Lecturer Note by Dr. R.S.

Meena
The Types of computers
The types of computers range from the Hybrid to the Analog types. The computers you come across in the daily course of your day range from laptops, palmtops and towers, to desktop computers, to name a few. But the very word computers reminds one of the desktop computers used in offices or homes. Different categories of computes have been devised in keeping with our varied needs. The Types Of Computers: Analog and Hybrid (classification based on operational principle) Analog Computers: The analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation. Hybrid computers: These types of computers are, as the name suggests, a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of binary digit system of 0 and 1 can give very precise results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control. Apart from this, computers are also categorized on the basis of physical structures and the purpose of their use. Based on Capacity, speed and reliability they can be divided into three categories of computers: 1. The Mainframe Computer These are computers used by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations. They are core computers which are used for desktop functions of over one hundred people simultaneously. 2. The Microcomputer These are the most frequently used computers better known by the name of Personal computers. This is the type of computer meant for public use. Other than Desktop Computer the choice ranges as follows: Personal Digital Computer Tablet PC Towers Work Stations Laptops Hand Held Computer 3. The Mini computer Mini computers like the mainframe computers are used by business organization. The difference being that it can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations for the maintenance of accounts and finances. Yet another category of computer is the Super Computers. It is somewhat similar to mainframe computers and is used in economic forecasts and engineering designs. Today life without computers is inconceivable. Usage of different types of computers has made life both smooth and fast paced. Analog Computer Analog Computers and Digital computers are the two kinds of computers, the combination of which is responsible for the invention of the modern Hybrid computers. The analog systems carry out arithmetic and logical operations by manipulating and processing data which you input such as the weight, temperature, voltage, power density, etc. But unlike the digital computer that changes all inputs to binary digits of 1 and 0, the analog computer does not change inputted data to any such sign language. The analog computer has become obsolete type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer as it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. The digital computers, however could not operate the more complex operations. The Analog System is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.

Mathematical Principles Applied For The Data Processing In Analog Computers: Logarithm

Summation Exponentiation Calculus Multiplication and Division Inversion The analog computer which is a complex machine is an integration of various mechanical parts which has pipes, valves, levers, gears and several key parts which can be named as follows:Fixed function generators Operational amplifiers Potentiometers Integrators Advantages and Disadvantages of Analog Computers

The advantage of an analog computer is that it can simultaneously find solutions to several mathematical problems and that too while being precise unlike the digital computer. But it is not free of drawbacks. Unlike the digital computer it lacks speed of calculation. There are other functional problems which mar the efficiency of analog systems. Of these, the problems of non-linearities, temperature co-efficient, parasitic effects and noise floor are the main problems so to say. Desktop Computers Desktop computers are the most widely used Personal Computers which still claim a fair share of 46% of the total world market. In spite of the fact that PCs are now dwarfed to Laptops and Palmtops, Desktop machines rule most homes and business institutions because of their durability and cheapness. Desktop Personal Computers are found almost every where almost in all middle class Indian homes, cyber cafes, shopping malls, business institutions, offices, etc. The History of Desktop computers being produced at amass scale dates back to around the late 70s of the 20th century. When you come across a typical desktop computer, note that the PC that includes the following parts is visible to you: A Visual Display Unit (VDU) A Keyboard A Central Processing Unit (CPU) A Mouse There can be in addition to these a pair of Sound box, Web Cam, Joystick, etc. Besides the mechanical components of a Desktop system, or the hardware system of the desktop computer comprises: Mother Board (System Board) The mother board, a board concerning printed circuit, is the most important component of the Desktop computer as it contains and connects all the important parts of the hardware. It basically consists of the keyboard connector, RAM, AGP PCI and ISA slots, CPU, battery, expansion board and L2 Cache. Processor This can be called the chief brain of the computer. Hard Disk drive It is that part of the memory which the regular user can utilize for the purpose of working and storing data.

Optical Disc Drive This is the component for playing CD s and DVD s. Floppy Disc drive The part that helps in the running of a floppy. Random Access Memory The permanent memory that cannot be erased by the user Modem This is the component used to connect to BBS, dial up network and of course the Internet. Computer Power Supply Unit This is the unit that is responsible for supplying the system with electrical power. Various cards and Coolers. Today Desktop machines are manufactured by a wide range of companies, though integrated Desktops Personal Computers are also popular. HP computer, Toshiba , HCL, ACER to name a few a few of them. Digital Computers Digital Computers are that kind of computing machines which work on the principle of binary mathematics. Digital computing machines when clubbed with Analog computers produce Hybrid computers. The digital systems work on the principle of binary mathematics. In binary mathematics all calculations are represented through 0 and 1.

You have often heard about the word Byte, Mega Byte, Kilo Byte. But what is a Byte? A single Byte is a group of 8 numbers or bits represented through a code series comprising of 0 and 1 .The combination of the digital signal can solve a number of mathematical operations. It is interesting to note that the fundamentals of mathematics applied are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. But the chief problem is that though it can solve mathematical problems at a tremendous speed, it cannot perform bulk operations simultaneously. For this purpose, digital systems by themselves cannot give very precise results. Hence, for greater efficiency, the Digital systems do not find much application. Data Processing In Digital Computers Digital computers function with the help of logic circuits. A reliable oscillator helps in the proper synchronization of various logic circuits that are responsible for processing data in the digital computers. In better quality computers, the oscillation rate might even be a billion cycles per second. Operating at such high speed, it can process more than billions of logic and arithmetic problems. A digital computer with the help of binary system cannot only perform mathematical problems but also combine the bytes to produce desired graphics, sounds, images and other such commands. Embedded Computers Embedded computers are not just computer systems where you can input new programs, the embedded devices are preprogrammed. All you can do is make the most of the services that the embedded computer systems are capable of providing. Ever thought of how your digital camera or cell phone, or washing machine works? Sure they work with the support of electricity or may be they are battery powered but the functions that they execute is entirely because of the embedded systems. Important features of embedded computers constitute: The functions of the Embedded systems are not generic but rather specific. In most cases Embedded computers are built in parts. Usually they constitute a single board or a chip placed inside the concerned machine that it must operate. The software running the embedded computer systems is not stored in the disc drive but rather in the ROM. The software language used for writing the program is called FIRMWIRE. Embedded Computers are capable of communicating with the world outside. They do it with the help of peripherals. These peripherals comprise: 1.Universal Serial Bus (USB) 2.Synchronous Serial Communication Interface: I2C, JTAG, SPI, SSC and ESSI 3.Discrete IO: aka General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) 4.Networks: Controller Area Network, Lon Works, etc. 5.Serial Communication Interfaces (SCI): RS-232, RS-422, RS-485 etc 6.Timers: PLL(s), Capture/Compare and Time Processing Units

Digital Cameras Printers Medical equipments Inertial Guidance Systems Washing machines Industrial controllers Computer peripherals Thermostats Laptops Laptops or Notebook computers are a type of personal computers which are portable devices. The special feature of laptop computers is that it is far lighter than a Desktop PC. Being a wireless system, you can use it even when there is a power cut or you are away from home where electricity is not available. Laptops or Notebook Computers are different from a desktop computer not only in terms of size and portability but the following factors count for the basic difference: In laptops, the mouse, keyboard and sound box is integrated with the main system itself. A notebook computer is not powered by electricity but by a battery.

Nowadays networking features like Intel Centrino mobile Technology is installed within the laptop computers itself. In most laptops with the exception of a few like Alienware, the internal parts cannot be updated once you have bought the Laptop. And to say the least it is far more fragile than a Desktop PC. While buying a Laptop computer you need to consider the quality of the portable computer. What accounts for the portability, are the following factors. So make sure to check out that the basic components of the system, that is to say, the Processor, Memory, Mass Storage and Removal components and the peripheral accessories should be designed in such a way that it is as light and small as possible; should be powered by a proper battery which must generate minimum heat; should be accessible by a floppy or a CD.

With the market pouring over with companies such as Compaq, Acer, Toshiba, Zenith, Sahara, HCL, Lenovo, Del Inspiration, ASUS, HP computers, Apple Computers, Alienware and many more, you can choose laptops ranging in price anywhere between 29000 ICR to anywhere beyond 1,00,000. Mainframe Computer Mainframes are computers that are the most bulky types and with the advancement of technology, they have almost become extinct. Computers are of three types Mainframe computers, Minicomputers and Microcomputers. Mainframe computer systems can be called the predecessor of servers because they could actually support multi users though as efficiently as the servers. Usually, a main frame would occupy an entire room and could cost over million dollars. Used for the purpose of research, engineering works, meteorological calculations, graphics and the likes, mainframes today constitutes Unix, Linux, and IBM's z/OS, OS/390, MVS, VM, and VSE. Mainframe systems were manufactured extensively throughout the 1950s and were marketed by IBM, Control Data, General Electric, NCR, UNIVAC, Honeywell, RC, and Burroughs. The three important Features of mainframe Computers: Mainframes provide for maximum I/O connectivity as they accommodate huge disc farms. Mainframes excel in providing maximum I/O band width. Interestingly in spite of all the connected drives connected to the mainframe system, no data blocking ever happens to mar its efficiency. Mainframe systems also provide for very good single thread operations. The Mini computers are a less bulky version of the mainframe computers. Minicomputers are used by business organization. The difference being that it can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations for the maintenance of accounts and finances. Besides,there are personal computers or microcomputers. The micro computers include Desktop PC s, Laptops, Handheld computers, Tablet PC s, workstations, palmtops, etc. These are the most frequently used computers. Minicomputers Minicomputers, what exactly are they? If supercomputers and mainframes are considered to be the best in terms of mathematical operations then minicomputer systems succeed them. Previously, minicomputers were considered to be superior to personal systems. But these days, advancement in technology has made minicomputers almost obsolete because the PCs today are highly advanced. The Minicomputers were first built in in 1960s and they immediately became a huge success as 40,000 of the minicomputer systems were immediately sold of making the computers hugely available to the general public. With such a successful market possibility many companies stepped in to venture in the minicomputer market. The most successful among these two hundred companies was DEC that launched the minicomputer models PDP-11 and VAX 11/780. Some significant aspects and historical facts about the mini computer system has been summarized as follows: They are much smaller in size than the mainframe computer systems. As such they do not occupy an entire room but usually occupy space similar in size to that of a standard refrigerator. They are much less expensive than the mainframes.

Their invention was possible because of the invention of core memory technologies and transistors. Minicomputers can can give parallel access to up to 100 users. Hence they were used in places such as business organizations for maintaining billings and finances. Some of the very first companies to manufacture the minicomputer systems were Hewlett Packard, DEC and Data General.

A few models of minicomputers which have been a marked success over the years are: DEC VAX series and PDP series Hewlett Packard HP3000 series SDS,SDS-92 Prime Computers, Prime 50 Series Norsk Data, Nord-1, Nord-10, Nord-100 IBM Midrange Computers Control Data Corporation's CDC 160A, CDC-1700 Data General Nova Honeywell-Bull Level 6/DPS Level6/DPS 6000 series Minicomputers have eventually evolved in to microcomputers. With the launch of microcomputers, the public have had a greater access to the advantage of incorporating computers in the daily stride of their lives. Personal Computers or Micro Computers Personal computers or Microcomputers are the most widely used computers which have found application in everyday activity of the modern world. The speed and accuracy of processing of the personal systems account for their high popularity. Think of a world where share market trading had to be carried out manually and the times when the fastest means of communication was but for the telephones were the telegrams. Those days are not even past 50 years, yet you cannot imagine life without the aid of personal computers or PCs as you abbreviate them.

Personal computers remind us mostly of Desktop computers or at the most Laptop computers. But actually Personal computers refer to: Desktop computers Desktop Computers are those Personal computers that one comes across in business institutions, ATM s, Offices, etc. They have the second largest market among all kinds of PCs. They are unportable and long lasting. Laptop computers Laptop Computers are a personal system sub-type. As the name goes, it is a portable computer which is usually a light weight PC. The special feature of course, is that it is far lighter than a Desktop PC and being a wireless system, you can use it even when there is a power cut or you are away from home where electricity is not available. Hand held computers or palm tops Palm tops like laptops are portable personal computers which are even smaller and lighter and can be carried in a pocket. Ideally a palmtop is used for storage of personal information like phone numbers, appointments and the likes. Nowadays with the improvement of technology palmtops come with colored monitors, sound recording facilities, and even provision for access to the Internet. Tablet Personal Computers Tablet PCs are also a kind of micro computers. They are mostly used in Graphics work is an electronic device that utilizes digital ink to write or draw directly on the monitor of you PC. Personal Digital Assistant he Personal Digital Assistant or Digital Diary is a species of the Portable computer. The personal digital system is much limited in terms of the tasks it can perform. Basically personal digital computers are used for the purpose of storing small data such as telephone numbers, addresses, etc. The Personal Digital Assistant do not possess the ability of processing complex commands. Unlike other portable devices such as the laptops and sub notebooks, they do not have hard drives or facility to run DVD s, CD s or floppy. Nowadays PDA s come in improved versions with the facilities of colored screens and even music system. However, with the cell phone boom, PDA s have lost a considerable market share.

The Digital Diary is mostly characterized by the following features: A small screen A small integrated keyboard similar to the form of your Desktop computer. An electronically active keypad capable understanding handwriting.

It is run by a tablet battery. Personal Digital Assistant can serve you in several ways. A few typical functions of the latest digital systems are: 1. It can work as a calculator 2. It can store phone numbers 3. It can store addresses 4. It can work as a web browser 5. It can work as a cellular phone 6. It can work as fax sender 7. It might have inbuilt-in programs to evaluate future forecasts and many such amusements. While going for a PDA always make sure that they stand out to meet your needs. It is better not buy the Personal Digital Assistant going by the trend scale but rather the utility and memory capacity. You have lots of multinational companies to pick your digital diary from: HP Computers, Nokia, Palm One, Sharp, Dell Axim, to name a few.

Portable Computers Portable Computers are types of personal computers that can be easily carried around wherever you go. Most importantly, the portable devices are supported by a battery or an adapter. The good point about replacing a desktop computer system with a portable system is that you can avail it whenever and wherever necessary. Portable computers do not mean just Laptops, but Palm tops, Sub notebooks and the likes. The basic difference among these portable devices is that they differ in size, power consumption, screen size and not to mention the least the memory or storage space.

Based on these factors, portable computer systems are differentiated as:Laptops or Notebook Computers Laptops are PCs which are the most efficient of all portable computers. They have all the basic features of a desktop system. But the difference lies in the fact that all the hardware parts are very light and integrated. But in spite of their efficiency they have not overtaken the market entirely because their internal parts cannot be easily updated. Sub Notebook Computers These are almost the same as Notebook computers but they are a little smaller in size and also lighter than the notebook computers. Palm Tops These are portable PCs which are of the size of a your palms. Unlike the laptop computers, they have a very small memory which can at the most be used for storing phone numbers, addresses, pictures and such other small data .They are incapable of running CD and floppy.

The factors that demand attention while buying Portable computers are: The Size The Weight The Memory space The Limitations compared to the Desktop computers.

Your choice of selection lies among various multinational companies like Compaq, Acer, Toshiba, Zenith, Sahara, HCL, Lenovo, Del Inspiration, ASUS, HP computers, Apple Computers, Alienware and many more. Quantum Computers uantum Computers are still in the state of infancy as compared to the Digital computers. The computers that we use today are improved versions of the original Digital systems that have been clubbed together with Hybrid Computers. While digital systems work on the principle of Binary mathematics and processes data through Boolean logic gates, the Quantum Systems are those that process data following the Quantum theory of physics. Quantum computers are the next generation computers. Though the basic quantum computer model was built some thirty years ago, the practical machine is yet to see the light of the day. The credit of developing the idea of quantum computers goes entirely to a group of physicists and computer scientists, namely- Paul. A. Benioff, David Deutsch, Charles H. Bennett, and Richard P. Feynman.

The Fundamental Principles of working of the Quantum computers have been summarized as follows: The fundamental unit of data processing is known as Qubit or Quantum Bit. Qubit is a concept that originates from Quantum mechanics. Qubit is quaternary by nature. The 0 and 1 logic figures might as well be superimposed in quantum computing.

Based on the operational principle, computers that have so long served us can be divided into three basic types. 1. Analog Computers: The analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously, very much unlike the digital computers, which could not operate the more complex operations. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation. 2. Digital Computers: These are computing machines which work on the principle of binary mathematics. Digital computers when clubbed with Analog computers produce Hybrid computers. The basic principle of binary mathematics, the principle on which the digital computer works is that, it represents all mathematical numbers with the help of the digits 0 and 1. 3. Hybrid computers: These types of computers are a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of binary digit system of 0 and 1 can give very precise results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale mathematical operations. So, in the hybrid types of computers, the Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control. In spite of all the development, the demand for more speed and accuracy has led scientists to think of an alternate operational principle that would fulfill all demands in terms of efficiency and data processing. Server Server or Server Application refers to both the server computer that runs the Interactive Programs and the Batch Programs, but more correctly to the Program itself that serves to provides responses to several users via many computers. Think of all the facilities you can get while your computer is connected to the Internet. To say the least, you can exchange data, send e-mails, download application forms of colleges and other such institutions, carry out on-line trading and what not? How do you think this mass interaction is possible? It is the Server Computer that runs the server program. This serves to simultaneously interconnect the computers you use at home, in offices and the likes.

Based on the work that the server performs, servers can be distinguished as:Web Server The web server utilizes the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server program. In other words, it accepts and delivers HTTP programs from the network computer system in order to accept and respond to client requests and instructions. An error message is forwarded by the web server in order o communicate any possible problem via the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). FTP Server This is a sever that allows you to share and transfer files with other interconnected computers that form a network under the FTP server. Game Server Playing games on-line is a phenomenon that has gained popularity over the years. The game server with its huge bandwidth makes it possible for the client computer to exchange huge amount of data with the server computer. Application Server Most of you who are or have been students must have had the pleasant experience of downloading forms from the Internet instead of wasting time queuing up to buy the forms. The server that allows your computer to receive the concerned application forms is known as the Application server.

Print Server It allows you to exchange data which can be printed from a desired computer system connected to the print server. Database Server Provides database services to networking computer systems. Client Server Being run on interactive programs, provides services to clients using the computers connected to the client server computer. Fax Server This server, as the name suggests, allows you to send and receive faxes to computers, interconnected via the fax server. Supercomputers upercomputers are one of the many types of modern computing machines which are capable of giving very speedy calculations. It is because of their high speed processing ability that Supercomputer systems are used in such works as animation graphics, weather forecasting, nuclear research work, petroleum research works, crypt analysis, molecular modeling and the likes. You must be wondering then what is the difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe computer system? While Mainframe machines are primarily used for a number of purposes, supercomputers are so designed to serve a singular purpose. A brief time line of the development of supercomputers has been given as follows: 1960s: Seymour Cray of Control Data Corporation (CDC) launches the Supercomputer systems. 1970s: Cray Research is founded by Seymour Cray after he leaves Control Data Corporation (CDC). Most supercomputers were meant for running vector processor. 1985-1990: Cray's model of supercomputer takes over the market. Today, supercomputers are designed by such companies as HP, IBM and of course, Cray Inc. Supercomputer systems are now becoming almost the same as laptop computers and desktop systems. Before the 1970s, supercomputers were mostly run on scalar process principle. But in order to improve its efficiency a number of new technologies were developed such as: 1. Liquid Cooling 2. Striped Disks (RAID) 3. Parallel File systems 4. Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) 5. Vector Processing

When the hardwares of the supercomputers are prepared to serve a special mathematical operation, they are called Special Supercomputers. Currently there are many such types of supercomputers as the GRAPE for molecular dynamics and astrophysics, Deep Crack for cracking DES cipher, Deep Blue for playing chess, etc. Tablet PC What is a Tablet PC? What is the basic difference between a tablet PC and a Laptop? They literally look somewhat similar. But tablet PC is far more convenient to use than the Notebook computers. They are both portable computers, but they differ with respect to the accessories, the software used and the screen. Though both laptops and tablet PC s are mobile computer systems, the later one gives you the opportunity of writing directly on the screen rather than typing out the same on the keyboard. Naturally when it comes to explaining directly from the PC in colleges or business organizations, using a pen to explain is always more convenient. But you must be wondering how is it possible for the computer to understand handwriting. For your tablet PC to decipher the handwriting, special softwares are loaded. For your convenience, the significant features of tablet PC has been listed below: The tablet PC has handwriting recognizing softwares installed in them as the recognizer pack in Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005. Several Shorthand recognizing tools as Inscribe, Tap, Message Ease, Alpha Tap, act like virtual keyboards. You can easily learn up these short hand languages within a matter of weeks before using these accessories. Nowadays active digitizers are fitted behind the tablet PC screen to to avail maximum visibility. The protection provided by the active digitizers allow you to rest your hand without misguiding the computer to recognize it as a command. Hence, writing becomes easy even when the screen is placed in a horizontal position.

Types of tablet PC 1. Slates 2. Convertibles 3. Thin-client slates 4. Hybrid tablet PCs. Tablet PCs have come a long way since it was first designed by Allen Kay of Xerox PARC in 1960. It is significant to note that a Tablet PC is distinct from tablet PC in terms that Tablet PC is exclusively a product of Microsoft.

Video Game Consoles Video Game Consoles are special gaming systems, different from computer games, designed particularly for the purpose of playing games. In this respect it is somewhat similar to the embedded computer. But it is not exactly so because the device must be connected to a monitor or a television . Most of you must have played video games or at least seen a video game device. Its mechanical parts comprise the machine itself, a game controller with which you handle the game, and a screen where you can see the game being played. It is usually powered by a 100-240 volt AC supply which is converted to DC input. Video games as such are a generic term used for many kinds of games that are displayed on screen or a visual display unit. Video Games comprise: 1. Computer games 2. Video game consoles played on television 3. Personal Digital Assistant Games 4. Arcade games 5. Cell phone games If you are on the look out for play stations, then there are a number of companies to choose from. The names of a few play station models have been given below: Nintendo Wii Console Sony Play Station Portable Microsoft Xbox 360 Premium console Atari Flashback (tm) Console YOBO FC Game Console SSD Company Limited Xavi X Port Sega Dreamcast Console Nokia N-Gage QD Console Tiger Telematics Gizmondo Console Video Game Consoles have come a long way since Magnavox Odyssey was first launched in 1972 by Ralph H. Baer. Since then, this industry crashed twice, once in 1977 and again in 1983. After about seven generations of evolution, the Video game consoles today share a huge market share in the games industry throughout the world. Over the years, it has been subject to various controversies. According to some, they have contributed quite adversely to society. However, they continue to be a very successful medium for entertainment of the youth and children of this generation.

Lecturer Note by Dr. R.S.Meena