DAMS What is a Dam?

A dam is an artificial barrier usually constructed across a stream channel to impound water. Timber, rock, concrete, earth, steel or a combination of these materials may be used to build the dam. With the exception of the Great Wall of China, dams are the largest structures ever built. Throughout history, big dams have prevented flooding, irrigated farmland, and generated tremendous amounts of electricity. Without dams, modern life as we know it would simply not be the same. Since the first large-scale dam was built in Egypt more than 5,000 years ago, engineers have devised various types of dams to withstand the forces of a raging river.

Uses of Dams
Despite their controversy, dams serve a number of different functions but one of the largest is to maintain an areas water supply. Many of the worlds largest urban areas are supplied with water from rivers that are blocked by means of dams. Another major use of dams is power generation as hydroelectric power is one of the worlds major sources of electricity. Hydropower is generated when the potential energy of the water on the dam drives a water turbine which in then turns a generator and creates electricity. To best make use of the waters power, a common type of hydroelectric dam uses reservoirs with different levels to adjust the amount of energy generated as it is needed. When demand is low for instance, water is held in an upper reservoir and as demand increases, the water is released into a lower reservoir where it spins a turbine. Some other important uses of dams include a stabilization of water flow and irrigation, flood prevention, navigation and recreation.

Types of Dams
1. Arch Dams are good for narrow, rocky locations. They are curved, and the natural shape of the arch holds back the water in the reservoir. Arch dams, like the El Atazar Dam in Spain, are thin and require less material than any othe type of dam.

El Atazar Dam Arch Dam: Forces The arch squeezes together as the water pushes against it. The weight of the dam also pushes the structure down into the ground. 2. Buttress Dams may be flat or curved, but one thing is certain: a series of supports, or buttresses, brace the dam on the downstream side. Most buttress dams, like the Bartlett Dam in Arizona, are made of reinforced concrete.

Barlett Dam Buttress Dam: Forces Water pushes against the buttress dam, but the buttresses push back and prevent the dam from toppling over. The weight of the buttress dam also pushes down into the ground. 3. Embankment Dams are massive dams made of earth and rock. Like gravity dams, embankment dams rely on their heavy weight to resist the force of the water. But embankment dams are also armed with a dense, waterproof core that prevents water from seeping

through the structure. Tailings dams, large structures that hold back mining waste are a type of embankment dam.

New Waddell Dam Embankment Dam: Forces Water pushes against the embankment dam, but the heavy weight of the dam pushes down into the ground and prevents the structure from falling over. 4. Gravity Dams are massive dams that resist the thrust of water entirely by their own weight. Most gravity dams, like the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington, are expensive to build because they require so much concrete. Still, many people prefer its solid appearance to the thinner arch and buttress dams.

Grand Coulee Dam Gravity Dam: Forces Water pushes against the gravity dam, but the heavy weight of the dam pushes down into the ground and prevents the structure from falling over.

Parts of a Dam
ABUTMENT: The part of the valley side against which the dam is constructed. May also refer to an artificial abutment sometimes constructed as a concrete wall. Right and left abutments are those on respective sides as an observer when viewed looking downstream. BASE WIDTH: The width of the dam measured along the dam/foundation interface. BREACH: An opening or a breakthrough of a dam sometimes caused by rapid erosion of a section of earth embankment by water. CONDUIT: A closed channel to convey the discharge through or under a dam. Usually pipes constructed of concrete or steel. CORE (IMPERVIOUS CORE) (IMPERVIOUS ZONE): A zone of material of low permeability in an embankment dam, hence the terms central core, inclined core, puddle clay core, and rolled clay core. CREST LENGTH: The developed length of the top of the dam. This includes the length of the spillway, powerhouse, navigation lock, fish pass, etc., where these structures form part of the length of the dam. If detached from the dam, these structures should not be included. CREST OF DAM: The term crest of dam is often used when top of spillway and top of dam should be used for referring to the overflow section and dam proper, respectively. CUTOFF: An impervious construction by means of which seepage is reduced or prevented from passing through foundation material. CUTOFF WALL: A wall of impervious material, e.g., concrete, wood pilings, steel sheet piling, built into the foundation to reduce seepage under the dam. DRAINAGE LAYER OR BLANKET: A layer of pervious material placed directly over the foundation material or downstream slope to facilitate seepage drainage of the embankment. May also use an upstream blanket placed on the impoundment floor and upstream embankment to prevent seepage entering the dam. DRAWDOWN: The resultant lowering of water surface level due to release of water from the reservoir. EMBANKMENT: Fill material, usually earth or rock, placed with sloping sides.

EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN: A predetermined plan of action to be taken to reduce the potential for property damage and loss of lives in an area affected by a dam break. FACE: With reference to a structure, the external surface that limits the structure, e.g., the face of the wall or dam. FLASHBOARDS: Lengths of timber, concrete, or steel placed on the crest of a spillway to raise the operating water level but that may be quickly removed in the event of a flood either by tripping a supporting device or by designing the flashboard supports to fail under specified conditions. FOUNDATION OF DAM: The natural material on which the dam structure is placed. FREEBOARD: The vertical distance from the water surface to the lowest elevation at which water would flow over the dam at a section not designed to be overflowed. GATE: In general, a device in which a leaf or member is moved across the waterway from an external position to control or stop the flow. CREST GATE (SPILLWAY GATE): A gate on the crest of a spillway that controls overflow or reservoir water level. FLAP GATE: A gate hinged along one edge, usually either the top or bottom edge. Examples of bottom-hinged flap gates are tilting gates and fish belly gates so called from their shape in cross section. OUTLET GATE: A gate controlling the outflow of water from a reservoir. RADIAL GATE (TAINTER GATE): A gate with a curved upstream plate and radial arms hinged to piers or other supporting structures. SLIDE GATE (SLUICE GATE): A gate that can be opened or closed by sliding in supporting guides. HEEL OF DAM: The junction of the upstream face of a gravity or arch dam with the foundation surface. In the case of an embankment dam the junction is referred to as the upstream toe of the dam. INTAKE: Any structure in a reservoir, dam, or river through which water can be drawn into an outlet pipe, flume, etc. LOW LEVEL OUTLET (BOTTOM OUTLET): An opening at a low level from the reservoir generally used for emptying the impoundment. OUTLET: An opening through which water can be freely discharged for a particular purpose from a reservoir. PERVIOUS ZONE: A part of the cross section of an embankment dam comprising material of high permeability.

RIPRAP: A layer of large uncoursed stones, broken rock, or precast blocks placed in random fashion on the upstream slope of an embankment dam, on a reservoir shore, or on the sides of a channel as a protection against wave and ice action. SEEPAGE COLLAR: A projecting collar usually of concrete or steel built around the outside

of a pipe, tunnel, or conduit, under an embankment dam, to lengthen the seepage path along the outer surface of the conduit. SPILLWAY: A structure over or through which flood flows are discharged. If the flow is controlled by gates, it is considered a controlled spillway; if the elevation of the spillway crest is the only control, it is considered an uncontrolled spillway. AUXILIARY SPILLWAY (EMERGENCY SPILLWAY): A secondary spillway designed to operate only during exceptionally large floods. OGEE SPILLWAY (OGEE SECTION): An overflow spillway, which in cross section the crest, downstream slope, and bucket have an S or ogee form of curve. The shape is intended to match the underside of the nappe at its upper extremities. SPILLWAY CHANNEL (SPILLWAY TUNNEL): A channel or tunnel conveying water from the spillway to the river downstream. STOPLOGS: Large logs, timbers or steel beams placed on top of each other with their ends held in guides on each side of a channel or conduit so as to provide a cheaper or more easily handled means of temporary closure than a bulkhead gate. STRUCTURAL HEIGHT: The vertical distance from the lowest point of natural ground on the downstream side of the dam to the highest part of the dam which would impound water. TOE OF DAM: The junction of the downstream face of a dam with the natural ground surface. This is also referred to as the downstream toe. For an embankment dam the junction of the upstream face with ground surface is called the upstream toe. TOP OF DAM: The elevation of the upper most surface of a dam, usually a road or walkway, excluding any parapet wall, railings, etc. TOP THICKNESS (TOP WIDTH): The thickness or width of a dam at the top of the dam. In general, the term thickness is used for gravity and arch dams, width is used for other dams. TRAINING WALL: A wall built to confine or guide the flow of water. TRASH RACK: A screen comprising metal or reinforced concrete bars located in the waterway at an intake so as to prevent the ingress of floating or submerged debris.

PANTABANGAN DAM

Pantabangan Dam is an earth-fill embankment dam on the Pampanga River located in Pantabangan in Nueva Ecija province of the Philippines. The multi-purpose dam provides water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation while its reservoir, Pantabangan Lake, affords flood control. The reservoir is considered one of the largest in Southeast Asia and also one of the cleanest in the Philippines. Construction on the dam began in 1971 and it was complete in 1977.

History
In May 1969, the Congress of the Philippines authorized the development of the Pampanga Basin with Republic Act No. 5499. In October of that year, detailed studies of the Pantabangan site were carried out and lasted two years. By June 11, 1971, Pantabangan was an old town of around 300 years old. President Ferdinand Marcos and many others arrived for a ground breaking ceremony in Palayupay, Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija, to signal the beginning of the construction of Pantabangan Dam. The dam went into operation in February 1977 and was completed later in May. Approximately 1,300 people were relocated from the dam's reservoir zone.

Design
The dam is a 107 m (351 ft) tall and 1,615 m (5,299 ft) long embankment-type with 12,000,000 cu yd (9,174,658 m3) of homogeneous earth-fill and an impervious core. The crest of the dam is 12 m (39 ft) wide while the widest part of its base is 535 m (1,755 ft). The dam's crest sits at an elevation of 232 m (761 ft) and is composed of three sections: the main dam, a saddle dam, and an auxiliary dam located with the spillway. The spillway is a chute-type controlled by three radial gates but equipped with an overflow section as well. The design discharge of the spillway is 4,200 m3/s (148,322 cu ft/s). The dam's reservoir

has a gross capacity of 2,996,000,000 m3 (2,428,897 acreft) and 2,083,000,000 m3 (1,688,716 acreft) of that volume is active (or useful) for irrigation and power. The dam sits at the head of a 853 km2 (329 sq mi) catchment area and its reservoir has a surface area of 69.62 km2 (27 sq mi) and elevation of 230 m (755 ft) when at its maximum level. The reservoir's life is estimated at 107 years due to silt from denudation. The dam was design to withstand an intensity 10 earthquake. The power house is located at the base of the main dam and contains two 50 MW Francis turbine-generators for an installed capacity of 100 MW. Each turbine receives water via a 6 m (20 ft) diameter penstock. When the water is discharged, it is released into a 250 m (820 ft) long tailrace channel where it re-enters the river.