Gender Related Factors 2007 (Delroy Constantine-Simms and Helen Deane

Gender-related factors in
career progression
a research report for the
Centre for Excellence in Leadership and the
Women’s Leadership Network
March 2007
Acknowledgements
This research has been carried out by the Learning and Skills Network (LSN) on behalf of the Centre
for Excellence in Leadership (CEL) and the Women’s Leadership Network (WLN).
CEL, WLN and LSN would like to thank the busy HR managers and managers throughout the sector
who have contributed generously of their time and ideas, enabling us to develop sector understanding
of the important issues reported here. Thanks are also due to the Network for Black Professionals, the
Association of Colleges and Lifelong Learning UK.
LSN research team:
Delroy Constantine-Simms
Cole Davis
Helen Deane
David Harrison
Geraldine Pettersson
Elizabeth Walker
Nick Warren
© CEL March 2007
Published by the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL).
The text in this document may be reproduced free of charge in any format or media without requiring
specific permission, on condition that the source is acknowledged, that the material is not used in a
derogatory manner or in misleading context and that the findings are not misrepresented.
Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO.
This publication is available in electronic form on the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL)
website: www.centreforexcellence.org.uk
Publication reference: 200704-H2

Gender-related factors in career progression: a research report
Contents
Foreword by Sally Dicketts 2
Foreword by Lynne Sedgmore 3
Executive summary 4
Introduction 4
Overall findings and conclusions 4
Recommendations 5
Multiple inequalities 6
Report 7
1. Introduction and purpose 7

2. Background 8
3. Approach and methodology 12
4. Findings – survey data 13
5. Commentary on survey findings 32
6. Findings – interview data 34
7. Commentary on interview findings 49
8. Findings – principals’ data 52
9. Commentary on principals’ data 54
10. Overall conclusions, implications and recommendations 54
References 58
Additional reading 59
Appendices 60
Letter and HR survey template 61

Individual managers/governors survey letter 65
Interview response template 66
Summaries of interview responses 72
Foreword by Sally Dicketts
The publication of this important research marks the launch of a
new and committed network for female leaders and managers
across the further education system. Having progressed through
the sector over the last 22 years, I am only too aware of the many
issues that women at all levels face, and I am sure that with CEL’s
support we can build on the work initially carried out when the
Women’s Network was first founded in 1990.
The Women’s Leadership Network has been established as a successor

to the original Women’s Network, to raise awareness of women’s
issues across the sector. It is vital that these are addressed if we are to
deal with the challenges not only of recruiting and retaining good staff
in our own organisations but also of building sector-wide capacity for
succession and the sustainability of high quality provision in FE.
In its first year, the Women’s Leadership Network will:
z publish research into gender issues affecting the FE system to

examine, for example, whether gender bias exists in testing
z provide a network for female leaders and managers,
nationally and regionally
z lobby all stakeholders to recognise women’s issues
z invite members to share good practice and learning
z provide training and development that focuses on issues
faced by women
z offer support to women leaders in terms of mentoring and
coaching.
As chair of the new Women’s Leadership Network, I am particularly

keen to work with provider governing bodies so that we can share
the learning contained in this research. Together, we can assess the
potential impact on their organisations and how they understand
and consider women’s issues in their recruitment of principals and
governors.
Since announcing the new Women’s Leadership Network, we have

received tremendous support from women across the sector and I look
forward to working with everyone to build a really strong, dynamic and
influential women’s group.
Sally Dicketts
Chair, Women’s Leadership Network
2 | March 2007
Foreword by Lynne Sedgmore

Since CEL’s formation in autumn 2003, we have been committed
to ensuring equality and diversity of opportunity throughout the
FE system and we are delighted to be involved in the relaunch of
the Women’s Leadership Network. This report on gender-related
factors in career progression is the first of many exercises that we
intend to undertake jointly for the benefit of the further education
sector and the women who hold or aspire to leadership roles.
The Women’s Network was originally formed in 1990 by a team of

committed women in further education, led by Dr Ann Limb. At that
time, women very rarely sat in senior positions within the FE system.
At the end of the 1990s, one in four college principals were female
and by 2005, the last year for which accurate figures are available, the
number of female principals still stood at about 100. This latest research
suggests that the glass ceiling may not have quite disappeared, but the
first cracks were certainly starting to show.
I am proud of our record of achievement in equality and diversity.

We focused initially on supporting the BME community, and last year
we initiated our sexual orientation diversity programme with some
extremely powerful research. There is a tremendous amount of work
to do in this area and we are committed to playing our full role as the
leadership centre for the sector.
I am not surprised to hear that there is a substantial interest in the role

of the Women’s Leadership Network in addressing gender-related
factors in career progression, and the findings of our in-depth research
indicate that women as well as men are contributing to leadership and
management of the FE sector in substantial numbers and at every level.
We look forward to working closely with Sally Dicketts and the

Women’s Leadership Network over the coming months to raise
awareness of the network and to develop specific activities to
support women leaders at every level. This will form an integral part
of our diversity and equality remit to ensure equality of opportunity
throughout the FE system.
Lynne Sedgmore CBE

Chief Executive, Centre for Excellence in Leadership
March 2007 | 3
Executive summary
Introduction
The Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL) was set up in 2003 as a leadership college for the
post-16 sector with the remit to ‘improve the standard of leadership, and the diversity and talent pool
of leaders in the sector’. The Women’s Leadership Network (WLN – formerly Network for Women
Managers, NWM) has recently relaunched its networking activities in order to address the response
from an online survey by CEL in 2006 which indicated that 55% of the 320 respondents expressed an
interest in joining a network to support their professional development and career progression. In this
context, CEL has commissioned research to:
z provide information about the numbers and profiles of managers in further education (FE)
z explore gender-related enablers and barriers to career progression
z identify interest in, and possible roles for, the relaunched WLN.
This report presents the findings from the research which was conducted through a survey, interviews
and statistical analysis.
Overall findings and conclusions

Women as well as men are contributing to leadership and management of the FE sector in substantial
numbers and at every level. The data reported here confirms other statistics which show that,
compared with the national picture for all occupational sectors, women are well represented in
education management.
However, the profile data shows that:
z women are over-represented in first line management roles

z women continue to be under-represented at senior management levels and on
governing bodies
z minority ethnic groups are under-represented in all management levels, particularly at
second tier level.
An initial consideration of high levels of participation by both genders suggests much progress in terms
of gender equality. More detailed consideration revealed that there is still a significant ‘glass ceiling’
effect in the FE sector and disproportionate levels of under-representation of black and minority ethnic
(BME) managers.
The individual data from the survey reveals important contributory factors linked to the impact of
career breaks and levels of domestic responsibilities on career progression for women.
4 | March 2007
There is a substantial interest in the role of the Women’s Leadership Network (WLN) in addressing
gender-related factors in career progression. Given that lack of experience was considered a major
deficit and that ability to do the job was seen to a be a major contributory factor to progression, then
the professional development and support agenda suggested for CEL, and the guidance-related and
experience-sharing strategies for the proposed network, would appear most highly attuned to meeting
managers’ needs. Given, further, the findings about the role of staff induction and college policies in
contributing to gender equality, one possible role of the WLN, particularly in the context of the new
gender equality duty, may be to actively seek ways to raise awareness about the need to mitigate the
effects of career breaks, and to support managers and their organisations in benefiting from access to
family and carer-friendly policies. This is particularly important in the context of the need to maximise
existing talent already present in the current workforce.
Recommendations
Women’s Leadership Network
Specifically the following key recommendations are proposed:
z WLN should consider the possible roles suggested in survey responses and establish
appropriate national and regional networking opportunities for female managers.
z Another potential area for networking is in the realm of governors. This may have an effect
upon attitudes towards the selection and promotion of managers, as well as providing
support for women governors themselves.
z WLN could raise awareness about deleterious attitudes to career breaks and collect
information of instances when this has affected selection processes.
z Following on from its own work and CEL research, WLN could consider modes of
best practice most likely to effectively counter discriminatory selection and promotion
processes.
Centre for Excellence in Leadership

The research findings also have implications for the Centre for Excellence in Leadership:
z All governors should receive appropriate gender equalities training, for example through
the CEL mandatory diversity competence.
z Research into the effects of career breaks on selection decisions could be undertaken.
Rather than merely ascertaining potentially negative outcomes for individuals or categories
of managers, this could examine whether or not the process of considering experience in
the light of such breaks is effectively ruling out the promotion of more able candidates.
z Recommendations for selection policies, awareness raising and staff development could be
updated in the light of the above research.
z Female staff could be supported through the establishment of mentoring and shadowing
schemes that will give them the opportunities to observe senior managers and principals in
their day-to-day routines.
March 2007 | 5
z Given the severe under-representation of BME managers at senior levels, it is
recommended that CEL’s succession management strategies, in collaboration with the
Black Leadership Initiative, the Network for Black Professionals, and relevant black women’s
organisations, should include a focus on ethnic minority middle managers, taking account
of other equalities dimensions, including gender.
z CEL could systematically assess the benefits of strategies adopted to promote gender
equality for sector leaders and managers.
Multiple inequalities
The initial exploration of the issues of multiple inequalities experienced by some individuals suggests
that substantial awareness raising, development and support are needed in this area. In the context
of the move toward single equality frameworks, careful consideration will be needed by all sector
agencies and providers about how to balance addressing the distinctive and general aspects of
equalities issues.
6 | March 2007
Report
1. Introduction and purpose
1.1 The Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL) was set up as a leadership college for the post-16
sector in 2003, with the remit to ‘improve the standard of leadership, and the diversity and talent
pool of leaders’ in the sector. The Foster Report and the 2006 white paper on further education
provide timely opportunities for the sector to progress in this general area.
In Realising the potential – a review of the future role of further education colleges (November
2005), Sir Andrew Foster recommended a new workforce development strategy, incorporating
leadership development and succession planning. He referred to diversity as a necessary element
of such a strategy, in particular in relation of staffing from black and minority ethnic (BME)
backgrounds.
Following Sir Andrew’s recommendations, the Department for Education and Skills (DfES)
(Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances, March 2006) committed to support for
workforce development and more specifically:
“We will promote greater equality and a more diverse workforce… Too many minority groups
continue to be under-represented, especially at senior levels, and face barriers to progression in
the sector. Through the CEL, we will offer coaching, mentoring and work-shadowing programmes
tailored to the needs of under-represented groups. We will review the diversity of the workforce
to ensure that the sector meets its legal obligations and actively promotes equality and diversity.”
They have created a climate in which gender and leadership issues can be taken forward
creatively. We are entering a period of further change as the white paper is implemented and
there are therefore likely to be more opportunities to take forward CEL’s remit effectively over
the next few years.
1.2 CEL conducted an online survey in 2005 to test interest in gender-specific support and training
for women. 320 individual responses were received and 55% of the respondents expressed an
interest in joining a network to support their professional development and career progression.
1.3 This has led to the commitment from CEL and a core group of women leaders in the sector to
relaunch the NWM (now Women’s Leadership Network, or WLN) and take forward an agenda
of issues relating to women in leadership in the sector.
1.4 In this context, CEL has commissioned research to:
z provide information about the numbers and profiles of managers in FE

z explore gender-related enablers and barriers to career progression
z identify interest in, and possible roles for, the relaunched WLN.
This report presents the findings from the research which was conducted through a survey,
interviews and statistical analysis.
March 2007 | 7
1.5 This research has been informed by other relevant literature and surveys, which have examined
the position of female managers on a wider scale and in the FE sector. This has been reported on
in the next section, which examines the background to the issue.
2. Background
As indicated, the research has been informed by other relevant literature and surveys as
they relate to the gender inequality issues in the post-16 sector. A summary of these issues is
presented in this section.
2.1 The Public Sector Duty on Gender Equality comes into effect in April 2007. The legislation lays a
general statutory duty upon all public authorities to:
z eliminate unlawful discrimination

z promote equality of opportunity between men and women.
2.2 The spirit of the legislation can be found in guidance for public bodies on the Gender Equality
Duty (Equal Opportunities Commission, February 2007), which recommends in particular:
z sound evidence based on a good balance of qualitative and quantitative data in order to
identify gender issues which might be of significance at a local level
z organisational commitment in the form of developing the capacity, skills, knowledge and
enthusiasm of leaders to tackle gender inequality
z engagement by bodies such as regulators, funding and employee bodies as well as
government departments who will play a role in helping to promote awareness and
understanding of the issue of gender within the public sector.
2.3 Together with the introduction of the forthcoming gender public sector duty, the Foster Report
and the FE white paper provide timely opportunities for the sector to be outward looking. They
have created a climate in which gender and leadership issues can be taken forward creatively.
2.4 Managerial level
It is significant that in the post-16 education sector women are found predominantly in middle
and first line management, especially as programme or curriculum managers, where statistics
show that they comprise 50 to 60% of this level of the workforce.
(Lifelong Learning UK, 2005; Utting, 2006)
2.5 Curriculum or service areas
Information regarding staff roles with respect to numbers of female and male managers with
curriculum or service responsibilities does not appear to be held nationally.
2.6 Gender
Women account for 30% of middle-management and administrative roles in the workforce
(compared with a 45% share of employment overall) according to the European Commission
for Equal Opportunities. In the survey of management positions provided by further education
HR departments, however, 46% of middle managers were female.
8 | March 2007
The European Commission for Equal Opportunities have also presented evidence that managerial
occupations remain strongly gender segregated. A 2002 study conducted by Ashridge
Management College tended to support this view of the top of the management hierarchy
(Quacquarelli, 2002):
“Despite encouraging progress towards equality in top management, women still hold only 5% of
UK director appointments among the top 200 UK companies.”
The analysis of data supplied by Association of Colleges (AoC) indicated, however, that women
constituted 28% of the principals in further education, a considerably higher proportion than
their commercial counterparts.
2.7 Occupational mobility
Occupational mobility has been studied extensively in a number of social science disciplines,
including sociology, management studies and economics, but there is very little information
pertaining to the movement of staff within the post-16 sector. This report – section 4.2.8 –
goes some way to investigating this.
2.8 Characteristics of managers
The few sectors in which women account for 50% or more of managers are in fields of work
dominated by women overall, including education, health and social services.
(Personnel Today, 2002)
2.8.1 Status of employment
Julie Mellor, Chair of the Equal Opportunities Commission, called on all employers to
tackle the long hours culture and to check that their pay systems were fair, stating that,
“Women will remain the poorer sex until there is a radical change of culture in
workplaces across Britain.”
Only 6% of managers were employed part-time and three quarters of those were
women. 22% of managers usually worked more than 50 hours a week, with male
managers (27%) being more likely than female managers (10%) to do so.
2.8.2 Dependants
Women managers are less likely than male managers to have dependent children,
particularly very young children. There appears to be no statistical information available
regarding the number of women managers who are the main careers of elderly parents.
2.8.3 Marital status
A higher proportion of female than male managers were single or divorced.

(Equal Opportunities Commission, 2002a)
March 2007 | 9
2.8.4 Ethnicity
The size of the black and minority ethnic population was 4.6 million in 2001, 7.9% of the
total population of the United Kingdom. In Great Britain, the minority ethnic population
grew by 53% between 1991 and 2001. (Office for National Statistics, 2001).
Ethnic minorities comprised 6% of all managers. This figure was slightly higher for men
(6%) than for women (5%). A higher proportion was managers and proprietors in
hospitality and leisure services (13%) and in other service industries (9%). In contrast,
only 3% of production managers were from ethnic minorities. There were different
patterns of employment for women within the context of ethnicity, with an effect upon
the position of black and minority ethnic (BME) female managers, including the following
observations:
z White women aged 19-69 were more likely than women from other ethnic groups
to be without children under 16 years
z South Asian women were more likely than other groups to be married with
dependent children
z Black Caribbean and black African women were more likely than other groups to
be lone parents whilst having the highest level of full-time working
z White women had a much higher level of part-time working.
(Equal Opportunities, 2002b)
2.8.5 Disability
Of the 371,000 managers in summer 2001 who had a current disability, 10% were
managers (10% of female managers and 9% of male managers). The disabled share of
employment varied between the nine managerial sub-groups for which data is available.
It was highest for health and social services managers (13%) and lowest for operational
managers (8%).
2.8.6 Sexual orientation
It is estimated that there are between 2.3 and 3.2 million gay, lesbian or bisexual adults
living in the UK (DTI, 2004). There appears to be limited research regarding sexual
orientation and management issues. CEL has, however, recently published research
to identify the needs of lesbian, gay and bisexual further education students and staff
so that it can provide appropriate training for all those with leadership positions in FE
(CEL, 2006b). This research has found that there are substantial issues with respect to
sexual orientation, which have urgent implications for awareness raising, continuing
professional development (CPD) and support strategies.
2.8.7 Religious beliefs
There appears to be limited or no research available regarding the religious beliefs of

managers and any impact on progression.
10 | March 2007
2.8.8 Regional differences
The number of male and female managers varied considerably between regions. For
both sexes, the South East and London had the most managers, while Merseyside
and the North East had the least. The North East also had the lowest proportion of
managerial employment; only 10% of those in employment were managers. London had
the highest share of managerial employment (17%).
2.9 Implications for the post-16 sector
Current literature covering the status of women managers in the post-16 sector is limited.
However, we can use the limited studies that do exist to explore patterns and trends in terms of
the position of senior and executive women in the sector.
2.9.1 Data collected from an analysis of the staff individualised record (SIR) for 2003/2004
(Lifelong Learning UK, 2005) reported that 63% of female staff were in management
positions. This was to be expected, given that the number of female staff outnumbered
male staff by nearly 2:1. However, it is important to note that there are a proportionately
higher percentage of male managers, with 7% of male staff holding management
positions as opposed to 5.4% of female staff. This was found also to be true of teaching
positions, where 60.4% of male staff were teachers, as opposed to 50.4% of female staff.
2.9.2 The differences between the sexes in terms of the percentage of managers and teachers
might be partly explained by the much higher numbers of female staff who held
part-time positions at that time. The report indicates that the majority of male staff were
full-time whilst the large majority of female staff were part-time.
2.9.3. A recent presentation by CEL reported that half of leaders and managers in colleges are
women but only 25% of senior managers are women (Benefield, 2006). There is also a
current perception that more senior appointments have recently been male. However,
women continue to constitute the majority of the workforce in FE at 64%, as is the
case in both primary and secondary education where men outnumber women in senior
positions in a predominantly female workforce (Lifelong Learning UK, 2005).
2.9.4 The LSC has conducted an in-depth review of evidence available on Apprenticeships
around race, gender and disability issues (Learning and Skills Council, 2006). The review
concludes that segregation does still exist on apprenticeship programmes in terms of
race, disability and gender. It recognises, however, that this is not something that is
being driven nor indeed controlled by the programmes, but deduces that this arises from
factors beyond the control of apprenticeship providers.
2.10 Research implications
In general, this consideration of some of the relevant literature suggests that participation of
women in some tiers of leadership and management compares well with the national picture; but
that there is much room for progress – both in terms of progression through the management/
leadership structure and in terms of considering multiple inequality issues. The primary research
and analysis reported below provides a more detailed quantitative picture; and explores in
greater depth the issues behind the statistics.
March 2007 | 11
3. Approach and methodology
The research was conducted in three strands. Demographic information was sought, to
be augmented with statistically analysable data on individual managers’ and governors’
circumstances and opinions. Clarification and more in-depth analysis were then to be sought via
interviews with both men and women. Analysis was additionally conducted on demographical
data about principals: their relatively small numbers meant that surveys were clearly
unrepresentative. This is viewed last as only limited data is available, but it does provide a further
insight into the ‘glass ceiling’.
3.1 The first stage involved the collection of information about managers and governors in general
further education colleges (GFE) and sixth-form colleges (SFC), both via a statistical survey
collected from human resources (HR) at the colleges and from a survey of individuals.
z The HR survey collected data on numbers of managers and governors according to the
following characteristics: gender, ethnicity, disability and management level. An attempt
was made to collect data from all colleges. The outcome comprised 172 returns on
managers and 146 on governors.
z The individual survey, conducted via an online questionnaire following an email invitation
to college principals, asked about career progression, barriers and enablers, with a
particular focus on gender-related issues. All college managers and governors, female and
male, were invited to complete the survey and return their questionnaires, anonymously
if they so chose. There were 214 responses. They were also invited to contribute to the
second stage of the research..
3.2 The second stage of the research consisted of conducting and analysing 44 telephone interviews
with individual college managers. Participants from the online survey were approached first,
followed by further volunteers following an email appeal to colleges which had not previously
participated. Male researchers spoke to male respondents, and females to females. The
interviews were held over a period of approximately four weeks and involved respondents being
asked questions exploring the following issues:
z career breaks and the effect on career progression

z work-life balance issues and gender
z how career barriers and enablers operate
z multiple inequalities
z roles for the Women’s Leadership Network
z the possible contribution of leadership development support provided by CEL in relation to
gender and equality
3.3 The third strand of the research was an analysis of data on principals in England from 2000 to
2005, as provided by the Association of Colleges (AoC) and the Network for Black Managers
(now the Network for Black Professionals). The data was broken down by gender, ethnicity and
disability.
12 | March 2007
4. Findings – survey data

This section presents the findings from stage 1, the survey stage of the research.
Number of respondents in HR survey
Second tier Principal

2,742 13% 2%
3,000
2,314
2,500
2,000
1,500
756
1,000
500 127
Middle First line
0 39% 46%
First line Middle Second tier Principal
It should be noted that respondents differed at times about the meanings of ‘first line’ and
‘middle management’, occasionally having ‘zero’ for one or other of these classifications. This
arbitrariness suggests that it also quite probable that managers may not be properly recognised at
the appropriate level, with the likely implications for discrimination. A similar possibility applies to
disparities in grading across the sector.
4.1 HR survey – overall numbers
4.1.1 The sample
z There were 8,846 managers in the survey; these figures were derived from
responses from 172 further education colleges and sixth-form colleges.
z There were 1,463 governors in the survey; these figures were derived from 146
responses from further education colleges and sixth-form colleges.
4.1.2 Gender
z Of the 8,846 managers in the survey sample, there was a gender split of 55%
female and 45% male.
z As will be noted from the charts overleaf, the proportions of first line and middle
management levels reflect the overall gender split in the sample (although this
is largely an effect of the preponderance of staff at lower levels). The ratio is
reversed – in favour of men – at second tier, and is much greater at the level
of principal. It should be noted, however, that these is no single definition of
management levels, and reporting of levels below principal will be subject to
assumption in individual organisations.
March 2007 | 13
Female and male managers
Female Male
4,827 4,019
55% 45%
Female and male middle managers Female and male first line managers
Female Male Female Male
1,803 1,512 2,475 1,824
54% 46% 58% 42%
Female and male principals Female and male second tier managers
69 108 480 575
39% 61% 45% 55%
14 | March 2007
4.1.3 Ethnicity
z Almost 94% of the managers are white, just over 6% coming from minority ethnic
backgrounds.
White and BME managers
White
8,289
94%
BME
557
6%
White managers by gender BME managers by gender

4,499 3,790 328 229
54% 46% 59% 41%
z Of the managers from minority ethnic backgrounds, black and Asian backgrounds
predominate (constituting 70% of the minority ethnic managers).
March 2007 | 15
BME groups recorded in the survey
Asian or Asian British
175
31%
Mixed – white, Asian Black or

or black black British
77 227
14% 41%
Chinese or other
78
14%
z A similar spread of ethnicity can be seen when considering female and male
managers separately.
z Minority ethnic managers formed 6.3% of the survey sample. The spread of
minority ethnic managers is reflected amongst the first line managers and middle
management. At second tier management, however, the proportion stands at
3.3%, under-represented by almost 3%.
BME managers – female BME managers – male

Mixed – white, Asian or Asian British Mixed – white, Asian or Asian British
Asian or black 96 Asian or black 79
47 29% 30 34%
14% 13%
Chinese Chinese
or other or other
44 34
13% 15%
Black or black British Black or black British
141 86
44% 38%
z Almost 11% of the governors in our survey sample are from minority ethnic groups
(see graph opposite). This is clearly a higher proportion than the proportion BME
managers in the sample.
16 | March 2007
White and BME principals White and BME second tier managers
BME White BME White

8 169 35 1,020
5% 95% 3% 97%
White and BME middle managers White and BME first line managers
BME White BME White

227 3,088 287 4,012
7% 93% 7% 93%
White and BME governors
White
2,067
89%
BME
250
11%
March 2007 | 17
4.1.4 Disabilities
z Managers with disabilities represented 1.5% of the sample survey (estimates of the
proportion of people with disabilities in the population range from 14% to 19%).
z The sample is distributed similarly at all levels of the management hierarchy except
principal, where the representation stands at 0.6%.
z People with disabilities represent 2.4% of the governors.
4.2 Individual survey
4.2.1 Sample characteristics
z 214 people responded to the survey.
z The bulk of the respondents were in middle management, although a fair number
can be found in the first line and senior management categories. The ‘other’
category largely comprises governors. Later category breakdowns (such as
gender) will be presented without the ‘other’ category, which would detract from
examinations of proportion with respect to staff.
Individual survey – sample characteristics

First line management
30 Other
14% 24
11%
Principal or chief executive

Middle management 8
112 4%
53%
Senior management
37
18%
z 98% of the respondents were permanent members of staff (as opposed to

temporary, contract or seconded); 100% of the female staff were permanent, as
were 98% of the male staff.
z The North East and Yorkshire/Humberside are relatively under-represented, at 21%

and 25% of the actual numbers of colleges in these regions respectively. The North
West and West Midlands are particularly well represented (89% and 80%).
18 | March 2007
Geographical representativeness of survey

41 40
36 35
32 32
30
28 28
25
23
21
17
14 14 15
7
3
East East London North North South South West Yorkshire/

Midlands East West East West Midlands Humber
As will be noted by the doughnut diagram, however, the survey was generally
proportionate except in the highly under-represented regions of the North East and
Yorkshire/Humberside.
Geographical representativeness of survey
d 10% 9%
an
gl
En
4%
in
10% 8%
es
lleg
13% 17%
icipants
– co
8%
ar t East
-p
Outer ring
East Midlands
g
r in
London
Inner
North East
15%
9% North West
18%
South East
12% South West
West Midlands
14% 2% Yorkshire/Humber
5%
18%
15% 13%
March 2007 | 19
4.2.2 Gender
Gender of respondents
(including unregistered gender) (excluding unregistered gender)
Unregistered
Male Female Male
5
Female 90 119 90
2%
119 42% 57% 43%
56%
z 90 of the respondents were male, constituting 42%; 119 were female, constituting
56% and 5 were unregistered, 2%. The right-hand chart above illustrates the
registered-only gender split. The unregistered category will be removed from
further calculations to enhance clarity.
z 24% of the male managers are likely to be in the SMT of their organisations,
compared to 17% of the women.
z There are three times as many women in our sample at the level of principal or
chief executive; given the small numbers responding at this level, this result cannot
be taken as representative.
z If the highest level and SMT categories are combined, the preponderance of men
stands at 27% as against 22% of women.
Women at different management levels Men at different management levels

18 11
16% 6 15% 2
5% 3%
72 41
62% 20 58% 17
17% 24%
Principals and chief executives

Senior management
Middle management
First line management
20 | March 2007
4.2.3 Ethnicity
z Of those respondents providing details, 95% were white British. All other
categories which were specified by respondents contained just one respondent,
with the exception of four respondents within ‘Any other ethnic group’. 4% of the
women were of non-white British background, as opposed to 9% of the men.
Ethnicity
White backgrounds
199
96%
BME backgrounds
8
4%
4.2.4 Disability
z 16 respondents considered themselves to be disabled (7.7% of the sample); with

negligible differences between women (9) and men (7).
Respondents considering themselves to have a disability
No
192
92%
Yes
16
8%
March 2007 | 21
z 92% of the survey sample declared themselves to be heterosexual (with no

difference between the genders). A tendency towards non-declaration reduces the
ability to explore this issue.
z 63% of the sample declared themselves to be Christians. As other specified

religious categories (Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Jewish, Buddhist) each tended to
comprise single or a very few individuals, these have been conflated into the
‘Others’ category in the figure: ‘Others’ and ‘prefer not to say’ constitute 6% of
the sample. 31% of the sample said they have no religious beliefs. There are no
significant gender differences.
Religious beliefs of respondents

None
Christian 60
119 31%
63%
Other religion or
prefer not to say
12
6%
4.2.7 Curriculum or service areas
z Curriculum and support/service staff were equally distributed across the sample
with the vast majority of the curricular staff stating that they were heads of
curriculum departments.
4.2.8 Status of employment
z A much larger proportion of women than men are in the first year of their current
role. There are a greater proportion of males reporting that they have been in their
current role for four or more years; however, no statistically significant differences
could be detected.
22 | March 2007
Years in current role

30%
25%
20%
15% Females
Males
10%
5%
0%
A month Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to 6 to 10 11 to 20 Over
or less a year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years years years 20 years
z Of greater interest, however, is a breakdown of years in post with reference to

senior members of staff (ie above middle management). This runs against current
perceptions – reflected by some individual comments within the survey – that
more men are being recruited to senior positions. As will be noted, women in the
sample are more likely to be newcomers to senior roles; this is consistently the
case, only reversing from the 6-10 years category upwards.
Years in current role

6 6
6
5 5
5
Number of respondents
4
4
3 3 3 3
3
2
2
1 1 1 1 1
1
0
0
A month Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to 6 to 10 11 to 20
or less a year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years years years
Women Men
z The vast majority of respondents (75%) have over 20 years’ paid employment. The
lengthiest management careers have been predominantly full-time.
z Women are more likely to have been engaged in part-time work for long periods.
The key differences between the genders would appear to be for those reporting
between two and ten years of paid employment. It seems likely that a sizeable
proportion of female managers spent some of their career in part-time work in
order to care for their children in their early years.
March 2007 | 23
z Perhaps more a matter of surmise is the possibility that women with more than
one child may be more likely to extend this period of part-time work because of
domestic pressure and childcare costs.
z The notable difference is between the patterns of full-time working between men
and women. Essentially, men are more likely to have been managers over a longer
period of time; women are more likely to be managers over shorter periods of
time. This links with the part-time findings.
Years in paid employment, by gender 60

60
50 47
40
30
21
20 15
12
9 10
8
10 5
1 1 1
0
2-4 years 5-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21-25 years Over 25 years
Females Males
Years in full-time paid employment, by gender Years in part-time paid employment, by gender
60 25
53 22
50 20 18
40 36
15
30 25
10 8
20 15 15
14 14 5
8 4
10 6 5 3
2 2 2
2 1 1 1 1 1
0 0
0 0
2-4 5-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Over 2-4 5-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 Over
years years years years years 25 years years years years years years 25 years
Females Males
z This does not imply, however, that there is a preponderance of part-time working
among women who are currently working as managers. Very few managers appear
to be working part-time in their current roles.
24 | March 2007
Working hours in current post
Full-time
179
87%
Part-time
18
9%
Full-time, flexible
8
4%
z It could be surmised that most part-time work occurred before the respondents
became managers. One implication could be that there is an expectation that
managers should be engaged on a full-time basis.
z Women have had significantly more career breaks than men, with only women
taking breaks of between 5 and 15 years. Furthermore, 46 of the women (38%
of the 119 women surveyed) had taken breaks specifically for the purpose of
caring; as none of the men had taken breaks for this purpose, statistical testing is
neither possible nor necessary. For the purpose of this research, ’career breaks’ are
deemed to include maternity leave.
Career breaks
All respondents In percentage terms, by gender
60%
35 31 60%
30
30 50%
25 38% 38% 40%
40%
20
30%
15 11 19%
20%
10
5 2 10% 3%
0% 0%
0 0%
Up to 2-4 5-10 11-15 Up to 2-4 5-10 11-15
1 year years years years 1 year years years years
Females Males
March 2007 | 25
z The principals and chief executive officers (CEOs) appear not to have had career
breaks. It could be argued that the progression argument here is really about
whether or not there is a barrier between middle and senior management (as first
line managers are less likely to have had as much opportunity for taking career
breaks). It would appear likely that lengthier paid breaks are related to lower
positions in the organisational hierarchies.
z Given the tendency for women to have longer career breaks, there is the
implication that they are likely to find themselves in lower positions as their careers
progress. This seems to be reflected in the earlier descriptive statistics of a smaller
proportion of women being in senior positions.
4.2.9 Barriers
z In applying for their current roles, lack of experience was seen as the biggest barrier
by both sets of respondents, but women were slightly more likely (5% difference)
than men to perceive this as a problem. No statistically significant differences
between men and women were found in the analysis of these barriers.
Barriers – lack of previous experience

Women Men
88 71
74% 79%
31 19
26% 21%
Lack of previous experience Lack of previous experience

Other respondents of this gender Other respondents of this gender
z Lack of support inside the college was seen as the biggest barrier within respondents’
current roles; the only gender difference in perception was, unsurprisingly,
the barrier represented by domestic and family circumstances. Among older
respondents, caring for relatives joined child care as a call on their resources.
26 | March 2007
Barriers – Domestic or family circumstances

Women Men
107 86
90% 96%
12 4
10% 4%
Domestic or family circumstances Domestic or family circumstances

z In applying for future positions, lack of experience was again the biggest perceived
barrier for both genders, but here the female respondents are even more
concerned than the men, with a 10% percentage difference.
Barriers – Lack of experience

Women Men
79 68
66% 76%
40 22
34% 24%
Lack of experience Lack of experience

4.2.10 Enablers
z The biggest enablers in applying for the current role were seen to be ability to do
the job, increased salary, and more responsibility. Women were more likely than
men to see these factors as influential. The difference between men and women on
the factor ‘could do the job’ was found to be statistically significant.
March 2007 | 27
Enablers – ‘Could do the job’
Women Men
37 47
31% 52%
82 43
69% 48%
‘Could do the job’ ‘Could do the job’

Enablers – Increased salary

Women Men
56 53
63 47% 37 59%
53% 41%
Increased salary Increased salary

Enablers – More responsibility

Women Men
58 51
61 49% 39 57%
51% 43%
More responsibility More responsibility

28 | March 2007
z Women were more likely than men to see supportive line managers or colleagues
as important in applying for their current role.
Enablers – Supportive line managers/colleagues

Women Men
87 74
73% 82%
32 16
27% 18%
Supportive line managers/colleagues Supportive line managers/colleagues

z In performing the current role effectively, support from senior management, support
from lower-level staff and previous experience were all seen to be important
enablers. The only large gender difference occurs in ‘support from lower-level staff’,
where female managers were more likely to see this as important.
Enablers – Support from lower level staff

Women Men
46 42
39% 47%
73 48
61% 53%
Support from lower level staff Support from lower level staff
z A far wider range of factors were seen to be important enablers when considering
applying for future positions. The most numerous citations, however, were for
progression to a more senior post, increased salary and ability to do the job; in
these factors, women were more likely to see them as important.
z To a lesser extent, women were more likely to see the following enablers
as important: more responsibility, change of responsibilities and change of
environment.
March 2007 | 29
z Ability to do the job was significantly more likely to be considered by women than
men to be an enabler when considering future applications.
z Although it was not a widely considered factor, women were also more likely than
men to consider supportive line managers as an important factor when considering
applying.
4.2.11 Number of applications made
z Respondents were asked to estimate the number of applications that were made
at each level. Although it does appear that men take longer to attain middle
management status and, with a lesser effect, women may take longer to achieve
first line management status, the objective evidence is not overwhelming.
4.2.12 Important strategies for promoting and achieving equality
z Few major differences can be found between male and female viewpoints.
Important strategies for promoting and achieving equality
Other
None of the above
Inclusion in inspection
A diverse board
Equality impact assessment
College policies
Equality monitoring
Student induction
Staff induction
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Total Females Males
30 | March 2007
4.2.13 Possible functions of the Women’s Leadership Network

Responses indicated a range of possible functions as shown below:
Given that lack of experience was considered a major deficit and that ability to do the
job was seen to a be a major contributory factor to progression, then the training agenda
suggested for CEL and the guidance-related and experience-sharing strategies for the
proposed network would appear most highly attuned to meeting managers’ needs.
Possible functions of the Women’s Leadership Network
Networking
Advertise job opportunities
Sharing experience / knowledge
Mentoring
Promote / raise awareness
Build confidence
Information, advice and guidance
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
March 2007 | 31
5. Commentary on survey findings
5.1 Numbers and profiles of college managers
Clearly, women as well as men are contributing to leadership and management of the FE sector
in substantial numbers and at every level. The data reported here confirms other statistics which
show that, compared with the national picture for all occupational sectors; women are well
represented in education management.
However, the profile data shows that:
z Women are over-represented in first line management roles

z Women continue to be under-represented at more senior management and principal levels
and on governing bodies
z Black and minority ethnic groups are under-represented at all management levels,
particularly at second tier level.
5.2 Gender-related barriers and enablers to career progression
5.2.1 Factors hindering career progression for women
z Family concerns formed the biggest factor acting as a hindrance to the career
progression of women followed by lack of experience. Also widely seen to be
important were: lack of skills; social attitudes; lack of confidence and career breaks.
z The principals/CEOs appear not to have had a career break. This is an interesting
point and led us to conclude at the survey stage, that those who go for the top job
are unlikely to have had any length of time out of the sector. Given the tendency
for women to have longer career breaks, there is the implication that they are likely
to find themselves in lower positions as their careers progress. This was explored
further at the interview stage of the research (see section 6).
5.2.2 Factors hindering career progression for men
z For men, lack of experience was also considered a key factor. Also widely seen to
be important were: lack of ability; and lack of opportunities.
z Some men said that there were no barriers; this was a larger response than for
women, so one may assume that some of the respondents who considered women
to have greater barriers felt that this was not the case for men.
5.2.3 Comparison
It would appear that perceptions of barriers when considered in the abstract (ie not
related to individual career paths) differentiate between the paths of men and women.
In general, male and female respondents tended to share these differing perceptions of
gender-based progression.
32 | March 2007
5.2.4 Factors contributing to career progression for women
Experience and ability were major factors, with a sizeable minority suggesting that
flexible working conditions were also important.
5.2.5 Factors contributing to career progression for men
Experience and ability were seen to be the key factors. Comments about men having
fewer family commitments tended to be made by women.
5.2.6 Comparison
There would appear to be similar views of male and female progression in terms of
positive factors, with two exceptions:
z Comments from women about the role of the “old boys’ network”
z Differing views of the impact on women of domestic commitments.
5.3 Possible roles for the Women’s Leadership Network
There was a substantial range of possible roles for the network identified in the initial phase of
the research. Broadly, women were interested in:
z Activities which provide information and guidance, build confidence and raise awareness,
with mentoring being identified as an important strategy
z Activities which provide opportunities to share experience and exchange ideas.
5.4 Overall conclusion of survey findings
An initial consideration of high levels of participation by both genders suggests much progress
in terms of gender equality. More detailed consideration revealed that there is still a significant
“glass ceiling” effect in the FE sector; and disproportionately higher levels of under-representation
for BME managers.
Individual survey data began to focus on important contributory factors linked to the impact of
career breaks and levels of domestic responsibilities on career progression for women. This was
explored further at the interview stage of the research (see section 6).
There is a substantial interest in the role of the Women’s Leadership Network (WLN) in
contributing to addressing gender related factors in career progression. Given that lack of
experience was considered a major deficit and that ability to do the job was seen to a be a major
contributory factor to progression, then the training agenda suggested for CEL and the guidance-
related and experience-sharing strategies for the proposed network would appear most highly
attuned to meeting managers’ needs. Given, further, the findings about the role of staff induction
and college policies in contributing to gender equality, one possible role of the WLN, particularly
in the context of the new gender equality duty, may be to actively seek to raise awareness of
career breaks. This increased awareness will support both managers and their organisations,
which will benefit from the enhanced performance of managers who have access to family/
career-friendly policies.
March 2007 | 33
6. Findings – interview data
The second stage of the research was a more in-depth analysis of some of the issues raised in the
survey findings. 44 respondents out of a planned 50 were asked to answer questions on:
z career breaks and the effect on career progression

z work-life balance issues and gender
z how career barriers and enablers operate
z roles for the Women’s Leadership Network
z the possible contribution of leadership development support provided by CEL in relation to
gender and equality
z multiple inequalities
6.1 Interview data – overall numbers
The bulk of the respondents were at CEO/principal level. A fair number held senior management
categories with a few holding middle management, service and curriculum positions. One
interviewee was a governor.
6.1.1 Managerial level
z 40 managers were interviewed, with an additional 2 female governors and 2

respondents from managers not categorised as middle or senior management
z Senior management, including principals, comprised 61% of those interviewed.
Managerial level – male respondents Managerial level – female respondents

8 10 7
58% 34% 23%
2
14%
1 1
7% 3% 2
3 7% 10
21% 33%
Chief executive Senior management team Middle management Governor Other
6.1.2 Gender
z Of those interviewed, the gender split constituted 30 females and 14 males

z 71% of the male interviewees were at CEO/principal or SMT levels in their
organisations, compared to 56% of the women.
34 | March 2007
6.1.3 Ethnicity
z 84% of those interviewed were white, with 16% being from minority ethnic
backgrounds
z None of the male interviewees was of a BME background.
6.1.4 Disabilities
z No interviewees considered themselves to be disabled.
z Two female interviewees declared themselves to be lesbian through the course

of being interviewed. No other respondent indicated their sexual orientation:
this tendency towards non-declaration is substantially higher than for gender and
ethnicity. This reinforces findings in the recently published CEL report (CEL 2006b)
into sexual orientation issues for staff in the sector which suggest that support,
development and awareness raising are very much needed in this area
z No consistent information was collected with regards to the religious belief of the
respondents.
6.1.7 Curriculum or service areas
z Those interviewed came primarily from a curriculum background.
6.1.8 Regional location
z The North East provides the lowest proportion of the sample, reflecting the national
college picture, although joined by nearby Yorkshire/Humber. The London and
the South East categories also reflect the national college picture in providing a
high proportion of the sample, although they are joined by the West Midlands and,
against the trend, the North West.
6.2 Career breaks and the effect on career progression
6.2.1 Career breaks by gender
Most of the women interviewed had taken career breaks. Most men had not. Those men
who did take breaks did so before they became employed in the FE sector; such breaks
were for education and training purposes.
6.2.2 Career breaks – maternity leave
Of the 16 female respondents who had taken a career break, 12 of these breaks were
for maternity leave.
March 2007 | 35
6.2.3 Career breaks – negative impact (female respondents)
On the effect of career breaks on career progression 43% of all respondents and 53%
of women felt that a career break had a negative impact on career progression in the
sector.
“In general career breaks do not help careers. A year is a long time and you can lose that
feeling of being part of the organisation.”
“Having time off can be detrimental because things move so quickly – you can come
back and be disadvantaged, not just by the organisation but by your own lack of
knowledge. Take two years out and you’re stuffed.”
Some female respondents felt that this was particularly difficult for female managers who
held more senior levels in the organisation.
“Where women are leaders and managers at a certain level, senior managers feel
threatened about women going off for seven months”
“Being at a senior level, it is more difficult to take time off.”
6.2.4 Career Breaks – negative impact (male respondents)
On the subject of career breaks, male respondents did not appear to have given much
thought to this issue either personally or as a policy matter. Very often a silence followed
the question along with a comment such as “I must think about that”. It did not seem
high on their agenda, though the project itself may have altered that. There were some
exceptions. Most agreed with the majority of women, stating that they felt career breaks
had a negative effect on career progression with one respondent indicating that he
would base recruitment and selection decisions on information regarding an applicant’s
history of career breaks:
“These [career-breaks] were very disruptive for my team. You know that changes are
needed but folks become risk-averse especially if they have to have a break. I have
interviewed some talented women but they had career breaks and I was doubtful. One
had been out for four years and was very keen, but my concern was, ‘Was she up to
speed?‘ That is my general concern. Things change fast in the sector.”
6.2.5 Career breaks – keeping staff informed
On the issue of strategies that would be useful to support those who were on career
breaks, nearly 83% of female respondents agreed that keeping staff informed by way of
sending regular information to keep them updated would be useful.
“This is a good way of keeping people informed about what’s happening – where it
doesn’t happen, people are tempted to leave again as they come back to what can
sometimes be an almost different organisation with the number of changes ... This
particularly affects women due to the child-related issues and caring for elderly relatives.”
36 | March 2007
“This would be of such great benefit if [it] was adopted as a sector-wide policy.
Education is changing so much. People should be given little tasks to support their
return and should be encouraged to stay in touch with their line managers for a periodic
meeting or chat.”
“… it is now so easy to send people electronic information.”
Male respondents, on the other hand, displayed no interest for the most part although
interest was expressed by the male black managers whose comments included:
“Yes, it would be a good idea to have access to information distributed among

individuals on career breaks. But if they are on career breaks, why would they want this
information? It makes sense because some may want to return to work.”
“Sounds like an excellent idea.”
There was some recognition that this would put the onus on the organisation to keep
staff informed when some respondents did feel that it was the responsibility of the
person who was on the break to take responsibility. 14% of respondents did not think
that career breaks had a negative effect on progression:
“I do not believe that career breaks do affect the progression of women. I believe it is
down to the individual, if they are self motivated enough then a break will not affect their
progression.”
6.2.6 Career breaks – keeping a central register
On the suggestion that a central register or pool of people on career breaks should be
held, the response was similar in that 83% of the female respondents thought that this
was a good idea.
“This would be an excellent idea and would give people a wider opportunity to progress
other than being restricted to their ‘old’ organisation.”
“Sometimes people on a career break don’t want to return to their original college. This
would give them a chance to be approached by other colleges to support on a project,
secondment or even visiting tutor or consultancy basis if the career break is unpaid
(ie latter part of maternity leave).”
“I’d be happy to have somebody from a pool of people come and work-shadow me.”
“If I was off I’d be apprehensive about coming back to the same organisation knowing
that everybody had moved forward. Having an opportunity to have experience in
another organisation by way of a central register would give people the confidence to
go back where you were or the choice to do something else.”
“This is a good idea, but would have to be well thought out – I have my doubts as to
whether colleges will use them. Marketing and close partnership and collaborative
arrangements with HR departments would have to go on from the outset of developing
a register such as this.”
March 2007 | 37
A lack of interest was again displayed by male respondents; however, one BME male
interviewee comments,
“As previously stated, I am not sure that even a database would be useful. Think about
it! The best place or pool would be an employment agency. I can’t see the practicality
of having a pool of registered people on career breaks. I am in conflict here because if
people want career breaks they could apply for another job. If they did return, I can see
that there would be real concerns for the organisation.”
6.3 Work-life balance
6.3.1 Most male respondents stated that they were happy with their work-life balance. This
compares with 33% of female respondents with 57% saying that their work-life balance
was not good.
Views on work-life balance

Male respondents Female respondents
10 4 10 17
71% 29% 33% 57%
1
3% 2
7%
Good or OK Not good No view Depends
Most of the male principals claimed to be unconcerned about their work-life balance,
although most admitted that work took prime position, including two or three evenings
each week, and sometimes weekends. Only one mentioned holidays and the general
picture was that they took the view that they had applied for the job and if they couldn’t
take the pace then they shouldn’t be doing it.
“I get in about 7 and work till about 9pm, so a 14-hour day. I do four to five hours at the
weekend and take one day off at the weekend.”
“We have no policies about work-life balance. We do fun training … but no, we have no
policies at all. Maybe I should think about that. Thanks for asking.”
38 | March 2007
Some principals reported novel ways of dealing with work-life balance, each of which is
in some way about having power:
“Well I am keen and very gung-ho. I send folks home! I just tell them to go and of course
they do as I am the boss. I love it!”
“I can’t speak for the sector. I recognise the problem of ‘presenteeism’. We have a neat
solution here. We lock the building up between 6 and 6.30. Caretakers are under order
to rattle keys aggressively to get people to leave. We have had cases of folks getting
locked in, but they don’t make that mistake twice. They just get told to GO HOME.
What they do when they get there, work or whatever, is up to them!”
Most of the principals had had long unbroken careers in the sector, and work long hours.
6.3.2 Work-life balance – part of the job
Some female respondents commented on the fact that their work occupied both their
time and thoughts, but it was their choice:
“I can’t stop thinking about it and this thinking about it is hard to control ... in terms of the
actual doing of work, I could do less if I chose to but I am committed.”
“…my work-life balance is not right, but it is self-inflicted.”
Male respondents similarly felt that a poor work-life balance was part of the job:
“I don’t even think about it. The job requires what it requires. I applied for the job and
I knew what went with it, so why should I moan?”
“Fine. For a CEO, it is what you expect. I put the hours in. I have no more to say on that.”
“Well, my wife complains! But hey, I bring home a good salary and I don’t regard my
working hours as a problem. If I didn’t like what I do, I would give it up.”
6.3.3 Work-life balance – domestic issues
There was a general view however, that female managers were more likely to suffer from
an imbalance in their work-life situation, largely due to domestic commitments.
“My family life does suffer and has suffered over the year because of work. I would like to
address the situation but the demands of work somehow tend to take unwitting priority.”
This was exacerbated in some cases by domestic duties not being shared by their
relationship partners.
Some female respondents, however, commented on how having children helped them
to adjust their work-life balance positively:
“…if I didn’t have a young child I am sure my working hours would be longer.”
March 2007 | 39
“I used to sit in the office from 7am to 9pm but now I have a child, I am now much more
disciplined.”
6.3.4 Work–life balance and networking
One respondent however saw the new balance as being detrimental to her
advancement due to the lack of opportunity to network outside of work hours.
“Things have changed since I had my child – the informal networking goes on out of work
hours and I can no longer be involved. So in a way I have consciously restricted my
career aspiration.”
6.3.5 Work-life balance and the FE sector
Most male respondents expressed no professional interest in the area of work-life

balance. As far as policies or active management were concerned, only one reported
any formal mechanism for dealing with this (via a work-life balance working group). One
male respondent saw the issue as an integral part of supporting staff and demonstrated
the importance of leading by example:
“As far as the work-life balance in the team goes I try to set the tone from the top. If I
have a meeting that is heading towards 6.00 I will say, ‘Let’s stop this now, I have to
pick the kids up’, and that gives permission to others to work in the same way. At staff
induction, I had some boring presentation to do about strategic planning but decided to
ditch it and just talk to the new staff about themselves and their lives. I think that sent the
message that it is people that matter, rather than the grand plan.”
Nearly 30% of the female interviewees were of the view that the sector was not
supportive of the work-life balance issue:
“Parental responsibilities are not high on the FE sector agenda when it comes to work-life
balance.”
“I think it is getting harder in FE. It is harder to maintain a good work-life balance.”
“The sector is not as child friendly as it purports to be. It encourages and expects long
and unsociable hours when you are a manager. As a mother and a manager, you end up
feeling guilty if you take time off to look after your children’s needs.”
“The sector is abysmal in general. The culture is very unbalanced towards work. There is a
strong sense as a manager there is an unwritten rule about your contribution in terms of
loyalty and role modelling.”
“I don’t think the sector really cares – they try to be interested but I don’t think they are,
otherwise more would be done about it.”
Many of the female respondents did state, however, that they believed the sector was
‘trying’ to do something about supporting the work-life balance agenda, with one college
interviewee reporting that their college possessed a work-life balance policy.
40 | March 2007
“The sector needs to change the whole culture of how it views work-life balance – stop
talking about it and do something about it. I think more women will automatically
consider going for more senior positions if the culture changes.”
“I am aware that curriculum managers do make efforts to try and timetable teaching staff
(who have a much harder time in terms of managing their time and work-life balance) to
support their childcare situation.”
“Everybody knows about WBL. The employee council has been involved and we are
doing a pilot on home-working, looking at the overall approach to TOIL (time off in lieu),
flexi hours and looking at ways in which electronic communication can be used better.”
“They keep talking about developing a policy about home-working opportunities, but it
doesn’t seem to be happening.”
“No policy [exists] that I am aware of although a number of policies ‘allude’ to it.”
Others felt that it was not FE that was unsupportive, but it depended on the culture of
the individual organisation.
6.4 Gender-related stress at work
The question here was about work-related stress and mechanisms for dealing with it. Responses
from male and female interviewees indicated that gender was not a key factor with stress related
issues.
Stress appears to be dealt with in terms of professional support at work and via external coaches,
mentors, acquaintances and with female respondents’ family support.
In many cases, reasonable sounding accounts of the inevitable pressures of the job were
counterbalanced by an acceptance that stress and long hours went with the job. Few, even with
prompting, were naturally inclined to make any reference to home life. The rare exceptions stand
out boldly.
In the case of all the male principals, issues predominantly related to estates and budgets, with a
few admitting to having had to take difficult staffing decisions (interestingly always as a result of
an inherited situation). It was striking that in no case did they mention support at home or from
wider informal contacts. All spoke about senior colleagues, external acquaintances in similar
situations (other principals) or more formal mentor/coach arrangements.
“The Accommodation Strategy, which involved a lot of work with the LSC and with planning
applications, seemed very stressful at the time. My internal colleagues were very supportive. They
are a good team. I have a very capable set of managers and some good outside experts, though
the internal team is a bit dysfunctional which can be a problem.”
March 2007 | 41
“The most help I had was from a coach who was outside the sector. I did try talking to other
principals but they would go on about how they had dealt with a situation. The coach would
ask me things and put me on the spot and that was helpful. I speak to X both on the phone and
face-to-face and she is eternally helpful, but generally I find non-sector people are better value.
… I look for people from a non-academic background to talk about management and leadership
stuff.”
“Estates and building related stuff mainly. We did a major rebuild a few years back and that took
its toll. I don’t take stress home, as my wife has a more stressful job than me. I have a confidante
at work, the [female] head of HR and I can discuss people problems with her very helpfully.”
“Stress is part of the job. Normal stuff is about staffing issues and general workload. My team is a
vital source of support in affording opportunities to discuss and work our way through towards
the resolution of issues.”
“I tend not to grumble at home. I have to set boundaries and in any case you manage your role.
You have to cope with the unexpected in this job. I don’t lie awake worrying about it. We all
have to juggle this stuff. I get paid a lot. That is my job. I took it on. I don’t go home and sound
off. NO. My job. My problem.”
6.5 How career barriers and enablers operate
6.5.1 Networking
Both male and female interviewees responded similarly in that they considered
networking to be an enabler to their career progression. However it should be noted
that the networking they had engaged in was described largely as ‘informal’ networks
and support mechanisms.
6.5.2 Networking – male respondents
It should also be noted that female and male comments were communicated differently,
with men generally commenting on their support systems much more confidently and
emphatically. Several male respondents were quite candid about their career progression
having been assisted either by ‘coat-tailing’ on managers at a level or two above them
or by calculated moves designed to mitigate work-related boredom and to enhance
their status:
“I got on well with the principal and he acted as a sort of mentor.”
“The principal who took me on tended to cherry pick people and that is how I got that
one, nod and a wink and why don’t you apply ...”
“I was friendly with a bloke at the next level up and he was sent off to [work] in a new
college and took me along with him. After two years he moved on internally and then
asked me if I would like to follow him and help him with the new project.”
“I was helped all the time from the ‘blokes’ ...”
42 | March 2007
Some, like the female respondents, were more reticent about the informal support they
received when applying for positions with one respondent commenting frankly on how
normal this process of support is:
“I don’t think I have used any informal networks, but I suppose you get to know people
over time and you might get a call or a suggestion about a job and some help with
putting the application together. Normal sort of stuff.”
Although two of the male respondents reported being headhunted for their current
positions, there was one comment that demonstrated that networking and the
headhunting process did not apply to all the men:
“I never got asked to apply for anything, but I have always been a ‘player’ and watched
out for opportunities.”
6.5.3 Networking – female respondents
Women respondents made various comments reporting their own experiences of being
supported by informal networks, mentors and role models, but were more reserved
about viewing these as being instrumental to their career progression.
“I had supportive bosses and colleagues.”
“I had never been into any networks but was helped by supportive colleagues and higher
level staff who recognised my talent and dedication.”
“I did a CEL [Centre for Excellence] Senior leadership course, so have a gang of mates –
we have a fairly informal networking and peer mentoring and support arrangements.”
“… role models were important to me, particularly as I had worked with some very strong
female managers and all but my last 3 principals were female.”
“I was helped with my confidence by my line manager who also became and informal
mentor. She was the only black female service manager for years and was a terrific
role model.”
“I had extensive networking help with my progression ... I had supportive bosses and
colleagues.”
“Informally, I had a good network of other FE managers.”
“… in inner London there were a high number of female principals and there was a good
informal network [of women] among senior managers and principals because of that.”
One BME female respondent commented on the difficulty of engaging with established
networks, describing her personal networking experience:
“As a woman, it is more difficult to approach a male principal to begin to network. There
is a perceived sexual thing going on if you ask a male principal to meet you for lunch.”
March 2007 | 43
“I was not helped and indeed was often excluded. I would try to align myself to other
informal women’s networks and often found myself being the only black woman. If
the networks were not a group of white women, it would be groups of white women
and white men. This happened despite the fact that I have experience of developing
good individual relationships with other women colleagues, not being a shy person and
holding marginal management roles – I have been positioned centrally but have still
found myself on the fringes when it comes to networking.”
6.5.4 Gender-specific barriers
Whilst most male respondents declined to comment on their view of gender-specific

barriers to the progression of women managers, one interviewee stated that he thought,
“... staff from minority groups, especially black women employed in FE, tend to sit and
wait for promotion.”
Another male interview commented that career breaks were,
“clearly a barrier for some women”
6.5.5 Gender barriers – covert
Although most female interviewees felt that there were no overt barriers to their progress
in terms of their gender, some comments indicate the range of other covert barriers that
they believe exists for women who wish to progress:
“There isn’t a perception in my college of there being a gender issue in terms of

management positions and progression – we have quite a female dominated senior team
although we have never had a female principal.”
“... there is still a male thing going on when it comes to the top job. There is lack
of support from male principals ... [one region] has recently seen three principal
appointments – all men.”
“There is also a key issue with governing bodies, who are on them and what they are
looking for.”
“There is a view widely held that you can only be at a senior level on a full-time
arrangement. I think institutions need to relook at their working arrangements and make
them more family friendly.”
“Although not specifically a gender related barrier, there are family issues that prevent
women from progressing, particularly around child care responsibilities.”
6.5.6 Gender and barriers – self-imposed?
Other comments from female respondents point to some of the issues being based on
women’s own self belief and confidence in doing the job:
44 | March 2007
“I intend to become a principal and that has always been my goal – I do think that it is
unusual for women to think like that in the sector. I agree that in order to achieve this
as a woman you have to get your family life done and out of the way – it is not feasible
with a young family ...”
“…women don’t all want to be at the top level … they may decide that this is not what
they want out of life … they want more time with the family. They are more people-
focused. That may be why fewer women are in principal posts rather than the barriers to
progression.”
“….you have got to be the kind of person who needs the management role. If you want
that role, then there is nothing that can prevent a woman getting the top position but not
all women want to go higher … I feel as though recently my life has been overtaken by
work and I intend to take my two weeks leave and not do any work. A principal could
not do that”
“Women have a confidence problem – ‘men think they can do a job even when they
can’t’. Men can talk up their experience – women need to project and talk up as well.”
“Women know they’ll be up against it when they go for top positions and they need to
know they are fully prepared …”
“Women need to believe that the job of principal is not too onerous and that they don’t
have to be perfect to apply. They mustn’t select themselves out by not applying.”
6.6 Roles for the Women’s Leadership Network
Interviewees’ comments on the activities that the Women’s Leadership Network could undertake
mirrored those reported on in the first stage of the research and included: networking, advertising
job opportunities, sharing best practice, mentoring and confidence building activities. Additional
comments included activities such as:
“… having regional and national meetings so that it is possible to get a different perspective
from women working at different colleges and in different areas – it is important to share ideas
especially about how to overcome barriers.”
“… promoting role models through finding means of recognizing what women in the sector are
doing and what they have achieved.”
“Helping to monitor the gender and diversity balance more widely and suggesting ways of
addressing this.”
6.7 The possible contribution of leadership development support provided by CEL in relation to
gender and equality
The training agenda and issues relating to career development were the focus of most of the
comments from female interviewees and included comments about: supporting governors,
running dedicated mentoring and shadowing programmes for aspiring women principals, running
programmes for sector returnees, supporting change in the sector culture and embedding
research findings in programmes pertaining to female management styles.
March 2007 | 45
“… a focus for the work of CEL should be at governor [level] – there is a lot of work that needs to
be done with the governors.”
“… providing courses for people returning back to the sector [and who are senior management
potential].”
“… embedding the issue of female management styles – we are not always valued for our
‘feminine’ management skills and qualities … the research element, and should be a focus for the
work of CEL in this respect.”
“… develop mentoring, shadowing and coaching programmes same as those available to the
aspiring BME professionals in the sector.”
“ CEL needs to support with changing the culture – it is still ‘white and blokish’. Despite the
progression of women, the sector is still inherently sexist and men play on it.”
6.8 Multiple inequalities
The following section covers a range of issues which were raised during the interview process
and which suggest that in many contexts, women are faced with multiple inequalities. The quotes
used have been classified under sections as they relate to the multiple inequalities, of gender and
age, gender and favouritism, gender and domestic/parenting issues, gender and faith and gender
and race.
It has to be acknowledged that despite there being no direct comments made about the issue,
there are other areas of multiple inequalities to address with regards to gender and disability.
6.8.1 Multiple inequalities – age
”I did not feel there were any gender issues during my progression until I applied for my
principal post and then there were issues of gender and age. I was actually told during
feedback, ‘Whereas you are stupendous, you are but a slip of a girl’.”
“I was told to go through my senior manager if I [wanted] to give directions to one of the
men I was line managing – the reason given was ‘you’re young and older men feel you
shouldn’t be asking them to do things’. I think it was because I was young and black.”
6.8.2 Multiple inequalities – favouritism
“The sector’s worst problem is nepotism – I’ve seen it here and in other situations.”
“Things are not always consistent and fair – jobs for the boys or girls.”
“When as a BME professional you see it [favouritism] happening, it knocks your

confidence.”
“The issue of ethnicity in terms of BME and faith community inequalities is more
interesting and in my view has more of an urgency … Education is far behind – it might
have policies, but it hasn’t yet developed the real understanding, belief and concept of
the issue.”
46 | March 2007
6..8.4 Multiple inequalities – women with domestic responsibilities, including children
“Women with children suffer multiple inequalities.”
“They do have an effect. The perception of women with children is different.”
“Family circumstances can sometimes also be more challenging because of the cultural
set up of most BME communities – women still tend to be the central carers for elderly
parents as well as children and the home.”
6.8.5 Multiple inequalities – BME female progression – barriers
“I’ve seen good BME staff being deskilled.”
“I am personally not being used to my potential and feel I am being deskilled into an HR
administration role.”
“As a black woman, as far as I’m concerned I have not had a problem but I know that
there are other black women who have. I have never seen black women rise to any
great heights in the sector in any great numbers and it’s not as if they don’t have
aspirations or the ability to do so. There is obviously something going on.”
“My own college appointed a black male once it had been mentioned in an Ofsted report
that they had no representation at SMT level when there was a much more talented
black woman who should have been given the role.”
“As a black female professional, it is difficult sometimes to distinguish the barriers I face
as to whether they are because I am black or a black woman. I think men have a harder
time when it comes to ethnicity and racism in the sector, but we all as black women
have many a story to tell about our progression being blocked.”
“As an aspiring BME female manager it was not just about preparing for promotion … you
have to guard your position and are constantly under threat of being undermined.”
6.8.6 Multiple inequalities – BME female professionals and networks
“I was not helped and indeed was often excluded. I would try to align myself to other
informal women’s networks and often found myself being the only black woman. If the
networks were not a group of white women, it would be groups of white women and
white men.”
“ …when accusations were made about me, the Network for Black Managers was
invaluable in every sense, professionally and personally. Despite the fact that there were
informal women’s networks around me, they were certainly not there to help when
I needed it. “
March 2007 | 47
“Because of the sense of isolation being in such a minority as a senior BME member
of staff in the sector, and of course in the colleges you don’t feel comfortable asking
colleagues for advice when you are having problems. It relates back to the lack of
confidence we as black staff have with the sector. We feel constantly under scrutiny.
I have seen colleagues let go and end up being vulnerable and having that used
against them.”
“There is no difference between white women networks and white male networks for
BME professionals in the sector. A white man will be accepted into a women’s network
much more easily than a black woman.”
“As a black manager, being told by a white colleague to stop working so hard as the
college would expect that standard from all of them makes me unsure of networking
with colleagues who think like this and who well might join the WLN.”
6.8.7 Multiple inequalities – BME female professionals and work-life balance
“What you bring to it as a black woman – you need to work really hard to counter the
stereotypes and make sure things are ok for the next black manager to come on board –
so you end up working longer hours than your counterparts.”
“Back home, in my Asian culture, you are still the housewife and wife. You could stand
your ground, but in reality you would be taking steps towards a divorce. If I really didn’t
want to do it I wouldn’t, but I do not feel this added pressure as self-imposed – I feel
strongly about that. Sacrifices are made all round.”
48 | March 2007
7. Commentary on interview findings

7.1 Career breaks and the effect on career progression
Women have had significantly more career breaks than men with the majority of men and
women stating that career breaks had a negative effect on career progression. Women who were
surveyed in the first stage and those who had been interviewed had taken breaks specifically for
the purpose of caring for young children. There is evidence to suggest that going on maternity
leave can be detrimental to a woman’s career. As none of the men surveyed or interviewed
had taken breaks for this purpose, it is clear that at this level of management, there is a level of
inequality in existence for women who have time out to have children. This inequality seems to
be reflected by the earlier descriptive statistics which indicated a smaller proportion of women
working at principal level. male respondents demonstrated that their own career trajectories had
been planned in most instances and most had given little or no consideration to gender related
issues, as they impact on female colleagues, related to career breaks or work-life balance.
7.2 Work-life balance issues and gender
Women have a more negative experience of the work-life balance than men and this is reported
as largely being due to the additional domestic commitments that they have as mothers and
wives. Most interesting are the results from the interviews which show that the vast majority of
men had no comment to make about the work-life balance agenda as opposed to the many
women who saw it as an important factor of their working lives. This might lead us to conclude
that men do not consider work-life balance as an important issue possibly due to that fact that
they are happy with their current circumstances; however it may be that men have different
views regarding approaches and attitudes about the work-life balance agenda.
7.3 How career-related barriers and enablers operate
7.3.1 Factors hindering career progression for women
Factors identified at Stage 2 of the research include:
z Family concerns – these were again the biggest factor acting as a hindrance to the
career progression of women. Other issues featuring strongly and discussed by
interviewees included lack of confidence and career breaks.
z As was indicated in the survey stage, most principals/CEOs had not had substantial
career breaks and those who did, had taken them earlier in their careers and now
had older and independent children. This fact allows us to conclude that those
who apply for principal posts are unlikely to have had any length of time out of
the sector. As indicated in the first stage of the research, given the tendency for
women to have longer career breaks, there is the implication that they are likely to
find themselves in lower positions as their careers progress.
March 2007 | 49
7.3.2 Factors hindering career progression for men
No additional factors were identified by interviewees in terms of barriers to male

progression. Therefore, based on the results from the survey stage, lack of experience
continues to be considered a key factor as are lack of ability and lack of opportunities.
Given that a larger number of men than women in the survey said that there were
no barriers, we can continue to assume that those who perceived barriers tended to
consider women to have greater barriers to their progression than men.
7.3.3 Factors contributing to career progression for women
In addition to experience and ability, which were identified as the major factors, it
would appear that informal networks and mentoring support, improved confidence and
self-belief were key factors in determining whether women chose to progress.
7.3.4 Factors contributing to career progression for men
Experience and ability were seen to be the key factors in the survey and comments
about men having fewer family commitments continued to be raised by interviewees.
Networking and tips from colleagues played an important role in the career progression
of men. male respondents indicated that networks had been used often in their career
progression. They also indicated that these networks were still used even when this took
substantial time in the evenings.
7.4 Multiple inequalities
7.4.1 Women were generally more aware of the possibility of multiple inequalities and
reported having experiences that demonstrated a range of issues citing age, being a
mother and favouritism as areas where they had been treated unequally.
7.4.2 Black and minority ethnic women experience a range of multiple inequalities, as
illustrated in sections 6.8.5 and 6.8.6 – this has implications for WLN and CEL in their
consideration of strategies which might support BME female professionals by addressing
the issues raised by this report.
7.5 Possible roles for the Women’s Leadership Network
There was a substantial range of possible roles for the network identified in the initial phase of
the research. Women were interested in:
z activities which provide information and guidance, build confidence and raise awareness,
with mentoring being identified as an important strategy
z activities which provide opportunities to share experience and exchange ideas
z having regional and national meetings
z promoting role models.
50 | March 2007
7.6 The possible contribution of leadership development support provided by CEL in relation to
gender and equality
As indicated earlier, the training agenda suggested for CEL has been commented on with a range
of issues needing to be addressed, particularly pertaining to improving the confidence of aspiring
women leaders and increasing understanding of the role of principal. Also mentioned is the need
for women to have access to shadowing and mentoring opportunities: and programmes similar
to those being promoted to support the development of aspiring BME professionals.
7.7 Conclusion – differences between male and female perceptions
The initial strategy of conducting same-sex interviews appears to have been successful, in terms
of generating rapport and a resultant frankness. There was a concern, however, that a researcher
from a BME background may have received a rather cooler response from respondents than did
other interviewers.
Whereas female managers had generally experienced career breaks and perceived disadvantages
stemming from them, men did not tend to disagree but had failed to even consider this as a
potentially important factor in career progression. Most of the men interviewed had experienced
uninterrupted career paths. They may, however, consider career breaks as inconveniences,
rendering candidates ‘not up to speed’.
The implication is that a large swathe of senior FE management takes decisions about selection
and promotion without considering the potential conflation of ‘lack of experience’ as a factor
and the exigencies of life which typically affect women.
Similarly, work-life balance does not seem to loom large on the horizons of the male
respondents. Again, it seems probable that the burden of domestic tasks is likely to impinge on
women’s perceptions because they are more likely to be carrying them out.
Men were confident of their support structures, women less so. It could be surmised that this
relates to the dearth of women at senior level, although an inability of the primary carer in a
family to go to evening events seems a more likely if less direct differential effect. This may be
related to male respondents’ apparent indifference to work-life balance.
In spite of the above, however, as in the online survey, respondents were divided on whether
or not gender barriers were effectively excluding women. Although more men seem likely to
support the notion that promotion is largely a matter of merit, the divide was not based wholly
on interviewees’ gender. This offers some hope for optimism about the potential benefits of
training and clear policymaking.
March 2007 | 51
8. Findings – principals’ data
This data complements the HR survey data and provides a comprehensive picture of the
numbers of principals according to gender, ethnicity, and provider type, showing trends over
the period 2000 – 2005. It is based on data collected by the Association of Colleges and the
Network for Black Professionals.
Female and male principals (absolute numbers) Female principals, as a percentage of principals
299
300 290
280 280 276 100%
272
90%
Principals in FE colleges
250
80%
200 70%
60%
150 50%
114
100 101 106 40%
98 97
27% 28% 28%
100 25% 26% 26%
30%
50 20%
10%
0 0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Women Men
Women continue to be heavily outnumbered by men as principals of further education colleges.

Although there has been a slight increase in proportion of women principals over the last two
years, this is not to an extent which could be described as statistically meaningful.
Given the apparent differences in proportions between SMT members and principals, as cited in
the online survey, it could be that while women are therefore better represented at SMT level,
this is not the case at principal level.
BME female and male principals Female principals, as a % of BME principals

7 100%
6 6
90%
Principals in FE colleges
6
5 80%
5 70%
4 4 4
4 60%
3 3 3 50% 40% 40%
3 33%
40%
2
30% 25% 25%
2
17%
1 1 1 20%
1
10% 0%
0
0 0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
BME women BME men
52 | March 2007
It should be noted that the 2001 Census (Office for National Statistics, 2001) puts the
non-white population of England as 9.1%. Taken in this context, BME principals are very much
under-represented at principal level, in spite of a small but clear increase in numbers over the last
five years.
It should be noted that when looking at the gender split within the group of BME principals,
we are looking at very small numbers. As the absolute figures suggest, any levelling of the
proportions between men and women is a matter of two or three additions to the top positions
in colleges.
General Sixth-form Adult and Specialist

FE college college community provider college
BME BME BME BME BME BME BME BME
female male female male female male female male
2000 2 1
2001 1 2 1
2002 1 2 1
2003 1 3 1 1
2004 2 2 1 1
2005 4 3 1 1 1
2006 3 3 1 1 1 1
The table above breaks down the numbers into female and male principals from black and minority
ethnic background, according to college sector. Given the small numbers involved, it might be too
hasty to say that general further education (GFE) colleges are more likely to employ BME principals
than other sectors, especially given that GFE is the largest sector by far. Likewise, the apparent
openness of the GFE sector to the employment of women principals is open to considerable statistical
reservations.
March 2007 | 53
9. Commentary on principals’ data
In recent years, there has not been significant positive focus on the employment of women as
principals in the further education sector. A clear view of the glass ceiling can be seen from this
perspective. Increases in the number of female principals are slight and have not changed the
proportions by gender since the year 2000. The comparative dearth of female principals will be
an interesting issue for colleges to consider in the context of the Gender Equality Duty.
As principals from a BME background are very poorly represented indeed, little should be made
of the difference between men and women within this category. The results are suggestive,
however, of a similar preponderance of male principals.
10. Overall conclusions, implications and recommendations

While the findings of this report demonstrate high levels of participation by both genders and
much progress in terms of gender equality, more detailed consideration has revealed that there is
still a significant ‘glass ceiling’ effect in the FE sector.
Although male respondents did not tend to share the same perceptions as their female
counterparts women, their lack of awareness of issues seem to have been grounded in their
different experiences. This does suggest that sensitive training and policies and procedures with
clear rationales could be effective in contributing to addressing gender inequalities.
Of significant concern are the disproportionately higher levels of under-representation of BME

managers and, as it relates to this report, the under-representation of BME women managers.
This issue might usefully be addressed in any future review of gender and race inequalities in
the sector. Individual interview responses have revealed that there is substantial interest in the
role of the Women’s Leadership Network (WLN) and the Centre for Excellence in Leadership
(CEL) in addressing gender related factors in career progression and in particular supporting the
improvement of the gender balance of chief executive/principal posts in the sector.
10.1 Career breaks
Individual data and interviews focus on important contributory factors linked to the impact of
career breaks and levels of domestic responsibilities on career progression for women. Many
of the respondents interviewed at the second stage of the research acknowledged the potential
benefits of introducing a more strategic approach to supporting staff in the sector who decide
to take career breaks. Given that it is recognised that women do generally take the caring role
in domestic and family circumstances, it was acknowledged that supporting a more strategic
approach will become even more important as demographic changes around the ageing
population add to the role of women as they become the main carers for elderly parents.
Given, further, the findings about the role of staff induction and college policies in contributing
to gender equality, one possible role of the WLN, particularly in the context of the new Gender
Equality Duty, may be to actively raise awareness about the need to mitigate the effects of career
breaks. The network might wish to take a role in supporting this approach to career breaks
by supporting the establishment of career break policies which will ensure that staff are given
opportunities to be kept informed and updated with the latest college information and sector
updates. Other initiatives could be considered. For example the establishment of a pool of staff
on career breaks or the setting up of a database of institutions who are looking for short-term
54 | March 2007
project management, shadowing or other opportunities which will enable staff to access wider
opportunities whilst on career breaks, could also be supported by the network. It should be
noted, however, that not all respondents were supportive of such initiatives. Another approach
may be to analyse attitudes towards career breaks, leading to considerations of what is best
practice within selection procedures.
10.2 Networking
The results have shown that informal networking plays a substantial role in confidence building
and sharing of experiences for women who wish to progress. A major role for the network will
be to re-establish structures, processes and a culture that promotes networking opportunities for
professional women in the sector. This has the potential to contribute to demystifying the role of
principal. As such it would complement the accredited, structured preparation for principalship
afforded by the Principals’ qualifying programme (PQP), offered by CEL.
Part of these networking opportunities might include the regular publication of a newsletter or
other professional networking media which could be used to promote role models, advertise
networking events and job opportunities and share best practice about other gender related
issues.
10.3 Monitoring progress
In order to monitor the effectiveness of college and sector strategies to support the development
of women, the network might wish to consider developing measures to assess the impact and
benefits of strategies put in place. These could be used to share the best practices identified.
10.4 Training and development
Given that lack of experience is considered a deficit and that ability to do the job was seen to a
be a major contributory factor to progression, then the training agenda suggested for CEL, and
the guidance-related and experience-sharing strategies for WLN, would appear to be attuned to
meeting managers’ needs. Given the feedback from issues from male managers, there are also
awareness and development implications, particularly in terms of work-life balance issues and
career breaks.
10.4.1 Shadowing and mentoring opportunities
Shadowing, mentoring and confidence building activities were seen as being key
activities that CEL could usefully undertake to support this aspect of the development
of aspiring female sector leaders. These activities could be based on the model that is
currently in place to support the development of BME aspiring leaders in the sector.
Many female respondents commented on the fact that they did not really understand
what the job of a principal actually entailed on a day-to-day basis. Providing shadowing
and mentoring opportunities might address this issue and thus give them the confidence
in their own abilities to undertake the role.
March 2007 | 55
10.4.2 Governor training and development
There was recognition that with governors playing a key role in the recruitment
and selection of principal positions, there is a need for this level of governance to
be supported with the processes, legislation and guidance that have an impact on
decision-making in selection.
10.5 Recommendations
10.5.1 Women’s Leadership Network
The findings in this report suggest that there is a role for the Women’s Leadership
Network in addressing these issues; the following key recommendations are proposed:
z The Women’s Leadership Network should consider the possible roles suggested
in survey responses and establish appropriate national and regional networking
opportunities for female managers.
z Another potential area for networking is in the realm of governors. This may have
an effect upon attitudes towards the selection and promotion of managers, as well
as providing support for women governors themselves.
z WLN could raise awareness about deleterious attitudes to career breaks and
collect information of instances when this has affected selection processes.
z Following on from its own work and CEL research, WLN could consider modes
of best practice most likely to effectively counter discriminatory selection and
promotion processes.
10.5.2 Centre for Excellence in Leadership
The research findings also have implications for the Centre for Excellence in Leadership:
z All governors should receive appropriate gender equalities training, for example
through the CEL mandatory diversity competence.
z Research into the effects of career breaks on selection decisions could be

undertaken. Rather than merely ascertaining potentially negative outcomes for
individuals or categories of managers, this could examine whether or not the
process of considering experience in the light of such breaks is effectively ruling
out the promotion of more able candidates.
z Recommendations for selection policies, awareness raising and staff development

could be updated in the light of the above research.
z Female staff could be supported through the establishment of mentoring and

shadowing schemes that will give them the opportunities to observe senior
managers and principals in their day-to-day routines.
56 | March 2007
z Given the severe under-representation of BME managers at senior levels, it is

recommended that CEL’s succession management strategies, in collaboration with
the Black Leadership Initiative, the Network for Black Professionals, and relevant
black women’s organisations, should include a focus on ethnic minority middle
managers, taking account of other equalities dimensions, including gender, as
suggested in 10.5.3 below.
z CEL could systematically assess the benefits of strategies adopted to promote

gender equality for sector leaders and managers.
10.5.3 Multiple inequalities
z The initial exploration of the issues of multiple inequalities experienced by

some individuals suggests that substantial awareness raising, development and
support are needed in this area. In the context of the move toward single equality
frameworks, careful consideration will be needed by all sector agencies and
providers about how to balance addressing the distinctive and general aspects of
equalities issues.
March 2007 | 57
References
Benefield, C, 2006. Building Future Talent for the Learning and Skills Sector. London: Centre for
Excellence in Leadership. www.aua.ac.uk/events/courses/appliedleadership/benefield.ppt#256,1 Slide 1
Centre for Excellence in Leadership, 2006. Equality and Sexual Orientation – The Leadership Challenge
for Further Education. London: Centre for Excellence in Leadership.
www.centreforexcellence.org.uk/UsersDoc/EqualityandSexualOrientation.pdf
Department for Education and Skills, 2006. Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances.
Norwich: HMSO.
Department of Trade and Industry, 2004. Final Regulatory Impact Assessment on Civil Partnership.
www.dti.gov.uk/files/file23829.pdf
Equal Opportunities Commission, 2002a. Glass ceiling and sticky floor leave women the poorer sex.
Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission. www.eoc.org.uk/Default.aspx?page=15070
Equal Opportunities Commission, 2002b. Women and men in Britain: management. Manchester: Equal
Opportunities Commission. www.eoc.org.uk/PDF/management.pdf
Equal Opportunities Commission, 2007. Guidance for public bodies on the Gender Equality Duty.
Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission. www.eoc.org.uk/Default.aspx?page=19951
Foster, Sir A, 2005. Realising the potential – a review of the future role of further education colleges.
Annesley: DfES Publications.
Learning and Skills Council, 2006. Literature and data review on evidence on Apprenticeships around
race, gender and disability issues. Coventry: Learning and Skills Council.
Lifelong Learning UK, 2005. Further education workforce data for England – an analysis of the staff
individualised record (SIR) for 2003/2004. London: Lifelong Learning UK.
www.lluk.org/documents/reports/analysis_of_sir_data_20051124.pdf
Office for National Statistics,2001. Labour Force Survey. London: Office for National Statistics.
www.statistics.gov.uk
Personnel Today, 2002. EOC report reveals dramatic gender pay gap. January 24th.
Quacquarelli, N, 2002. Women in leadership, The Guardian, December 18
Utting, S, 2006. Headline Statistics – Staff Individualised Record (SIR) 04/05. London: Lifelong Learning
UK www.lifelonglearninguk.org/documents/reports/sir_headline_stats_04_05.doc
58 | March 2007
Additional reading
Beerten, R, Rainford, L and Jones, A, 2001. Changing to Standard Occupational Classification (SOC)
2000 – dual coding on the Labour Force Survey, Labour Market Trends, July, 357-64.
Bennett, N, Crawford, M and Cartwright, M (eds), 2003. Effective educational leadership. Trowbridge:
Open University in association with Paul Chapman Publishing.
Cockburn C, 1991. In the way of women. London: Macmillan.
Cole, P, 1998. Men, women and the management of further education: the perceptions of senior
managers regarding gender issues. Journal of Further and Higher Education. volume 24, 2, June 2000
Collinson, D L and Hearn, J, 1994. Naming men as men: implications for work, organisation and
management, Gender, Work and Organization, 1, 1, 2-22.
Collinson, D L and Hearn, J, 1996. Men as managers, managers as men: critical perspectives on men,
masculinities and managements. London: Sage, pp. 275.
Collinson, D L and Hearn, J, 2003. Critical studies on men, masculinities and managements. In Bennett,
N, Crawford, M and Cartwright, M (eds).
Collinson M and Collinson D, 2005. Leader-led relations in context. Lancaster University Management
School, Working Paper, 037.
Dex, S, 1987. Women’s occupational mobility. London: Macmillan
Kerfoot, D and Whitehead, S, 1998. Boys Own stuff: Masculinity and Management of Further
Education. The Sociological Review, 46 (3), 436–457
Sousa-Poza, A, 2004. Is the Swiss Labor market segmented? Labour, 18 (1) 131-61.
March 2007 | 59
Appendices
z Letter and HR survey template
z Individual managers/governors survey letter
z Interview response template
z Summaries of interview responses
60 | March 2007
Letter and HR survey template
January 11th 2007
Dear Colleague,
Survey of managers and governors by gender.
On behalf of the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL), the Learning and Skills Network
(LSN) is conducting a survey about FE managers and governors with a particular focus on
gender related data and issues.
To help us with this work, we are asking colleges' HR departments to complete and return
the tables in the attached survey document, ideally by Monday January 22nd, to provide
data about the numbers and profiles of female and male managers and governors in their
college, at each level – alternatively, you could provide the data in your own format if you
would find that easier. We are very keen to have as comprehensive and up to date set of
data as possible, in order to provide a sound baseline which would enable us to
benchmark progress in terms of promoting sector diversity and addressing gender under
representation at management and governor level.
You can respond by email to GRsurvey@LSNeducation.org.uk, by fax to 0207 297 9190 or

by post to Alison Dooley at LSN, Regent Arcade House, 19-25 Argyll Street, London
W1F 7LS. If you do not have the data at this level of detail, please provide the best
information you have available.
If you have already responded, we would like to thank you for your contribution, which is
much appreciated, and please accept our apologies for emailing again.
We very much appreciate your help with this research, especially given the many demands
there must be on your time. Please don't hesitate to contact us if you have any queries,
either by email to myself as project director or by telephone via Cole Davis on 0207 297
9014.
Thank you again for your time,
Best wishes,
Dr Elizabeth Walker
Evaluation Research Manager
Email: LWalker@LSNeducation.org.uk
March 2007 | 61
HR Survey template
62 | March 2007
CEL LSN
Please
return to:
GRsurvey
@LSNedu
cation.org
.uk
All
Managers
Ethnicity A White - B Mixed - C Asian or D Black or E Chinese or

British/Irish/ White and Asian British Black Other
Other Asian, Black British
African,
Black
Caribbean
Gender Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( )
Principal
Second
tier / SMT
Middle
managem
ent
First line
Note:
Please
indicate
total
numbers
in each
category
and, in
brackets,
numbers
(from that
total) who
are
Disabled.
e.g. 230 (7)
All
Governors
Ethnicity A White - B Mixed - C Asian or D Black or E Chinese or

British/Irish/ White and Asian British Black Other
Other Asian, Black British
African,
Black
Caribbean
Gender Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( ) Female ( ) Male ( )
Note:
Please
indicate
total
numbers
in each
March 2007 | 63
category
and in
brackets,
numbers
(from that
64 | March 2007
total) who
are
Disabled.
e.g. 12 (2)
Individual managers/governors survey letter

Individual managers/governors survey letter
Dear Colleague,
Survey of managers and governors by gender.
On behalf of the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL), the Learning and Skills
Network (LSN), is conducting a survey about FE managers and governors with a particular
focus on gender related data and issues.
To help us with this work, we would be very grateful if you could complete the survey from
your perspective, so as to enable CEL to develop its understanding of gender-related
barriers and enablers for career progression. The questionnaire is set up so that all
responses can be returned directly and confidentially to LSN, anonymously if you so
choose. The survey can be accessed via this URL:
http://www.zoomerang.com/survey.zgi?p=WEB225J2KE5FTX, alternatively if you would
like to receive a hard copy of the survey please email Clare Garratt at
cgarratt@LSNeducation.org.uk or ring her on 0207 297 9071. Hard copies can be
returned by fax to 0207 297 9190 or by post to Clare Garratt at the above address.
Ideally the survey should be completed by:
Friday 24th November 2006.
In parallel with this questionnaire to you as an individual, we are asking your HR staff to
provide anonymous information about the numbers and levels of female and male
managers and governors at your college.
Feedback (from individuals) will enable CEL to identify appropriate professional

development and other activities to support the promotion of gender equality in FE
leadership and management.
We are very keen to have as comprehensive and up to date set of data as possible, so as
to provide a sound baseline which would enable us to benchmark progress in terms of
promoting sector diversity and addressing gender under representation at management
and governor level.
We very much appreciate your help with this research / survey, especially given the many
demands there must be on your time.
Please don't hesitate to contact us if you have any queries, either by email to myself as
project director and Clare Garratt as project administrator, or by telephone via Clare on
0207 297 9071.
Thank you again for you time,
Best wishes,
Dr Elizabeth Walker
Evaluation Research Manager
Email: LWalker@LSNeducation.org.uk
Tel: 0207 297 9071
Fax: 0207 297 9190
March 2007 | 65
Interview response template
Interview Response Template – (STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL for data analysis only)
Guidance
• The following template is to be used to capture the responses from the telephone interview. Can you
also include any thoughts or analysis on how the process went as a whole
• Paraphrased comments are fine - Please note that not all categories will need to be filled in; also, if
new avenues have been opened, do not feel constrained and add any other points that you feel will
inform the research
• When going through notes/ recordings, quotes which are particularly illustrative of a certain point,
should be noted verbatim. Can you include these in speech marks
• For the purpose of linking with biographical data from the individual surveys, can you indicate the
name of the person you have interviewed (This is for data analysis purpose only and will not be used in
the report).
Interview Number
Interviewer (Initial) Interviewee
Date Time
A. Career History and Background in the FE Sector?

1. Years in current college/provider/ in the sector
2. Years of manager experience
3. Progression history – how and when were promotions gained (career routes to principal
position, any gender difs/age difs)
4. Ever helped by any informal organisations, networks, friendship groups (views on how
career barriers and enablers operate, what contributes to under-representation at different
management levels, the role of multiple inequalities
5. Service, sector, curriculum background (corporate services experience, and sector/outside
sector experience)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
66 | March 2007
6.
Anything else
WLN Interview Response Sheet

B. Career Breaks and effect on career progress
7. Career breaks if any, reason for break
8. At what age/ages
9. Personal view of effect of career breaks on career progression
10. Do you think it would be useful for people to have information from their organisation
whilst they were on a career break? Any comments why
11. Would a central register or pool of people on career breaks be useful to offer
opportunities for people to re-enter work? Any comments why
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
March 2007 | 67
Anything else

C. Gender related stress factors and effect
12. Can you think of a recent example of a stressful situation in your role and tell me how you
dealt with this i.e., external support, support from colleagues, mentor, coach or peer
support
12.
Anything else
D. Work-Life Balance
13. How many days and average hours per day do you think you dedicate to your role?
14. How would you judge your current work life balance?
15. What is positive/negative about the way the sector views the work-life balance issue?
16. What expectations do you have in terms of work-life balance approaches in your current
organisation? Any policies on this – how effective are they, what's the level of awareness
and helpfulness of these. Do they measure the effectiveness?
17. What makes a workplace/organisation/sector a positive place to be in terms of work-life
balance? How do you think FE compares to other sectors?
18.
19.
20.
21.
68 | March 2007
22.
Anything else
E. Women in the Sector - Current & Future Practice

18. What effective practice in own institution for supporting the progression of women in
terms of the previous issues discussed?
19. What kind of things do you think would be valued?
20. What role do you think CEL could have relation to gender and equality What kind of things
would be valued from CEL?
21. What role do you think the Women's Leadership Network could have - What kind of things
would be valued from the WLN
22. What would attract younger women into sector to deal with skills shortages in the sector?
23. What would encourage women to apply more for principal's positions
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Anything else
March 2007 | 69
Any additional comments/ analysis
70 | March 2007
Profile Sheet (supplementary to the main interviewing pro forma).
When using this, please inform the interviewee that we are asking for personal profile
information because
• Some interviewees have completed our preliminary online survey and others
haven't. As the survey asked for profile information, we're asking here in order to
provide a consistent body of data.
• The reason why we want the personal data is that it is often helpful to see if
people in different situations or from different backgrounds have a different
perspective when looking at the research issues, and we want to see if there are
any themes relating to different experiences.
The individual interview record only contains your initials and your answers to questions.
Information asked on this profile form goes to a general record sheet to assist analysis.
The general record sheet is strictly confidential and used for analysis only; only
aggregated information goes into our reports. Individuals will not be identifiable. The only
readers with access to the record sheet are members of the Project Team. (If asked,
name the Project Team as Liz Walker, Cole Davis, Helen Deane, Delroy Constantine-
Simms and Geraldine Pettersson).
Name (usually completed prior to interview)
Organisation (if known, pre-enter)
Position (if known, pre-enter)
Curriculum or Support area (pre-enter only if obvious)
Gender (pre-enter)
Race (ring an option please)

White British White Irish Any other White background
Mixed White and Black Caribbean Mixed White and Black African
Mixed White and Asian
Any other Mixed background; please specify:
Asian or Asian British – Indian Asian or Asian British - Pakistani Asian or Asian
British - Bangladeshi
Any other Asian background; please specify:
Chinese
Any other ethnic group; please specify:
Disability – “do you consider yourself to have a disability?” (If asked about being
Registered Disabled, say that it is not necessary to be registered to be considered
disabled – these days, many disabled people do not register as it does not generally
affect their rights under the Disability Discrimination Act.)
Yes No
Age
Under 24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+
March 2007 | 71
Summaries of interview responses
Summary of emerging themes – women
z Women have generally relied on their own informal networks for support. There does not
seem to be any links in terms of progression and women networks.
z Most women believe that having a career break will substantially affect organisational and
own view about career progression although some did feel that it did not affect career
progression.
z Most women favoured keeping people informed whilst they were on a career break and
the idea of keeping a register of people, though some showed reservations as to how this
would work.
z Work-life balance is an issue in the sector which affects women more than men. There is
a strongly held view that there needs to be change in culture to address this issue. Many
women choose not to progress due to the expectations in term of hours needed to do
the job.
z Women do not generally want to progress into the principal’s position.
z There are mixed views in terms of how well women are doing in the sector and the barriers
they are facing.
z BME women do appear to experience multiple inequalities in terms of their progression in

the sector as BME professionals although some did not have first hand experience of being
discriminated against.
z Many male respondents who had earlier agreed (during the online survey), refused to be
interviewed as they did not feel that the research was relevant to them.
Summary of emerging themes – men

In most cases, respondents were candid, often even ebullient, and quite unembarrassed in admitting:
z that their own career trajectories had been planned, in most instances
z that networks, mostly male, had been used often in their career progression
z that networks were still used even when this took substantial time in the evenings
z that they had given little or no consideration to gender related issues, as they impact on
female colleagues, related to career-breaks or work-life balance.
72 | March 2007
Centre for Excellence in Leadership
The Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL) was launched in October 2003, as a key national
agency within the Government’s Success for All initiative, and has a crucial role to play in developing
organisational leadership in the learning and skills system to anticipate, influence and respond to
government policy initiatives.
CEL’s remit is to foster and support leadership improvement, reform, transformation, sustainability
and quality improvement. It serves the existing and future leaders of all providers within the further
education system, including FE colleges, training and work-based learning providers, adult and
community providers, offender learning, specialist colleges and voluntary organisations.
Following the publication of the white Paper, CEL will be involved in the introduction of a mandatory
principal’s qualification and the development of the quality improvement strategy for further
education. The white paper also heralds an expansion of CEL’s diversity and equality remit.
CEL now operates through a charitable trust formed by its operating company on 1 April 2006.
© CEL March 2007
Published by the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL).
The text in this document may be reproduced free of charge in any format or media without requiring
specific permission, on condition that the source is acknowledged, that the material is not used in a
derogatory manner or in misleading context and that the findings are not misrepresented.
Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO.
This publication is available in electronic form on the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL)
website: www.centreforexcellence.org.uk
Publication reference: 200704-H2
March 2007 | 73
Supporting opportunity in further education
The remit of the Women’s Leadership Network is to provide professional support to female
leaders working within the further education system.
Our mission is to:
z promote and represent the interests and aspirations of women in FE by influencing

leadership thinking and policy
z encourage career progression by supporting women managers to pursue
leadership roles and work to improve support for women in the workplace
z provide professional support and intelligence networks for female leaders in FE
z raise awareness of the under-representation of women in FE leadership
z be recognised as a source of good professional practice.
For more information about the Women’s Leadership Network and to find out about joining
us, please call 0870 060 3278 or visit www.wlnfe.org.uk
Contact information
Women’s Leadership Network (c/o CEL)
10 Greycoat Place
London
SW1P 1SB
Telephone: 020 7960 6035
Enquiry line: 0870 060 3278
200704-H2
Facsimile: 020 7222 3081

Email: enquiries@centreforexcellence.org.uk
Website: www.centreforexcellence.org.uk

Gender Related Factors 2007 (Delroy Constantine-Simms and Helen Deane

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© CEL March 2007

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Publication reference: 200704-H2

Foreword by Lynne Sedgmore 3

1. Introduction and purpose 7

Letter and HR survey template 61

The Women’s Leadership Network has been established as a successor

In its first year, the Women’s Leadership Network will:

z publish research into gender issues affecting the FE system to

As chair of the new Women’s Leadership Network, I am particularly

Since announcing the new Women’s Leadership Network, we have

Foreword by Lynne Sedgmore

The Women’s Network was originally formed in 1990 by a team of

I am proud of our record of achievement in equality and diversity.

I am not surprised to hear that there is a substantial interest in the role

We look forward to working closely with Sally Dicketts and the

Lynne Sedgmore CBE

Overall findings and conclusions

However, the profile data shows that:

z women are over-represented in first line management roles

Centre for Excellence in Leadership

1.4 In this context, CEL has commissioned research to:

z provide information about the numbers and profiles of managers in FE

z eliminate unlawful discrimination

2.4 Managerial level

2.5 Curriculum or service areas

2.7 Occupational mobility

2.8 Characteristics of managers

2.8.1 Status of employment

2.8.3 Marital status

A higher proportion of female than male managers were single or divorced.

2.8.6 Sexual orientation

2.8.7 Religious beliefs

There appears to be limited or no research available regarding the religious beliefs of

2.8.8 Regional differences

2.9 Implications for the post-16 sector

2.10 Research implications

z career breaks and the effect on career progression

4. Findings – survey data

Number of respondents in HR survey

Second tier Principal

4.1 HR survey – overall numbers

4.1.1 The sample

White and BME managers

White managers by gender BME managers by gender

Female Male Female Male

Mixed – white, Asian Black or

BME managers – female BME managers – male

BME White BME White

BME White BME White

White and BME governors

z People with disabilities represent 2.4% of the governors.

4.2 Individual survey

4.2.1 Sample characteristics

z 214 people responded to the survey.

Individual survey – sample characteristics

Principal or chief executive

z 98% of the respondents were permanent members of staff (as opposed to

z The North East and Yorkshire/Humberside are relatively under-represented, at 21%

Geographical representativeness of survey

East East London North North South South West Yorkshire/