to minimum number and if required, more number of divisions can be made. Figure 5.23 shows the transformer modeled in the FEA tool NISA and figure 5.24 shows the flux density distribution obtained after performing Finite Element Analysis on the considered transformer geometry.

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FIG. 5.23: TRANSFORMER 4: FEA Implementation in NISA

The material properties used in the analysis in the implementation are as given in table 17. Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 MATERIAL Windings (Copper) Transformer oil Core (CRGO steel) Tank (Structural steel) MUXX(1/or) SIXX(1/) 795800 795800 400 800 58000000 0 4000000 4000000

Table 17. Material Properties: FEA Implementation of Transformer 4

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FIG. 5.24: TRANSFORMER 4: Flux density distribution

From the flux density distribution and the values of flux density grossed over each element, as generated by the tool, the values of core losses are calculated in each element division of the core as explained in the equations 4.8 and 4.9. The values of coefficients Kh and Ke of the core are 0.0062 and 3.48 respectively. The value of form factor Kf is 1.1 while the thickness of lamination t was 0.27mm. The loss in the each element division of the winding is calculated from the ohmic loss calculations given in equation 4.7. The electrical conductivity of copper is 58x106 mho/m. The values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity of the different materials are given in table 18.

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Sl. No. 1 2 3 4

Material CRGO steel Copper Mineral Oil Structural Steel

Description Core Windings Transformer Insulating oil Tank

Specific Heat Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Capacity (J/kgoC) 26 400 0.72 45 450 386 2060 400

Table 18. Material Thermal Properties: Thermal Modeling for Transformer 4

Using the values of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat capacity, the values of resistances as well as capacitances to be used for modeling of each element are calculated. The value of z wherever required is used as 0.09m. The tank to ambient heat dissipation and the heat sink behavior of tank surface is modeled using the heat sink resistivity of the transformer tank as 0.05 ohm /m2. The radiators are modeled and the value of each resistance to be connected both to the top oil as well as bottom oil is calculated as 3.464 . The different modeling constraints discussed in section 4.3.2 are taken care of and the convection in the oil is also modeled as explained in section 4.3.5 and the final thermal model of the transformer is constructed as shown in figure 5.25 and the obtained Thermal Profile across the considered geometry of the transformer is given in figure 5.26.

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FIG. 5.25: TRANSFORMER 4: Thermal Model

81

FIG. 5.26: TRANSFORMER 4: Thermal Profile

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The critical points have been tabulated as given in table 19. Sl. No. 1 2 Parameter Winding temperature Top Oil Temperature Value from thermal profile 42.380C 36.760C

Table 19. Thermal Model Implementation - Comparison with test values for Transformer 4

5.5

Discussions

An observation of the obtained results shows that the obtained results are near to the measured values, which shows that the model is definitely reliable. Though there is some deviation of the obtained results with the actual measurements, it is owed to the some limitations of modeling and the simplifications assumed while modeling. The credibility of the model is proved in its application to different types of transformers and yet yielding reliable results. An observation of winding temperatures shows that the values obtained from the thermal model for the shell type of transformers is less than the values obtained from direct measurements. In the case of core type transformers, the temperatures obtained from the thermal model are greater than the direct measurement values. This difference in trend perhaps comes because of the two dimensional modeling involved. When the model is assumed to be in the two dimensional plane, the third dimensional width does not get modeled, the core type design allows lesser oil to get included as the design in 2-d plane occupies a lot of space in the plane. However, in practical implementation, the volume of oil is maintained the same irrespective of the design for a given rating of transformer. Owing to the limitations of the two dimensional modeling over the realistic three dimensional modeling, the model show difference in trends in temperature results for the core type transformers and shell type transformers. 83

Chapter 6
6 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter summarizes the proposed modeling and gives the conclusions. The future potential of the work is also discussed.

6.1

Conclusions

Transformer thermal modeling is an important aspect to be considered while aiming at the optimization of its usage, because with all the advances in the design techniques of the transformer, it is the thermal limitations that hinder the exploitation of the transformers loadability. Particularly in a country like India, where the cost of power system infrastructure and operation is increasing which results in the undesirable hike in the cost of electrical power, this exploitation of available loading capability is a must. Because of the issues with unavailability of various measurement data and the cumbersomeness of the processes, the standard IEEE and IEC models and other basic level thermal models could not present a very satisfactory solution to this problem and this has caused the suboptimal and uneconomical usage of transformer loadability particularly in the case of dynamically changing loads and this in turn results in the wastage of transformer loadability capacity. The current work presents a thermal model, based on loss distribution, for the transformer in the form of an electrical mesh circuit which simulates the thermal behavior of the transformer. The thermal model discussed uses the concepts of Finite Element Analysis technique and thermal-electrical analogy and designs the model using the distribution of losses, instead of lumping them. The potential difference at various nodes in the circuit, when the thermal model is solved is the temperature values measured with respect to ambient. So the output temperatures are actually temperature rise above ambient. Therefore, depending on maximum 84

limit on the temperature, one can understand that the loading on the temperature on hotter days cannot be as high as on cooler days. The parameters of the thermal model are based on the dimensions of the transformer and properties of the materials. So, for a transformer with different dimensions and properties, the parameter values used in the thermal model would be different. As our interest was more towards the steady state thermal behavior, our designed model gives steady state response. If required, we can modify the circuit and use that model to simulate the transient behavior too. The work has been presented in six different chapters and this chapter summarizes some of the observations and conclusions from each of the previous chapters. Chapter 1 provides the basic introduction to the problem by discussing the contribution of thesis to the problem of thermal modeling of transformers. An overview of the transformer is provided wherein the cause and effects of the heat accumulation and temperature rise inside the transformer is explained. Chapter 2 presents the thermal concepts required to understand the heating process, the heat generation and dissipation inside the transformer. The heat generation and dissipation and the different modes of heat dissipation is presented in general for a solid body and then explained with respect to the transformer. The various axioms that guide the heating and cooling process are explained. Then, the process of heat accumulation in the transformer is explained with the reasons for its happening. The consequences of heat accumulation are given with emphasis laid on the insulation ageing and its undesirable effects. Chapter 3 presents the literature survey of the transformer thermal modeling techniques. The techniques of measuring transformer interior temperatures are classified into the empirical formulae which include the IEEE formulations to calculate the winding hotspot temperatures for a given loading, the usage of fiber optic sensors which is a costly and the mathematical thermal models. The mathematical thermal models are further classified as basic thermal models, thermal models that use computer based simulations, thermal models using advanced techniques like artificial intelligence techniques. The chapter provides the concluding remarks 85

discussing the drawbacks of these techniques, emphasizing the need for wider thermal profile, thus providing a platform based on which the proposed thermal model technique was developed. Chapter 4 forms the crux of this thesis, where the thermal modeling of transformer using the loss distribution has been presented. The proposed model with necessary theory has been explained along with elaboration on various modeling issues. The technique is dealt in two parts, namely, finding out the loss distribution in the transformer and developing the thermal model for the transformer with the calculated loss distribution. Summarizing the methodology of the thermal model, the losses in the core and coils for a particular loading condition are found out. The issue of non uniform core loss distribution is handled by using Finite Element Analysis. The values of losses along with the values of resistances and capacitance are used to construct the thermal model for that particular loading condition, which gives the corresponding steady state thermal profile. The model, which has been explained in theory is explained with examples in the subsequent chapters Chapter 5 deals with the implementation of the proposed model on four different transformer designs. Two single phase shell type transformer designs, a single phase core type transformer design and a three phase core type transformer designs are taken and the model is implemented on each of them. To ease the understanding of the proposed thermal model, presented in chapter 4, the implementation of the model on a practical transformer design is explained in detail. The modeling constraints, the values of different parameters and properties and their calculations are presented and the simulation results which yield the thermal profile for the considered transformer geometry are presented. Three more different transformer designs are taken and the modeling as well as the thermal model with the obtained thermal profile results has been presented. A comparison with the transformer heat run test results is presented in all the cases for the purpose of assessment of the results. The results, which are not far away from the test cases, do give the credibility to the model and its application to

86

different transformers. This model is a general model for any type of transformer and hence can be executed to any kind of transformer construction as well as rating.

6.2

Future Scope of the Work

The work presented is a model towards development of a comprehensive thermal model to simulate the thermal behavior of the transformer which is based on the loss distribution across the transformer geometry. Since the quest for perfection is a never ending one, the work leaves further scope for future research potential. A few pointers for future research are given below. The model can be fine tuned by increasing the number of elements and reducing the individual element size such that the model gives the temperature at almost every minute location on the transformer cross section. Also, the modeling of mitred construction of core, joints and the nuts and bolts which do affect the flux path can be included in the model. The model can be extended to study the effect of transient loads on transformer thermal status. The current work presents the two dimensional analysis of the transformer. However, developing a three dimensional model would be better in improving the accuracy of the results and better modeling of the transformer geometry, and that is left to the future scope. In addition, the application of the technique of Finite Element Analysis to the problem of transformers has a huge potential for future research. This technique can be used for stray loss evaluation in the transformer, leakage flux calculations, optimal design and location of magnetic shunts to reduce the stray losses, and the design of baffles to direct oil flow etc. Particularly the problem of design of magnetic shunts to reduce the leakage fluxes and hence stray loss due to leakage fluxes can be properly handled with the technique of Finite Element Analysis.

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7 APPENDIX

The appendix gives the necessary details and introduction about the software used in the current work.

7.1

Introduction to Finite Element Analysis NISA

NISA provides an integrated and comprehensive suite of general and special purpose programs for computer aided engineering (CAE). The NISA Suite of FEA Software covers a wide spectrum of engineering applications, e.g., linear and nonlinear structural and heat transfer analysis, structural and shape optimization, electromagnetic analysis, fatigue analysis, fluid flow analysis and printed circuit board stress and heat transfer analysis. It consists of three phases of programming, all of which are interfaced with the parent module. They are:

Pre Processing: Deals with the creation of model, finite element modeling and defining the

analysis and boundary conditions

Analysis: The actual analysis chosen in the Pre processing module is applied to the

problem and the results are showed in the output file

Post processing: The viewing of results in display and further conversions of code from

one programming format to the other etc, come under this phase of programming. The two major analysis types in NISA/EMAG are the electric field analysis (EFIELD) and the magnetic field analysis (MFIELD). Magnetic field analysis is used in the project, since magnetic fields are being dealt with. NISA is used to find the flux densities across various elements in the designed transformer geometry, which is further used to calculate the losses in various elements and thereby proceed to the thermal model. The analysis chosen is 2D magneto dynamic analysis (MGDN) as it deals with ac sinusoidal excitation and the output desired being the Magnetic flux density. MGDN analysis provides for Magnetic field calculations in 88

magnetic and conducting materials due to sinusoidal (ac) current excitation. The outputs provided would be Magnetic vector potential distribution, Magnetic Flux density distribution, Magnetic field distribution, Eddy current density distribution, Total current density distribution, Electric field distribution due to Eddy currents, Total Electric field distribution, Power loss density distribution, Stored magnetic energy density for each element, Total stored magnetic energy, Total power loss [37].

7.2

Introduction to MULTISIM

A number of schematic based and SPICE based tools are available for solving simulating electrical networks. They solve the electrical networks using circuit theorems and analyses. SPICE based tools require programming, while schematic based tools are more user friendly. A few important tools which are SPICE based, schematic based, and tools integrating both, are HSPICE, PSPCIE, Tanner tool (LTSPICE), MATLAB (SIMULINK), MULTISIM etc. Of these MULTISIM is chosen, since it is more user-friendly. MULTISIM has the ability to calculate the potentials at different nodes of an electrical circuit. Thus, by using MULTISIM the potentials at every node of the thermal model are being calculated, which gives the temperature at those points on the transformer geometry using the values of losses calculated from the flux densities available through simulation in NISA. The measurements of interest are recorded by connecting the oscilloscopes (or any desired measuring instrument available from the library) and then running the simulation.

89

PUBLICATIONS [1] Haritha V V S S, T R Rao, Ramamoorty M, Amit Jain, Thermal Monitoring of Electrical Utility Transformers, Proceedings of 7th IEEE POWERCON 2010, 24-28 October, 2010, Hangzhou, China. [2] Haritha V V S S, T R Rao, Ramamoorty M, Amit Jain, Thermal Modeling of Electrical Utility Transformers Using Finite Element Analysis and Thermal Electrical Analogy, Proceedings of 3rd IEEE ICPS 2009, 27-29 December, 2009, IIT Kharagpur, India.

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REFERENCES [1] [2] History of Transformers, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer A. K. Sawhney, A Course in Electrical Machine Design by Dhanpat Rai & Co Publications. [3] [4] Indrajit Das Gupta, Design of Transformers by Tata McGraw Hill Publications. IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral Oil Immersed Transformers, IEEE Std C57.911995 (Revision of IEEE Std C57.91-1981, IEEE Std C57.92-1981, and IEEE Std C57.115-1991) [5] Oluwaseun A. Amoda, Daniel J. Tylavsky, Gary A. McCulla and Wesley A. Knuth, A New Model for Predicting the Hottest Spot Temperature in Transformers, Power Symposium, NAPS 2008. [6] Dejan Susa, Matti Lehtonen, Hasse Nordman, Dynamic Thermal Modeling of Power Transformers, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, January 2005 [7] Dejan Susa, Matti Lehtonen, Dynamic Thermal Modeling of Power Transformers: Further Development Part I, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, October 2006 [8] Dejan Susa, Matti Lehtonen, Dynamic Thermal Modeling of Power Transformers: Further Development Part II, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, October 2006 [9] Glenn Swift, Tom S. Molsinki, Waldemar Lehn, A Fundamental Approach to Transformer Thermal Modeling Part I: Theory and Equivalent circuit, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, April 2001.

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Haritha V V S S, T R Rao, Ramamoorty M, Amit Jain, Thermal Modeling of Electrical Utility Transformers Using Finite Element Analysis and Thermal Electrical Analogy, Proceedings of 3rd IEEE ICPS 2009, 27-29 December, IIT Kharagpur, India.

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