The Challenges of Integrating Photovoltaic Systems On Power Quality

i.
DECLARATION:
I, Roland Nshieteh Mumuluh declare that this thesis is entirely the product of my own work and has not been presented or submitted in any institution or university. The ideas taken from other authors have been properly acknowledged and referenced. Thus the thesis entitled the challenges of integrating photovoltaic systems on power quality meets the regulations and requirements governing the award of a BSc. (Honours) in Energy Systems and Industrial Automation of the Institute of Technology Blanchardstown, Dublin, Ireland.
ii
ii.
ABSTRACT:
In the past, and even today, the quality of power had and has always been an area of concern to professionals in the field of Electrical Engineering but the interest in power quality has been renewed again due to the deregulation of the electricity market and the commitment of nations to cut down greenhouse gas emissions and shortages in fossil fuel. As such, Photovoltaic systems constitute one of the main reasons for the renewed interest in power quality. This thesis looks into the impacts of integrating photovoltaic plants on power quality and the results revealed that the voltage supplied by the inverter contains harmonics that exceeds the 5% stated limit of the Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers regulation 519-1992. The supply obtained from the PV inverter was compared to that supplied by the Electricity supply board of Ireland under same load conditions and as it would appear from the measurements conducted, the total harmonic distortions for the voltage when powered from the Electrical supply board of Ireland was within the acceptable limit of the Institution of Electrical Engineers regulation 519-1992. Power quality is concern with the harmonic contents in an alternating current waveform, variation in voltages, transient voltages and current, and continuity in service. Poor power quality reduces the efficiency and reliability of the supply system and can result to significant loss and damage to consumers equipment. So harmonics where identified as a potential impact with the integration of photovoltaic generated electricity caused by the conversion process from direct current into alternating current by the inverter and the nature of cloud cover including the amount of solar energy available at the input of the inverter.
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iii.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
This study would not have been achieved without the grace of the almighty God who provided me with the strength required for this work. Most gratefully, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my project supervisor Dr. Douglas Hynes for the time he devoted to me during this study. I would like to thank Mr. Gerard Duke the course coordinator and all the lecturers who taught me towards the award of the Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Energy Systems and Industrial Automation and especially the college technician for providing the necessary equipments to facilitate this thesis. I would like to thank Dr. Shafiuzzaman Khan Khadem of the electrical power research group (Dublin Institute of Technology) for the time he devoted in answering questions regarding Photovoltaic systems and power quality and Dr. Lacour Ayompe for his encouragements. I would like to dedicate this project to my family in Cameroon and especially to my wife Roseline for the support she gave to me during this study.
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CONTENT:
i. DECLARATION: ........................................................................ ii
ii. ABSTRACT: .............................................................................. iii iii. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: ............................................................ iv iv. TABLES:.................................................................................. ix Vi. FIGURES: ................................................................................ x vii. ACRONYMS: .......................................................................... xii 1.0 INTRODUCTION: .................................................................... 1 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW: ............................................................ 3 2.1 2.2 2.3 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 3 GRID INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS ........................................ 3 GRID REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 4 2.3.1 2.4 GRID SPECIFICATIONS FOR PV INVERTERS........................ 5
TYPES OF LAYOUTS FOR PV MODULES ...................................... 7 OVERVIEW........................................................................ 7 CENTRAL LAYOUT FOR PV PLANTS ....................................... 8 MODULE INVERTER LAYOUT .............................................. 10 STRING LAYOUT FOR PV MODULES .................................... 11 MULTIPLE STRING CONFIGURATION OF PV MODULES .......... 13 DISCONNECTION MECHANISMS ........................................ 14
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.5
POWER QUALITY .................................................................. 14 WHAT IS POWER QUALITY ................................................ 14 PROBLEMS ARISING FROM POWER NETWORKS .................. 15 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF INTEGRATING PV SYSTEMS ........... 16
2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3
2.5.3.1 INRUSH CURRENT ...................................................... 17 2.5.3.2 OVER VOLTAGE .......................................................... 18 v
2.5.3.3 OUTPUT POWER FLUCTUATIONS .................................. 19 2.5.3.4 FREQUENCY FLUCTUATIONS ........................................ 20 2.5.3.5 HARMONICS .............................................................. 21 2.6 2.7 2.8 CAUSES OF HARMONICS IN PV INVERTERS ........................... 22 STANDARDS FOR HARMONICS ............................................. 23 SOLUTIONS TO HARMONICS IN POWER SYSTEMS .................. 25 PASSIVE FILTERING AND REACTIVE COMPENSATION ........ 25 ACTIVE FILTERING AND STATIC COMPENSATION .............. 26
2.8.1 2.82
3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 27 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 27 RESEARCH QUESTION.............................................................. 27 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................... 28 RESEARCH TOOLS ................................................................... 30 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................ 36
4.0 RESULTS .............................................................................. 37 4.1 4.2 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 37 OSRAM INCANDESCENT LAMPS .............................................. 37
4.2.1 PV INVERTER WAVEFORM ...................................................... 38 4.2.2 PV INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH ............................................ 38 4.2.3 ESB WAVEFORM ................................................................... 39 4.2.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH ......................................................... 39 4.3 COMPACT FLOURESCENT LAMPS ............................................... 40
4.3.1 INVERTER WAVEFORM .......................................................... 40 4.3.2 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH ................................................ 41 4.3.3 ESB WAVEFORM ................................................................... 41 4.3.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH ......................................................... 42 vi
4.4
T5 FLOURESCENT LAMP ........................................................... 43
4.4.1 INVERTER WAVEFORM .......................................................... 43 4.4.2 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH ................................................ 44 4.4.3 ESB WAVEFORM ................................................................... 44 4.4.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH ........................................................ 45 4.5 T12 FLOURESCENT LAMP ......................................................... 46
4.5.1 INVERTER WAVEFORM .......................................................... 46 4.5.2 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH ................................................ 47 4.5.3 ESB WAVEFORM .................................................................. 47 4.5.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH ......................................................... 48 4.6 T8 FLOURESCENT LAMP ............................................................. 49 4.6.1 ESB WAVEFORM ................................................................... 49 4.6.2 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH ........................................................ 50 4.6.3 INVERTER WAVEFORM .......................................................... 51 4.6.4 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH ................................................ 51 4.7 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE .......................................................... 52
4.7.1 ESB WAVEFORM AT 50 Hz MAX. SPEED ................................... 52 4.7.2 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 50HZ MAX. SPEED .......................... 53 4.7.3 ESB WAVEFORM AT 30Hz 60% SPEED ..................................... 54 4.7.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 30HZ 60% SPEED .......................... 55 4.7.4 ESB WAVEFORM AT 15HZ 30% SPEED .................................... 56 4.7.5 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 15HZ 30% SPEED .......................... 57 4.7.8 INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 50Hz MAX SPEED ............................ 58 4.7.9 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 50Hz MAX. SPEED ................. 59 4.7.10 4.7.11 INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 30Hz 60% SPEED ....................... 60 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 30Hz 60% SPEED ............. 61 vii
4.7.12 4.7.13 4.7.14
INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 15Hz 30% SPEED ....................... 62 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 15Hz 30% SPEED ............. 63 TABLE OF RESULTS FOR VSD ............................................ 64
5.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ................................................... 65 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4 PV INVERTER POWER QUALITY ANALYSIS .................................. 65 INCANDESCENT LAMPS ............................................................ 67 COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS ............................................... 67 T5 FLOURESCENT LAMPS ......................................................... 68 T8 FLOURESCENT LAMPS ......................................................... 68
5.5 T12 FLUORESCENT LAMPS .......................................................... 69 5.5 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES......................................................... 70
6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 71 6.1 6.2 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 71 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................. 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... 74 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................ 80 DATA SHEETS FOR POWERQUALITY ANALYSER................................... 80
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iv.
TABLES:
Table 1: Power quality problems ....................................................... 16 Table 2: Recommended harmonic voltage distortion ............................ 24 Table 3: Incandescent % THD for current and voltage ......................... 37 Table 4: CFL % THD for current and voltage ...................................... 42 Table 5: T5 THD for current and voltage ............................................ 45 Table 6: T12 THD for current and voltage .......................................... 48 Table 7: T8 THD with ESB supply ...................................................... 50 Table 8: Values for figure 40 ............................................................ 52 Table 9: Results for figure 41 ........................................................... 53 Table 10: Values for figure 42 .......................................................... 54 Table 11: Values for figure 43 .......................................................... 55 Table 12: Results for figure 44 ......................................................... 56 Table 13: Results for figure 45 ......................................................... 57 Table 14: Results for figure 46 ......................................................... 58 Table 15: Results for figure 47 ......................................................... 59 Table 16: Results for figure 48 ......................................................... 60 Table 17: Results for figure 49 ......................................................... 61 Table 18: Results for figure 50 ......................................................... 62 Table 19: Results for figure 51 ......................................................... 63 Table 20: Table of results for VSD ..................................................... 64
ix
Vi.
FIGURES:
Figure 1: Central layout parallel PV systems (Carbone, 2010)................. 8 Figure 2: Central layout series PV systems (Lindgren, 2000) .................. 9 Figure 3: Layout for module oriented inverters (Carbone, 2010) ........... 10 Figure 4: Layout of string inverters (Carbone, 2010) ........................... 12 Figure 5: Multi string inverter layout (Carbone, 2010) ......................... 13 Figure 6: Diagram of Harmonics waveform (Ehara, 2009) .................... 21 Figure 7: Inverter with PWM (Hong & Martison, 2011) ......................... 22 Figure 8: Components of a PV system (mapawatt, 2009) ..................... 30 Figure 9: Power & quality analyser .................................................... 31 Figure 10: MN 93A current clamp ...................................................... 31 Figure 11: Multimeter ...................................................................... 32 Figure 12: Inverter ......................................................................... 32 Figure 13: DC Power source ............................................................. 33 Figure 14: T12 fluorescent lamp ....................................................... 33 Figure 15: T8 fluorescent lamp ......................................................... 34 Figure 16: T5 fluorescent lamp ......................................................... 34 Figure 17: Compact fluorescent lamps ............................................... 35 Figure 18: Osram incandescent lamps ............................................... 35 Figure 19: Variable speed drive SK 1200037 ...................................... 36 Figure 20: PV inverter waveform for incandescent lamps ..................... 38 Figure 21: Inverter harmonic graph for incandescent lamps ................. 38 Figure 22: ESB wave form for incandescent lamps .............................. 39 Figure 23: ESB Harmonic graph for incandescent lamps ....................... 39 Figure 24: Compact fluorescent lamps fed from a PV inverter ............... 40 Figure 25: CFL harmonic graph from PV inverter ................................. 41 Figure 26: Waveform for CFL with ESB supply .................................... 41 Figure 27: Harmonic graph for CFL using ESB power ........................... 42 Figure 28: Waveform for T5 fluorescent from PV inverter ..................... 43 Figure 29: Harmonic graph for T5 fluorescent from inverter ................. 44 x
Figure 30: Waveform from T5 with ESB supply ................................... 44 Figure 31: Harmonic graph for T5 with ESB supply .............................. 45 Figure 32: T12 Waveform from PV inverter ........................................ 46 Figure 33: T12 Harmonic graph from PV inverter ................................ 47 Figure 34: Waveform for T12 with ESB supply .................................... 47 Figure 35: Harmonic graph for T12 with ESB supply ............................ 48 Figure 36: T8 waveform from ESB supply .......................................... 49 Figure 37: T8 harmonic graph with ESB supply ................................... 50 Figure 38: Inverter waveform for T8 fluorescent ................................. 51 Figure 39: Inverter harmonic graph for T8 fluorescent ......................... 51 Figure 40: ESB Waveform for VSD at max speed ................................ 52 Figure 41: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 50 Hz ............................... 53 Figure 42: ESB Waveform for VSD at 30Hz ........................................ 54 Figure 43: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 30Hz ................................ 55 Figure 44: ESB Waveform for VSD at 15Hz ........................................ 56 Figure 45: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 15Hz ................................ 57 Figure 46: Inverter waveform at 50Hz max speed ............................... 58 Figure 47: Inverter harmonic graph at 50Hz max. speed ..................... 59 Figure 48: Inverter waveform at 30Hz 60% speed .............................. 60 Figure 49: Inverter harmonic graph at 30Hz 60% speed ...................... 61 Figure 50: Inverter waveform at 15Hz 30% speed .............................. 62 Figure 51: Inverter harmonic graph at 15Hz 30% speed ...................... 63
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vii.
AC AFC ADD CFL DC DG ESB EMI IEEE IEC LV MPPT PCS PV PWM PCC PG RMS
ACRONYMS:
Alternating current Automatic frequency control Automatic disconnection device Compact fluorescent lamp Direct current Distributed generation Electricity supply board Ireland Electromagnetic interference Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers International Electro technical commission Low voltage Maximum power tracking Power conditioning system Photovoltaic Pulse with modulation Point of common coupling Photovoltaic generator Root mean square value of voltage or current Static compensation Total harmonic distortion 38mm fluorescent tube 25mm fluorescent tube 16mm fluorescent tube Variable speed drive
STATCOM THD T12 T8 T5 VSD
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1.0 INTRODUCTION:
The research in Photovoltaic connected plants was chosen due to its benefits in providing a renewable form of energy to the power system and also provide voltage support; reduce transmission losses as well as improving the reliability of the system. Since the national grid in Ireland has not yet incorporated PV systems into its power system, and in view of Irelands commitment to cut down carbon emissions, this research was also chosen as a step forward into the possibilities of encouraging the use of PV generated electricity in Ireland. The study also looks into power quality with regard to IEEE 519 -1992 and compares the power quality of some electrical loads. Although photovoltaic plants enhance the functioning of the electrical power system, it also presents some challenges to the quality of power such as harmonic pollution. Solar irradiation posses adverse effects onto the system as it leads to over voltages, output power fluctuations, frequency fluctuations and inrush currents. Therefore, power quality ascertains the suitability of electrical energy delivered to the consumer. The term power quality actually relates to the quality of the voltage and current at the point of common coupling and poor power quality can result to malfunctioning of equipments, blackout, and damages to appliances. This thesis is made up of six chapters of which the first chapter introduces the thesis. Chapter two of this study review literatures in photovoltaic integration and power quality. The literature reviewed looks into the following: Grid integration of PV systems, grid requirements, types of layout for PV inverters, power quality, potential impacts of integrating PV systems, the causes of harmonics in PV system, standards for harmonics, and solutions to harmonics in power systems. The procedures and methods employed for this research are covered in chapter three and include the research question, research methodology, and research tools. In chapter four the results obtained on the impacts of integrating 1
photovoltaic systems on power quality are presented. It contains mainly waveforms and harmonic graphs for different loads. The loads considered are outlined under research tools in chapter 3 of this thesis and the procedures followed are same as detailed in the research methodology. The power quality is measured using two different power sources, a PV inverter and the ESB supply. Discussions of results are presented in chapter five and chapter six covers the recommendations and conclusions of this thesis.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW:
2.1 INTRODUCTION Existing literatures in Photovoltaic systems and power quality published by various authors are covered in this chapter. The literature review will look into the following: Grid integration of PV systems Grid requirements Types of layout for PV modules Power quality Potential impacts of integrating PV systems The causes of harmonics in PV system Standards for harmonics, and Solutions to harmonics in power systems
2.2
GRID INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS
The interest to integrate solar generation onto the grid has risen due to the need to reduce green house gasses and shortages in fossil fuel. Given that losses occurs in long transmission lines, the integration of solar electricity leads to efficiency in the power system and reduces emissions (Mohanty et al., 2012). The benefits of grid integration of renewable are that they provide voltage support, diversification of energy sources, reduce transmission losses and improve systems reliability (Yu et al., 2012). The integration of electricity generated from PV plants highlights some challenges to the PV system and the grid. In a grid integrated system, the PV system is connected to the electrical distribution system and certain
considerations regarding power quality must be satisfied for the safe integration of PV systems onto the distribution grid.
2.3
GRID REQUIREMENTS
There are certain requirements associated with the grid when connecting PV plants, some considerations must be taken into account when the feed in point between the power plant and the grid are further away and viceversa. According to Farhoodnea et al., (2013) grid voltages also reduces whenever large amounts of power is consumed or taken from the grid and the integration of electricity from PV plants onto the grid also increases grid voltage. So then, it can be seen that the integration of electricity from PV plants supports the grid especially during periods when demands are higher on the public grid (Ribeiro et al., 2012). The high demand of power from the grid by consumers and the increase in electricity fed from PV plants usually doesnt occur at same time, which therefore implies that measures are required to properly manage and resolve the increase in voltage than the grid requires (Yu et al., 2012). Furthermore, in instances whereby consumption is low and power supplied to the grid is higher than demand, current flow can be reversed in the grid and some grids cannot manage such circumstances (Reni, 2012).Thus the increasing level of renewable into the transmission system introduces some challenges to power quality. With grid integrated solar electricity, a power electronics inverter plays an important role in that; it integrates the solar electricity to the grid in accordance with quality standards. The challenges encountered with the use of inverters exist in the form of harmonics injected into the transmission system due to the switching of high frequency inverters, thereby creating power quality disturbances if not managed properly (Farhoodnea et al., 2013).
Reitsma (2011) stated that, it is important that electricity from PV systems when integrated into the grid shouldnt distort the power quality of the grid. The public grid uses alternating current (sinusoidal) having frequency and voltage that are stable. It is also required that the harmonic components are limited with regard to some standards and guidelines (IEEE, 1992). So the use of inverters allows the PV plants to satisfy the frequency, voltage and harmonic requirements for electricity to be fed onto the public grid and the method in which the PV system is integrated into the grid highlights three important points to be considered, namely: Power quality PV layout and design, and Personal safety (from mains interference)
2.3.1 GRID SPECIFICATIONS FOR PV INVERTERS Liserre (2011) points out that certain requirements must be satisfied when connecting PV systems using root mean square values of voltages with proper measurements. It is required that the inverter shall not provide power to the grid whenever the grid frequency is beyond the range of plus/minus 1HZ (+/- 1 Hz). The tripping time shall be 0.2 seconds whenever such frequency variations are identified. The PV plant requires a power factor exceeding 0.9 lagging during periods when the PV generator produces power that exceeds 50% rated. So then, to cope with these requirements the voltage of the grid and its frequency must be properly calculated and monitored frequently and accurately. 5
Though grid disturbances are not a new topic and many utilities are familiar with those disturbances, however, the topic has taken a new direction due the nature of current loads and rapid changes of customers demand. The regulations require a power factor greater than 0.9. Therefore, good synchronization of grid voltage and current is required.
o The grid standards and code specifies that in order to deal with harmonics a clean reference is required for the current. o Any transient associated with grid connections must be reduced so as to prevent tripping of the inverter.
With higher power distributed generation, there are requirements for voltage support or reactive power injection capability and support of frequency or active power drop.
A broad range of frequency and voltage exist within micro-grid distributed generation networks and approximated voltage parameters are involved in the control loops.
2.4
TYPES OF LAYOUTS FOR PV MODULES
2.4.1 OVERVIEW The quantity of electrical power generated is larger when modules of photoelectric systems are joined together. A string is formed when many modules are connected in series while a PV field or PV generator (PG) is formed when strings are connected together. Now with grid-linked PV systems, inverters are employed to link the PV system onto the public AC grid (Carbone, 2010). As aforementioned, inverters for PV systems fulfil several duties such as converting DC to AC. Inverters incorporate some protective qualities such that they can monitor the performances of the AC grid and disconnect the PV system from supplying the grid in the event of grid irregularities and failures. They also generate harmonics especially when the input to the inverter from the PV does not meet the inverter specifications. Though the inverter has maximum power point tracking (MPPT) that assists the PV array to operate at its highest efficiency despite climatic and environmental conditions, harmonics are produced especially when the MPPT enables the inverter to operate under poor weather conditions (Chung & Ho, 2005). There exist different layouts for PV modules and their inverters for grid integration. Four types of PV module configurations are: 1. central layout of PV modules; 2. module inverter layout (module integrated inverters); 3. string layout inverters; and 4. multiple string layout.
2.4.2 CENTRAL LAYOUT FOR PV PLANTS Figure 1 shows a central inverter (conventional) layout with a PV plant. The PV system is controlled by one inverter which is connected in series and, or in parallel through the DC section. With this system, their nominal power ranges from about 100KW to several mega watts and is often used with large scale PV plants (Carrasco et al., 2006).
Figure 1: Central layout parallel PV systems (Carbone, 2010)
Advantages They are cheap due to the use of only one inverter and lower cost per watt. The conversion efficiency of the inverter is high.
DISAVANTAGES Mismatch between strings and PV modules results to high power losses in the plants. Single inverter represents a single failure point for this layout. Poor ability to expand and adapt to consumers requirements due to poor design flexibility Dangers of electric arc can occur in DC wiring 8
Shading is a potential problem to this configuration.
As a consequence, the modular system was introduced in order to overcome the drawbacks of the central layout (Myrzik & Calais, 2003). Figure 2 shows PV modules connected in series resulting to a higher voltage. The circuit incorporates a full bridge rectifier to transmit power to the grid.
Figure 2: Central layout series PV systems (Lindgren, 2000)
2.4.3 MODULE INVERTER LAYOUT The module inverter layout, see figure 3, are also called micro inverters and are directly connected to individual PV modules so that they can receive maximum power directly from each of the modules. Module oriented inverters are more reliable than central type inverters (Garner, 2011). The modules are connected in series on the DC section while on the AC section, they are connected in parallel. They can generate more power to the grid than string type inverters and their nominal power can be several MW. Inverter losses for this layout are greater than string layout inverters. Myrzik & Calais (2003) suggested that with module integrated inverters, it is possible to connect the smallest PV plant into a system and they are much better than central type inverters.
Figure 3: Layout for module oriented inverters (Carbone, 2010)
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Advantages Design and installation is simple, and additional modules can easily be connected into the system. Each module has its own DC/AC inverter. There is high system reliability since there does not exist single failure points for the layout. There is greater flexibility and fault finding is simple. There are reduced mismatch losses as load match for a single PV module is positive throughout its inverter. There is reduced DC wiring. They are more shade tolerant than string type inverters.
Disadvantages They are expensive.
2.4.4 STRING LAYOUT FOR PV MODULES According to Garner (2011), a string of PV panels, see figure 4, can be connected in series to increase the voltage and reduce the current to be fed into the grid. Currently, string type inverters are widely used and each string has one inverter. The string was introduced so as to increase the efficiency of the system as well as reduce the cost of the expensive modular oriented inverter. The string is a compromise between the modular type and the central inverter and since its invention, it has remained the most popular configuration. Their power ranges between 400 to 1000W with an input voltage of about 100-400V (Lindgren, 2000).
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Figure 4: Layout of string inverters (Carbone, 2010)
Advantages Each string incorporates a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) which is useful in the occurrences of mismatch conditions. Disadvantages It is expensive as each sting has its own inverter.
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2.4.5 MULTIPLE STRING CONFIGURATION OF PV MODULES The energy flow from the photovoltaic string is much higher so as to eliminate the need for amplification. Given that PV modules are expensive, the obvious decision sometimes is to use fewer modules and provide for voltage amplification (Molina et al., 2010). In this arrangement, many strings are usually interfaced. A DC-DC converter is employed to boost the voltage after which the entire system is connected to a general DC bus and fed into a DC-AC inverter for grid interfacing. Figure 5 shows the layout for a PV system with a multi string inverter (Carbone, 2010).
Figure 5: Multi string inverter layout (Carbone, 2010)
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2.4.6 DISCONNECTION MECHANISMS According to Remmers (2012), personnel safety is a point to consider when feeding solar power systems into public grids. Thus, in the event of grid shut down for maintenance work and repairs, there should be a mechanism to prevent the generating plants from feeding electricity to the grid. Most often, small scale PV generating plants would incorporate automatic disconnection devices (ADD). The ADD is capable of disconnecting the PV system from the national grid if it senses grid breakdown, fluctuations in frequency and voltage levels beyond authorized limits (Leslie, 2003). Sometimes, manual disconnection devices are used.
2.5 POWER QUALITY

2.5.1 WHAT IS POWER QUALITY Power quality is the study of voltage and current waveforms in an AC network. It is concerned with the availability of harmonics in the line voltage and across load currents (Khadem et al., 2010). The availability of spikes and several other distortions including fleeting low voltages are all associated with power quality (Golkar, 2009). So whenever the term power quality is applied, issues such as systems reliability, prolonged outages, conductors and dielectric equipment selection and distortions on the AC sinusoidal wave form are all considered (Khare et al., 2012). Though power quality is not a new topic to several utilities, the deregulation of the electricity market has renewed interest in power quality at transmission and distribution sectors. Photovoltaic systems constitute one of the main reasons for the renewed interest in power quality as their outputs largely rely on the nature of cloud cover and the intensity of solar radiation. Even so, perturbations in power quality are not 14
exacerbated
by
irradiation
only,
but
encompass
the
components
associated with the PV system such as the PV module, filters, inverters, and so on (Khadem et al., 2010).
2.5.2
PROBLEMS ARISING FROM POWER NETWORKS
Hasanzadeh et al., (2012) points out that most common problems caused by power systems include: blinking incandescent lamps; failure of capacitors for power factor correction; unnecessary tripping of fuses and circuit breakers; PC malfunctioning; failure in communication systems; shut down of electronic devices; fluorescent lamps often flickering; motor breakdown and overheating; and overheating and breakdown of transformers.
Table 1 outlines some power quality problems. Khadem et al., (2010) point out that power quality defects include: power frequency disturbances; electromagnetic interference; transients; harmonics; and low power factor.
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Table 1: Power quality problems
Among the aforementioned power quality defects, harmonics remains the principal challenge to power systems. The following section looks into the impacts of PV systems on distribution networks.
2.5.3 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF INTEGRATING PV SYSTEMS The integration of PV systems may introduce some problems depending upon the extent of PV penetration and geographical location. Thus, understanding the potential effects of large scale penetration of PV systems on distribution networks can provide solutions well ahead of their deployment (Golkar, 2009). The following impacts are covered in the following sections of this thesis: inrush current; over voltage; output power fluctuation; frequency fluctuation; and harmonics
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2.5.3.1
INRUSH CURRENT
According to Farhoodnea et al., (2013) small unavoidable voltage differences that exist between PV plants and distribution grids often inject an inrush current that flows at the point of common coupling (PCC) between the grid and the PV plant. This inrush current is responsible for thermal stress and nuisance trip (Kageyama et al., 2011). It is important to accurately understand the characteristics of the reactance of a PV module so that techniques for managing PV systems can be developed. PV modules contain reactance that produces transient phenomena (Herman et al., 2012). One of such phenomena is the inrush current that occurs when powered wires are integrated with a reconfigured PV plant and capacitive reactance is the principal factor in this reactance found within PV cells. Hasanzadeh et al., (2012) points out that, the inrush current may also emerge within a photovoltaic system when transformers turn on from a de-energised state and the inrush current can be several times the actual rated current. The design of transformers within PV systems influences the magnitude of this inrush current and it is often very high when the transformer is powered from its low voltage terminals for reasons that the low voltage (LV) winding is closer to the magnetic circuit and as such, its air core reactance is of a lower value. It is then possible that the mechanical stresses associated with the transformer can be responsible for some of the impacts of the high inrush curent (Shertukde & Sauza, 2011). So then to avoid wearing transformers quickly than normally expected, there is a need to minimise frequent on and off switching of PV inverters. Shutting down of transformers often occur at night due to the unavailability of solar energy, but when turned on following sun light, the inrush current can be very damaging and can lead to DC bias current in
17
cases whereby the transformer links the PV inverter to the distribution grid (Hasanzadeh et al., 2012).
2.5.3.2
OVER VOLTAGE
Golkar (2009) points out that PV systems are structured to operate at nearly unity power factor so as to harness as much solar energy as possible. In a real sense, overvoltage arises when the PV supplies only active power to the distribution systems and may result in a change in the flow of reactive power (Mohamed et al., 2010). So then, voltages in the buses can increase as a result of insufficient reactive power and may result in adverse effects upon consumers as well as the distribution system. Over voltages can also occur during periods when the PV supplies high power while consumption is low (Epia, 2012). In some cases, a reverse flow effect can emerge and it is the responsibility of the network authority to ensure that the voltage must not supersede the specified range. In view of resolving over voltages in distribution systems, batteries are often utilised so as to minimise power output losses. As already mentioned above, on a sunny day, the grid voltage can be higher as a result of reverse power flow from the PV. When the voltage exceeds a certain point the PV system has to shutdown despite the vast amount of irradiation (Kandenko, 2007).
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2.5.3.3
OUTPUT POWER FLUCTUATIONS
Fluctuations in output power occur as a result of solar irradiance and cloud movements and it also depends upon wind speed and these variations may exist for a period of time (Huang et al., 2010). Fluctuations in power can result to over or under loads, voltage flicker and inappropriate fluctuations in line power and voltage swings (Hasanzadeh et al., 2012). Apec (2010) presented two methods for minimising the effects of output fluctuations in a power network which includes: storage; and solar forecasting.
Storage Services such as output protection, peak shaving and demand side management can be achieved through stored electrical power. Proper storage of power can also defer upgrades of the power network. The following can be used to store power (Pew, 2009): o batteries; o capacitors; o superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES); o flywheels; o compressed air; and o pumped hydro.
The above methods can be applied to regulate output power and also provide frequency and voltage regulation. Storing can serve some form of contingency services.
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Solar forecasting This method gives an early warning of the unavailability of solar energy so that alternative power sources can be prepared in advance (kirtland, 2012).
2.5.3.4
FREQUENCY FLUCTUATIONS
Farhoodnea et al., (2013) highlighted that one of the most important components in power quality is frequency. Frequency variations may result from imbalances between power generated and consumed power resulting in speed variations in motors and can destroy the windings of generators. The output of a PV system may fluctuate as a result of weather fluctuations (Kawasaki et al., 2007). Since weather fluctuations can be short, medium or long term, frequency fluctuations can be short, medium or long term too. Frequency must be homogeneous throughout the power system and problems with frequency fluctuations may go on the rise as the numer of PV genertating plants increases (Apec, 2010). So it can be seen that increasing penetration of PV onto the grid exacerbates power quality and some measures applied by power companies to control frequency includes the following (Ehara, 2009): Governor control: Mostly employed for short period (few minutes) fluctuations and each PV plant evaluates its frequency to that of the rated value so as to adjust the output. Automatic Frequency control (AFC): This controller is applicable for medium fluctuations of about ten to thirty minutes. The grid frequency is analysed by central load dispatching centres to dispatch loads to other plants.
20
Economic load dispatching controls are employed for long period fluctuations. In this method, load predictions are used to control the output of the plant.
2.5.3.5
HARMONICS
Apec (2010) presented harmonics to be voltages or currents having frequencies that can be considered integer multiples (50Hz or 60z) of the power frequency (fundamental).For instance, the 2nd harmonic for a 50Hz fundamental frequency is 100Hz, 150Hz for a 3rd harmonic, 200Hz for the 4th, and so on. The distorted waveform, shown in Figure 6 is the sum of the fundamental and the harmonics.
Figure 6: Diagram of Harmonics waveform (Ehara, 2009)
Harmonics are generated from the use of inverters when converting DC produced by PV modules to AC power for distribution systems. Harmonics represent a potential problem in power quality as they produce both series and parallel resonance resulting in overheating of transformers, capacitor banks and false tripping of protective equipments thereby reducing the efficiency and reliability of the power system (Hunt, 2008).
21
Current harmonics can be injected into the power system especially when several inverters from the same producer are integrated to a system. Since the harmonics are of the same frequency, they combine together and produce system harmonics that increase losses in the system in the form of heating (Dalila, 2007).
2.6
CAUSES OF HARMONICS IN PV INVERTERS
Nowadays, inverters are widely used as they play an essential role in converting DC power generated from photovoltaic plants into AC power to feed distribution networks. Inverters largely consist of semiconductor devices that facilitate the transformation of DC to AC through the use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control (Hong & Martison, 2011). There are several techniques that PWM can be applied to shape the inverter output to be AC power. Most often, the sinusoidal PWM technique shown in figure 7 is employed (Reitsma, 2011).
Figure 7: Inverter with PWM (Hong & Martison, 2011) 22
To understand the production of harmonics requires a close study of the above waveform. The fundamental frequency highlighted in red is the frequency available at the output of the inverter and this wave is evaluated using the triangular wave in blue. The triangular wave is considered as the frequency at which the inverter switches on or off and it is often kept constant (Hingoranl et al., 2000). So, it can be seen that the frequency of the triangular wave determines the speed at which the inverter switches on or off. Now since the red sinusoidal reference signal (fundamental) modulates the duty ratio, and it is the output of the photovoltaic inverter, it is can be seen that the reference signal is affected by the switching frequency. In a real sense, the output will contain harmonics. According to Reitsma (2011) though PWM is a simple technique to produce AC from DC with the capability to control the output and frequency, it inherently produces unwanted levels of noise and harmonics in the system through high dv/dt and di/dt semiconductor switching.
2.7
STANDARDS FOR HARMONICS
Globally, there can be many regulations governing harmonics depending upon each regional area, but this thesis looks at three main standards for the regulation of harmonics in a power system: The IEEE 1159-1995: Recommended practice for monitoring electrical power quality(IEEE, 1995) The IEEE 519-1992 recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in Electric power systems (IEEE, 1992) The IEC 61000-4-4: Electromagnetic capability (IEC, 1995)
23
These standards address two main problems: 1. the amount of harmonics or deviations in power quality accepted in various sections of the power network; and 2. it provides methods for measuring or monitoring deviations in power quality across the network including harmonics The standards specify the quantity of acceptable harmonics into various categories: With IEEE standards, the values of short circuit at PCC in the network are divided according to levels, such that a robust network is capable to deal with high levels of harmonics. With the IEC, equipments connected to a network are divided into levels in view of ensuring that the system is robust enough to deal with the amount of harmonic distortions when equipment is connected to the network. Table 2 shows recommended harmonic voltage distortion control at PCC for general systems IEEE 519-1992. Bus voltage Max. individual harmonic component (%) 3 1.5 1 Max. THD %
69KV and below 115KV to 161KV Above 161KV
5 2.5 1.5
Table 2: Recommended harmonic voltage distortion (IEEE, 1992)
The differences between the standards are negligible as they both address the level of acceptable harmonics in the network. Thus, it is essential to employ one of the standards depending upon the particular circumstances. The following section covers solutions to harmonics and power quality. 24
2.8
SOLUTIONS TO HARMONICS IN POWER SYSTEMS
According to IEEE (2003) regulations, harmonics should be minimized using two different techniques: the first technique is to minimize the harmonic current injected into the network at the point of common coupling (PCC) by the user; and the second method involves reducing the harmonic voltage supplied by the network to any user at the point of common coupling.
2.8.1 PASSIVE FILTERING AND REACTIVE COMPENSATION In order to minimise harmonics generated by non linear loads, the traditional predominant technique was to employ shunt passive filters connected close to the loads. Although shunt filters are structured to reduce harmonics, they however, have some draw backs affiliated with passive filters notably (Hemachandran et al., 2012): low source impendence of utility system; their performance reduces due to frequency variations and harmonics; and the Passive filter attenuates at any frequency thereby reducing systems voltage at any load. Capacitor banks (reactive compensation) or thyristor controlled reactors connected at the point where the distribution grid supplies a facility can also be employed to minimise the reactive component at fundamental frequency, but the reactive compensation also introduces some difficulties such as (Singh et al., 2002): the reactive component inherently prevents the control of
compensation given that the reactive component can be controlled in and out of the network in discrete quantities; and
25
the compensation system can resonate with sources impendence and inject harmonics into the circuit during light load.
2.82
ACTIVE FILTERING AND STATIC COMPENSATION
The shortcomings of the passive filter are overcomed through the use of active filters. The active filter shunts harmonics and precludes them from advancing into the distribution system (Hingoranl et al., 2000). The shunt filter takes harmonic currents through the source to correct harmonics taken by linear loads (Hasim et al., 2012). Leslie (2003) suggested that, the overall system cost can be reduced using active filters as they yield similar compensation as larger bank of tuned LC filters. Static compensation (STATCOM) involves the use of a switching system and passive storage unit for the fundamental frequency reactive compensation. To improve power quality including voltage and current distortions necessitate the usage of custom power devices such as (Hemachandran et al., 2012): STATCOM (Shunt active power filter) Series active filter Combination of series and shunt active power filters
The above mentioned devices are the most recent developments in interfacing equipments between distribution grids and the customers appliances.
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3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the procedures and methods that were employed to conduct this research are discussed. The methodology consists of: the research question, research methodology and the research tools.
3.2
RESEARCH QUESTION
Hypothesis: that the integration of photovoltaic plants introduces some challenges to power quality. The principal aim of this thesis is to examine the challenges of integrating Photovoltaic plants on power quality. As such, the aim of this work would be achieved when answers are provided to the underneath question. o What are the impacts of integrating photovoltaic plants on power quality? In answering the research question, it was necessary to conduct some laboratory experiments with ready to use instruments so as to determine if the hypothesis is true (Graziano & Raulin, 2000). The standardised test offers higher reliability levels and has been consistent throughout a period of years to provide accurate and stable values even when the test is administered trice (Sobrepea, 2011). This testing was performed using the laboratory of Blanchardstown Institute of Technology. Another way of investigating issues and providing answers to questions as well as understanding a phenomenon necessitates the use of qualitative research techniques (qsrinternational, 2012). It can be used in any study and work environment and the approaches employed for qualitative research can include: literature reviews, focus groups, content analysis, and interviews (Higgins & Green, 2008). 27
As such, the qualitative research techniques employed here are a conversational interview and literature review. The research question forms the basis for the interview and the following criteria was employed to choose the participant for the interview: their current area of work the number of published journals in PV systems by the participant; and their knowledge of PV systems
3.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In conducting this research, the principal methodologies employed constituted a qualitative and quantitative study (Usca, 2012). Qualitative research focuses principally on reviewing literatures on Photovoltaic system integration and power quality. A vast amount of the previously reviewed literatures where obtained through the IEEE online catalogue, while some literatures were obtained from scientific and engineering journals. In assessing the credibility of the literatures, the following determinative factors were utilized: how contemporary is the literature; does the literature corroborate with the research; the credibility and validity of the literature; and the background of the author.
Answers to the research question were provided from both a qualitative and quantitative study. The qualitative study used an interview and findings from some previously reviewed literatures to provide partial answers to the research question. On the other hand, the quantitative study used standardized testing consisting of laboratory measurements
28
conducted so as to provide answers to the research question and establish the validity of the hypothesis. In achieving the aim of this study, the author looked at the conversion process of DC into AC using inverters. In doing this, a 12V DC power source was used to simulate the power from a PV cell. An inverter was used to convert the 12V DC into a 230V alternating current. Power quality meter was used to analyse the AC power in comparison to an AC source different from the inverter to ascertain the quality of power delivered to the system. This provided some answers to the research question. As part of the quantitative study, two 40W incandescent Osram lamps connected at the AC side of the inverter were analysed using the power quality meter and compared against two compact fluorescent lamps connected at the AC side of the inverter in order to determine the power quality. Comparisons were made using T12, T8, and T5 fluorescent lamps analysing the harmonics produced. Finally, the study analysed the effects of a variable speed drive on power quality when fed from an inverter and the ESB. The results obtained from the above analyses were then examined using the IEEE 519-1992 recommended practices and requirements for Harmonic control in Electric power systems (IEEE, 1992). The component parts of a typical PV system are shown in Figure 8.
29
Figure 8: Components of a PV system (mapawatt, 2009)
3.4 RESEARCH TOOLS

The following are the main tools for data collection for the quantitative study: I. Power & quality analyser: A Chauvin Arnoux model C.A 8334 (Figure 9) was used to measure power quality. A Chauvin Arnoux MN 93A current clamp (Figure 10), was used alongside the power and quality analyser.
30
Figure 9: Power & quality analyser
Figure 10: MN 93A current clamp
II.
A power analyser transfer software was downloaded into a laptop to analyse the power quality. Screen shots were obtained and presented in the result section of this thesis.
31
III.
Multimeter: DC obtained from the power source was measured using the multimeter shown in figure 11.
Figure 11: Multimeter
IV.
Inverter: A Drapper 12V DC 240V 400W AC inverter shown in figure 12 was used to convert the DC obtained from the photovoltaic plant into AC.
Figure 12: Inverter
32
V.
Power Source: A 12V DC 35A, 420W power source shown in figure 13 was used to simulate the power output from a PV cell.
Figure 13: DC Power source
VI.
T12 twin fluorescent lamps of 65W/80W Atlas shown in figure 14 were used to analyse the total harmonic distortion from a PV inverter as compared to the ESB supply.
Figure 14: T12 fluorescent lamp
33
VII.
The T8 twin florescent 58W lamp (Philips) shown in figure 15 was used to analyse the power quality when fed from the ESB supply as compared to an inverter.
VIII.
A 49W Philips T5 fluorescent twin lamp shown in figure 16 was used to determine the power quality when such luminaries are powered from a PV inverter as compared to those powered from the ESB supply.
34
IX.
Compact fluorescent lamps of 20W, 220-240V, and 50/60Hz shown in figure 17 were used to determine the harmonics injected into the circuit when fed from a PV inverter and compared to CFL fed from the ESB.
Figure 17: Compact fluorescent lamps
X.
Osram incandescent lamps of 40watts, shown in figure 18, were used to determine the power quality when such lamps are employed into installations fed from a PV inverter and compared to those supplied from the ESB.
Figure 18: Osram incandescent lamps
35
XI.
A variable speed drive SK 1200037 Emerson industrial automation shown in figure 19 for the control of a three phase induction motor was used to ascertain their impacts on power quality when powered from an ESB supply as compared to those fed from the inverter.
Figure 19: Variable speed drive SK 1200037
3.5
CONCLUSIONS
Though this work is a quantitative study, qualitative research techniques comprising of the previous literature review alongside an interview were used to provide answers to part of the research question. The quantitative study incorporated standardised testing with ready to use instruments such as a power quality analyser and several other equipments to provide answers to the research question.
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4.0 RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the results obtained on the impacts of integrating photovoltaic systems on power quality are presented. It contains mainly waveforms and harmonic graphs for different loads. The loads considered were described under research tools in chapter 3 and the procedures followed are the same as detailed in the research methodology. Power quality was measured from using two different power sources, a PV inverter and the ESB supply. Discussions of the results are presented in chapter 5.
4.2 OSRAM INCANDESCENT LAMPS

Figure 20 and Figure 21 show the results obtained from the PV inverter when two 40W incandescent Osram lamps were connected into the circuit, while Figure 22 and Figure 23 show the results obtained from the ESB supply. Table 3 shows of THD values of current and voltage for both supplies.
% THD Voltage Current
ESB supply 2.4% 2.4%
PV supply 28.3% 28.3%
Table 3: Incandescent % THD for current and voltage
37
4.2.1 PV INVERTER WAVEFORM
Figure 20: PV inverter waveform for incandescent lamps
4.2.2 PV INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH
Figure 21: Inverter harmonic graph for incandescent lamps 38
4.2.3 ESB WAVEFORM
Figure 22: ESB waveform for incandescent lamps
4.2.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH
Figure 23: ESB Harmonic graph for incandescent lamps 39
4.3
COMPACT FLOURESCENT LAMPS
Figure 24 and Figure 25 show results obtained when two 20W compact fluorescent lamps were fed from a PV inverter whereas Figure 26 and Figure 27 show results when same lamps were powered using the ESB. Table 4 shows of THD for current and voltage for both supplies.
4.3.1 INVERTER WAVEFORM
Figure 24: Compact fluorescent lamps fed from a PV inverter
40
4.3.2 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH
Figure 25: CFL harmonic graph from PV inverter
4.3.3 ESB WAVEFORM
Figure 26: Waveform for CFL with ESB supply
41
Figure 27: Harmonic graph for CFL using ESB power
PV supply 28.0% 141.4%
Table 4: CFL % THD for current and voltage
42
4.4
T5 FLOURESCENT LAMP
The findings when a twin 49W T5 fluorescent lamp was fed from a PV inverter are illustrated in Figure 28 and Figure 29 while the results obtained when same luminaries were fed from the ESB supply are shown in Figure 30 and Figure 31. Table 5 shows THD values for current and voltage for both supplies.
Figure 28: Waveform for T5 fluorescent from PV inverter
43
Figure 29: Harmonic graph for T5 fluorescent from inverter
4.4.3 ESB WAVEFORM
Figure 30: Waveform from T5 with ESB supply
44
Figure 31: Harmonic graph for T5 with ESB supply
PV supply 27.7% 45.7%
Table 5: T5 THD for current and voltage
45
4.5
T12 FLOURESCENT LAMP
Figure 32 and Figure 33 show results obtained when a T12 fluorescent luminaries were fed from a PV inverter while Figure 34 and Figure 35 show results when same luminaries were powered using the ESB supply. Table 6 shows of THD values for current and voltage for both supplies.
Figure 32: T12 Waveform from PV inverter
46
Figure 33: T12 Harmonic graph from PV inverter
4.5.3 ESB WAVEFORM
Figure 34: Waveform for T12 with ESB supply 47
Figure 35: Harmonic graph for T12 with ESB supply
PV supply 26.4% 124.9%
Table 6: T12 THD for current and voltage
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4.6 T8 FLOURESCENT LAMP In this section, the results obtained when a T8 fluorescent luminaries fed from the ESB are presented in Figure 36 and Figure 37 while Figure 38 and Figure 39 show results when the same luminaries were powered using ESB supply. Table 6 shows THD values for current and voltage for both supplies.
4.6.1 ESB WAVEFORM
Figure 36: T8 waveform from ESB supply
49
Figure 37: T8 harmonic graph with ESB supply
% Total harmonic distortion Voltage Current
ESB supply 2.5% 122%
Table 7: T8 THD with ESB supply
50
Figure 38: Inverter waveform for T8 fluorescent
Figure 39: Inverter harmonic graph for T8 fluorescent
51
4.7
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE
The results obtained when a VSD was powered from the ESB supply at speeds of 50Hz, 30Hz and 15Hz are shown in this section.
4.7.1 ESB WAVEFORM AT 50 Hz MAX. SPEED The results shown in figure 40 can be seen in table 8.
Figure 40: ESB Waveform for VSD at max speed
VOLTAGE RMS PEAK PEAK + 236.6V -326.7V 326.4V
CURRENT 0.7119A -2.600A 2.500A
Table 8: Values for figure 40 52
4.7.2 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 50HZ MAX. SPEED
Figure 41: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 50 Hz
Table 9: Results for figure 41
53
4.7.3 ESB WAVEFORM AT 30Hz 60% SPEED
Figure 42: ESB Waveform for VSD at 30Hz
CURRENT 0.7142A -2.600A 2.500A
Table 10: Values for figure 42 54
4.7.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 30HZ 60% SPEED
Figure 43: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 30Hz
Table 11: Values for figure 43
55
4.7.4 ESB WAVEFORM AT 15HZ 30% SPEED
Figure 44: ESB Waveform for VSD at 15Hz
VOLTAGE RMS PEAK PEAK + 237V -327.1V 326.4V
CURRENT 0.6061A -2.300A 2.200A
Table 12: Results for figure 44 56
4.7.5 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH AT 15HZ 30% SPEED
Figure 45: ESB Harmonic graph for VSD at 15Hz
57
4.7.8 INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 50Hz MAX SPEED
Figure 46: Inverter waveform at 50Hz max speed
VOLTAGE RMS PEAK PEAK + 231V -274.1V 273.8V
CURRENT 0.5767A -5.400A 5.400A
Table 14: Results for figure 46 58
4.7.9 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 50Hz MAX. SPEED
Figure 47: Inverter harmonic graph at 50Hz max. speed
Inverter supply Voltage Current
% THD 27.6% 83.1%
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4.7.10
INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 30Hz 60% SPEED
Figure 48: Inverter waveform at 30Hz 60% speed
CURRENT 0.5876A -3.600A 3.800A
60
4.7.11
INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 30Hz 60% SPEED
Figure 49: Inverter harmonic graph at 30Hz 60% speed
% THD 27.6% 82.0%
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4.7.12
INVERTER WAVEFORM AT 15Hz 30% SPEED
Figure 50: Inverter waveform at 15Hz 30% speed
CURRENT 0.5408A -3.500A 3.900A
62
4.7.13
INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH AT 15Hz 30% SPEED
Figure 51: Inverter harmonic graph at 15Hz 30% speed
% THD 27.4% 73.6%
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4.7.14
TABLE OF RESULTS FOR VSD
As already indicated in the previous sections for variable speed drives, table 20 shows the results of the total harmonic distortions and root mean square values when the VSD is fed from the ESB and inverter.
ESB Vrms Irms Voltage THD Current THD
Max speed 50Hz 236.6V 0.7119A 2.6% 169.5%
60% speed 30Hz 236.8V 0.7142A 2.4% 170.0%
30% speed 15Hz 237V 0.6061A 2.4% 179.2%
INVERTER Vrms Irms Voltage THD Current THD 231V 0.5767A 27.6% 83.1% 229.1V 0.5876 27.6% 82.0% 229.8V 0.5408A 27.4% 73.6%
Table 20: Table of results for VSD
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5.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.1
PV INVERTER POWER QUALITY ANALYSIS
Now to ascertain the impacts of integrating photovoltaic plants on power quality, a thorough analysis of the power quality from a PV inverter presented in chapter four were useful in providing answers to the research question. The power quality from the PV inverter was compared to that of the ESB under similar load conditions. The comparison was performed using the IEEE 519-1992 acceptable limits for voltage distortions in general systems. So then, when two 40W incandescent Osram lamps were fed from a PV inverter supplying 230V AC from a 12V DC input, a waveform somewhat square, depicted in Figure 20 was produced. As seen in Figure 20, the red signal represents the voltage while the blue signal represents the current and both signals appear to be a square waveform rather than a sinusoidal wave form. Now when same loads were fed from the ESB supply, a sinusoidal waveform shown in Figure 22 was produced. Although both lamps achieved similar brightness, the THD generated from the PV inverter are shown in Figure 21 and the values obtained are 28.3% for voltage and 28.3% for current as opposed to 2.4% for voltage when using ESB supply and 2.4% for current, see Figure 23 for the ESB harmonic graph. Now with regards to the IEEE 519-1992 standards for voltage distortion control, it can be seen that the regulation is concerned with two main points: the first point is to minimize the harmonic current injected into the network at the point of common coupling (PCC) by the user. the second point involves reducing the harmonic voltage supplied by the network to any user at the point of common coupling. 65
As such, the regulation requires that the amount of distortion in voltages supplied by the network to the user should not exceed 5% of the THD (total harmonic distortion). As shown in Table 3, it can be seen that the THD produced from the PV inverter exceeds the required limit pursuant to IEEE 519-1992 regulation, whereas the THD produced when using the ESB supply falls within the acceptable limit for voltage distortions. The variation of the results obtained between the ESB supply and the inverter were produced by the inverter shown in Figure 12, as the results presented in chapter 4 were obtained from the use of the aforementioned inverter. Since a photovoltaic cell produces a direct current supply and most installations and the grid requires alternating current supply, the energy generated from the DC source was converted into AC using an inverter. The results differ due to the components within the inverter shown in Figure 12 as it largely consists of semiconductor devices that facilitated the conversion of the energy supplied by the DC source into AC using pulse width modulation control as it is a simple technique to produce AC from DC with the capability to control the output and frequency. As such, it inherently produces unwanted levels of noise and harmonics in the system through high change of voltage with time and change of current with time semiconductor switching.
66
5.2
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
It can be seen that the use of compact fluorescent lamps inject harmonics into the system than incandescent lamps. The results obtain when two 20W compact fluorescent lamps were fed from a PV inverter are shown in Figure 24 and Figure 25 whereas Figure 26 and Figure 27 depicts the results when same lamps are powered using the ESB. On Table 4, the values for the THD for both the current and the voltage for both supplies are recorded. As seen on Table 4, the voltage supplied by the ESB was 2.2% within the limits of the IEEE 519-1992 while 28% was recorded from the inverter. Furthermore, the harmonic currents injected into the network by the use of 20W compact fluorescent lamps appeared to be 104.5% while when using 40W incandescent lamps, the harmonic current injected into the circuit is 2.4%. So it can be seen from the above that the practice nowadays of replacing incandescent lamps with CFL is a potential problem to the quality of power as they inject very high harmonic currents into the network. Therefore, an installation containing vast amount of CFL is a problem to the quality of power.
5.2
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
The results obtain when two 20W compact fluorescent lamps are fed from a PV inverter are presented in Figure 24 and Figure 25, whereas Figure 26 and Figure 27 depicts the results when same lamps are powered using the ESB. On Table 4, the values for the THD for both the current and the voltage for both supplies are recorded. As seen on the voltage waveform for the inverter, see Figure 24, the supply voltage in red is somewhat a square wave and the harmonic graph contains THD of 28% for the voltage exceeding the acceptable limit of the IEEE 519-1992 regulations. Now when compared with the power supplied from the ESB, the THD measured 67
for the voltage appears to be 2.2%. So then, it can be seen that the THD from the ESB falls within the acceptable limits of the aforementioned regulation.
5.3
T5 FLOURESCENT LAMPS
The results when a twin 49W T5 fluorescent lamp is fed from a PV inverter are illustrated in Figure 28 and Figure 29, while the results obtain when same luminaries is fed from the ESB supply are shown in Figure 30 and Figure 31. On Table 5, the values for the THD for both the current and the voltage for both supplies are recorded. As seen in Figure 28 the waveform produced when a T5 fluorescent lamp is fed from the inverter produces a square waveform and the THD for the voltage is 27.7% exceeding the limit of the IEEE 519-1992 regulations whereas with the ESB supply, a sinusoidal waveform is produced and the harmonic graph for the ESB supply indicates a THD of 2.2%, see Figure 31. As such, the ESB supply falls within the acceptable limit of the IEEE regulations. When T5 fluorescent lamps are used in an installation, the amount of harmonic current injected into the network appeared to be 45.7% for a PV system whereas consumers using ESB supply inject 9.7% harmonics into the system.
5.4
T8 FLOURESCENT LAMPS
The ESB waveform in Figure 36 shows a voltage signal in red and the current signal in blue. As seen, the voltage signal is a sine wave fed from the ESB and the THD for the voltage is 2.5%, see Figure 37 for the harmonic graph. This values wont pose a problem with regard to the regulations of the institute of electrical and electronics engineers 68
regulations as the values obtained for voltages supplied to the consumer is within the acceptable guidelines. On the other hand, the quality of power delivered by the inverter appeared to contain harmonics, see Figure 38, the waveform for the voltage is approximately a square waveform and the THD for the voltage is 35.1%. With such distortions, the regulations would require further improvements with the quality of power supplied onto the consumers as the values obtained from the inverter exceeds the required limit for voltage distortions and during this experiment, it was found that the T8 lamp was flickering due to the poor quality of power delivered by the inverter.
5.5 T12 FLUORESCENT LAMPS As depicted in Figure 32, the current signal is represented in red and the voltage signal in blue for the power supplied by the inverter. As seen in Figure 32, the waveform is a square wave and the THD for the voltage was 26.4% as compared to 2.4% when fed from the ESB supply. The THD for the current was 124.9% when powered from the inverter. Unlike the square waveform produced by the inverter, when the T8 florescent lamp was powered using the ESB supply, a sinusoidal waveform was produced for the voltage. The harmonic currents seen on Figure 34 is as a result of the components associated with the T12 fluorescent lamp, thereby injecting harmonic currents of 124.9% into the installation while customers using ESB energy injected 27.6% only. As it would appear, the ESB falls within the acceptable limit for harmonic distortions.
69
5.5
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
Figure 40 and Figure 41 show waveforms and harmonic graph when the VSD is fed from the ESB supply at maximum speed (100%) at a frequency of 50Hz. The waveforms and harmonic graphs when the speed is at 60% at a frequency of 30Hz using ESB supply are shown in Figure 42 and Figure 43 while Figure 44 and Figure 45 show the waveform and harmonics when the speed is at 30% and the frequency was 15Hz with same ESB supply. As shown in Table 20, when the ESB supply was used to power the VSD when running at 50Hz, 30Hz and 15Hz the voltage THD did not exceed the acceptable limit of the IEEE 519-1992 regulations, but when the inverter supplied the VSD at same frequencies, the voltage THD exceeded the stated limits of the aforementioned regulation. Interestingly, the current THD injected into the network when powered from the ESB was much higher than the current THD when fed from the inverter at same speed.
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6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS
The integration of photovoltaic systems introduces some challenges to the quality of power supplied to the consumer as PV systems largely depend on solar energy to produce electricity. As it would appear from the measurements conducted, the signal produced by the inverter is a square waveform rather than a sinewave. Since the power produced by the PV system is DC, a photovoltaic inverter is employed to convert the DC generated by the PV plant into alternating current. The challenges introduced are in the form of harmonic voltages supplied onto the consumers from the inverter. Harmonics are voltages and currents appearing on the power system and as seen from this thesis, the harmonics in a wave are component frequencies of the actual signal. This therefore means they are integer multiples of that fundamental frequency. So then, if a fundamental frequency appears to be f, then the harmonics in the system would be 2f, 3f, 4f, 5f, 6f, 7f, and so on. The presence of harmonics undermines the quality of power delivered to the consumer as the presence of smaller quantities may have adverse consequences on machines and equipments. As seen from the results presented in this thesis, the voltage supplied by the inverter contains harmonics that exceeds the 5% acceptable limits of the Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers regulation 519-1992. On the other hand, it was found that the energy supplied by the ESB was within the acceptable limits of the aforementioned regulation. The harmonics produced by the inverter were as a result of the solid state devices incorporated in the design of the inverter and also due to the nature of solar availability as the inverter largely consists of semiconductor devices that facilitates the transformation of unidirectional current into alternating current through the use of pulse width modulation 71
control. This transformation process from DC to AC adjust the output and frequency and by so doing inherently produces unwanted levels of noise and harmonics in the system through semiconductor switching. As PV modules depend upon solar energy to generate electricity and the power produced by the PV system may fluctuate as a result of solar irradiance and cloud movements. As the inverter largely depend upon the power produced by the PV cells, and inverters are design to operate at specified limits, so then weather fluctuations may result to the inverter producing harmonics in cases where the input power from the PV is beyond the limits of the inverter and inverters incorporate some protective qualities such that they can monitor the performances of the AC grid and disconnect the PV system from supplying the grid in the event of grid irregularities and failures. Although the inverter has maximum power point tracking (MPPT) that assists the PV array to operate at its highest efficiency despite climatic and environmental conditions, harmonics are produced especially when the MPPT enables the inverter to operate under poor weather conditions. Weather fluctuations may quality. There are different layouts for a PV system and depending upon the components used in each configuration may also influence the quality of power. This thesis identified four types of configurations, namely: central layout, modular layout, string layout, and multiple string layouts. Among the layout indicated above, it was found that with the central (conventional) layout, shading is a potential problem and mismatch between strings of PV modules result to high power losses in the plants. Also, a single inverter can serve as a single point of failure for the system. As such, these can serve as a potential problem to the quality of power delivered by such systems. also result to frequency variations and voltage fluctuations leading to poor power
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6.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the national grid in Ireland has not yet incorporated PV systems into its power system, and in view of Irelands commitment to cut down carbon emissions, this research was also chosen as a step forward into the possibilities of encouraging the use of PV generated electricity in Ireland. Though the generation of PV electricity in Ireland at a large scale has been disputed, it is indeed possible to generate large scale PV energy in Ireland using the layouts highlighted in this thesis. Although solutions to harmonics do not fall within the scope of this thesis, the author would recommend further research into solutions to power quality perturbations when integrating PV systems.
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APPENDIX 1 DATA SHEETS FOR POWERQUALITY ANALYSER
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2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.5

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3

2.5.3.1 INRUSH CURRENT ...................................................... 17 2.5.3.2 OVER VOLTAGE .......................................................... 18 v

T5 FLOURESCENT LAMP ........................................................... 43

4.7.12 4.7.13 4.7.14

5.5 T12 FLUORESCENT LAMPS .......................................................... 69 5.5 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES......................................................... 70

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... 74 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................ 80 DATA SHEETS FOR POWERQUALITY ANALYSER................................... 80

STATCOM THD T12 T8 T5 VSD

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW:

GRID INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS

TYPES OF LAYOUTS FOR PV MODULES

Figure 1: Central layout parallel PV systems (Carbone, 2010)

Shading is a potential problem to this configuration.

Figure 2: Central layout series PV systems (Lindgren, 2000)

Figure 3: Layout for module oriented inverters (Carbone, 2010)

Disadvantages They are expensive.

Figure 4: Layout of string inverters (Carbone, 2010)

Figure 5: Multi string inverter layout (Carbone, 2010)

2.5 POWER QUALITY

PROBLEMS ARISING FROM POWER NETWORKS

Table 1: Power quality problems

OUTPUT POWER FLUCTUATIONS

Figure 6: Diagram of Harmonics waveform (Ehara, 2009)

CAUSES OF HARMONICS IN PV INVERTERS

Figure 7: Inverter with PWM (Hong & Martison, 2011) 22

STANDARDS FOR HARMONICS

69KV and below 115KV to 161KV Above 161KV

Table 2: Recommended harmonic voltage distortion (IEEE, 1992)

SOLUTIONS TO HARMONICS IN POWER SYSTEMS

ACTIVE FILTERING AND STATIC COMPENSATION

Figure 8: Components of a PV system (mapawatt, 2009)

3.4 RESEARCH TOOLS

Figure 9: Power & quality analyser

Figure 10: MN 93A current clamp

Figure 11: Multimeter

Figure 12: Inverter

Figure 13: DC Power source

Figure 14: T12 fluorescent lamp

Figure 15: T8 fluorescent lamp

Figure 16: T5 fluorescent lamp

Figure 17: Compact fluorescent lamps

Figure 18: Osram incandescent lamps

Figure 19: Variable speed drive SK 1200037

4.2 OSRAM INCANDESCENT LAMPS

% THD Voltage Current

ESB supply 2.4% 2.4%

PV supply 28.3% 28.3%

Table 3: Incandescent % THD for current and voltage

4.2.1 PV INVERTER WAVEFORM

Figure 20: PV inverter waveform for incandescent lamps

4.2.2 PV INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH

Figure 21: Inverter harmonic graph for incandescent lamps 38

4.2.3 ESB WAVEFORM

Figure 22: ESB waveform for incandescent lamps

4.2.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH

Figure 23: ESB Harmonic graph for incandescent lamps 39

COMPACT FLOURESCENT LAMPS

4.3.1 INVERTER WAVEFORM

Figure 24: Compact fluorescent lamps fed from a PV inverter

4.3.2 INVERTER HARMONIC GRAPH

Figure 25: CFL harmonic graph from PV inverter

4.3.3 ESB WAVEFORM

Figure 26: Waveform for CFL with ESB supply

4.3.4 ESB HARMONIC GRAPH

Figure 27: Harmonic graph for CFL using ESB power