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CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
SHOWING
NOTES ON RHETORIC
BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL
D. C. PHTTJ^TOL^-M.A
PH.D., F.A.S.B.,
Late Secretary, Board of Examiners, Calcutta,
Translator of
the,
*
etc.,
Hajl Baba
of Isfahan*
and
of the
CALCUTTA
BY THE UNIVERSITY.
1919.
PREFACE.
intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose is printed with a copious index, It has been written chiefly for those students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It
is
THIS work
and
and
but also
in construction.
Many
of
illus-
It
is
many
of
whom
have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is have been treated from an English
These notes, however, are not intended to supplant the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it.
point of view.
poet, has
made no a/t^npt
>*.
4
to deal with
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright, and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha freely made use of.
Muhammad Kazim
ers,
Board
of
ExaminPress,
who has
also
assisted throughout
his
and
to
brother-in-law,
the
late
8hatns"'l-'Ulama*
Shaykh
Mahmud
Jilan!,
The addition
amount
Qur*an, the Alif Laylali and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course
has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was anticipated, a task for which I felt myself by no means competent. This portion of the work has grown much beyond the limits originally
set for
it.
In compiling
'Ulama*
Muhammad
thanks are chiefly due to Shams" 7Yusuf Ja'farl, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
it,
my
7-'
Ulwn&* Shaykh
Mahmud
and
JilanI,
and
to Maulavi
Hidayat Husayn
of
Presidency College,
others,
who
means in modern Persian, for instance, ta mlz " order, medal," )& "stomach," imtiyaz ^ULcf
1
^\
"
clean,
dimagh
U> "
nose,"
IV
PREFACE.
helped
me
throughout
its
compilation
and
also to Professor L.
White-
who
and at whose
Owing
duly long in
to the
proofs at sea
War and the consequent loss of manuscript} and and to other unfortunate causes, this work has been unissuing from the Press.
D. C.
PHILLOTT,
Lieut. -Colonel
CAIRO
March
1918.
TO
THE HON'BLE
MR. JUSTICE
ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
IN RECOGNITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
I.
CHAPTER
T.
1.
The Alphabet
..
..
..
..
Page ..I
2.
Pronunciation of Consonants
..
.
..11
. .
,,
3.
4.
21
.,
23
27 28
,,
5.
6.
words)
.
.,
.,
7.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
29
M
, t
8.
Tamcin
Waslah
30
9.
..
. .
..31
31
,,
10.
11.
12.
,,
..
..
, .
..
.
.
..32
33
of
13
To
to
the year
.
.
the
Hijm
.,
34
14, 15,
Siyaq
..
..
. .
..
.
..
.
.
..34
34 35
37
,,
Letters in Poetry
.,
16.
17.
,,
Handwriting Punctuation
.,
18.
19.
38
.,
Summary
Accent
..
. .
..
. .
..40
41
.,
20.
21.
Exercise in Translation
..
,.
..
..
..
..45
CHAPTER
Sec. 22.
23.
II.
Grammar
..
.
48
24.
25.
26,
.,
_
..
. .
..
.
.
..
. .
..48 ..48
48
51
Declension
27.
28.
,,
29.
56
58
64
Classical Persian
.
.
VJii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
III.
PRONOUNS.
Sec. 30.
31.
,,
Persona] Pronouns
Page 68
71
The
Affixed Pronouns
.^
.
32.
Possessive Pronouns
..
.
..
,
..75
77
33.
,,
34.
35.
36. 37.
,,
82
87
,,
,,
88
..
.
..91
98
38.
,
39.
Pronouns
98
CHAPTER
Sec. 40.
41.
,.
IV.
130
..
..
..
..131
42,
^
.
141
CHAPTER
Sec. 43.
V.
.
The Adjective
149
161
M
,.
,,
44.
Compound
Degree
of
Adjectives
45.
Intensive Adjectives
169
171
46.
CHAPTER
Sec. 47.
48.
,.
VI.
THE NUMERALS.
Cardinal
Numbers
.
182
191
The Ordinals
Fractions
49.
50.
51.
194
196
197
,,
Adverbial Numerals
Multiplicative Numerals Distributive Numerals
..
.
.
..
. .
..
. .
..
.
,,
52. 53.
198
,;
Recurring Numerals
198
199
,,
54.
55.
,,
199
CHAPTER
Sec. 56.
57. 58.
.
VII
.
200
..
. .
..
.
..
. .
..203
. .
204
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
IX
Sec. 59.
,,
The Seasons
. .
Page 205
206
60. 61.
. .
Yazd-Gardi year
..
.
..
.
,.
. .
..209
, .
62.
Days
of the
Week
210
CHAPTER
Sec. 63.
,,
VIII.
..
.
.
Money
Weights
..
..
.
.
,,
.
.
,.212
213
64.
65.
Measures of Length
..
..
..
.,
..214
1
CHAPTER
Sec. 66.
67.
,,
. .
.
IX.
.
68.
The Verb The Separate Substantive Verb .. The Verb Transitive and Intransitive
.
217
..219
,.
.
.
..
.
.
221
223
225
69.
Active Voice
..229
. .
70.
71.
.,
234
237
..
..
.
,.235
.
.
72.
73.
74.
238 239
248
Roots or Stems
of
Simple Verbs
.
75.
76.
,,
Hybrid Verbs
. .
..
.. ..
248
249
77.
..
..
78.
79.
..
.
.
..254
. .
80.
.,
..
256
..
..257
. .
81.
Guzashtan, Dadan,
to Permit, Allow
..
,.
.
261
,,82,
83.
,,
Kalian Dashtan
..
.
..263 ..263
. .
84.
85.
2CO
274 280
282 285
,,
86.
,.
87.
88.
Common
,,
CHAPTER
Sec. 89.
X.
.
289
90.
91.
..
. .
,.
. .
..
.
.
..322
.
.
Simple Conjunctions
338
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page 354
366
Sec.
92.
93.
Compound Conjunctions
Interjections
. .
ments, etc,
94.
,
..
V.
etc.
..
.
.
,.389
.
.
95.
390
CHAPTER XL
Sec.
,,
96.
97.
Diminutive Nouns
Affixed
394
398
404
. .
98.
,,
99.
or van, vana,
un and van
.
406
407
100.
101,
..
..
.
..408
. .
102.
103,
104.
The Turkish Suffixes fi, cAi, .. The Suffix c5 The Suffixes zar, sar, start
gard, khana, shan,
409
..
..410
410
na
,,
105.
The
Suffixes
..413
.
.
106.
413
107.
j,
,,
414
108.
109. 110.
.,
ana, ma,
m,
an,,
415
agin or gin
.,
111.
112.
113.
,.
..
..417 ..417
.
418
419
114.
..
..
420
1$%
..
..
..420
CHAPTER
Sec. 115
.
XII.
Verbal Nouns and Nouns and Adjectives derived from ..421 .. .. .. Verbs
.
3 ,
116.
Compound
Substantive
425
PART
CHAPTER
Sec 117.
118.
119.
II.
XIII.
SYNTAX.
On
433
The Cases
Number
of
445 464
of Multitude
and
their
Concord
TARLE OF CONTENTS.
XI
CHAPTER
Sec. 120.
XIV.
Paqe,
..
Pronouns
..
..
..
..476
CHAPTER XV.
Sec. 121.
122.
,,
Adjectives
..
.
.
..
. .
..
.
.
..
.
..490
.
Adverbs
405
123. 124.
Conjunctions
Prepositions
..
..
..
..
..
,,
..
..497 ..502
CHAPTER
Sec. 125.
XVI.
.
Use
of the
Tenses
Aorist
505
CHAPTER
Sec. 126.
XVII.
.
Subjunctive
Mood
538
CHAPTER
Sec. 127.
XVITT.
545 552
129.
130.
Concessional Clauses
556
558
Relative Clauses
131.
}J
..
..
,.
562 570
132.
Adverbial
. .
.
(Temporal,
.
.
,,
133.
573
134.
Co-ordinate Clauses
576
CHAPTER XTX.
Sec. 135.
585
591 600
130.
, .
(continued)
.
.
..
. .
..591
.
137.
Concord of Adjectives, and Pronoun with Noun Government of Verbs, Prepositions, and Errors
600
CHAPTER XX.
Sec. 138.
604
CHAPTER XXI.
Sec. 139. 140.
Apposition
literation
614
Repetition of
Jingling Sounds
. .
Al.
622
Xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Sec. 141. 142.
143.
XXIT.
Page
.
.
.
629
144.
Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, Further Observation on Style Examples of Errors in Rhetoric
.
etc.
.
644 652
659
APPENDICES,
Appendix A. Appendix B.
list
of contents)
. .
675
899
INDEX
..
..
..
..
..
..909
PART
ORTHOGRAPHY
1.
(
I.
t>
fl*
AND ORTHOEPY
(
*dji
The Alphabet.
-*j^
).
The Arabs and other Muslims write from right to left, and their printed books and manuscripts begin at what Europeans would call the end of the book. Their writing may be regarded as a species of shorthand,
(a)
the short vowels being omitted. In printing, each lei er is not kept separate as in the
Roman
character;
there are no capital letters, no stops, and no paragraphs; in short, not one of the devices valuable alike to the printers and readers of Europe; from
cover to cover their books appear to contain but one long unbroken sentence, and many of the words are jumbled together, or, at the end of a line, written
one on the top of the other* In some carefully written MSS. a line in coloured ink^on the top of a word indicates a proper name or the commencement of a new paragraph, but even this aid is rarely given.
,
Of existing alphabets, the Arabic ranks next in importance to the Latin alphabet. It has supplanted the Greek alphabet in Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Thrace, and has supplanted the Latin alphabet in North Africa.
Western Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Tartary 1 Turkey and of all the alphabets employed in India, it is the best known. 44 That the local alphabet of Mecca should have exterminated ail other
It is the sole alphabet of Arabia,
;
illustration more striking than any other that can and Asia, be adduced, of the power of religious influences in effecting a wide and rapid
an
diffusion of alphabets.
<l
no more than eighty years (632 712) for the Arab conquerors a dominion wider in extent than the widest empire of Rome, and to found
It took
******
Mecca from the Indus to the Tagus."
it is said,
*
itself
The Arabic and English Alphabets can, same primitive Phoenician source.
1
THE ALPHABET.
The Arabs
in the
same order
as
in
the Hebrew.
Remains
former
order
are
still
numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words that serve as a memoria technica and correspond with the order of the Hebrew or Phoenician
alphabet.
1
The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all consonants. The arrangement of the Arabic alphabet is morphological,* i.e. letters of similar
form are brought into juxtaposition
aid to
for the sake of
comparison and as an
adapted
the Arabic
adopted
and
alphabet, though
or Farsi letters
p,
ch,
requirements, adding to it the four 'Ajami ^J* g. The Persian alphabet therefore and jh
all
consonants; four of these letters are pure while the remaining twenty are
,
400. So far as their alphabets extend, i.e. up to From Or, morphl ** form " and " logia." Other methods of arrangement are (1) the Chronological, in which the letters are added according to the date of their adoption; {2} the Ideological, in which the characters are classed according to the meaning
1
names (from Gr. 'idea "idea" 4- loqia\\ as in the arrangement of tho hieroglyphic signs by Egyptologists (3) the Phonological, the scientific arrangement of which the Deva-nagari is the most perfect example in this, the letters are arranged according
of their
;
to the organs of speech by which they are articulated, viz. gutturals, palatals, etc., ** each division being also scientifically arranged. Vide ** The Alphabet by Isaac Taylor.
2
For an account
Taylor.
The Alphabet by Isaac Ancient Persian Scripts, vide At the time of the Arab conquest the Persians uned tho Pahlavi character.
of the
'
9'
* Also In MSS. and in books lithographed in the East, the diacritical printed !> bar that distinguishes g from Jc is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner. It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic
letters,
distinction
is
"
by tho
ant*
diacritical
marks.
They
letters
6
are adaptations of
new
Persians do not always regard the letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
^*
" is they resemble; thu* ^**f "horse frequently written v** !. The four letters purely Persian are enumerated in tho school rhyme:
9
^- ^j
->
J^ w
^j wy ,^
.
f&
I
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five
letters.
THE ALPHABET.
3
letters
common
to
both
languages.
The
varies
somewhat according
In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, if written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which they
omitted
books
printed
specially for
beginners.
of
which
is
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by
Persians 2 pronounced as in English:
signs, as
Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text. if not of the editions printed or lithographed in India this, mo^t, all, Notwithstanding
1
have. numerous orthographical errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably to the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees,
2 a copy a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably be sold for five Blullings. The Arabic character, beautiful to look at, is an enemy to printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge.
i.e.
:
The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a mere mechanical device used to give it expression. The Arabs have already changed
their alphabet once.
Vide
(k)
page
THB ALPHABET.
OS
'
1
09
I
S
C3s
o-
rS
g o a
,
3 bO
d d .S
Q*
8 v o a o a QQ o
<M
eo
(j;
4q
'I
4 -'VI
2 M <
V^
1o>
0}
-oaid
jo
tn
JU
g i
1
8
8.
ar.
!-
THE ALPHABET.
1
s
.3
I
"
*
'S.
Z
P a
.a .g
'3)
"
I I M
.3
.3
.g
.g
A
CO
OO
S
4?
4
.*
r
_D-
\\ H.
^3
*2
%
-5
tf
-if
s
It*
1
ft
P
4
3i!2
"*
Nl
S
e
I|IS
N3
W-
J=
*-
10
co
00
^3
-^
<J
THE ALPHABET.
I
CO
*l ii S
.-S
PH
-<
s
03
eg
ter
^^5^
fl
'a
^
F3
U
W
d m
r-l
1 o
Tr
oo
&0 ^H
.S
i
^j
10
i!^
"^
g
vvi
'
o^J
J3
'-2
...
THE ALPHABET.
<D
00
ii! U
s
sc
13
I 2
^
cp
j-i
1
"bO
^ a
c8
.,
|| a s
a 2 | S
T3
_g
g>
o -^ CD
j
CO
_|
<D
JM CD
'-3
a
'S>
a 1 t
4)
'i "2
g
L<
a
r/:
5 5
S
-S
tf
SO
ans
"&&! t-^1
*T?
5^5
CD
."S
O c p o
Q>
"~*^
ie~
-i?
^ !
Hi
I
*S
c
3
<S
CD
C
Q_)
J-
^ ^
O
oL
02
.^
g r?
4.
P.
**
e 5
u o
>
.2
<y '*
-ri >^2
O
"S
r^
^
o ^
V
-
^ 5~ ^ *
** 4> K^
si
i o
1C?
P^ f^
,1
iS
18
^ o
ice
-Sig
r-^*
S rt
is
CD
sl*;
|
CD
.a
*
11
2
"I
?*^
*^J
"I
^ O
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
(d)
9
i
-
a -
--)
j and j never
alter
their shape, and though they are joined to the letter that precedes follows (on their right), they are not joined to the letter that
them
them
hence if they occur in the middle of a word, a gap or left) formed nearly similar to the interval between two adjacent words. Inaccurate spacing is one of the difficulties in reading the cheap lithographed
(on their
;
interval
is
The letters ^ and though they do not change in shape, yet unite letters on both sides of them. the with
(e)
J=>
The eight letters peculiar to the Arabic are ^ ^ - (jp o* - ^ - & and <> The four letters peculiar to the Persian have been enumerated preIn the Table of Consonants these two sets are distinguished viously.
-
(/)
Per. respectively.
Remark.
The
words, but
of
is
also found in
Persian words, as
' '
d(&
'"kid"; J^ "comb
bees**;
' ' ;
jj)U
rouge."
resemble each other in shape and are merely etc., are distinguished by the position or number of the dots, ^ g mutamdsil sometimes and called huruf-i mutashabih {^UJlc huruf-i ),
Those
letters :>that
oj^
Sometimes also
3
letters that
and
<>,
* whose names are palindromes && ) (and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubi ( If, however, the first and third letters of the anagram differ, as in fim
(h)
Those
letters as
mlm.nun aud
qaf, etc.,
u&j&o
).
letters
by dots
are called
huruf-i
manqufo
" Combined, these form the Arabic wordoo?m (fj* ) sleep,** A palindrome is a word or sentence that, read either from right to left, or left to right, is exactly the same. Adam made the first palindrome when he introduced him1
Madam, I'm Adam/' Letters transposed by, sentence are anagrams, thus * rat * 13 an anagram of
an anagram.
to
**
"
rate/
s
a dot "
* * b*
;
(*?^7
mark with
diacritical
points.
to
The term
alphabet
(for
f?^*+Jf
which
kiJt
it is
<J*>
is
also
applied
the
arranged.
there were
no
dots.
10
THE ALPHABET.
Dotted
letters are further
(
those dotted
^U^j
(
Dotted
letters,
whether fawqdm or
***
by
)
a^U* ****;* ), musannat ( *^*> ) and musallasa ( marked by one, by two, or by three dots. of transliteration in the present work is practically (j) The system the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for <3, and m for e> before a quiescent b or p for the final Arabic vowels, a small a, i, and u,
***
for the
and
them. Ex.
C5"
(
A
"
final
or
literated
self
by " and
;.
" blossoms." " asjiald^l more or most easy ", az,har )tej\ A silent j as in <^L^ is trans) pronounced like alif is q. In the few words where j is pronounced short, as in zj&>
,
it is
transliterated u.
Cl
The ya
or the
hamza
of the
ya
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza
Remark
in Arabic words
is
shown by a hamza
as in fcfida.
prolongation is omitted, but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it: thus haza 4< this" is
I.
alif of
!^A
and d+**j
is
vidz a ^ so
In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged', *' abbreviated ", by Indians incorrectly called maqsura or though this latter term is properly applicable only to a final! and & vide under letter ^.
Remark
II.
as in e>i^j^,
is
also
^^
(&)
It
will
transliterated
by
i
^
(
and
and &
ail
by
z,
two
- J> ;
by
t9
and three
&
^*
^o ) by
s.
In Arabic
make no
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad. (I) Certain letters, especially at the beginning of words, are frequently placed, not alongside each other, but above one another this is the case
:
in combinations with
it
2 (m) In the case of a change in letters' as fil J* Ar., from ptl JAJ, P., will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
There are
five labials^
'
o y and
-
*->
J^'
tabaddul-i-huruf.
THE ALPHABET.
11
Something similar occurs in the permutations of weak consonants, a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel. Sometimes, however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in (#*- and
' '
^^
(m.c.)
"squint-eyed."
2.
Pronunciation
(talaffuz
i!3)
of Consonants.
-4K/.
(a)
letter
The Persians, unlike the Arabs, look on alif as an original ^ or> If it commences a word, it is to be reitself
;
it
is
is a prolongation of the short vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronunciation. In this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like a in father Ex. V UT Utah " a book " some Persians and some Afghans would pronounce this more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad pro' '
nunciation
in Persia.
is
characteristic
of
the
tent-people
and
of
certain dialects
In the Ears dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u ; 99 Ex. e>&> " a shop " is duJcun <%*, and bam lC roof " is bum &. This incorrect pronunciation of
Is
in certain
common
many
its
parts
of
Persia; for
"that"
and
compounds are generally pronounced as though spelt nun e^ 5 etc. " is In many cases the aUf is pronounced broad thus bad lt wind pro;
&
nounced nearly like bawd, the alif being given the sound of a in the English word jail. 8oine Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians
In Persia, always pronounce the aUf like a in the English word father. if this last however, pronunciation be used, the word will be taken to mean **} ba*d ** after *, and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it,
In Khimlsan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andaran " " " blood/' e?jM for C>M the women's apartments ; and khan e>^ for &}** For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (I) in the middle of a word,
vide under a in this section.
Remark
I.
in astronomical tables
an unmarried man.
In this case
it
is
it
from
alif as
a letter
of prolongation.
*
are written in
There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl t$**r 5 *> which the days, etc.* fdj^* and in full, taqvim-i- ruqiiml (H^ which signs and the letters of the
&*&
Abfad
<**u* are
etc.. etc.
12
THE ALPHABET.
" In Arabic it is a particle of interrogation; Ex. A-lastu bi-rabbi-kum, Am " I not Your Lord ? Quran VII. 168, whence the Persian vs*J( or
<j
Q
'
vs*~Jf
jj;
the
day
of
at
the creation.'
Poets frequently compare an erect stature, 1 or the straight nose of a c j ^ = " from the creation of Also jf beauty, or sighs, to alif. jof ^*~ f* Adam to the birth of the Messiah"; t>j*>\ cM "the equinoctial line":
'
alif 9
ba
(e
Alif
is
also
Remark
Kinds of
(1)
alif.
Alif-i rabita
*tyj
<-&i )
as,
%ao &*>
alif
is
"binding or copulative alif" joins two <4 from hand to hand; (a dast-a dast
also
{
ready-money bargain)."
" the
alif of
This
called
<-ft)t
alif-i
.
ittisal
JUri! u&f
junction ", or
(
alif-i inhisar
)
)U**uf
c
Some Grammarians
**
)
JLaj <Jty
is
but vide
the
(10).
alif-i
atf
<-*ke
<-ftJf
the conjunctive
takapuy
^j$&)
' '
M^ "
Alif-i fd'iliyyat
(
oaLU
i_&f )
U*>
^seeing",
the alif of agency as the alif in ; which word has the force of a present
ts
"
tives; as,
v^J, ) that gives the force of the past ( o^Afic " = ^adorned ( ( U?j ) 8^*^ ). which forms abstract nouns from adjecAlif-i masdar ( JXA* J$ " breadth", from (m.c.) ^armand pahn UjS (m.c.) ^warmth",
mafuliyyat
^
)
adjectives.
(5)
AKf-i
#
tanwm
^y3
n
^
w^
as,
"
qasamiyya
as,
&&~$
^\
^g
)
**
the
alif
of the Persian
!
vocative
Haqqa
;
IA^
When
it
is
*'*>
not used in an oath, but as a simple vocative, ' " heart bulbula ^Ul " oh uty ) as, lf> dila
grief, etc., as in
If
however
it is
!
" oh
alif of
help
or oh distress
alif-i
"
U^a
"
alas,"
)
it is
(
called Alif-i
v^Jf ).
nudba
****
%^f
" the
"
plaint
or
madd-i sawt
o^ A*
An
THE ALPHABET.
13
verbs
"
(7)
;
Alif-i
as,
du'autamannq ( ^*3 ^ U^ <Jd\ ) "the precative alif in " " mabada ^ta "may it not be " kunad may he do.
f
(8)
Alif-i
ment "
as, in
#7&/-t zoft'^
(9)
or
<c
"the alif fHf ^-WJ &? " he said." This is also, and more properly, " vide alif
tahsm-i kcdam
(
CA^I
of embellishcalled xfy
<-&(
superfluous
c c
(12).
Alif-i mubalaglia
efl)l )
*xJU<
uftJ,
" the
is
kasrat
ci^Sf
the
alif
!
of excess
' '
tives; as, in
UjA
" Blessed
How
*Jti
happy
(
"
!
This
is
firawam
)
;
^\^
*M
JL*>)
words
said to be the superfluous alif at the " camel " as, in ushtar j^f (or shutur)
is
(
in Arabic
~
}
9
but vide
(1).
(11)
vide
(6),
is
mutakallim
j*li*
4-afj
};
as,
friend."
*$\\
^
:
superfluous alif"
A>
is sometimes,
in poetry,
of
metre
^^^^
tk,-.^,
*
U'i^ l^S
<>juiiU<Jj
^i*Af
Sa^ib.
AaxiiP
tomb
of
Mirza
'
In m^fa
Vide also
chapa La., ,5a62;a ran^/, ^i; Df-, the a??/ is Derivation of Words for Formative Alif.'
'
^^
tJtii
as,
khwana
U^
in
legible.
;
C^ B
Persian words is sometimes interchangeable with / as, zafan ^3 l " with " ; tongue m; as, ghuzhm ftp [for ghuzhb (for P, za6a ej^J) " with j v; as, vas <j*^ v^c (old)] f< a single grape (for bas ^^o) " ** " <( } khwav and with tcor t?; ^aw? (for fchivab) sleep enough
; ;
as,
*'
aw
f<
(for a6)
55 a
water
"
nahw
(for
fear.
Pronounced as in English.
(
Remark.
^
5
**
superfluous
(
w as m
'
(*J-H-
^^
under
and
Prepositions.'
the single-dotted b
'
to
distinguish
it
is
from
i^ P
^^
u*^
c5^
There
frequently interchangeable
1 Still
The
i.e.
substituted,
is
is
called
mubdal
(
J ***, and
4
the
'<*
original letter
called
mubdal minh*
***>
(J*** )
14 with
*>ou*
)
THE ALPHABET.
/
J, as
fll
"
)
elephant
"
;
safld **&*
(for
sapid
"
victory."
d>
T\ the Arabic * is generally written in Persian o and so pronounced vide under *. <-j 8 by the Arabs is pronounced like th in Cuthbert, and sometimes
:
as s; in
Egypt
it is
pronounced &.
it is
Among
an English
give
it
s.
the sound of
th.
~ J
called jlm-i
it
faw ^j^
It
is
^,
or jlm-i 'arabl
^j*
*&>, to distinguish
from
Jamadq'l-Ulq a,ndJumadq'l'Akhir. It is sometimes interchangeable " crooked " withc/& - and z\\ with zhj as, kazh (old) (for kaj /) ;
;
juja
9
**-+** (m.c.)
"a
young
a bird"; with g; a,a Jilan for Gllan a province S.W. of the " would that." Caspian with sh o2; as, kaj (old) for kash <J&
;
^ Oh
^^- ^^,
&^sJ
(old)
it
+^.
It
is
some-
lakhsha
*J
)
puchushk
<c
-^^
;
pizishk
(je>;
^A-V)
**
k<
a physician,"
(for
In
Arabicized words
changes to
as,
Chm
&**)
China"
^^ sanj,
c^^
Ar
(for
chang
Jj^
Called 1m yi huttl
A!*.^*
^^
^U.
this
make
this
h in
"haul"
if
catch this sound, the beginner should copy an Arab or an Afghan many times when 5 Sahib: he says the word (he should also note the sound of
the throat.
word be pronounced
To
v^^
in this word).
By
is
pronounced
like *, q.v.
Remark.
make a
(jo
distinction in
<_r,
and between
and
but in
made,
Kh
^U,
kha-yi
kha~yi mu'jama A*?UUO ^lk. Great care must be taken to make this a guttural and not a k. (There is a story of a doctor who seriously alarmed a patient by mispronouncing the word e^ khun (i
blood.")
sometimes interchangeable with <3; as,cAaMmaM ^UM. (for " flint or cock of a gun and with h as, ctiaqmaq jU^ ) (old) <c earth." (for khak <J()
It is
' '
;
;
uU
In Abjad,
it
viz. 3.
THE ALPHABET.
4>
15
Jta
dal-i gjiayr
manquta &j&scj*fi
' '
J(a, O r dal-i
sometimes interchangeable with t ci; as, " black with si; as, wsJaz partridge turraj ^[y (for durraj <j& ) " master " ill*! (for wsJad alM ) a kind saza? Ar. form of sada *&
It is
' '
of
plant"
with z):
as,
dizarj^
(for
oWary*^).
mu'jama *+****> Ji. It is sometimes interchanged with d j>; as, tXxi? for >.i?. By the Arabs it " is sounded like the th in though," if, when pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue be thrust well forward between the front teeth of
t
called zal-i
manquta
*k?$x*> Jii, or
za^"
both jaws and slightly compressed: compare with & and u^-
By
month
\
c< zeal." It is a contraction for the the Persians like ), or as z in is while f5 the contraction for Zu* l-qa' Zul-liijjah A^3*J< ji,
is
Called ra-yi
imtnquta &L^^ j>& ^ci^ or ta-yi muhmala ^tU^c ^^. It is a contraction for either of the months Rnbi'. It is sometimes interchanged
with
<s
as mlufal c-U^US
' *
;
(for
nilufar
afc'O
a waterlily
^a-yi
chanal
\$&
J^
^>Cs
(iruc.) (for
JU
^
)
plane-tree/*
sa-^i
called
hnvwiz
2a-?/i
s mu'jama *^*-o ^cfj. It sometimes is interchangeable with as, #&;" T > (for suz 3r*) with^; as, gurljA &/ (for gunzjtjS } with 5; as, with - q.v. Zi j ) is a poetical contraction of i?/a$ (for ^?/a^)
;
;
(
the preposition
J*
j ZA
called ^a-?//
/am
u*;!*
^(3,
or 20-^1
a;ant
4^+^ ^3-
It inter-
changes with
Si
q.v.
It is
measure."
called sin-i ghayr-i
f<
^ $
&l*y* ^xvo.
It interchanges
manqula *kj&* j** ^*, and sin-i muhmala sometimes with J^ as, kustl ^L3 (for
;
kushfi ,^+f)
4 wrestling"; also the Zardushti belt worn under the " f or jJ^< *musk/ Also sometimes with ^e; as, clothing, and
J^
j
*,
*""'
for
AS'A
called $Mn-i
is
It
manquia A^s** <^^, and sliin-i mu'jama -. an abbreviation for Shamal JU^ "the North."
<c
It
inter;
changes with -; as, pachan e.^b (tor pashan eA^) scattering" " also with " a with ; as, kaj J (for kash sjk^ ) pine u* Q*v.
*,
^Sf
called sadri
UD.
<thayr-i
manquta
*j?^aix
,sad-^"
month
of Safar
muhmala yU and
in Pushtoo.
Ex.^HJ** or
call it kushti.
16
also for
THE ALPHABET.
the
word
lt
sadiq <j*l*
;
to so
mark an account,
etc.
By
pronounced
like <j.
In Arabic a stronger and harder sibilant than in English. Educated Indians and Afghans affect the Arab pronunciation vide remark
:
to
A
h.
Z,
zad-i
the tongue behind the root of the front teeth with the tip of the upper jaws. (In Egypt a hard palatal d).
of
Jb
T called
td-yl hutti
^k*> ^Lt,
ta-yi ghayr-i
manqutn, and
ta-yi
muhmala.
By the Persians pronounced like o. By the Arabs a hard palatal t. Educated Indians and Afghans imitate the Arab pronunciation. It
interchanges with a
fe
;
as,
&*^
for *&fa=L
9
called za-yi
manqufa
3.
^l^aix
^&
By
the
Persians, like
*
in
though
or
pronounced
^,
'ayn-i
muhmala
In some words
it is
interchangeable
with
* h.
It
is
transliterated
by an inverted comma.
is a strong guttural In Arabic the Few Persians can imitate ^ the Arab pronunciation. At the beginning of a word, it is by the Persians treated as though it
(as
though spelt
At the end
as in tarna'
of
a word
it is,
*A.
jam'* or
e
*k
a half a or half
Many
words like +^ jam' and (** man' are often pronounced with a drawl, and a peculiar intonation that sounds affected to English ears; such words are not
like
^ jam ^ man
or
If so
word
f
i
By
the Persians
Oj*
is
before pronouncing its vowel u J[ give a distinct and peculiar sound to the consonant * This at least is the case in Southern Persia with some words of three letters end-
ing in
In the more accurate pronunciation of the better classes in Tehran the final
slightly.
,
is
The Arabs
like
the Indians.
THE ALPHABET.
a double a; Ex. **~ sa d
(
17
;U*t are Arabic word pronounced i-i-tibar and transliterated, of course, i'tibar. [An with a mute hamza in the middle, has, in Arabic, and should have in
is
pronounced
sa-ad. 1
Words
like
Ex. j^^> ma*mur correctly-spoken Persian, this same half-bleating sound; " ordered a commissary *' (pronounced ma'amur)].
;
a middle salable of a word, there is a very perceptible ^ begins ^ must be taken to pause in the enunciation; Ex. *M qal-'a "a fort": care make this pause in the correct place, as the pronunciation ga-l'a or qal'a is
When
generally unintelligible.
c.
Gh
called ghayn-i
**&>
this pause.
or ghayn-i
hard guttural something between gh and r, much like the r in Parisienne, by a " Parisienne."
ItOO in arithmetic and hence is with Persian poets a symbol for the bulbul-i hazdr dastan e^'j> ;t>* cUl\ It interchanges with (3
as ayngJi
ty
(old for
{
ayaq JM)
" a cup."
interchanges with
sa fas o&ft*-*
^^: sometimes
<
l- v
'-
Sometimes interchanges with q.v. hard a In Baghdad and by Persian Turks of ten pronounced like English g. A guttural like q pronounced from the depth of the throat as if undergoing suffocation, or like ck in stuck when pronounced at the back of the throat.
c^^y J'^
It
like k,
By
it this
the uneducated
it is
a common English mistake, confused with c, and even educated Turks give
Ex. j>* ghadr instead of two letters seem interchangethe In Turkish words u>ed in Persian, qadr able: a Turk of Persia will often spell the same word with either letter
pronunciation in certain
common words
^.
indifferently.
The
and
tf|
distinction in spelling
is
"
master
"
,
^o
^;l*
<,
in Persian
^^^
<Jf^.
It
is
somebridle;
"
L is
an abbreviation
of the
month
shavvdl
Poets compare
it
to a ringlet.
is
an abbreviation
for the
c^;
month Muharram
ban
interchanges with
as,
3 f^ ^*.
It
sometimes
(in.c.) (for
bam, fb*
In ba'd
(m.c.).
*xJ, the
doable
sound
&
18
THE ALPHABET.
N.
There
is
y)
no nasal n l in Persia.
In India, however, n
is
in
some
is imperfectly pronounced, as in chunan, then called nun-l g&hunna^ but before a vowel (and jatian; before an It has izdfat) the nasal sound disappears. consequently
usually
p^>).
this
is
the sound of
when
it
immediately precedes b
(or
Ex. JAO
(tanbal)
transliterated m.
"lazy" is pronounced tambal: note that Nasal n always follows a long vowel.
W or
F.
At the beginning
1
of a word, or in such words as U(9 ^ javdb savab "rectitude", ^ty savab " a reward" or
it is
like v;
but
amongst Arabs, Afghans and Indians it is a w, like the w in we or it is pronounced like a v, or between a v and In ^.^ and went.
p*jj*
is
a w.
Before an
The
alif
v sound
common
,
in Isfahan
and Kirmau.
j has, in pure Persian words, no sound ; Ex. are pronounced jchdhar, khdhish, etc. ; there is, therefore, 4^-*^, etc., j*\j=*> in no difference pronunciation between ^A**^ Ichwastan "to wish" and
and after
^.ju.lk
khdstan
"to
rise
up
"
:
Khwish <^y*
and
its
compounds
j
however,
before
pronounced
Ex.
u*>*>
&yjs* "to eat" and its derivatives, the j is pronounced like pish L and khud < self", is transliterated u\ also 3* du, "two", y tu <c thou" 4< the sun", ^i-;^ khursand c4r^ fckush "pleasant", <vj^ khurshld
?
c<
happy ". j*- and >-+* are often pronounced chi and hamchi. A few Arabic words like ****. hayat ^life", x^ salat "prayer", are generally in Persian phonetically written oU^ and o&.
^
is
sometimes interchangeable with J, as ydfa b'b (old) [for ydva\^ <c vain, foolish ". The vdv that occurs before an alif and is (m.c.)]
not pronounced, as
" distorted a^A*^ y^
in
khwdslan cA-'A>
*s
mv,
or vav-t iskmdniri
zamma
&+>*
this is maktub-i ghayr-i tnalfuz that gives a smell of 9 *' written but not pronounced." A vdv-i malfu$-i ( &f&c j*& v y&* ) gayr-i-maktub ( VJJ*^A* ^AJUy^ sometimes occurs as in ^^Ub
vat?
: )
" the
"
^U^f
j|j
id'us
a peacock," but the more correct form (j*?^^* is also found. In Ar. both the lodws have the sound of w in this word.
**
Remark.
harf~i
A letter that
(
is
<c
masruq
($)j~*
u^
and
a stolen letter."
written, but not pronounced, is also called For further remarks on j, vide
cinder vowels
(b)
(d).
letters
>, Jo,
J,
o,
(3, <), as in
the words
thee
"
THE ALPHABET.
19
(tyj** C5^) (round decided aspirate like A in hope, except when it ends a Persian word or a feminine Arabic word (which is always preceded by a fatha*). In this case it is called the "obscure," "imper-
or ha-yi
mudawwara
ceptible" or "silent
"a house",
h
is in
**tf
*il^
'
khana
obscure'
India pronounced like jaiha but in Persia it is pronounced like a short e, or 6 as Ichani or gufte. (If the silent h precedes an "I have said", there may, it is said, be a slight alif, 'as in fl
breathing sound of the h, as guftah-am, but the writer is of opinion that this sound is imaginary aud that the h generally remains silent.
In the
first
case,
i.e.
when
aspirated, the
* is
), fia-i
muzhar or zahir
i.e.
(^^ ^^
(^U ^ cs^
)
"manifest,"
ha-yi
is
or (^fti^*> cs-U
>
^^^
mute.
The h
nih
& nuh
bi,
"
nine",
*>
"place"
(Imper.),
*t
bih
"good"
"
(but
ba or
the preposition
"to"
or "for"),
si
&>
bahbah(m.Q.)
&*. chi
and
in such
like words. 8
In A-
ki the interrogative
is
"who?"
* is
"
" a mist, fog", and &<Q mah moon. great ", also "a Final ? after king", j or ^5 is fully sounded ; Ex. aUkU* padishah
r
*^ guh
**
etc., etc.
,
In A
shah
"
king
"
,
**>
mah "
the
moon "
final
or
h
It
is
aspirated,
O
must be
distinctly
pronounced
in
like
X* mt/Jir
*
and in similar words, and in the proper names ctf^ Tih-ran* and Mash- had. A final silent & will sometimes become <3 in Arabic, as ftistaq ^Jl-** Ar.
Some grammarians consider the Persian silent * to be a vowel. Except when changed into o. The * is not silent in Arabic. only be silent (in Persian) when not an original letter,
^
This final
can
final * is
sounded,
it is transliterated
by h and not by
a.
Ex. it
dah
*
*
Three distinct syllables, not two as in India. Two syllables, not three. In 1908 Persian
to
20
(for pista
(for
THE ALPHABET.
**w
P.)
also
as nakdj
jJffi
(said to
be Arabic)
nagdh
itfb P.)
In Arabic, final * is in certain cases written i and Arabs id marbuta and by some Indians hd-td, and
l
is
is
except in pause or before a vowel. In Persian this is often pronounced and written o; Ex. oJl*w instead of &U.. In English dictionaries this is generally treated as the fourth letter of the alphabet, i.e.
pronounced
like
as o.
is
different
Ex.
dla
is
generally so written
when
paper signed This distinction is, however, seldom observed and is considered pedantic, " and " thus jihat " cause qimat price*' may be written both *a^ or <^
2 of an instrument or apparatus,' but oJf dial (pi. ojjf ) when it signifies " " is this paper correct ? ", but Ojf> A*^*<juLy penis." ay a d*=^ *iy " " is this ?
and
o~fr*j
or A**?.
o^U at
the end of j.
At the beginning of a word is the yd-i tahtdmijya JuSUao ^Ij. in also consonant the middle of a word after an initial long y\ English vowel; Ex. iff dyd "whether." When, for the sake of euphony, the
(^ 7,
initial alif of
a verb
is
mayd
fall,
changed into ^, $his letter is pronounced y as it <s to come", t* vowel; Ex. from i*>^T dmadan
((
e^s&r uftddan
to
fall
"
,
(t
he did not
etc."
also represents the long vowel I (pronounced 3 (d). a ai: vide in pique) or diphthong At the end of a word it is a long *, but at the end of the words ^t* and
it is
as
UJU.L
sometimes shortened
(for khayli
is
or
khaiti).
^,
thmmi-guft: but
sometimes
in careless talking
this prefix me).
pronounced short.
final
In Persia, as in India, the dots are never written under the w^ere In Arabic the in some printed books, however, the dots are inserted.
:
by a
fatha, is
pronounced
like
is
oK/, and
is
transliterated a: thus
c^o
(also in
pronounced da'wi.
This
is
in Arabic called
alif-i
fy^a*
alif-i
maqsura
)
as opposed to
mamduda
aj<Ux)
^|
<the
Abb
or
*Wb
j s>
jn
spelt t^**^; it
is
pronounced
baqile.
&
THE VOWELS.
prolonged alif" [vide
vasl; thus
'
21
(d)],
^j^UJf
^^
.
and is not sounded when in contact with alif-i " the contention of the moderns" is pronounced
*
da'vq l-muta*akhkhirtn
Note that in the Persian-Arabic compound y^M or yjJj! the ^ is in reality a final letter, and the comparative suffix y can be written separately,
>
asy Jj.
Remark
(
<_
is
" In Urdu or in Indian writing ya-e ma' bust or " reversed yd written at the end of a word to show that the has a majhul
I.
sound.
In
'
reversed yd
'
is
it is
however better
vide
4.
Remark IL Even when quoting Arabic or reading the Qur'an, the Persians do not try to give the Arabic pronunciation to all the Arabic letters.
Indians and Afghans, on the contrary, not only attempt but greatly exaggerate the Arab pronunciation of certain letters.
of the alphabet
and the
Peculiarity of Arabic
In Indian dictionaries a letter preceding another is and one following another is styled **<u I* thus in the word w), the letter ra
:
Words/ termed J ^,
is
<J^5
U ma
qabl-i bd.
3.
(in
the middle
(a)
There are no regular vowels in the Arabic written language, but the ~ L 1 (c)} which they call of the three signs z. [vide table,
t(
cs^aaJf al-Ji-arakat
motions"), and one of these signs placed above or below a consonant determines its vowel sound. When
the movers
(lit.
<**
"
accompanied by one of these "movers", it is called ^3*^1* " muiahanik or moving." The short vowels were originally quite unrepre. As the "movers" only give the vowel sound essential to a sen ted.
is
a consonant
consonant,
it is
word: vide
{c}.
z%r
below
(
it, is
),
called maksftr
jr-**), that
maftuh
*)&*
mazmftm
fo+***
).
(c)
22
!> )
THE VOWELS.
vp
or genitive (T), and nasb (*-***) or accusative (H), and the words, not the letters, so marked, are styled mar/ft*
(
or nominative jL,/ar
(j*>)
majrur
(^M),
i
and mansub
v^aix>
vide
8.
Remark.
'fen* than
for
i is in
like
/?n.'
Also fatha
(rf)
Long vowels
} and
(in
Alif,
^5 are
weak or
infirm
consonants
or semi- vowels
and
correspond respectively with the "movers ", i.e. the short vowels a, u 9 i* In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a combination of two
?
of these affinities;
father,
(Ex,
i
t ba, j* bu
and
^
*v
61)
and pronounced
like
in
u in prude and
I.
,
in police or pique*
is
:
Remark
to the is
In C the alif
prolonged in
II.
sound
Remark
is
The ^ and
2, p.
of prolongation
and
tjy6&Jl t*M
(&
or
is^)
jjM
pronounced ft \r\awr
(e)
Diphthongs
By
at/,
and au
or aw, are formed, and pronounced like a* in aisle (rare in Persian) or " inclination 3 * 4 , ey in they, and on in stout ; Ex. U*^ mail* or mayl f>* saum
or
sawm
<(
fasting."
In modern Persian the a#is most often pronounced like ey in they; Ex. ^5%^ is pronounced both khaiR and kheyll (also khaile, etc., etc.) (i?i^e under
letter
^); ako
The
the
aw sound,
characteristic
of
original Persian
semi- vowel
ft
" weak
the
*
letters
* '
is
real consonants.*
- * as opposed the term applied to <^ ) in the school rhyme : These are included
to
Hence
o/t'/ is
;
vav
is
called ukhht-i
zamma
"
sister of
8
called
&&*-
kaara
<c
sister of
fcaro."
When
called
^j?;'^ buruf**l-madd
" letters of
prolongation
o^^
like
"letters of filling
up
or impregnating
with a
*
sufficiency of colour."
HAMZA.
23
When
and
^
l
follow a consonant
oif
by jazm, they were said to have an open sound called Jj^* majhul,* * mar an ant, or "unknown" (i.e. unknown to the Arab invaders) Ex. *~ slier " a lion " but when a 9 was preceded by a consonant pointed with L or a (s with ~, then the sound was called cJj^t* ma'ruf or " known"
; ;
*3*
The majhul sounds o and e are still preserved in the Persian spoken by Afghans and Indians, but they are now unknown in Persia: in modern Persian 9 (c an ant" is called mur, and there is nothing in pronunciation to
distinguish the
word
for
"
lion
"
from shir
ll
milk."
Remark
/.
The
Remark II. To sum up the remarks on the weak consonants, <^ - ^ ^JU J;^ when ^ and are initial or are movable in the middle of a word,
>
they are real consonants and are pronounced with their proper vowels
when
they follow a jazm they are consonsants, as in juzv *>\ and when they follow a consonant that has neither a vowel nor a jazm they were in classical, and are in Indian Persian majhul. When the consonant preceding ^ has a pish or zamma ( ^__) the sound is u when the consonant preceding has a zlr
;
is ?.
When j and
may
4.
^ follow
(*)
they
be called diphthongs.
Hamza 3
(a)
distinct
In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, a though slight effort is made with the muscles of the throat; this
is
by the Arabs
*,
is
represented by
called hamzah, which signifies "prick, the form of which has arisen from the
In India the
tiger is called
the
word
panther, etc.
* i.e. in Persia. Dr.Rosen justly remarks in his grammar: "The Persian of Tndiamay be looked upon as a petrifieation of the old classical language. It has also preserved the " majhul" vowels e and o for I and u, and many other differences of pronunciation. The Persian-spoaking Indians, whose studies are mostly confined to the classics and
poetic exercises, have followed none of the developments of the modern language." The Persian of India, therefore, though far purer both in idiom and pronunciation than the language of Persia, sounds pedantic, and is almost unintelligible to ordinary Persians.
8
of the alphabet is
Denotes " pressure" or " puncture." Among Arab grammarians the more generally called hamzah.
first letter
24
letter
of the
word j ^.
1
off of the
so
when final is written by itself, and may marked is called )*+** mahmuz or
word having hamza
Remark.
Alif
any
of the letters.
The
letter
to a
when
is
not hamza.
In most cases alif occurs as the (b) Short vowels at the beginning of words. bearer of hamza and then performs a function essentially different from that
9
in the
Remark
is
to
13
(d)
Ex.
ab,
r,
w6.
.
When an
in the
the sign *
as
silent
f*
hamza
'
letter *
2.
In the word
and, as the first letter, viz c is with ^, the two in Persian pointed , together give the half -bleat ing sound mentioned in the remarks on the letter * 2. In the word <jf~) ra'%8 "a
; r
1
ma*zun "permitted**, the hamza is give it life, it represents the jerked sound
c^U
head
**,
"a
hamza
is
marked with
"^
and
is
con,9
the final * has no vowel and also follows a letter without a vowel. The Arabs would pronounce the final * in these words .something like shay-a, su-a 4 umard-a, but the Persians ignore the * in such Arabic words they do how-
^j,
at the end of
*?,
probably to distinguish
it
from the
Persian
word^* $u
"direction, towards.'*
In the pronunciation of an Arab, the hamza is an articulation very perceptible, especially when it begins a syllable that is in the middle of a
9
word, as in c,!^
^1^ 8
Note that though the is marked with _^ the hamzaled* alif doe? not serve to thus as would be the case if hamza were abnent from the prolong the sound of the to all intents and purposes alif-harma (or hamza) anJ alii are two separate letters.
1
/
This
final * in
)
following a silent
(or
* in such
>l^.
is
shown
by
%a
manner of writing thse words in a state of construction, thus: \s+*j lS*j*t r " ^?5 c^V" "the nobles of the time 8 When hamza is found at the end of syllable, it is in Urdu changed into the letter
their
**.
'
*
failr
become
in
Urdu j*?$
26
The
latest
alif
Arabic Dictionaries treat alif-hamza as the first letter of alone as aj> or for example, if it be desired to look
s**
scfal*
must be looked
for at the
beginning of the alphabet; if however it be desired to look out JL> sal* "it flowed ", the alif must be treated as a ^c, and the searcher must look for a word
spelt sin, ya,
lam (instead
of
An,
alif,
;U
sar
<
he scaled a
wall ", he should look for sin, waw, ra. The reason is, that, in Arabic, alif is not considered an original letter, but is supposed to be the offspring of one of the
two weak consonants j or ^, and according to certain laws of euphony a weak consonant undergoes certain changes or permutations when it comes
l
is
or
^
"
and the
letter after
v must
jL
* ^
is
is from U^ k>, Similarly " the be treated as the first letter of alphabet."
-
"a prophet"
The second
letter of
Jiamza, because
it is
JU
is
letter of prolongation.
f , be sakin, as in c*J>
Long vowels
that
vowels are formed by a combination of is its affinity ; and the manner of writing the long vowels in the middle of words has been demonstrated in 3 (d). It follows by rule [vide short vowels at beginning of words (6)], that the long vowels at the beginning of a
^
As already stated, the long a short vowel and the weak consonant
^t&.
Similarly
* i
1
should ^a6; but to avoid this awkward form the second alif is written over ** the mark of madd or the first, thus f this alif on the top is called madda
:
* J
prolongation.
(e)
By
vy
aub for
It will
oli/ f
The Jiamza is a strong letter, although in certain cases it is liable to modification or consonants, change lik > any of the weak letters. \\ hile vav and ya are sometimes real the alij is not regarded as such at all ; but only as a prop for hamza, or as a letter of
f
An
ali/
so marked
Alif-i
is
by some Grammarians
called
aliH mamduda, as
c^T Pr.
to
come."
Qvr-an.
mamduda can only occur at the beginning of a syllable: d\j* to a final ahf followed by alif mamduda is restricted
i
hamza, as in
*UW
*U*>,
and
^.
26
hamza following a long a is written on the line, 1 the alif that precedes such a hamza is generally marked with a madda, but this madda ' ' '*' for fl* " he came." thus in Arabic has no effect on the
pronunciation
;
*U>,
This
is
when^
or
Final hamza in Arabic words (as t\*k\ 8 always disappears in writing before the
is
and
(
^
:
f^**
c5 fbt
" medical
might
26
the Military Department" were the * retained, the vide also be mistaken for the vide Remark to (g) of unity
officers of
(/) (2).
t
* over at the beginning of words is omitted, (/) In Persian the sign even in words fully pointed with the vowels, etc.; and in the dictionaries, Persian and Urdu, no distinction is made between alif and hamza; i.e. both
Hamza' corresponds to an English hyphen in such words as re-open,4 and is then written over a y (^) without the dots: in other words, hamza is thus written, instead of over the prop alif in those cases when (according to
Englishmen) one syllable ends in a vowel and the next begins with one; Ex. *$J fa*ida benefit " instead of or *.j>. 5
( '
s.^U
together, it
:
is
and place the sign * over it, as &<5^ pd*idan <( to stand firm." This word may also be written c>^*^ plyidan, bat in this case the first must be
treated as a consonant
and
transliterated y.
Similarly gunjcfish
<J^?^
or
gunjayish ^isof.
Strictly speaking
As a
rule
hamza has
in Arabic no bearer
it is final
when
it
is
when
in
hamza
*
is
placed on
'
*
$ ^
**
In Modern Persian usually pronounced qayiL In Persian, it is optional to write or omit the
final
* in such words.
e.g.
cJj*^
/5-tZA
"
may
I go T",
y*
ja-o
"go,"
be seen that the Persians and Indians have extended the use of the Arabic orthographical sign hamza.
It will
*
^(f gfov
A hamza
is
^j!f (g<**u).
is
a strong consonant
*.
27
vowel
is
^^
and
is
p*'>*>* (for
^[
*>*
),
Remark
only observed in certain cases when it For the Persian " hamza' 9 I (g)].
as a sign of the genitive case, etc., after an obscure h or after a final ^5, vide 41 (c) (d). of unity, vide 26 (/) as substitute for the
;
an Arabic word used in Persian, in and often omitted, both in pronunciation writing; as, pA* qayim for qcfim, but generally safil <-UU, rarely sayil JjU.
(g)
Hamza
is
Remark
The
and
its
:
omission in modern
;
of
" beggar" by the following examples \*$ gada " a beggar"; &\* ^\< gada-yigada-i* <J* Kerman."
<
t(
"a
:
beggar (with
*e
^
"
;
of unity)
"
begging"
lies
Main
m.c.]
4^*^*
fish
^o U
8 a fish [^ <^*k m^ihi-i (class ) c< one month more yak mah-i dlgar (m.c.)
* :
<-&
:
"
yak mah% in
^^ ^U
yak mahi-yi digar (m.c.) "one fish more"; also in m.c. ^^^ ^*&> mahl-yi " I show <Rgar-l and classically j&& ^i^U mahi-t digar: ^i*> nnmayam but j**^ nuwiyim (i we show."
Remark
of
77.
of syllables
when
a word: O^>A. or
<xJUx>
of^
is
jwr-at
(not ju-rat).
Qur-an:
or
ali-*u>
mas-ala.
The
letter
word
*
is
pronounced
*
l
f
like the
pronounced
like
v^
>
and WJA* u ub
(Ar.
20.
broken plural of *?***) defects, vices," as though In the Roman character, * is transliterated by a
line.
"
reversed
comma above
the
If***
**
a badness,** but in
t^f^
line
jttda'i
is
necessary.
it.
When a
But
this
mark hamza
used
to
introduce
prop"; and this requires without or *), and in the case (with
initial
"a
in
the case of a
>
of i it is ^s (with or without *
),
form
J^j** tu-al
4
3
advantage." inquired of", **$l fa-ida Palmer's Concise Eng.-Per. Diot. Note the different position of the accents in the two words.
a question," JV"^ mas-ul
'*
"
For
28
JAZM OR SUKtfN.
6.
(a)
Jazm
or Sukun.
In Arabic and Persian, the first letter of a word is always accompanied by a vowel, hence in the mouth of an Arab or Persian a word like Smith becomes Ismith (or Ismit).
1
When
is
followed
by
no vowel sound, it is said to be sdkin c/*-s i.e. " quiescent, inert, or mute," and the symbol called or &j** fj** jazm "cutting off, or amputation," " 9ukun "rest __A *_o_ ] is placed over it. In the word joj* mardum [ " " the first letter is moved'' by fatha, but the second letter (;) men," ( f ) is "quiescent, inert, mute, or silent", having the sign jazm o) over it while the third letter (.>) is 'moved' by zamma or pish; and finally the
(
;
last letter
is
"quiescent."
is
A
first
letter so
marked
called sdkin
"
"
quiescent
or
majzum]
it
has none
of the *>&>
or more quiescent letters occur together, the *z&j** " is termed only sdkin, the others being termed mawquf oy>* dependent
or
te
When two
on"
jj
cu^ dust
is
and
In Persian (bub not in classical Arabic), the last letter of all words is quiescent; this being a rule, the sign jazm is omitted in the case of
final
letters.
Jazm
Roman
character)
two
J^>
&i>
to avoid even the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters ; many Persians pronounce these words almost like tifti, naqla, nagda, and in the two last words slightly dwell on the The Arabs? and Indians pronounce fatha.
tijel,
naqel,
Remark.
The presence
"*
or absence of a jazm in a
e.g.
word
of three letters,
;
(j*i nafs
C"'
privities of
"the penis", but ^Jb nafas means "breath"; ^y " freedom from a woman,4 " but
"a
fissure
and the
faraj
grief or sorrow,"
illiterate Indians can pronounce two consonants at tho beginning. In Hindustani a few wo ds begin with two consonants with no vowel between them. In such a\sos a jazm is not written over the first letter as theoretically a
1
Fow
quiescent/
a vowel
8
is
consonant cannot occur at he beginning of a word. It is for this reason that often inserted; thus Brahman is often pronounced Birahman.
is
Barf *'snow"
unintelligible to
in India
pronounced 6ara/;
word
*
many
Persians
words
29
7.
Tashdld
and Idgham.
the sign (*
doubled letter in the middle of a word is written only once, but *>*& tashdid " corroboration " or "strengthening", is ), called placed above it to indicate that it should be pronounced twice.
(a)
A letter so
rated."
marked
first of
The
mushaddad ^^"strengthened ", <f corrobothe doubled letters ends one syllable, and the second
is
called
begins the following syllable. (b) In practice, the Persians strongly emphasize the letter that
is
marked
with the sign of duplication; Ex. f,^ khurram "joyful"; &J\ albatta " certainly." The Arabs however pronounce the doubled btter twice, unless
it
ends the word, when it can only be emphasized. (c) Arabic words of only two letters are rare
"**
***
consequently words
jj
like k2>
and^i
omitted.
and daqj) are three lettered, even if the sign ( " For further remarks on ( * ) vide under " solar letters 10.
(shatt
,
be
word
Without the tashdid, there is nothing to show whether a " or " e{ quvvat strength." CL^ is gut food In Arabic words a euphonic tashdid occurs when the article al precedes a word beginning with a solar lettter vide 10.
Remark
I.
spelt like
Remark
II.
Tashdid
is
any
that are purely Persian. The \vord &su bachclia is an exception ; if the { ^) be omitted there is nothing to distinguish it from &^ bi-chi, (t for what"; vide also '-'Peculiarities of Persian words." In compounds, the tashdid
etc.
and
also in
*A>
(a
curse).
thick,
(d)
Idg&am
f*
As a letter so assimilated (mudg&am shappara (from shab-pira ^J -r^ ) is marked with tashdid, the two words are practically ) synonymous.
Eemark
Removing a
is
tashdtd
**
jadda
{<
lightened
"path", " is
II.
called takhfif
^
<-&****.
T^
and a word so
mukhaffaf
Remark
same/
in order to avoid
two quiescent
letters
coming
63 tashdid ^Ai-> L^A. (m.c.) " most emphatically an ass." In Arabic v-ft^ -a* muza'af " a reduplicate verb, i.e. one whose second and third
j&frar-i
is also
30
together, lose the tashdtd
TANWIN.
^*>
thus
finn er^
"a
' *
spirit,
Similarly
from
saff
Ju* " a
line
" comes
'
the Persian
compound
saf-dar j*&*
" rank
breaking
in Persian, as
3$
kaff
pill
Ar.,
palm
of the
&
-**>.
"
is
Jx*
(m.c.)
kaf-i
"
pill
;
fan
fann-%
but kaf
<*Jf
"
palm
of the
hand ",
Remark
word; arra
exceptions.
III.
(S.
mushaddad
letter
is
dra " a
saw";
8.
farrukh
jarukh)
"
Tanwln
In
classical
is
is
the nominative
T
If the
,
n. is
(a).
noun
"7,
t{
called \*xj
tanwn
3 giving the nun. Arabic nouns in the accusative case are in Arabic used as adverbs;
* (
Ex.
&&
ittifaq-**
of
<j&^.
alif is
not sounded.
If the
word ends in
* '
* or
,
there is
no
final alii;
"
'alay-hi
accordingly
in
&+&>*
hikmat* an
^skilfully";
is
the
word ends
^^
(in
preceding the
the 45 is unsounded), thus <^y*>* hawa* lovingly/* In modern Persian the tendency is to omit the n and prolong the final a
Such words are considered by Lexicographers to be Persian. There is practically only one declension in Arabic. In modern colloquial Arabic the final vowels and tanw'in are with 8 few exceptions
^, and
*
3
omitted: a noun in the accusative case, used as an Adverb, is given the tanwln. Colloquial Arabic has, therefore, no distinction of case as found in the classical language.
#
*
:
*
is
The
alif
over the (s
is
silent
J^sux>
now seldom
like
the
c$-
Words
$**
^A^J (without
a.
aKf).
In the
Roman
31
hal- a *
<9
in the
adverbs;
Ex.
JIU-
"
now,
at present ",
reality"
is
modern Persian always pronounced hald Jft*, while X*; " in pronounced both with and without the n. In some words the
in
t a*
n
*
is
ffhaflaU
"suddenly"
or
"by
accident",
"
\j**>
by force."
9.
Waslah.
" and is This word signifies " a conjunction or joining only found over " the alif of the Arabic definite article J/ al " the : it signifies that the alif
is
J joined
thus
amir ui l-mu*rnimn
II to
If
e^^* lj^f
5
vide
Remark
3 (d)*
a word before a
is
final
vowel
is
wctsla ends in a long vowel or in an alif-i maqsura, the shortened in pronunciation before the alif with wasla, thus pronounced fi'l-jumla and not fi'l-jurnla.
10.
(a)
called
&~+jf
^j~+&
" solar letters " for the by " sun " with one
begins
i
them.
They
are
o-&-a-3-j-3-(j-c4-u-o^-'k--'J
J*
-e>.
If
an
begins with one of these letteis, then, for of the article is not sounded, but to compensate for its
the * ~ ?
~
first letter
*
of the
word
itself is
of Religion
"
(Saladin).
The dentals
3 sinniyya ^*W, those that are enunciated by the aid of the teeth, are
--&by the
&
- eL'.
The
lingual asaliyya
**l<\
)
j
and are
)-3-o**u-u^-
The lunar
letters <*Jr*?
^^
moon
change takes place in the J of the article. The lunar letters are subdivided into the labials shafahiyya or skafawiyya * * * or **f& ) j c5 vJ the palatals lahawiyya (>#} ) 45g; f
"
The hamza
is
pronounced.
*
S
Difficulty of pronunciation or
want
of
euphony
is
called istisqal (
JlSi
The
The
u*
"
U*
are called
J^A^ ^Jj^
"
sibilant letters."
32
ABJAD.
and the
C
'
or hanjariyya
'
Remark.
over
o?^
letters articulated
;
*'
-
lips
I
they
-
& J
-
huruf'^l-lin
'
^M\
.
vJj^.
.
>
is*
(J* ^e arched", mufbaqah nounced by the tongue and the fore part of the palate (viz. ^> - * - Jo ) " depresvsed (letters)" are those in which the tongue does muslafilah AJ&~*C
:
viz.
&
* niViyyah **&&
letters pro-
not
rise.
11.
Abjad.
(a)
The
:
order
The use
of letters as
numerals
is
confined
to mathematical works,
The sum
name
of a
verse recording an historical event, gives the year of the Hijra in which the event took place. This practice of commemorating events by chronograms
is
common
in all
Muslim
is
countries.
This system
Arabic word jummal J*^ signifying cable; addition." &}&> a as reckoned is with tashdid single letter.
(6)
:
"
letter
marked
When Nadir Shah proclaimed himself sovereign of Examples with the Arabic inscription as a chronogram coins struck he Persia, x^ ^ * v *O' a " the best is in what ** t*'-;**^ happened." Tfie alkhayr* ft ma waqa' t'J ^
t
sum
1
of these letters
1148 (A.H.)
A.D. 1735-6.
*
S
Also (j^*^
J5^.
Morocco in the above words substitute
Vulgarly abujad.
The Arabs
of
f or
<j*
o*
-
for
for {J
^
As
*->
u*
<j
for &.
may have
the value of
of
of 3
they
may have
letters.
NUMERICAL FIGURES.
33
The date
Vida'-i
of
Shahryan
Taymurlang's death is in the dramatic words isj*x&*\&) " Farewell to Royalty," this = 807 (H.) = A.D. 1404-5.
to the
A
1882),
*
new gate
mosque at Kazimayn was constructed by Farhad Shah of Persia, in A.H. 1300 ( = A.D.
o
and an Afghan poet of Bagdad, who wrote under the takhattus (jol*ri or nom de plume of Shihab, immortalised (as his son says) the event in a poem, the chronogram of which, according to custom, occurs in the last, or the last two misra' ^ (a line of verse)
'
(ft/0
:
^ ^f
to
is
jf
cuAf^ u*J*j*
V^
^ ty
*^>
^ y L&M*
" Shihab in a " happy frame of mind fixes its date May your road Paradise be by this gate." The sum of the letters in the second misra'
1299, but the writer says at the end of the first line "ba dil-i-shdd Jj>b these words may also be translated " with the heart of shad" now
:
al" and
is
alif
which
<
'
one,
so this
makes the
total 1300.
The
Kfor 21,
(c)
letters of abjad
etc.*
figures, thus
b for 12,
<**>*; rt j&
the letters of the alphabet are used with special significations; thus the letter * denotes Thursday, the sign Virgo, the planet Venus and the inoon when bright. Few Persians nowadays know these signs, and the almanacs
,
^^ ^>
is
preferred,
12.
Numerical Figures.
Hindus by the
(a)
The
:
Arabs) are
0123456789
I
r*
<\
left to right as in
English thus,
M* !?
1901.
Called
by
the
Arabs
is
the
Bab*-*l-Farkadiyya
and
by the
Persians
Bab-i-
Fctrhadiyya.
*
also used
auditory signalling, in a manner that will readily be understood by Military Officers. Double raps or long sounds, such as sighing or sucking a pipe, indicate the number of the
word
while single
Similarly, signs
raps or short sounds indicate the position made by the right eye or eyebrow, or by the
on the
tongue in the right cheek, or by the right hand or foot, indicate the word, while those Vide also 16. left, the letter.
34
(1)
(*
g for 3,
or
L
r
!L
v
*
7
etc.
13.
To
of the Hijra:
M^the Muslim date in years and decimals. Let E = the required English date in years Then E = M x 0-970225 + 621-54. The answer is
Let
:
end of the year A.H. The year A.D. 1900 (1st May)
1318 H.
14.
Siyaq
J>W
)"
Mustawfis (L*J*~~*>) or Revenue Accountants, and Munshis keep their accounts in a system of figures called o^~* siyaq or <.yf^ c&vam which Is India. nearly the same p*j raqam of
l
Appendix to Woolaston's
a complicated one. English-Persian Dictionary. Shop-keepers and merchants keep their accounts in a form of siyaq : fcne y ^ not understand the cRivam ( <^te ) or siyaq ( (3U* ) of the ( <3l*- )
is
The system
Mustawfi
a sum in a receipt the ) is applied to a system of writing written in siyaq ( (${* ) and then in words underneath it; under this again, Jialf the sum is written in siyaq.
:
sum
is first
15.
Letters in Poetry,
Persian poets delight in discovering fanciful resemblances in the form of letters. As already stated, an upright stature is likened to the letter
but bent by grief or age it is a U: a bent neck is like a, while a drooping head is like > The Persian poet Jam! in his beautiful but
aft/,*
1 The revenue accounts being kept in aiyak none but a mustawfi u*j**** or revenue acoountant can interpret them. Persian officials are in the hands of their accountants. * I heard of one Governor who on removal from office had his accounts made up and was found to be a debtor to Government to the extent of 80,000 tumams (16,000).
*
He got another mustawfi ( ^f^A**^ ) to examine his accounts and the latter brought him out a creditor to the amount of 40,000 tumams.'* Yates Khorasan and Sistan.
9
compared to
alif,
HANDWRITINGS.
35
somewhat lengthy poem "Yusuf and Zulaykha >SJ compares the heroine's teeth to sin (<*), her mouth to mim (*), and her eyes to sad (<*) or 'ayn (*) zuif is again compared to lam and jim.
;
16.
Handwritings.
The two most important varieties of Arabic writing are the Kufi and the Naskh? and all the other varieties, national or calligraphic, may be referred to one of these two styles. The Kufic took its name from the town Kufa on the Euphrates^ a town that at one time was a seat of Muslim learning, and famous for
a school of Arabic copyists. From authentic Kufic inscriptions,
it is
now no
style at the time of the conquest of Syria, before the It is now supposed that the naskh did not originate in
the second or third century after the Prophet but was used simultaneously with the Kufic in the time of the earliest Khalifas, and possibly in the time
of the Prophet
himself. 8
{
The
and
Ta'ltq
(p^**
} 9
hanging' hand,
in Persia.
is
still is,
much admired
According to the Eastern romance Zulaykha saw and loved Yusuf in a dream suitors hearing of her beauty vainly sought her hand, At length she agreed to espouse the 'Aziz of Egypt, Qitflr (Potaphar of the Bible) believing him to be the Yusuf (or Joseph) of her vision. Her marriage was a rude awakening and
*
Many
her respect for her husband was doubtless lessened by the fact that, he was, for some reason or other, \\ eunuch. Joseph is recognized and bought in the slave market by Zulaykha and adopted by her husband, Zulaykha makes furious love to the unwilling youth. Th> ladies of Memphis discover her secret and talk scandal. ZulaykhS hears
tance.
the gossip, and faces the difficulty by giving a banquet to all the ladies of her acquainWhile sending for Yusuf she gives each lady an orange to peel, with directions
to observe Yusuf covertly the while, The ladies are so agitated at the sight of the slave-boy's unexpected beauty that they absently cut their fingers instead ot* the orange. They have to confess that Zulaykha has an excuse for her passion, the temptation being so great. The Qur* an says * * and she shut the doors and said * come
:
given me a good home and the him; and he had longed for her, had he not seen a token from his Lord.'* Qitfir dies and Zulaykha becomes a beggar, old, blind, decrepit, but Joseph retains his youth. Zulaykha builds a reed-hut on the way by which the man she so faithfully loves has to pass. Joseph fails to recognize in the blind beggar-woman his former mistress. She has however expiated her sin by Her youth is restored to her, and Yusuf is directed to make her his wife. suffering. Yusuf is a type of male beauty, the Adonis of the Muslims. " a Naslsh. of transcribers."
hither!*
*
He said God
keep
me
Verity
my lord hath
for
jr**
writing
M&M
nas&h with
all
the points.
36
HANDWRITINGS.
The nasta'Uq
(JAJUI^S
is
~*
or ordinary
a beautiful hand, chiefly used by the hand and the ta'Uq ( JN^ Persians for well- written manuscripts but the modern Arabs call the Persian
): it is
;
writing generally Some old Arabic manuscripts written in Persia are in this style. ' hand is the term generally applied to The shikasta *x~& or broken
c '
ta'ttq.
'
1 In it the the cursive or running hand used by the Persians and Indians. dots are omitted and all the letters are joined together. It is very illegible
and puzzling even to natives. The ruq'ah ***> is used by Arabs and Turks in ordinary correspondence.
UA
sulsi
^^
{or
&&)
are
the
names
of
titles of
letters
Europeans. These several scripts are little more than calligraphic styles. In Persia, even at the present day, calligraphy is one of the
fine
arts.
One
or
two
lines written
by
(
many pounds
of
sterling.
The
Khatt-i sJmjan*
^/?^ ^-
>
enigmatical writing, is merely another application of abjad <^i; in it an upright stroke represents as it were the trunk of a fir-tree in which thenumber
of branches
of the
word
in abjad <*su?,
*.4lt,
Thus
ia ^i*
the
it is
occurs in the fifth word of the abjad system, namely in o^****, and the second letter in that word. 'All would therefore be written:
J
Vide also
11
(6)
footnote
2.
'Remark. In writing and in printing, Persian and Arabic words should not be written half at the end of one line and half at the beginning of the
next ; also dual words connected by j should not be separated. Only inferior * copyists make mistakes in spacing and resort to the practice of dividing words.
'
vile shikasta
*&*&
of their
is
own.
the
official
!>:?,
character, in Turkish
passports, etc.
3
uls **** is
* "cypress writing." There is now little widely known. Like the Arabic character, it is of Vide Brownie's " A Year Amongst the Persians.* 9
PUNCTUATION.
37
if
A
is
is
there
not sufficient room, instead of crowding in the last few words, they are written above the line in one or more lines decreasing in length.
Two words are often written in one, as: Two words separated by an izafat are sometimes
(kitdb-i
,
^f
Punctuation.
stated,
neither
are
by various but as in : already etc., etc., manuscripts, the short vowels written nor the other symbols,
verses, punctuation is represented
:
l
Even
in printed works
an occasional tashdld <^<x& or short vowel is the only This is one of the reasons that the Persians
and Indians mispronounce so many common Arabic words.'2 The following punctuation marks ( *Alj &(*>&c ) are occasionally used:-
Comma
Colon
Full stop
'
aldmat-i ivaqfa
aldmat-i mutlaq
aldmat-i dyat
*
'
'
o^T o**&:
o (for*)
.
Mark
of interrogation
aldmat-i istifbdm,
^^AW
<z+*&c
**-M/)
farydd,
.
yd ta'ajjub
.
c? (n)
*
J
^*&* t by
), 'aldrtm-t-i
[
].
jumh-yi mu'tariza
Wyt**
&+?-
Poetry 'aldmat'i
maxzuma
;
In manuscripts, a dash ( ) called lakht o^iJ, is sometimes used to introduce the words of a speaker and consequently takes the place of inverted commas. The modern sign ~~^ over a word signifies either that
it
is
it
begins a sentence.
These signs,
if
used,
In classical Arabic the short vowels are the most valuable part of a word: the
final
of a and
short vowel distinguished the person in a tense, the case of a noun* or the gender pronoun ; a short vowel makes the difference between the active and passive voice, frequently between a transitive and intransitive verb, and the presence or
absence of tashdid
root
may
'*
marks,
)f
triliteral
may be pronounced in twelve different ways. * The vowels of even Persian words^ are misplaced
is
common example
girya &jj>
is
is
awaz
(jj*
in m.c. gariya.
38
18.
(a)
An
abbreviation of a word
a part of
it,
as
A.D. for
Am
Domini;
contraction
word, made
the elision of letters or syllables from the body of in such a manner that the whole word is indicated, as rec'd pai
is
:
payment."
f
contractions.
(a)
is
Some
(1)
most common abbreviations are Jxis alay-hi-'s salam* " Peace be upon him. pc =, flUJf
of the
(2) j*L<*
U. j *U*
adJj
^L^
Sallq-llah
a 'alay-hi wa-sallam
' '
" G(
him prosperity
:
(of
the Proph
(3)
&JLc
&\)\
j.
1
"
'
Sallq-llahu
* <
to him."
(4)
Also for
^*^
alay-hi" correct."
"God
be gracio
or)**
of
God be on him
*^t
(or
them)."
(5)
or
^j
~ *^
<jdl?
^^j.
Raziya-llahu 'anhu.
"May God
**The mercy
^JU
A^.
i)}
Hahamalv-llah* 'alay-M.
God be on him."
(7)
^*/
=
>*
^.Ju
*J,
La*nat*-'llah* 'alay-hi.
The curse
God be on him."
(8)
j.
^W aJJfa+L..
Sattama-h^ttafa'
ta'afa
(for
ordina
No.
1 is is
No. 4
No. 7
for
anyone specially obnoxious to the writer. No. 8 for Mujtahids, etc., when alive.
The form
(9)
of writing the
y/, for
above Arabic abbreviations varies slightly. " and so on " (when ijtf ^l, etc., in the sense of
^
*
first
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS
(10)
5-
AND IMALA.
39
:
for
*
54^ plural
$
(also in the
o*
**> for
<T
(11) a (12)
** 5*^ plural of plural. " for *k " name of town (in geographical works).
jf t
^
a
for
gjy
ee
(13)
(14)
for **b
name
of a small
town
"
(geographical works).
j,
= <j^~^
* - <.$>*
(15)
o
e>
J*l>
"subject"
(gram.).
(16)
(17)
(18)
- *i^~J ''note." Vide 17, line 13. = ^ ^*T " and so on." = ,*o* and yj* "first," and and
the order
'
"last,"
first
i.e.
'reverse
(read
.
the
word
with f over it
for
and with
over
it last)
"subject," and
"predicate": vide
^c
tjj
.,
(20) u**>
(21)
author."
(^yo^ (a well-known dictionary), (a well-known dictionary). ^ - c^UlIf ^3ui* (23) f (a well-known dictionary) well-known (24) v (a ^bi^ dictionary).
(22)
^UU? ^U*
o^
(6)
The
:
following
common
in origin
(1) An initial alif followed by a quiescent consonant is frequently elided, and the jazm being removed the consonant is then pointed by the same short
,
vowel that occurs in the second syllable of the original word, as &jiS\ aknun, "now," &j& kunun; afmrdan ot*~^ "to freeze, be dejected," fusurdan; i! a paint used by women/' sifiddf isftdSf t**&**\ (obs.) (m.c.).
:
gi&>&~>
vowel of the
first letter
becomes kasra, as: istadan e^UUj or istandan e^&*f " to sitadan e.^iw or sHandan c>^li*. take/' If the initial alif is pointed with pish and the second vowel is fafha, the first vowel of the contraction can sometimes be either zlr or pish, as uftSdan,
of the contraction
:
e^Uif
is
<
to fall"
fttadan or futadan
&*& *
or &&&*.
uf&dan].
(2)
Ishkastan &*~&>l (m.c.) for shikastan ^i-X*. Long vowels are sometimes converted into short
vowels
as:~
nigah *&, shah A^, digarj*, shuktih *>^, budan <&, for nigah
(3)
K, shah *U,
not subject to rule are: mar, ;L* for btmar jUw "sick," for madar "mother", and for mayar ** "bring not " chi, L*** fvular. and m.c.) for chtz. *** " thincr " mi. ram. /*^
Examples
of other contractions
40
SUMMARY.
m.c.) for
9
and
mi-ravam fjj**
(old)
mi-May
^yxuvo sham
for Aiyf
;
ffor shavamf)**,
;
nusha^^,
ti
c '
anusha
(f
tuhl (mod.)
aqa ^f
shandan, &*>(& for nisluindan o^^; a f (mod.) for mi-rod, mi-shad and mi-dad are vulgarisms for mi-ravad, mi-shavad
empty
"
chunuy^,
;
chun u
for tihi
happy"
(tahi or
a>ndmi-dihad; usta for ^^arf (vulg.); shazda for shahzada. rH wwz are contractions for $-yf sunduq, ru-yi miz.
Tu sanduq and
19.
Summary.
be seen that the learner must take
From
(1)
it will
special care
to discriminate
;
between
^ an English k and
(like
kh
(latter
pronounced
in the
like ch in foc&)
(2)
to
;
make
a guttural
ck in SMC&
when pronounced
throat)
(3)
to pronounce with the half-bleating sound when it occurs in the ^ middle of a word and when it begins a middle syllable to make a pause before pronouncing that syllable and when it ends a word to omit it or half omit it, and to pronounce the word with a peculiar drawling intonation.
:
In such words as
(4)
^toj,
the
must be
slightly
alif\
two
last letters of
words
like
uib
tifl
(5)
to aspirate the
words
wj^
(final silent * of
Remark.
there
As a must be no
* *
word must be
distinctly enunciated
English
his words.
slurring of words.
An uneducated
Persian
little
habit of
' '
clipping
A clear distinction must be made between the long and short vowels. English people seem to have a passion for making the short vowels long ; they also expend a good deal of energy in shouting and putting the accent on every syllable. For accent vide 21.
The
necessity for enunciating every letter will be discovered in distinSA mixed," *I&;^** sar-rishta guishing between such words as al^** sirishta " the "a sar-wishta AJUj^* a and or of good knowledge experience thing,"
end
of the thread."
(b)
ay (generally pronounced
1
i,
1
u,
and
a, i, u, besides
the diphthongs
(generally pronounced
like
owin
cow).
and au
as in the
German
haus.
EXEBOISE
There
is
-IN
TBANSL1TEKATION.
41
26 (/)], hamza, in Persian, usually (c) Except as a sign of the izdfat [vide occurs between two vowels (i.e. vowels according to English ideas) and thus corresponds to a hyphen.
(d)
A peculiar
it.
stress
letter,
i.e.
a letter with
a tashcKd on
(e)
generally omitted.
20.
(a)
Exercise in Transliteration.
are merely an exercise in reading
'
Short
^t
tire
an
'an
(for
<al
-j
&[ in
e/f
un
(
&*
JM)
al
JLj[
'in
^
J^
ol
un
Longjj
JU
Diphthong
U
jj
J/f ul
<ul
cUc
*
Jb| ayl
(Jj^
J^f
awl or
ayl
Jj* 'awl
Remark.
All Arabs,
The
following
is
words have
Special attention
The
learner
is
recom mended
first
to cover
:
a rose
gul
gil
khafc
sud
qawm
bid
# a willow
2
^o a hair
vine-stock
mn maw
bachcha
bi-chi
for
what
As
There are many words in Persian pronounced differently though to the eye spelt the same ; these have different significations.
42
blood
the anus
TRANSLITERATION.
khun
kun
,
khan
it
'
khwan
ru
face
go (imperative)
self
9
s*.
raw khud
khud
abru
-
a helmet
honor
fi
ab-raw
j*
f
become
shudan)
*
*
+
>j
shaw
of the verb shustan)
AJ)
wash (Imperative
for
shu
bi-du
bi-daw
^ barley
f
*
jaw
ju
[jcw-i
one grain].
j*. rivulet
9
*^ x
xO
c
ju
pas-raw
pisaru
a
J2/
little
son
P^ge
he (poetical contraction)
giraw
jj/ if
r
gam
'uynb
(for
agar
u$ jt\
^.xs
[
a defect, vice
w^ Ar. broken
Ar.
of
}
pL of above
^aday,
Ar. fbl
)
yawm
above
pL
ayyam
ruz
a day, P.
hope
table
nmtd or ummld
rmz
Or bi-shaw
'*
become."
9*
)y*
bi-shur is
used
"
(a
tent-folk).
instead of ju. ** 6 The Indians and the unknown*' sound of the vowel Afghans preserve these words.
In modern Persian
>W
"
(e) in
TB ANSLITBKATION
lion
43
milk
with
bd
^ V
flj
without
a blow or puff (with the mouth) a blowpipe (for killing birds)
K
puf
pufak
month; moon
a
/***t
mah
maht ism
fish
name
mean, low,
,
,
khwab*
r
pi. of.
pastan
pistan
khawdrij
(sing,
a
khwdhar
Ichwar*
jur^at
Civil
Code
in
Muslim law
urf
an eye
)
(A. head) a
cape
chief
leaf
varaq
a slave
banda
ydvar
(pron, bande)
a Major
an Arab
time
pi. of
'Arab
vaqt
above
food
.
awqdt khurdk *
pleasant
khush*
<ddat
custom
the
"unknown" sound
2
).
(
of the vowel
(e)
in
these words.
2
8
)*
The ,5
pronounced
it
not pronounced in Persian. The Afghans, however, generally pronounce in this particular word. 6 This Arabic phrase is common with professional story-tellers.
The^
is
Note the
This
under
>
7
8
is
pronounced
like short u:
vide
2 under
44
TRANSLITERATION.
ftf
Adam
Adam
zarar
qa*im
The
khurd
khwastan
fi'l-Jumla
ma na n
l
atibbd-and
o&*4
or O^UA
hay^at
masJiJiad
azjiar
inmniyyal
(d)
As already stated in
1 (a),
is
a species of short-
following Persian puzzles are exercises in inserting the diacritical points, the solutions being given below
:
hand.
The
(2)
Eemark.
The
solution to No.
>>
1 is
&*>.
7
What
is
the
word
fj*.
khurram, etc., tiO at last he says, Mar-am ( is anchi guffi Jwstl vail In mst ^~-& ^j
The guesser says haram, jazm, jurm, jirm Ci The reply then I am an ass "). ** Asuf what y<5u hare t^^ <J$>
said
you
are,
it is
this.'*
The key to the answer depends on the various significations of ja'far " 2 " donkey, yiAA. The first Ja'farj**^ is man's name, the second signifies " and the fourth " a >? z the third " parsley bridge.
'
Practically
word
is
gener-
donkey
*'
and
also for
a bridge: one of
is
'*
river."
ACCENT.
(5)
45
or
A man named
and asked
for
Badri
fJ**\ ;***
Prime
Minister
The
first is
is
Badn-yam
sad riyam.
21.
(a)
Accent.
The general
:
last syllable.
Ex. ^^>^ pisard boy " "a kdsh " a led horse (old) glove (m.c )." [In India this word means "an assistant to a falconer"]; l^^ *-^*>j> dast kashhd: u>^p
;
&j
t^
"a
"
on the
dost
darakhtdn
l '
trees
' *
:
)^
handz
"done"
(Past Part.); khub-tarin " the best, most beautiful," etc., etc.
;
^^/
' '
' '
' '
* '
yet
*t>j
v^
kardd l
bihtdr
Remark.
fall
on the
^^
4w
izafat
fli^ or
(6)
darakhthd-ra t;l^;i
:
to the trees."
Exceptions are
(1)
of
falls
strongly on the
first
syllable of all imperatives, negative or otherwise, (frequently with special " bi-lmn "do thou Ex. y&j* Mr-dar "take away"; ; stress). " " " " do **&* md-kurild don't do bi-ravand m&kun, bi-kunld ye
:
&&
H^
il
let
"
&*
bi
kunam "
on the
^^
let
me do."
syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub-
falls
first
and
bi
kunam
(t
I
;
may
doing, etc." ^**> ndnn-kwiam; ?&&+* tidml-kardam. ^ ta na-gffi , the accent seems to fall on the 5 In the phrase the on than rather negative in i^*& % ta na-bim it seems to fall either on
;
^>
first
(bi).
say
$ go*e.
:
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the i.e. on the preposition. verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable,
Ex.
/*;iM'
will
take
it
away
"
(*JJT*+*>>
ddr nami-ravam.
(3)
it is
on the
on the
dmadan
is
obsolete
46
last
ACCENT.
syllable.
:
" ordered
" " I asked": Ex.: f**j$ pursidam you *jj>^y' farmtidid " " we but etc. &*1* dddand "they gave": p*& gujtim said, " he " he asked " ordered," etc. a^i farmud H~^ pursid (4) In negative Prets. the accent falls on the negative unless preceded
;
:
by a preposition, as mentioned in (6) (2) in the latter case the accent falls on the preposition. Ex. aU*| uftdd " he fell," ^a^ ndyuftad " he did not fall," but ^UijjJ j* ddr na-yuftad.
;
:
(5)
The
"
; *
affixed
hd-yash
his trees
their
"
Ex.
c^t^ kitabhd-yitan
o**|
ejlxy**
((
your books"
"it
Ichil-ishan
income":
falls
bas-i-tdn ast
is
sufficient
for
you/'
(6)
on the
^ ^
of unity
[but
it
may
fall
on the
demonstrative ^J.
Remark.
rule
<<
and formed from adjectives and Abstract nouns ending in that are formed from nouns, follow the
goodness"
^*>>
2
dustl
t(
"
friendship
on the ^.
*J*#
4<
(from
mk
Ex.
friend"), etc. It therefore frequently happens that there is nothing but the accent to distinguish between two words which are spelt the J> * or dusii same; thus ^i-^ may stand for dust-% a friend friendship", " i( ** B mean a bride" or
cu*j^
< ' l
^a
ar&$-t)
may
nuptials
('amsf).
(7)
The following
:
first
syllable
Uj
dmma
/&<%?
(1
^J
llkin
is
"
but
"
:
or
" whether or <{ aV (an interrogative particle) not," etc," ^yf V? yes, very well" ^ijf inak ** here is, behold " *^Ju 6d^H <4 perhaps, moreover, on the w* " " here I am." 8 contrary Idbbay (in Persian generally a6g) " In the preposition ^[^ for the sake of" the accent is on the second Khud-a "for God's sake." Ex. syllable. bard-yi'
: :
^f,
to say
"
:
^ vS
ll
"
yes
:
"
^uu
:
bf
^
:
<j?,
vide
(g).
*
3
Afghans and Indians say n&, dost, etc. In m.c. (^J^T* is a bride (not a bridegroom).
*
6
The Afghans and Indians say lekin, the Arabs Afghans and Indians wale, or wa-lekin.
lakin
"Here
am, yes"
for Arabic
^^
i
Idbbayka.
Labbay
is
common amongst
women.
7
Pronounce the
slightly as
a consonant.
Bear
ay
^f^
Impera. of
ACCENT.
47
(8)
The following Infinitives have the accent on the first syllable: " " to drink: My&rdan to eat" c^^f dshamidan e;<>#LA khwdbtdan
:
e^f
simple prepositions take no accent, neither do the particles tf or the conjunction ). As pronouns, * and **. may take the accent.
particle (&*> is accented, except
ki.
The
when
it
forms compounds, as in
chunauj chundn
(c)
A correct
by
The rules given above have, ear, i.e. they must be caught orally. however, few exceptions, and if carefully studied will prove a great aid to
the learner.
It
say pidar-i man and another piddr-i man. According to Dr. Rosen the only Persian noun with the accent on the "a first syllable is j&* sdnndr penny," a contraction of jlij3 6^ sad dinar. This remark probably refers to the more correct modern Persian spoken at
Teheran.
falls
on the
:
syllable
of
the following
common
nouns
j&> pidar
j^U madar
'
sister
"
: :
about three rupees or about four shillings) *' and infinitessimal coin, 50 of which go to one dinar (an imaginary jli?d shahi, 200 to one *abba& and 1000 to one qirdn) ^*= 'abbasi (the fifth of a
e;ky twman
(a coin, in value
*>
qiran)
*J*&* qdssab
)&\j*
" a butcher/'
" a brother," the accent
is
In
baradar,
on the second
syllable.
There are probably other exceptions to the rules in (a] and {6}* (d) In the old-fashioned classical Persian of India and Afghanistan, the
accent does not follow the above rules.
falls
i
from amada
4
"
prepared
j
vide note
J^
the accent
is
on the second
syllable,
as
drill-master Colonel.'*
CHAPTER
22.
II.
Grammar
is
divided into
U>?l
t^j^ Sarf
Etyo^aJt
tology
and ^sO
is
Nahw
Syntax.
^^l j f>M H
father."
accidence
is its
23.
Etymology
^jy.
*
PARTS OF SPEECH
Aqsam-i kalima
j$ +U\
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of seech which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals, (1) p~*\ ism,*
:
(2)
J*i
fifl,
the verb
(3)
o^
viz.
adverbs, prepositions,
and
is
interjections.
<
The
ound."
harf
"
single, simple
The former
and
j
articles, as j
the prepositions
jt
and *
24.
It is
The
Article.
is
no
article in Persian.
There
:
is,
vide
40 and
41.
sJiarab signifies
In the absence of any article a substantive like wfy* " wine " or " the ther wine/' according to the context*
25.
The Substantive 8
oy*j
0506 <~*i
;
*-*!
Gender
,ju
},
(a)
tc.,
i
'Alam
a proper
name
and
Ahmad
*
but
) ;
noms de plume
(takhailus),
*Sar/
ishtiqaq
^UWf
**
derivation of Arabic
**
vajh-i taamiya
(lit,)
cause of naming
"
Not
leans the
j/g
p
Muslim
is
profession of faith.*
is
(f$f ) sentence; proposition, etc, KaUma also The distinction between { *+i^ ) kalima and
latter
M/ ) (
may be
ord (of two or more letters) without meaning. * The term noun * in English formerly included ad noun-adjective were the terms used.
'
adjective
noun-substantive
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
49
surnames or nick-names or epithets (laqab) of famous people, as Ruym-tan " eP o&; brazen-body," i.e. "invulnerable" (name of Isfandyar); any
9
by which a person is commonly known, alias ('urf iJ^e ), as Kalian (Indian) for Kola KhZn, Ma'rafi (Persian) for Muhammad Raft, M%rzd; and the filionymics and patronymics (kunyat) of Arabs (which
contraction
common
Muhammad
)
Definite nouns
**.**>
p~>i
nouns
become
definite
;
"
any
(ma'hud-i zilim J^XAJ tj^**), as dust o*jj!> "the (our) friend," dushman <r*$ "the (our) enemy" any common noun used as an epithet and commonly
;
known
^**>
),
Egypt (Joseph), KhaKl* liah *Ui JUiA. the Friend of (Abraham) the a mu^af of pronoun and the personal and demonstrative pronouns vide 40
; ; :
^ God"
of
(b)
Remark.
(2) Indefinite
nouns
*j&
} ;
ya'm
mu'ayyan
Remark.
indefinite
(6)
In kas-i ra shumdam (*& \j*r& the object the marked by though postposition ra.
is
considered
Persian.
Grammatically speaking it may be said that there is no gender in Males and females* are either expressed by different words, as:
dlv y_&
**a
and pan
^^
zan na-dlda
%***>
** a woman"; khwvja &*. man," c>j ^ ^lady": or else they have the words y nar
4<
%y*
^ mard
mada
**
(t
female/'
etc.,
4<
a bull,"
& &>U or t* ^
;
added, as jj*
or _V<f 'ft&r-gav (Indian) or gav-i nar (m.c.) ** mzda-gav or gav-i mida a cow" ; j*^*shir-i nar
>>4
* ;
*
mard-i biva %& j* and zan-i biva means widow however generally **% cy [bwa %& only and zan-murda " " \<& t* beggar-man," (m.c.) is [* widower '] &j* beggar-woman,"
* f
a lion"
*&> j$**
shir-i
Remark.
gender
:
&#&
the feminine
+*
Tamyiz-i jins
I
t^r*^j>*+*
distinction of gender."
**
Asp
ra fani&htl v^^Jtr5
^**"\
did you
sell
the horse
**
;
aap ra
ia
26 (k) Bern. II. * Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, and wheu in Persian qualified by Arabic adjectives, distinction of gender is sometimes observed, as will be shown later. Vide
8
Pronounced vulgarly
*)tf.
gab*
with a hamza,
* Nar-ahlr
j* j> and mada shir j**> i^ are not used by Persians. #ar-' a*& ia " a great fat narral&ar-i in m.c. means means " the yard of a house ; o"/^ *' and of a the nar-i means bub &&ar jack-ass." Nariyan yard blockhead," vulg. j& j " and *' mare *' in m.o. stallion
vulg. m.c.
'
60
(c)
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
Arabic nouns form the feminine by adding ah (in Persian the " aJU> malika P. " a ] to the masculine, as <-&*> malik ) king imperceptible " l "a queen ; e>^<* sultan &lkL sultana P. (class.).
Many
Eemark.
(
is
called ta marbutah
5 It is, however, only in certain words ) and by Indians hata ( ). JDJ>J* pronounced and written t in Persian vide remarks on *. This termination ^*& c5^ ) Ex. *^> is also called ta*yi ta*ms
:
*G
is the feminine of ^t^ khan "a squire Kluinum **&> a lady (at 9 is the feminine and to almost title a officer), begum every given present pt# of beg uJ^j. Grammarians call this f, mtm-i taints, banu " a a word sometimes Persian
"
"
**
(d)
'
(e)
The
wordyb
lady,
princess," (a
also
is
compounds, as e>l? U ba$&-ban a neat house-wite >>s Cj^ L5^^ banu-yi haram "female guardian of the harem" (specially for the Shah), Vav j must not, however, be considered a
* {
;
^,
Persian feminine
termination:^
"
yj
z&nu
*'
the
knee";
In words
is
diminutive
t
these
a maternal uncle
"
is
J^
and has
Remark.
By
the uneducated, 3
(t
is
talk, as
*
maharu
bi-gir
take hold of the camel's mahdr (nose-string) *; va guft ** the fellow came and said" ; (yarn is here
In Arabic the
* is
not silent
f* ' **
*
"
wife of Shah."
*
mode n
8
Turks, also Afghans and Indians, give the e the broad majhul sound ; but in Persian the e is pronounced short as in the English verb ** to beg.** Also kad-banu shud *& j& &$ "the girl is -married, i.e. became a mistress
of a house."
* In Kir man a vav (j), and in Teheran a ya (i/), is often vulgarly added to proper for Ahmad *+*>\* names, as A^madu -jW^( and Ahmadl <^*>*^l 8 ghala **t^ is Ar. '* a maternal uncle "which properly the feminine of &&5Z is not used in Persian.
J^
In India yaru
is
jL?
DECLENSION.
(/)
61
modern Persian
is
"
used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "I" or "me/ when writing to a superior. Ex. ****^ kamfna 'arz or) >***
:
(f**V
u^
**& mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; " inform me kamina bi-ln oti&f javab iltijat bi-farmayid kindly ^jlojAt
mi-kunad
(or
^^
^U
(i.e.
your
slave-girl the
writer)."
Kamina
***+
is
the contracted superlative kamtn. (g) Arabic past participles, used as substantives,
in the imperceptible
make
their feminines
man "my friend ^yo v^*^ [vide (c)]. (male)," (^ &jfw> mahbuba-yi man "my friend (female)": fy**j* marhum "the deceased (male)"; ax^yo marhuma (female): (j^**x> and &?>** ma'shuq* and ma'shuqa "beloved": &*&*> mutallaqa* "a divorcee" (set
Ex.
:
mahbub-i
free).
(h)
Vide also
43
(*).
Real feminines,
i.e.
^V
or
nouns expressing living things that are feminine, c5^ **>^*, as opposed to j** *J^x O r
^^^
i^U** %J^x> "grammatical or irregular (Jit. 'heard') feminines," such as shams (_r+ * the sun,' * arz o^f * the earth/ * which are feminine in Arabic.
'
Semark.
jannat**
;
26.
^1*3*3
or
4_jbyj
).*
There
(a)
is
When
:
nominative
(6)
same as the
6
&?
bi to
the
nominative, or by affixing
raJ>
1
*
In
classical or
is
mean,
vile.*
la the Panjab
followers/*
signify
guft
"camp
is
their
own
comfort,
i.e.
an
40
izajat after
(a) (2).
kamina
is
wrong.
Here S*adi
<3>**IL*
is
In classical Persian
3BVX
'
&\*
or
v^
3
^e beloved
(J^-k
therefore distinguished
In Arabic
is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and by the feminine termination vide also 43 (t) (6). is more usual for divorcee,
:
not
*
6
" These, especially gar dan &\&f t also signify conjugating a verb.'* in its full form unless the word following Seldom written separately
it
begins with
6.
The
dative with *J
is
52
DECLENSION.
Remark.
The
ra
I;
of
is
&
in yak-l ra khar-i dar gil uftada bud )t </* equivalent of the izafat: ted*\ JS - (class.), the same meaning could be expressed by
^^
\>
Wwr4
yak-i.
formed by prefixing ^t ay or ya " oh" or one of the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in alif in poetical or 27 (e) and 118. rhetorical language vide
(c)
The vocative
is
(d)
by
prepositions.
no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by coupling two nouns together by a short t (or kasra *r^) called by grammarians the kasra^yi izafat ju*X*| \j~ ("the i of annexation" or " the i of joining"), or more commonly *l*tff izafa or izafat. The thing possessed
(e)
1
is
placed
uL*
(< the son of the king j~$ pisar-i malik " the book of the son of the king." kitab-i pisar-i malik
first.
Ex.
J&
' ' ;
^*J wti^
Remark Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat the similitudinary izafat, (1) The izafat-i tashbthi ( tH*~> c*iU and izafat-i isti'ara tyl***i oJl*# the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv). f the izafat of qualification,* (2) The izafat-i tawsifi ( ^a*-^ oJUf ) as w>^ ^yo. Here mar^is termed the (noun) qualified/
:
<
The
(i)
qualifying izafat
***
is
subdivided into
The The
ft j***> t^ i-*y
(it)
^
f$ ty*
<.$&****
cuS-M where
K barg
kam-'aql
(Hi)
J^
The
" a man
^ ^ ^^
the substantive
<4
is
qualified
;
by a
mard-i
a leafless tree"
deficient in sense."
compound
(iv)
is qualified by a <i as mard-i sukhan-chm a criticiz* agential adjective, &**$ cr*^* ^7*
^*y
ing (fault-finding)
man." Vide
is
qualified
by
^x>
the stony-hearted
man."
(
v) L*$^J* o*k
is qualified
txi*
by a com-
o^
undutiful son."
is
The second
two
malik " a
noun
in construction
and
is called **Jf
oUl*.
In
modern
nouns are placed in juxtaposition without any sign of the genitive case, son of a king "; tbnu'l-malik " the son of the king,*' etc.
DECLENSION.
(vi)
53
is qualified
is
by
ad-
two
adjectives.
(vii)
compound
jective the
jU*j jjj
(3)
part of
tiz-raftar
A>iUf
'
<la. bottle of rose water, or conversely ab-i shisha &&* gulab " bottle " 1 water," abi-i birka tfj* v f tank water.'
(4)
^^
"
The The
izafat-i fa'ili
"
^U
oJUl
"the
as
agential izafat,"
as fatu-
seller of
books."
),
izafat-i maf'uli
cJUt I^JA&Q
(
sulchta-yi aftab
^(^ &Ly
<j^+> *&*Mt
(
)
)
^^a^ o.-^ "the true izafat," as ganj-i "the hakim ^Cx *& sage's treasure (i.e. the 1st chapter of the Qur^an) " the Shah of Persia." Vide also No. (8). Shah-i Iran cil^l l&
(7) Izafat-i taJchslsi
"
(^^x^J cuU{)
<
izafat,
as dukan-i qassdb
(
^&
eXi.
;(
t{
4/H^
&& o^^U
(^^
*
vsJUi)
i{
the
sion of the 1st person singular, as, kitab-i man &# wll? " my book"; the j^\ * ^Kixs ^t^j c^JUt which shows possession of the speaker and his friends U ^U' < O ur book "; the wJ^^^^ o,*l*f (i.e. 1st person plural) as kitab-i md
-
jJ* ^^
^#
shows possession of the person addressed; the &Ji jlx> ^(y cuil^i shows " his book." possession of the third person, as kifab-i u^\ *JX These might also all be included under "the possessive izafat"
(No.
6).
(9)
^^H^y
'
wi*Uel
"the
izafat of manifestation,"
which
is
thdistan
wUtf
"the
book
Gulistan";
ruz-i
shamba AM^
"Saturday."
Remark.
The
difference
is
second compound can be reversed, as SJiahr-i Mash,had *^x> Shdhr j^ ^** ; but in the first they cannot be reversed,
(10)
j^
or
Mash, had
bad-i saba
(11)
cr^
(12)
The iqafat bi-'l-jins ( u^sJt? o,^U| ) "the cognate izafat," as U* ^ ) t( the morning breeze." ( " the izafat of Izafat-i ibm J^\ cuiUt filiation," as 'Abbas-i *AK " Abbas son of AIL" The izafat-i tashbihi ( oJUt ) " the izafat of simile/' as nargis-i
" the narcissus of the eye
is
^^^
chasm*
i
^>- >j&j
"
(i.e.
garf <Jj&
Properly nargfo-chaahm
an implied
simile
and
nargia-i
54
DECLENSION.
" hand of wisdom and daftar-i shikayat c*>w yi>. The distinction between the two is that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is
not.
(13)
Theizafat-i fetf'ara* *'jULi eJU; "the izafat of metaphor" or the ' ' c " the the figurative izafat ,' as dast-i 'aql cUc c**o izafat-i majazi ^jl**.* vs*U*j
,
For
and
izafat-i
If the first
1
siletot
A,
the izafat
:
pronounced yi and
it
is
is
as follows
(1)
After silent h
written
or
*,
as,
y &LL
it
^
j>Jy
of unity,
41
(c).
Remark.
After aspirated
* it is
written
~;
as, <jJyc!
*
o~#
blst
tada-yi butand
6
maintain that
* is incorrect in
such
is
in
final alif
way,
hadd
<
^^
&+* sama-i
for
:
Inland
<4
*kcj>
stands
*W
also
blood," and *U* for A*-* (pL of^*-*) vide final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in <^a*j commonly occur for ^y* &>
**
1
**
But not
after
an aspirated h as in mah,
f<
a moon ;
1
j& 2
U u$
*>
yak-iriah-i dtgar
another month," but yak mahl-l dlgar j*& 3^ -* <~& ** another fish," * The hamza-yi izafat is Persian and has nothing to do with the Arabic hamza.
Affcera final
*>
the izafat
is
way, ,7 instead of
*,
as*^^^ yt*** I but *, though perhaps more ^S in modern Persian though so used in India.
*
correct,
is
In order to distinguish
it
from the
^ of unity vide
41
(6).
This
^
is
IB
called yo~
yi izafat.
*
etc.
They
ly\ykU
correct
and
DECLENSION.
(3)
55
After final
it is
way T,
as,
t^^U
^
" the fish of the sea''; but according to some grammarians maht-yi darya it should be written * (or * ), as (%* ^U. As however final <^ with * is liable
to
i^
is
of unity
following a
weak consonant
(vide
preferable.
(i e. alif-i
maqsura) or by tanwn fathah is changed to alif and the f& t^^ " its izafat c^'Uf expressed by <jr, as, c/f ^i** ma'na-yi an meaning." The * Arabic ^Ux> is also pronounced in Persian ma'm and may therefore optionally in the genitive be written e>T J^^ (or, as above e/f c^^" ).
at the end of Arabic words, the final
After a silent
^ preceded by fathah
Similarly da'va-yi ishan may be written d^J c$t^, or eA^t <^^^> though the same meaning would be pronounced da'm-yiwhan.
it
has
Proper names, however, should not be, but often are, changed; thus
jA+.u j^yo
Muqs Payy&ambar
,
Musa-yi Pay;
c5^H^ for
^-^ C
v^-*^.
but
'Isi-yi
Maryam
or <Isq-yi
and printing, it modern Persian an absolute genitive is expressed by prefixing the In (4) ff word JU mal property/* 2 Ex. ^^j J^ mal~i zamm of or belonging to the " (( o^t b)d JU jj^ ^f Inchiz mal-i darya ast this is imported" (belongearth
in writing
' *
is
omitted
to the question,
v<
**
whose son
is this
"
the
answer might be
c<
&* J^ s
mal-l
man
*'
mine,
or (*;^y <J^ *
mal-t baradar-am
my
brother's.
5 '
In
mc.
(i.e.
this
word mml
Ex.
:
JU is
by
ast)
the vulgar.
fl
e>&-H^ J^*
frequently inserted unnecessarily, especially i *J*~4* qunsul m&l-i Slstan the Seistan
' '
Consul
not the
Kerman Consul)
c~*!
'
it is
The Indians and Afghans do not pronounce the i%afat like yi [vide (/) * or 45 they give it the classical pro(!) and (2)], but whether expressed by w5J&>e dar^. nunciation of jo-e majhul, as &y* &U* kh&na-e mard, is by them generally (h) After the semi- vowels and silent A, the izafat A kasra %j~ may in and as if at written (1) all, (/} (2). explained written, " the servant of God " khuda banda-e &<&> !** *or as however accompany B the place of the father "; or instead of a ^, hamza 1*e padar j*$
(g)
:
^ ^^
&^
^
<<;
is
amwal
is
56
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
as,
J? *#
bu-e gul
*U.*
This form
is
common
is
In #s cKv tc a demon," j>&^ khadw " Khedive,' giariv ' * * and such words the 5 is treated as an ordinary clamour, lamentation consonant and not as a weak consonant or semi-vowel, i.e. it takes the
Remark
'
/.
'
kasra
Remark
ism-i-'dm
(
Nouns are
)
;
called proper
(
ism-i-lchas
u^
p*\
(
) ;
common
<*~f
)
^U ^t
5+^ p*'
generic
o^
something that has a concrete zat) existence as opposed to an abstract noun ism-i si fat or ma'na ( <^i**> or cJi>*f%{). The term abstract is specially applied to that class of nouns
the
of
name
formed from adjectives and denotes character, as, " goodness'* t^j, and more generally to all nouns that do not name concrete things, as,
which
is
fj
"kingdom."
also "primitive
*
"
(
(
definite
'
ma'rija
p~\ **f* ) or
<**U
),
*
and "derived
'
' '
<5&x ^\
).
indefinite
40-2,
nakira
%* ).
definite
and
When
is
common noun is
made
definite,
understood,
^*<i
AXJ
meaning
whom
When
a common noun
definite
is
it is called
used as an epithet or nickname, i.e. as a proper and ^**>; thus KhalU J*i^ "The Friend (of
^^
for
Abraham.
27.
Vide also
25
(a) (1).
Examples
or &ji or,
of Declension.
(a)
Singular
Number ^i*,
^'5
a<xc.
Halai
(cJ^) "case"
hand
of the
N. 2
or the man.
mard
man,
G.
cu>Uf <iJU>
j khana*yiffiard ,yo
(
* pa-yi mard
The
izafat
o'^t
that*
in India,
Note
is occasionally expressed in these manners in old MSS. written modern Persians would s&ybanda-yi Tchuda y f<^ f*V ; ja-yi pidar
Fa'il ( J^l*) ^subject." Maf'til ( J>*axi ) "object" is applied to any case governed by a preposition. 8 Of two words coupled by the izafat O^l^J the first is called the muzaf ( oUa* )
ilayh
*J|
oUi*
).
In India and Afghanistan pronounced j* <Xil*x fehanfre mard and &j* 4.5^ pa-e mard. For another form of the genitive in m.c. vide 26 (/) (4).
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
(
57
mardrra
bi-mard
JLs
<
(
A
9
t
^
\\
1j t>/>
l
to the
man.
to the
man.
Ace.*
,,
(mard-ra
(.
t5O**
X5
<&J(**
&** ^ the
man.
V.
*f*x>
iJU>
jj
*nan.
c$f
oh man.
or
-5
Ab.
^A. oJU
manZ jy*
jf
Remark.
The accusative
>*c
case
is
also called
O
a
&
JJ*AX>
is
/o^u"
jf^ox
J>*AAJ.
sometimes called
<*i*
*
J>** and
the locative
&*
*
The dative in fjis considered the accusative. **. ) is declined in (b) The plural /am* ( precisely the same manner. In classical Persian and mar is in modern (c) poetry the particle sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
u)f^
meaning to the case With the nominative it is emphatic, as mar an "that very/'
in point.
o^
life
itself"
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ro ?; is supplanted by one of the short vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for mard ra. This is said to be a survival of a Pahlavi termination.
In asbu ra biyar fa* bj***< the ^ is a vulgar diminutive. (e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by
>
affixing
a to the nominative, as ^Ub bulbula fi O nightingale "; ^**?^ dusta <( O friend/* This form is found in the singular only. If the nominative ends in a or in 5! * and alas a long vowel the euphonic rule in 28 (c) is applied. Danghfi
,
^^
^ Khudjaya O God" are still used colloquially. The vocative in a cannot be followed by the izafat, thus, bulbula (or ay bitlbul*
M*5
<4
This preposition *?
Fa'tt
ia
{JrU)
^subject.**
is
applied
to
any ease
by a preposition.
c *
Har ki daru dad mar jan-i mat a Burd 8\mu zarr u mar jan-i mara. Mawlavi. Whoever will heal my loved one He will get from me silver and gold and coral."
Zarr for zar by poetical
license.
is
The bulbul
a real nightingale and must not be its song in the writer's opinion
58
" oh " oh bulbul of our bulbul," but butiul-i bagfai ma U> ^U Jxb garden." For this vocative qualified by an adjective, vide 118. Nouns ending in silent * do not admit of this form of the vocative. 1
28.
**>
Classical Persian.
s
\
There are two numbers, singular and plural. had a dual later Persian had none.
:
Old Persian
p?,*3 <j*j*
plural
in classical
Ex.
pi.
*U^ J padsliah
(
Rational beings and animate nouns form the plural by adding eiU " "a king," pi. cMly^b padshah-an; asp a horse,"
aspdn
eAH
I.
^f
pi.
Iraniyan e^f^t.*
Jiaki
' c
Remark
the
noun end
in
?,
as
^^
a narrator
' '
it
follows
^"
Remark
other words
(6)
II.
The
termination
i.e.
is
stated to be a
in
pronoun
e>f,
Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural by adding t* lia. Ex.: *J& kitab "a book," pi, ty&? kitab*ha; Y*** ^P t( a horse," pi. ^J*f asp-ha (as well as asp-an &{$<*>).
f
Remark L There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'd! uses the plurals ^Ua^ and c)Uit^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the plural in of being more noble than the plural in U. Still under this supposi'tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as ^^^ - e^jjU e>W$> and and an in is The in used both e>f poetry for the prose plural frequently tM[).
sake of rhyme.
II. Rarely in classical Persian the plural in ha is used for living U as: ndmburdaha the (people) mentioned above ": creatures,
Remark
(Iqb.
^chiefs,"
Namaryi J,, p. f U ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.). Remark III. In a few words a distinction is made, as saran " heads," but sar-lm
:
* s
^!j***(m.c.)
U^
modern Persian either rukhan c)^) or rukh-hd fingers"; akhtaran similarly angushtdn e;ti&&. and angushtha ^s>\ " " and abruvdn stars abru-ha and akktar-ha
in
t
U^Lxt
U^Jt
^Ij^f
"eye-
brows."
this
form
of the
vocative.
>
"God"
(also
Izad
*}>!
and Yazd
<&.
is
said
to be the
corruption of a Pehlevi
59
alif
t,
if
or else in
a^ u
Ex.:
lifa
dana
"a
"
inserted for the sake of euphony. i^bty^ sage," pi. dana-yan; (^J pari-ru (for <^$j) ^jj)
e^^j pari-ruyan.
radically final, the <^ is omitted.
of the
Ex.
jj*\
jjlj
1
arm,"
pi.
&\j)(>
bazuwan,
abru
abruvan*
plural of UJ
Remark
niyagan.
I.
The The
is
Remark
II.
plurals
(J*ft*>
Jk*>
and mah
saliyan and c^ A ^ are occasional^ fa. These are exceptions and rare.
met The
changed
this is
into
as *j>y
murda
c<
partic.), pi.
^tj*
murdagan.
JJ*^
:
retained in writing, as \J
is
Qa-ani says
inanimate and ends in silent A, this h usually and ** properly disappears in the plural, as : &*b nama a letter," pL %*& namaha.*
(e)
If
the noun
is
If
however by the
better to retain
plural
&
any ambiguity is likely to tirise, it is **a quarter of a town" has for its mahalla* it, thus, i n to the correct al^vc^ preference ^i^ which latter might easily be
elision of the *
*Jl^>c
}
**
plural
of
JU**.
is
genera ly
Must be distinguished from the word j^ff The plural o>? dw and similar words
26 (h) Remark.
ab-tu
is
**
honour.**
c>l^*i,
divan
or (mod.) divha
cJ|j>3
vide
and
abri*
it is
As l^l> may stand for either riamha usual in modern Persian to write the
e^la^cG
in
s
^^
**
names
'
'
or nama-ha
UA^U
<
'
letters/
latter
**>^.
plural namajat
preferred.
"houses"
for
instance, might
If the
orthographical
sign
this
ambiguity
disappears.
To avoid such
The
final
60
1 preceded by a long vowel follow the " a IA road," U^b; *j rah general rules in (a) and (6), thus U b plural to i.e. the word should the letters shouldbe Both rah-ha. pi. pronounced, afj
Nouns ending
in
be pronounced as written.
(/)
Arabic words take the Persian plural or the Arabic broken plurals
a book," Pers pi. ^ifc kitdb-ha, Arabic broken " JU>U 'amil a labourer," pi. o^* * 'amilan and *U* <amala. s
kitab
1
*
;
Ex.:
kutub
w^
;
t(
pi.
Remark.
are
The broken
in Arabic
mukassar
than the regular masculine plurals, and are applicable to both rational and irrational beings. Some words in Arabic take the
regular as well as one or
commoner
more broken
plurals.
marians,
There are two kinds of broken plurals recognized by Arabic gramthe plural of paucity and the plural of multitude,' vide Arabic
* '
'
Grammar
is
pedants. In the rhetorical style, almost any Arabic word and its broken or inner plural can be used. Sometimes a word has several broken plurals if such a
:
word be used
tent,
in different
meanings
one
or
Ex. from
:
<^-#.
bayt
" a house
<&?
buyvt.
"verses"; J^t*
"agents."*
(g)
a labourer,"
pi.
<*JUc
regular feminine plural in Arabic ends in e>?, which is an " kind." of the regular feminine affix * ; thus, masc. f?, karim,** expansion
The
fern.
*+*/ karimal
11
and
fern. pi.
oU.^
karimat"*
kanmaL
by
:
obscure,* but aspirate^. Called also inner plurals because they are formed, not by affixed terminations, but internal change. They are really collective forms, and in Arabic are trfeated
1
This h
is
of course not
silent
nor
grammatically as feminine singular, even when they apply specially to males. These broken plurals are a difficulty in Arabic and only a less difficulty in Persian they are so irregular and various that no rules really help the student. Arabic
:
measures
'
of these plurals
which however
only bewilder the beginner. The broken plurals of all words met with in reading should be written down and committed to memory. If this be done, the learner will be surprised to find that in a short time they ceaso to be a serious difficulty.
8
In m.c.
this
word
is
is
form 'anwlajat
*
*
f
eU> &Uc.
plurals
*
pennies
*
pence
much
value
fishes
'and
fish
'
denoting a number of penny-pieces and * * cows ' and kine ; * brothers and ;
* '
brethren.'
61
$**
sense, as fU*.
Jiammam
f
un
"a
frequently used for nouns with a neuter f bath," pi. oU>U*> hammamat"*; 1 J(*> hdl *
is
>
11
*~
"condition,"
pi.
oj/l*.
haldt un
*U*
samd un
"heaven,"
pi.
ofjU*.
samdwdt vn .
The
common
beings
is
" an enemy" (masc.) takes in Arabic the feminine terminations, singular and plural, but in Persian the word regular 3 is both masculine and feminine.
rare; thus, j*& 'aduv
regular feminine plural of Arabic nouns with a neuter sense is of occurrence in Persian, but the regular feminine plural of rational
Remark.
formed
of the
by
<^T and
feminine, or the dual and plural signs. of Mecca." In Persian this final
relative adjective a collective plural
Ex.
&
x>
" Mecca"
has no tashdid.
6
wj
may be formed by
un
feminine termination
one (in Persian ddhri ^s r *>) dahriyy who asserts the eternity of matter and denies the resurrection or the world (< the sect who hold this belief." to come, atheistic"; *y>^f ad-dahriyyat^
;
as
^y^
"
This collective plural 111 Persian (without the Arabic article) is *^d dahriyya* Only a few plurals of this description are used in Persian, principally those " the of various religious sects. Qajars" (the tribe of the Qajariyya &>;W^
reigning Shah)
(h)
is
used in m.c.
Plurals of plurals
(^W
*^-)-
An
is
in
This plural
is
rare in
modern Persian
hammam-ha
^U^.
is
preferred both in
speaking and writing. 2 In classical Arabic the alif with ma>1da would be given the ordinary sound, then * 4 (e) Remark, the hamza would be pronounced and finally the tanwln : * vide The modern Arabs have simplified the word into sama, while the modern Persians say sama,
slightly prolonging the final alif.
is
changed intoj
in Arabic also
f
written
s
oi^U*
*?***
may
occur in writing.
of enemies)
:
****!
J**
'aduv-i
a da?
s
(lit, enemy deadly enemy {)+*> has a different signification, viz. the enemy of (my) enemies, i.e. my friend, *.?+*o is used in this sense of " the but dushmantarln-i dushmanan &{*+&
**
signifies
dutshman-i
duskmanan
<*;U*<&^
+ 9.
greatest enemy."
latter is
'
^3
j& ^^r
is
*fM J^,
though the
Words like oUJ&J naqliyyat and e?lA*A^ wahmiyyat meaning *' things narrated,*' and " things imagined,*' are the regular feminine pi. of the Arabic adjectives and t5**j (vide relative (.s) f**j wahm the substantive '* conjecture, imagination"
has for
its
^^
62
yad"
" a hand,"
u*t
"
aydl
hands,"
ayddl
"
hands; benefits."
Sometimes the regular feminine plural is added to the broken plural, as " ahouse," pi. ct^j buyut "houses"; pi. of pi. oi^j buyutdt ju# fayt lt a cluster of houses ";^A^ jawhar "a gem, jewel," broken pi. j**j= " jewels of various kinds ": jawahir "jewels," pi. of pi. otyKyx jawahirat 1 of Arabic form the is the Persian jawhar j^^ gawkar^^.
meaning between a plural and a plural of a plural is not always observed, thus there is apparently no difference in " meaning between ($j> turuq (mod.) the broken plural of <3o* tartq "a road
of difference in
The shade
and the double plural e*U^l> turuqat (class, and rare), though the latter ought " 2 to signify many roads and ways." barbarous plural is sometimes made by affixing to an Arabic (*) A
broken plural the Persian plural termination U, thus ^*>j& zurufhd from " vessels " the broken 8 plural of zarf; zuruf ^^1 "many kindnesses " from alfaf otW{, broken plural of lutf.
These double Persian- Arabic plurals occur only in nouns with a neuter
sense.
few words purely Persian have been adopted by the Arabs and given an Arabic broken plural, and the Persians have in tore borrowed the broken plural of their own Persian word.; thus the Persian word ejty farmdn
(j)
becomes fardmmu ( *j^^* ) in the plural, and in Persian without the final vowel of the classical Arabic, faramtn.* " is The word andgur )J&\ 5 " grapes vulgarly used by Persians as the word Persian the There are probably one or two other of angur )y&\. plural
Persian words, vulgarly arabicized in this manner by the Persians. Dastur ;^i a Zardushtl priest, pL dasdtir j*s^& ; Kkdn e>^% Persian, a title like squire, Arabic pi. &&j** khavdmn (m.c.), used only in Persian.
In imitation of the regular feminine plural in Arabic, the termination of at is sometimes added to Persian words, thus e&jy navdzisMt " favours" and cuU^Uji farmdyishdt ** orders, commands,"
(k)
c^l
anc*
in
may
singular in another.
8
Zarlf
witty, ingenious
" has
w-
for its 9
common
plural zurafa
this
Such a word is said to be term is applied to any foreign word adopted into Arabic.
*
***
y^
or
<4
Arabicized
}>
:
Similarly a
word
is
said
to be <j;&'
*
mufarraa
is
**
made FSrsi,"
Anagur
of course
i.e. adopted into Farsi or Persian. an imitation broken plural the correct form would be
:
anaglr.
29
(i).
63
When the word ends in a silent h, the affix of this bastard Arabic plural becomes oU. and the h ( * ) disappears, 1 thus *&y navishta " a written com" Persian verb navishtan " to of the munication
(past participle
pure
write")
becomes e>t*JLy navishtajat, and the Arabic word <**!* qaVa* "a fort" becomes ci>U\*ljf qal'ajdt. This plural occurs only in nouns with a neuter
sense.
An
exception e>U?uUc
3.
clas-
Remark.
have different
pi. *JjM
Sometimes the broken Arabic plural and the imitation plural " significations, thus from fja dawa Ar. medicine," the broken
(t medicines," but in modern Persian adviya signifies in Arabic Persian the while plural davajat signifies in modern "spices,"
Persian
" medicines."
eU^
(/)
^^^
two
+=*
or
jJU
is
+>*> ).
The
cases
and
e>j
ma for
terminations.
is tijjUt*
Thus
**
: these are an expansion of the singular Arabic in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
*amilun*
workers,"
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the " workers." omission of the final vowel, thus 4^1U 'amilln (for all cases)
In Persian, Arabic plurals in
classical
un<*
Arabic.
The modern
plural
&) occur only in quotations from the however is occasionally used. Ex.:
"contemporaries,"
classical
The dual in
Arabic
1
is
formed
by
the
^ ayn
*
in the other
cases.
&
The
it
is
formed by adding
^ ayn for
all cases.
but the
suffix
being Arabic,
Qal'a
A*JJ>
qila*.
and f V.
^.
64
PLURALSMODERN
In Persian
this termination
PERSIAN.
Ex.
;
^jti\
j
zu-'l-qarnayn
' '
bi-cornous
"
e^*u
^y ^'tLo
SuMn-i
barrayn o bahrayn
Vide
two continents and the two seas"; "Sovereign e^*/* haramayn "the two harams," i.e. the shrines of Mecca and Medina.
29
(n)
().
f
Akh
Ar.
" brother"
aTch-1
^\
Ar. "
:
instead of akh^l generally say akhavii* c5>^' as brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has
word, as:
(polite,
akhavi-yi
in letters).
come to be regarded as one brother" and akhavi-yi mukarram The broken plural ikhwan <^!>=M is used in the sense of
man
vulg.
"my
brethren (religious), as: ikhvan-i safa, i.e. ham-dinan. The plural of ukht o^f sister is akhavat o!>3wl
is
akhavat-i
mukarrama
an address
in preaching.
29.
Plurals
Modern Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U is by far the most used it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate,
:
official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic used, regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives: Mullas, and travelled or educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
Arabic or Persian. 8
still
In
in &) are
Remark.
of
^* is
dropped*
_
Thus instead
khudhd-man
(a)
of bachcJia-Jia
l*xu
Khuddman
for
&l#b*tjA. is
a double vulgarism.
4
The
plurals ^Ut!
"
horses," e>bj^
"arms,"
u>?^~^
glsuvan
**
curls
of helmet depicted
Various reasons are assigned for this epithet : one is that it arose from the pattern on Alexander's coins ; another that it signified that he ruled lor two
a saying of the Prophet ten qarn &j* make a century, but garn &j*. According to according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in !20.
danger
d)*d
e^*
**
the
life
of this
child is in danger.*
* In
*
modern Arabic
C5^
akhuya
'*
my
brother."
&^
common
u*$ or g\au ?~4 is also applied to a are called cAI) zulf and the fore locks *j*> chafar.
woman's long
hair.
The
side locks
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
65
or long back hair," cj!f*xu "slaves or servants," &\&)& " trees" and others are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1 " Muzhj* eyelash" is in m.c. muzha fyo and the common plural is
muzhaM
\&
tfy*.
The old
plurals
ejfcVj*:
muzhgdn
&ty> and mizhgdn &tfj* came to be regarded as singulars form muzhqdn-hd l-^lfyo or mizhgdn-kd t^(fy.
(b)
The
28
IA
of substantives
ending in
silent
(e) and Remark) is often neglected be written for l^U> and for ^JJ;.^ may
(vide
in
(c)
A few Arabic
' l
^
jj
AiUt
" thus *Uf ashyd* things shay* and fbf ayydm "days" (plurals of are never used in the Persian plural: the word ^^A** kazarai yawm) fj* "sirs, gentlemen" (a word common in speeches) has no Persian plural.
Fuqard* t\J*
saldjln
(pi.
(pi.
of faqir
"poor"), <^U}
ahdli
(pi.
of sultan),
**
(pL of masjid
zavvdr s (pL of zcfir ** pilgrim"), &*>l~* masdjid "), and a good many others are in common use even
^\
In the m.c. a few broken plurals are incorrectly used as Ex. <*JU* <-& yak 'amala one workman/* o~-! &Ui ^f in fa'ala as^ singulars. * * ** under Zu. this is a labourer/* * For idu (= zawu pL of zu) vide
* f
:
Nd*ib v^^>
ft
its plural
nuvvdb
**?
v ^>
!
^ u^ ^ n Persian
title), is
by a change
used as a singular.
for its Persian
**
Arbdb ^k)
(pi-
ra&b vj)
t^U>f
mmc
*
if
Lord "
(d)
(of
Some Arabic
well as in writing), as
44
buildings." Persian words with the imitation feminine Arabic plural {vide also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as ctUb bdg&dt (rare)
:
28
**
(k)]
are
gardens",
desires**,
ci*U^
dihdt ^villages**,
ci.UU^ khwdhishdt
qissar^h^an or qisaa-gu
collects
:
(m.o.)
"wishes,
or j
*A*
i.e.
also
&$ CWA.
^
hikayat-kun
.
aad
ma'rakagir ,
rectly
%
3
a crowd."
(In m.c.
*^*
is
often incor-
The
is
preferred in
modern
Persian.
regular masculine
* *JU*
6
e^U*
cU^, t^e
is
broken
pi. of
28
(/):
*l** plural of
usually omitted.
66
PLUBALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
When however the termination is cuU 1 the farmayisMt eulfyU^' "orders. a silent h of the singular is often retained in writing, thus ei>U *jy (instead
of
cW^* mivajat
(e)
"fruits."
of plurals with the feminine termination [vide
A few plurals
28
-
(&)]
-^
are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as: CL^AI^
(
e>Uj#
ofjyo?
pi. of^*f
amr).
plurals,
28
(i)
are
Remark.
In
is
m.c.
*
the
'
double
plural
oUaJU*
:
"workers"
28
(k).
occurs,
though cXU
(/)
not a
noun
vide
The
word
JL^I tl
" a wandering or
nomad
tribe
' *
is
oUL>
(g)
lliyat
e&r Hat)*
biscuits ", and the Turkish word " oUj5^ suyursat or oL*;^. sursat rations, requisitions ", are either singular or plural. The termination c,-l is not the plural termination.
(h)
The
regular
'*
Arabic
plural,
masculine,
is
occasionally
used by
6
Ex.
lit.
t^?*^
^^y^la*.
M%irin-i majlis gentlemen" (addressing an assembly the meeting) &*&j* *-* eH^***^ 5^*^- fami'-i mnltazimm-i " all our retinue were present." Diary)
;
those present in
(Shah's
ma budand
(i)
The dual
tiHi*^
is
Ex,
*ij
^~^ Hasanayn
its
correct Arabic
tion
O^
thus
wf**
liavala
is
a transfer
consignment
the plural
c*>Jf*_^x
in
used as well as
J^t
**
aftval
;
and e.^S^f
tablet
**
ahvalat,
an Ar. double
pl M
raqlm
^)
8 is
letter
(in
^^J
).
(also
(1)
'
*JU*
"
workmen,*'
doubl<-
(2)
agents,"
*'
and
workmen'
(bastard
(m.c.)
^jjlxlc
j
Arabic masculine plural eH^ x ^ '5wu7?n ( a>\^ vd*\* 'amiRn-i divan Collectors of revenue '*), which is occasionally used as well as the classical form
the latter however
is
plurals):
classical Arabic.
t^^M
man
of the
ifoyat
euUbf
amj
nag a
l^jJUL)
6
Hiyatl-ha.
The word
Hazir
bitkut
e>^C^
ig also
j*^
jiuzzSr j\'**>.
PLURALS
i.e.
MODERN
PERSIAN.
'All
:
67
daulatayn ^jj^a
*'
Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of two kingdoms," etc. vide 28 (m).
:
the
is
Bisyar
lab-i
chu
la'l
zulfayn-i
chu mushk ;
(O.
lip
K* 137 Whin).
lar,
^
(?).
or
jlf*
as,
i.e.,
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word one curl on each side of the head behind the ear
vide
28
CHAPTER
30.
HI.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns
Ism -i Zamir
y^
***\ ).
is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns : two kinds, separate and affixed. are of they The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
There
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis terminations sufficiently indicate the persons.
(a)
is
The following
:
zamlr-i munfa&il
<J*A&# ^-k+*
pronouns N.
Dat.
Ace.
fc/
man *
. *nara*
k ma, or
UU
maha we
(also
mayan
) V fr*>
>
me, to
me
I
!
Afg.).
N.
tu*
*
S
thou
j
UA shwnS,
y u ( aho
or
W*A skumaha
(m.c.),
Dat
Ace.
fy Item
thee to thee
*5y*
or^^
6
A
fg.)._
( j|
?
uB
^^t
e)^^ Ish&n,
i
and
poetical),
is used instead of Vulgarly, ' * Give us the vulgarism, English Compare The vocatives of the 2nd personal pronoun are ay tu ki 3* ^\ and ay shuma ki tt U- <^f such forms however are unchaste (g&ayr-i fasth). In
*
,
ma U
^^'1 isT&nan Afg.). man 4^ as, Ma raffim ^i*^ U. a penny for give me a penny.'
classical Persian
)&
y J^-^
&f
c5"^
Oiram
ki gham-at
mst gham-i
ma ham nt$t ?
(Gul. chap. I, st. 13).
PI.
>$U*.
^*f
ithe
It
must be
recollected
that
all
of
For
vocative of
man c^
as a possessive
\)
(j^
',
correct: vide
41
(y).
.
*
5
Note that the j is pronounced short like pish. The Afghans often say o. The Afghans say eshan, oshan and eahanan majhul sounds.
;
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
-ISM-I
ZAMIR*
69
The preposition
&
with
J and
&
is
generally written
& and (#
but
very
and
^^
bi-duy.
if
In m.c.
&
is
is classical,
and
rarely,
The
preposition bi
<j-j is
when used
^.
used for u j\ for the sake of euphony in the following sentence : Vay oAJ^jf U bi-vay guft (m.c, and classical). To avoid the repetition of the " he said to second pronoun u ji, the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cui? ^b y him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c.
,
Remark
I.
The
first
personal
"
speaker";
the
second
v^*
"
"present
(b)
v^ gtfiyik
pronoun is called fi&< mutakallim mukhatab "addressed" or _,<*(*> hazir " absent."
" " For the third persons, the demonstrative pronouns ^t In this and and anha (m.c.) [or man i^f an "that" with their plurals InhS (m.c.) 34 (b)] are sometimes used. Also jt is class, and anan class., vide
^1
Ex.
Andarun az
to*
am
No.
in
khafi dar
(Sa'di)
;
Ta
here jf
is
34
(n)
10.
Remark.
not u ki &? jt.
(c)
*&1
an-fa (classical
and
modern
" he writing) is
who";
'
Instead of the
first
&
J^r
least
"
^^\ ttW5j-iwft
;
?
;
(your)
&&f
the (your) handmaiden or female slave," etc,, 25 (/} ] ; J*& kanlz {vide are often used when addressing superiors, and sometimes to equals out of
respect*
In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these words are in speaking and always followed by the third person of the verb, both i*v banda 'arz ml-kimad "I beg leave to represent" as ***
writing,
(lit.
:
\ji*j&
the slave makes petition), but in modern Persian (except in official u^* **M documents) the first person is more usual even in writing, as
:
" " I the slave make ***. ** ^f In banda chi taqsirdaram ? ; petition pte jJ^o> " u what fault has this slave ? (I) committed (m.c.)
bar *on," j* dar "in,",Jf az
il
^%
from,"
etc.,
and ishan
jjj
Ot
are
generally
**
o^!^
" "
6arwfeSn,
azu.
Chunu
is poetical.
cW klsh
(classically kesh)
:
is
a subs, signifying
gwlw* kith
faith, religion
'
': in compounds
practising,
3
J^ ^>
oppressive.'
j&
70
(m.c.)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
"the mean"; j$
ISM-I ZAMIR.
writing);
writing);
^U da't
(in
do with poor me ? " Remark. In Persia, a friend writing to an equal would use banda ****, to use the third person would be too abasing. etc., with the first person In addressing the Shah U, banda Jv and haqir j&*> do not express suffihaqfr darad (m.c.)
person. third person singular of the verb p&' "I this humble individual make petition
:
the
first
by the
0^^*.
*jl&
"what has
this got to
jlii
&(*>,
khana-zad
&iU>
etc.,
are used.
A common
jj
signature
(oJU) aUJ|
t(
Jjff
"
so)
c * :
Sayyids sign
aqall's- Sadat"
cufdM
cfcf
and Rawza-khwans
&^M\ J|
aqall*' z~zakirin"
(d)
'alam "Qibla of the world," and similar respectful terms, the third person plural is used when (even addressing people present), both in classical and modern Persian.
After
o^
Hajis
may
sign
hazrat
"Highness,"
^&
ali
**
Qibla-yi
J^ VW janab-i
person plural is preferred (but not in formal letters). (e) As the plural is used instead of the singular in addressing people of standing, its place is frequently taken in m.c. by the double plural. The double plural in of all three persons is used by the Afghans. In the m.c, of Persian UI+& and e&*+-* are common; UU is less common, while the
plural of ii>^f
(/)
is
unknown,
is
The
:
following
<>-&
of
these
polite
forms
<JM c*^^ or ^tS- or ) <^lc a>t-*jto^i farmayisMt-i Janab-i AEhali-yi banda na-shud *I have failed to grasp Your Honour's meaning." Remark /. Man &* is the only one of the personal separate pronouns that can properly be coupled to an adjective by an izafaL Ex.
&>!?
(
:
of speech
^^
v^
Chand gu*%
**
ki bad-andtsh
u hasud
How
*Ayb-juyan-i man-i misldn-and? (Sa*dl). long wilt thou say that the malignant envious seek to find fault
me ?
' *
signifies Mecca and Jerusalem. " and hence "a place of mar gin," etc.; " threshold Janab v^5" signifies Even a Governorrefuge," and hence "Your honour, etc.": yH signifies "high." General in attracting attention would say to a Consul, Janab-i Qunsal d~*j5 '* * Hazrat presence ", and c^*aa^ is from the same Arabic root as^^^ fyuz&r " s " of
*&,
v^
ajatt is
d^
jalU
glorious, illustrious
71
^c man-i bar-bad
(m.c.)
man-i maz.lum
"
I the
am
Persia the izafat is omitted man banda ^J i#*. fto>yf A*O| *jJj (Sa'dl).
^
"
is also incorrectly joined to the pronouns of the second and the first and second person plural person singular, as, *x>;la ;i *o. ^ ^ai ^y ra chi kar ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with tu-yi* facfir
;
;
e
xii&<o cxii
i^^aaj
^ ^U U maha-yi
bl taqsir ra aziyyat
mi-kunand
fault"
:
(m.c. only)
*if
^ u^
of
is
we have committed no
5"
l^-
^^^
mja here?"
*/?Hrf
(m.c.
*>Nw c^^U-i shumaha-yi bl chara ra chird only) "why are you poor creatures imprisoned
I)
Instead
cfr^T
ishan-i
bichdra
tylfvAJ &(&.))
(not
used),
anha-yi, bichara
used in m.c.,
*&&
f&j*
o>f
in
writing.
Remark
II.
Man u iu y ^ ^<
"
and thou
5>
,
" both
:
of us ", is
an ex-
Bar-kfnz
birawm az
m vilayat imm u
u man daman-i
^^ix^SU^
zama'ir-i mutt&sila).
(
Tu
31.
(a)
(I)
The
affixed
Pronouns
:
The
affixed
pronouns are
Singular.
PlwaL
;
First Pers.
^ am my me
;
to
;
me
to tliee
cA*
10
~^
* n#in>
Second
pers.
e>! ijt\
Third Pers.
at
thee
&$
it
**
v i tan
to him, to her, to
islmn
was in all probability formed the termination ^f an to the singular, thus ft by adding regularly, plural " am mine, me, etc." would result in the plural <^Uf am-an. However fatha
plural of the affixed pronouns
i.e.
Remark.
The
has
to kaora.
In classical Persian ash <Ji and shan c?^ ,were used for animate things only. In modern Persian they are applied to inanimate things also.
" on" and bad
d)*\* *btf tr.
the
wind"
{^)
d*j> to be destroyed;
to destroy."
local.)
3
ra.c. t>^>> tuv fchudaiB for \*&* ly tura bi>&buda: tuv 1shud<?l (vulg. and without pay, impressed " ; perhaps a corruption of muft-i In prose this would be tura.
In
*
72
(3)
by a
words, thus
uAsw> )& (sj& *Ju5T 3 etfjj** -*irV ^**f 6t>^ darigk amad-am "I felt a disinbi-tarbiyat-i suturdn va a*ind-ddri dar mahfil-i &#nm (Sa'dl) clination to teach beasts and to hold up a looking-glass in this quarter
e>tj>^
9
of
the
blind";
to
dmadam
"
it
came
me "
:
as in the example.
final letter becomes (4) In words terminating in the vowel i, the a consonant, as bint <^i# " nose " J^^ biniyash " his nose " or poetically Knish. Sometimes the affix is written separately, as but it is <J\
;
:
^^
Words terminating
;
in alif-i
t
maqsura
as:
JJ)^AAX> vJJi
change the
&
to alif
and then
&y^
"his
claim or quarrel, etc." in m.c. often o^fya: ma'nd-yash (J*^*** and ma'niyash cA^*-* are both correct.
Remark.
as pidar-sh cAj
4
By
(6) After Arabic words ending in *f as kibriya*, the alif of the affix should be retained, thus (J\ A*ji is poetical or modern colloquial. (b) In classical Persian the full forms of the singular are written in full,
:
^^
A^
:
only after a word terminating in. silent h. Ex, pt *kL &hana*am cases the alif is omitted, as f}&^ mddaram " my mother.",
in other
Remark.
Here
(c)
After
' *
or ^* a
^
*
is
;
-yat
thy hair
bdzu-yat **4j$>
"
u V**>
ja-ah <j!^
dj$>
diram-ha-ah
<J&f)t> (better U.
(d)
cr^V -^
diramha-yash)
jadu-yash.
Examples
(1) (2)
(3)
fJU
nan-am
bidih
"give
I told
(to)
me bread."
him forward."
(jUitf guftam-ash
"
him."
"
j^ cA^J
bring
is
not sounded.
\)
^#
|^
o^j* j*
har duycuh
:
ra-biyar
"
is
j* har
du-yi ls\an.
73
(5)
(6)
"she will not digar bi-zaban-asli nayavarad. again mention him" (lit. bring him on her tongue) ash here " him is the object (and is not her ', possessive). " I did not hear o(<x<? (m.c.) sadd-'t na-shamdam you.*' f^LSJ
;
' ' *
fb^
OL>|
!<x*>
(m.c.) sada-at
kardam "
I called you.'!
(7)
(8)
oU^^J
padar-i
man
(jlkjUj**
ishan).
(e)
^U^*
sarha-yi
much used
the separate pronouns are used instead. In classical Persian the affixed pronouns
may
be joined to almost
any word
and
of
A&Gf 31 ^ anan ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash dusti bud (Sa'dl) " one mutinied had a friendship with me."
*j*
^^ J^k
*>&jf )*i
to
some
of
yak-i ra az
those
who
be noticed that the plural affixed pronouns are preceded by If, however, the noun end in (c) by a ^f). silent A, 4 the izdfat is in modern colloquial often omitted, as d* &{** khana <&*. JeKana-yi shan. sJmn b <v their house," or & In classical Persian this
(/)
It will
would be
Persian
it
^l^^U. khana-yi sJian; also in modern would be better to say cMi* ^^ kb&na~yi ishan than jchana-yi
is
or khana-slxin,
The kasra
Examples of both
^5^f
c;U 3^1 3
Ki and&rz afzun kunad abruy (Shah-Nama, Book I, sending message from Salm and Tur to Faridun, p. 21), " None turned his face from our advice. " Because advice
1
*
S
*\$ (j^^ )J 5
* >-r!^
o^^ 3 &))
Gar-at zi-dast bar-ayad chu nakh.1 bash karlm Var-at zi-dast na-yayad chu sarv bash azad (Sa*di)
**
If
thou const
be
bo generous like the date palm. But if them canst not, then * the epithets karlm and azad ^f **e frequently applied
*
:
f>.j
by poets to these two trees. Note the affixed pronoun " " gar^f and vagar J*j "if and and if."
* Final silent * is considered
There
is
no
final
silent % in Arabic.
fi
c>^^
74
Z< pand-i
man
Na-khwdnand-i shdn juz bi-dwdz-i narm (Shdh-Ndma, Book I. Pddishdhi-yi Tahmuras-i Dwband si sal bud, p. 8).
Buvad khdnahd-shan sardsar palds Na-ddrand dar dil zi- Yazddn hirds (Shdh-Nama, same page as above).
Remark
L
**
affixed pronouns,
&\!&
gujtri-shan
"he told
them."
be noticed that the affixed pronouns, when the
:
Remark
II.
It will
direct or indirect
object of the verb, i.e. when personal pronouns in 32 (a) the Accusative or Dative case, are not followed by f; rd vide
t>
for
in ni.c.
(g)
Sometimes there is ambiguity which even the context does not make " Ex. ^i clear, bad-am guftl in m.e. would mean you spoke ill to me", but it might also mean "you said that I was bad" in >& ^*%a darbdn-am rahd na-kard " the porter did not let me go (or let me in)", darbdnam might mean " my porter ?> ^j*& <-& <^Ht-^ )f
:
'
oJUjjx &M
oJiu
\j
t& %f
^^ J&^
a^jJ
^y
karda nan-ash rd l pusht-i shlsha mi-mdlad (m.c.) Isfahan* panir-rd **your sister who in miserliness is the equal of the Isfahan merchants, * (or its ? ) bread on putting her cheese into a bottle and rubbing her
tu-yi shlslta
the outside of the glass"; here nan-ash " might mean the bread of it."
^U
bread"
l In classical Persian a noun in the accusative to which a possessive affixed pronoun attached often omits fj. * Here the ash would probably not refer to cheese as the cheese is inside the bottle and therefore does not belong to the bread. Otherwise the ash could easily mean either 'her 'or 'its.'
is
'
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
(h)
75
In m.c.
fre-
quently are, affixed to some of the simple prepositions, as e&ty barayash "for him, her, it"; <j*)f "from him, etc." <Jjt "in him, etc."; <Jtl> for " to o*t *J, colloquially <_rJ him, etc." <jtf3 z * r" as h "under it" tft.fi bi-am
:
:
dad
to
(m.c.)
"he gave
f)\
;
it
to
me "
f<
ab
olj bi-at
dad or
c*j (m.c.)
"he gave
it
thee"; az-am
still
az-a
ojt
"
;
in kdr az-%shan?
i^t^jf jf j(
are
7^2 except yj za&ar "above ", and some others. the affixed pronouns are possessive, the pronoun of the first person is called mim-i izafat oJl*| ^yo, the second ta-yi izafat vsJl^i ^U, and the third sJvin-i izafat ovl*| ^^.
tf
,
,
^ " up to " J^
When
^| (m.c.) (Such expressions considered vulgar, but will probably soon be recognized as correct), " " b " ba with bi " without ", They are never affixed to y bar on
they are not capable of doing this."
' *
,
"
"
' '
used for the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, the first mim-i maf'ul Jj*i* f**, the second ta-yi maf'ul J>*i* c?^> and the third shm-i maf'ul J**&* &$ or shin-i zamir-i maf'ul J^h^^^a
is
When
called
^.
(i) The following are modern vulgarisms that are creeping into writing Ma g&risnorman ast ws^t |U ^L^? U we are hungry" sliutna tishnatan AxiJ UJi ast cu^f IsMn garm-i sMn ast c-^f ^Ux^ ^Iwui you are thirsty " man sarma-m ** ast o*i they feel warm ^l^* ^> I feel cold." y) In modern Persian the affixed pronouns can take the place of the reflexive pronouns when the latter are used aspossessivepronouas, vide%%(h).
:
<
4 f
* '
(k) In kitab-ha, hama-yi shan " whole of these books are good -
khiih ast
^*s ^^ && l^l^Ur^r "the m ktiabhH Jiama khUb ast v^ *** ^^ &**
JU^K The singular ask <J could be substituted for sJmn &L& in the previous case; In kitabJt&hama-yagh khub ast (m.c.) cu-^f^^ fj^ &+& "these books, the lot taken as whole, are good ? % bat in the sentence
ha az zamm
chaha<r v&jab
buland bud va
sar-i
tlz (m.c,)
y3 ( ~^j ;l^ (j-i^j $ ^t^H^ the singular ash c/& could not be substituted as the various pegs give a scattered idea,
tflZjiAty* or) e>U j** j
*>iJu
Remark.
>*/*
case
"
;
JUtlo j-*^*
v>^ve
<(
Possessive Pronouns.
31
(a),
(a]
be seen from
are
and
(/),
Examples
5, 7,
and
8, that
the
affixed affixed
is
pronouns
pronouns when
Ex.
or dast-am
1
when
their
noun
"
\>
my hand
be.
Ex.
Yak-l az frukama 9 pisar-aah-ra nahi hard az bisyar feburdan ki- I; U"*r*^ *^*- 3 "a philosopher warned his son against over-eating saying that
^
"
76
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
classical and
The dative and other cases are usually formed by prepositions, both in modern Persian (and seldom by f;). Ex. cu*o| ***<*) oJ^i bi-gush:
at rasida ast
"
fj
ur^
(Sa'dl).
Remark.
stantive,
it is
pronoun
Ex.
:
refers to
am " my
dear
life
(\>jr*>
substantive
is
adjectives, the
pronoun comes
Ex.:
e^js
"
!
:
j+*
aziz-at
"thy
vide also
Remark
to
possessive pronouns can also be expressed by the personal separate pronouns coupled by the izafat, to the thing possessed. Ex. er*;<^ father (lit. the father of me)"; oU*l &U* khana-yi ishan 1 pidar-i man
(b)
:
The
"my
"their house/'
(Pidar-i shan
&l
;*J
and khana-shan
&(
<kU>
(m.o.)
would
have the
same meaning).
In the accusative, the separate pronoun is put in its accusative form " he * with f> Ex. oi/ \j* dast-i mara girift caught me by the hand."
:
ca
The dative can be formed with u-ra dadam **Igave it f*\* pidar-i *j. bi pidar-i u dadam f\z j\ j^
Remark.
last [vide
!;,
Ex.
|^|
;^
more commonly
In a continuous sentence,
Ex.
:
Remark to (a)].
tabl'at'i pur sharr u shur va sBmt-i zisht-i bad-far az dlv-i u bar ^U^ixx? {^ kas ra ml tarsanid "hiB evil nature and ugly appearance worse than that
y*
y J>*>
*^*3 &}j<*
)r> s j"j}
^*^
of
a demon
used to terrify
of
all.**
The vocative
exist, as pidar-i
(c)
man
Ux>
mand
^"
^u
as a possessive (not as
oh
my
father!
"
In m.c, the affixed pronouns are preferred, but in writing and correct
possession.
xU*o $\
AJ )\
U
"
A)
^ y JU ^f
etc.,
"
(m.c.)
this
(e)
pronouns
denote
33
(a).
(/)
"Mine",
<c
thine",
"
his",
Afghans and Indians say fehana-e eshan. In ra.o. dast-am ra (^-^ (affixed pronoun) would be more commonly used.
Also in m.c. in
irial-i
man
oat
77
az an-i
e/f,
as:
it
ctf j!
**
az an-i
&
e/f jt
'
to
whom
did
'
it) ?
tcfifa-i,
Man
zan-i
am my
jl
am,
am."
Sometimes
is
omitted as:
p
; j>
Otj-^
^~Vy
e;f
^J ^A
(^oj
(^j;
;J>
AT ^f
-4^
^ ^a
ru-yi zamin-i,
hama waqt
an-i tu
mst
here an-i tu
(g)
Dlgaran dar shikam-i madar u pusht-i pidar-and mst cu-xJ y ^f means *' does not belong to you."
:
In m.c. "mine, thine, etc." are generally expressed by JU>, lit. 'JU mal-i man "mine" ; ^>t<^ l^j ^^ JU a "property." Ex.
^y
maZ-i
man u shuma
s *
"whatever is mine is yours." as an-i az Barahman birun avardand &$ jf used, gav-l they had out a bull belonging to some Brahmin."
taw fir na-ddrad
:
The
Remark.
Possession, in classical
and
in
sometimes be expressed by the dative case, " the king had a slave." g&ulam-i bud
33.
classical language,
khud*
o^^
khiplsh* and
rule
^^^
khiplshtan,
indeclinable
and as a
they
take the place of the personal and possessive pronouns when they
the subject. of the three
use:
(I) c*i>
refer to
Khud is
is
applicable to either animate or inanimate nouns, and the most common. The following examples will explain their
&l*u
jf
b\
own house"
ojl^l
&Uu ^t u
bi-khana-yi
"he went
to his
(somebody
else's)
house";
Note plural verb after har. " Note that Jl* need not be repeated before l* increasing, j*&> taw/ir, A. '* to come difference." has etc." in modern Persian signify 8 Broken pi. *^(j? Barahima. * Note that the u is short, vide remarks on on ^ 2: &hud signifies "a helmet." " From Wiud " self " is derived the Persian word g&uda " God (the self -existing).
1
2. In modern Persian Note that the j is not pronounced, vide Remarks on j means also " a plough." The Afghans and Indians say Jehyeah for " self.'*
78
"
we went
to our
Zayd
(**?,>
in his
is
I saw Zayd in my own house." used in classical as well as in modern Persian, as:
;4>
<f
wem Za^c? ra dar khana-yi khud-ash dldam " I saw own house ", but man Zayd ra dar tehana-yi khud didam Ij xjj <jx
^3
t^
&l&>
Khud-ash
A
In
home
will
make a
death- vacancy
is
for
the
myself, I
went "
forcibly *xif;
himself";
instances
(3)
^ ^ **X
is
khud raftam " I went myself", or more y* forcibly khud raftartd " they went themselves", or more iXxi^ ba khud burd l> c) l ^> he took it away with
;
^
((
^^
in
M^
l;^
M^
^
j
ra
tes^
<4
he killed himself":
these
reflexive.
bi-kamal
numayad (S^dl)
J^r ; &+* jlama kas-rd <aql4 khud one thinks his own brains perfect," and every
is
Jl^
necessary:
hania
kas
A+*
logical subject of
With immaterial
things,
u*^
my,
(5)
etc., khud *<* or khwish and not khmshtati ^^Ll^. khud bi-khud signifies "spontaneously", "of
f(
love
"
own
accord."
oJta* halat-i
bi-khud% signifies * a state of religious abstraction or ecstacy in temporarily leaves the body.'
of
khud
Khayyam
*
:
two
lines
f^
&*.
^^
*3 &$
\^
*^J^\*^ <^tj*^j-*
tit
&
c?>-i^
Aknun
Fardd
ki tu ba khud-i nordanistx
eh
ki zi
khwahl danist ?
whilst in possession of thyself knowest naught To-morrow (i.e. the day of Judgment) when thou leavest thyself (by death), what more wilt thou know ?
Thou who
"But,
if you know naught here, while still yourself, To-morrow, stripped of self, what can you know? " (0. K. Rub. 52 Whin.).
"tent-sewer," the
;
taj^hallus (poetical
nom de plume
')
or possibly
the profession of ' Umar in either case the iza/at. 8 Past tense with present meaning.
*
For jf
poetical license.
79
jU&
jjj)
/ft ahl-i
AaevVlf &f jli*' vUJU^ t khdk u qubUr gashtand g&ubar Bi-khud shuda va bl-khabar-and az hama kdr
A? o-*! ud^.
Har
zarrd zi har
shumdr
and
Their sundered atoms float about the world, Like mirage clouds, until the judgment day."
(0.
Remark
I.Khud **&>
colloquially, as:
largely used in compounds, both classically and " " khud-bm khudr aj^ proud, self -concei ted
is
;
'* ray "self-opinionated <J-)|AJ^ khud-ddrl (m.c.) self-possession, com" khudl (rare) egotism." posure"; <^&j*> Remark 21. In the speech of the vulgar, khud c^ has a plural khud-hd
;
:J
^^
:
U^ before the
(6)
affixed pronouns,
which
is
contracted as follows
(vulg.)
personnd (or
^AUb
bi-nrnafsi)*
both in
bi-
Ex.
f*^
u^^t
or) &~ix
fj
^^
;
khud-ash rd
(t &~iu tj&> (Jty I saw him in his own person" nafsih (or bi-n-nafs) dldam ** 4^*) tshdn khud bi-nafs-ih raftand they themselves, personally, went."
(c)
Khiolsh cA?
^ cau be substituted
J^^
pronoun
for
in places
where the
latter
signifies
rarely like &j*> stands alone possession, but substantive. It is also classically used in compounds, as : <*,>#
bin.
without a
khwi$h~
^.^
As a
reflexive
4^!^
is
(/).
Example
of khiplsh
Chu B
dil bi-dusfi-yash
Ohird bi-dusJmiam-yi
**
man
(Anvdr-i Suh., Chap. I, St. 15.) affection's him displays heart for flag My " he a should then hostile banner raise? Why
(East. Trans.)
^\)
<^
subs.
The Persians usually follow the modern Arabic pronunciation and say bi-nafsih &V in the first instance and bin-nafs <j*ixJb in the second. As already stated, the For the doubling of the n in the final short vowels are omitted in modern Arabic.
second instance, vide
'*
10.
In *^A^J the
final hi is
pronoun would be changed to agree with the pronoun subject or object, in number and gender, etc., but the Persians often neglect this point In writing they, however, also do use the Arabic dual and plural of Arabic syntax.
he,
it
:
"
affixed
Chu j^
is in
speaking always
chi.
80
but cannot be employed to Jte?*> is applied to persons only, khwJsh a man or noun a w* could not raftam pronoun emphasize p**j
Khwish
o^^
be
said.
(d)
Khwishtan
"
body
"
;
^/A^
is
compounded
of
it is
alone and can emphasize a noun or pronoun. Ex. o*o I; &&* j* khwishtan ra " kusht " he killed himself ojt*** o-*^ |^ ^lij^L ^^\ ^j&> har kas awlad-i ** khwishtan ra dust mi-darad (m.c.) every one loves his own offspring*':
;
0**)
eH^
"
(^>j*-
(^
l>
t>[frtf
life
(class.)
man
holds his
own
dear
adamt-zad rd jan-i khwishtan shirln ast " or " his own life is dear to man."
1
Tark-i dunya bi-mardum dmuzand Khwishtan slm u ghfllla andftzand (Sa^I). " To others they teach retirement from the world
silver
and
khwishtan-bfn
Khwishtan ^&*JA> is applicable to rational beings only. (e) In modern colloquial, although &j*> is occasionally used alone, it is more usual for it to be coupled with the affixed or separate pronouns singular
and
plural.
Ex.
pti
25^
Jchud-i
man
;
*is
f&j&>
**I myself
said"
U-i
o^
khud-i
l '
shumd
guffid
only), or **$
&$ c^
said";
( IB. c.
^^ <Jk^
in the city
khudash
raft (vulg.),
khud-i
only)
* *
c^
only)
itself.
Dada
( falak inan-i irddat bi-dast-i tu Ya'm ki man kit/am bi-murad-i khvd~am rasan
Khasm-at kuja-st
zir-i.
Note that <^<s adami *'man*' has three syllables and not two as in Hindu" a man" also that stani, but adam-i Jslwplahtan (ytt?.j*> does not here refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence. However in sentences of this kind where no ambiguity can arise, **his own, etc.*' must be rendered by a reflexive and not by a separate personal pronoun. * Note the m.c. position of J&hud j>y^ and the iz&fat c^*U| ; classically
I
:
man k&ud
guftam.
81
^f^iux mi-khhwdham dastam rd bi-shuram <( I wish to wash my hands," f*>^j t^+i*iA instead of (*))&> fy<i>^ o*,> mi-khwdham dast-i khudam-rd bi-shuram ^Afj.iu/o khudam bi-chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c. and (m.c.) ^Ajja fdj&* f**3*-? f*^" vide last two emphatic) "/, / myself, with my very own eyes saw (it)
:
In ordiftary conversation the rule that the reflexive pronoun should be used when the pronoun refers to the subject, is frequently broken if no ambiguity can arise from the violation of the rule, thus
/.
:
Remark
examples
in (a) (1).
Remark
ta>
II.
Though khud
is
5**
&UEU
met
with.
&j&*
is
The advantage of using the affixed pronouns with khud shown in the last two examples of (a) (1).
as possessives
Remark
III.
f*<^*u
bi-khudam means
useless;
"I am
myself
again," while
vide lines in (a)
(/)
j>>uj
(6).
means "foolish,
also in
a faint":
In the m.c.
;
" a relation"
o^y^ is usually used as a substantive only, signifying khmshan u dUstan e>UL*^ ^ ^IS^i, ** relations and friends"; khmsh u qawmi na darad 4t he has no kith or kin."
Imkarna*' gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh asi n& baradar ast va nx khmsh ast (Sa'dl) " and the sages have said that a brother who is wrapped " in this extract from the Gulistan up in self is neither brother nor kinsman there is a play on the two meanings of khwlsh [another reading is baradar-* ki
t;a
:
:
asf\.
Khunshdwand a^UL?^
modern.
(d)
subs.
**a relation,
kinsman,"
is
classical
and
the
Khmshtan <Jk~y^
(d).
is
(in
ace.)
In modem Persian, spoken or written, the affixed pronouns can take (It) the place of the reflexives when the latter are used as possessives, as : ** 1 want to wash my mt-khwdham dast-am rd bi-shuram f)?^ fj
hands"
o~o or dast-i khudam-rd ty khud rd \$ *^*z) dyd shitmd dya-idn rd khwdnda id* ***w)j*> yUlf U^ Uf "have you read
(for dast-i
(
-^
^U^
^h^^
f^
your verse
[j+Juo
'
'
so used.
dast-i
may
mard, but
vi*o represents
only
dast-i
(i)
mard.
><>&<>
and ham-digar j&*+* "one another; each other" are reciprocal pronouns: yak-digar rd mi-zanand *uyv* j&*&> "they are Hama tawdt'-i yak-digar bi-kumd striking each other; fighting together." " do 4.A you all bid farewell to each (GuL, St. IX, Chap. I)
Yak-digar
\)
l
82
other."
For
of
mislri
under
Adverbs
Comparison.
j^Lii p~*\ ).
34.
(a)
(ism-i ishara-yi qartb pronouns an " that " (ism-i ishara-yi ba'id **** ^Uf p\) they When refer either to persons or things,* and precede the noun they qualify. " this man In mard Ex. are indeclinable. a noun qualifying they OJ etff in zan "this woman"; l^U* &?.\ in kitab-ha "these books"; " these men." in marduman
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns (Ism-i Mara " this" in are The demonstrative
V*^ ^^t
/**!
and
e>f
^
,?
' '
e*>!
Remark.
(b)
is
was fl im, which perhaps remains in Jjj " imruz "to-day"; Jl~xf imsal this (current) year"; *-*2\ imshab "to"this night"; and in y**f imbar "this time" (old). Imsubh f\
morning
"
is
not chaste.
In classical Persian the plurals Inan eJ^jf and anan e>^f "these" and "those " are used for rational beings (zi-ruh ^jj.* ) sometimes as a separate
substitute for and in the sense of
for things giayr-i zt-ruh
cJ^
**
they
"
^i j* These plurals are used only when the pronouns stand alone as a separate substitute for a substantive. Ex. &$> Uf * those who existed before *^**H'* ^ 31 cM andmki qabl az ma mi-budand us/* Note the relative In modern Persian anan. 42 after c>^f [vide (g)]
* '
these plurals in an
by
are rarely used even in writing and then only if followed " the relative ki **. ki ** i^f, or anlw*i ki **&\ =" they who
of
AnM
Anha
(ki) is
however
classically
"
:
"The
sages who have compassed sea and land, Their secret to search out and understand, " (O. K. Rub. 151 Whin.)
In conjunction with the preposition &} frequently in classical and in m.c. but not bi-dan mardbi-dan eabab, bi-dm sabab or jihat are used in m.c. must not be confounded with the bi-dan zan. The demonstrative pronoun for ** that
l
and
(^!<V
* *
Arabic word of " time." The O of these pronouns must not be pronounced nasally a common fault amongst English that are accustomed to speak Hindustani. In m.c. Sr
is
<^J &l~**
and
34 (n)
*f of y^.
its (of
thou art
(10).
tl f&t guftam ba-juz an ki tu hamsaya-yi u*i (Sa*di), I sak the house) neighbour " ; here }\ is used for e/f : vide als<
30
(6)
3
Har du jahan
O^^^T^.
i.e.^this
83
ixif
and those black " bi-dnhd iriam dad va ba-inJia dushnam (m.c.) t\t> fUi| l^U " h g ave rewards to those (or to the former) and abuse to these l*tt<i V^->
;
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 237.) * U lia in In the modern Persian (c) plural only, is used. Ex. j &*&> l^xM &U* Ipf mha so,fid va anha siyah and these (things or persons) are white
: ' '
For phrases
"
e/T j{
mine,"
etc., vide
32
'
(/).
ji {.#6*1
"some
are
of opinion"
is classical
'
as well
p. 19,
modern;
this
vide
former
(/)
"
In ^1
:
also
latter
"
(i.e.
e/f
" the
Ex.:
f
vide
jf
of
e/f Jf
*S
pti
>
Example second in (e), and Syntax. means <( for that reason, for that purpose," classical, U ^/<=w j va in hikayat ba tu az an guftam ki (class.)
"
my
so also
is
bar hanna mwrgh&n az an sharaf Mrad Ki nstukhimn khurad va jan-war nayazarad The Huma * is exalted above all birds because It lives on bones and injures no living thing."
Humay
Apparently
*
c*f
Jf
stands
fy
in
&tt
such
*n
sentences
r&
for
ft3^
*+*">
of
jfete*-*
<4
*t^
you
l^jf
3',
ml-guyam
ki (m.c.)
1 tell
*
all this,
Bemark.
((/)
Compare
vide
Compound
Conjunctions.
^ "
J^ {/ my need
(^ o^U.
Imjat-i
the
^&& f&*jy *$ bim-i 5 an bud ki az zakhm halak skavam wound (lit. there was a fear of that, that I might die of
1
1 nearly died of
the wound),"
o^
*
'
is
-
jt>
used in writing, but seldom or never man and 3t, the alif of these demonstrative pronouns
to their preposition in one word.
may be omitted, and they may be joined Ltff )* &*$ vide page 69, note 1. (itijl
9
No
izafat after
*+*
^U* is the bearded vulture or lammergeir and is not a fabulous bird as translators have supposed: vide Jl. As. Soo. Beng., Dec. 1906. There are however fables attached to it; one is that the person on whom its shadow falls will rise to sovereignty ; another that if any one kills it, his death will occur within forty
*
days
from
this
word
is
e^UA humayun
"
auspicious," etc.
The
84
\*y
Oar kushi var jurm bakhshi ruy u sar bar astan-am Banda ra farman na-bashad har-chi farma** bar em-am
(S'adl).
"Whether thou
slayest or pardonest,
Thy
slave
(I)
resignation."
*x>f
j i^***
ba'zi par
an-and
"some
common
occurrence.
is often a substantive and (h) In mystic poetry e/T signifies something that can be felt rather than defined, grace, individuality. The following two examples, which the writer does not attempt to translate, exemplify this
obscure meaning
b>
&)\&
*^ o**jj
^f*
J$ )
*$*
itftf
** ^**l of
lab-i la'l
ddrad
Shdhid an mst ki mufiyyu* miydn-l ddrad s Banda-yi lal'at-i-dn bash ki dn-l ddrad
(t)
In m.c.
**
In
u an shud
m u an signifies various things, as *> &1 } &$ &**** suhbat-i we talked of this and that (different topics)."
:
Na %n vanadn
the other":
&$
Sufi shuda-% In na-khwuri an na-khwuri? Dar*khwurd-i tu sang-ast; bi-raw sang bi-]ch>wnr (O.K,) ** Sufis, you say, must not take this nor that,
9
off
the plain/'
In man-am
is
M mt-ravam
"
;
to start, or I will go
"
6
;
In u'st ki mi-ravad
is
" he
:
I am just going or about f*> &% " here he (or tnak u'st vi^jl vJ^ul )
ts
is
just going."
Var
poetical for
f\ j
am
at the
end of the
is
by poetical license "one hair." " face." or TaVat aspect '* to be stoned " Sang ftbwurdan eJ>j>^ <& also means
:
there
is
a double
meaning.
5
<*^?t, or
Inja-yam
{l-ijf m.c.
"here
am."
85
you,"
In the following m.c. sentence f <H**; e/ ** &*?\ wit ill j j(f " work or else I shall be down on kar bi-kun va ilia ast ki man rasidam " here I i.e. I'll In oat is used in a dramatic sense and
signifies
am,"
cXut
o~^
ast ki bd
^ *$
o^t
The modern colloquial and classical phrase (^ of j \**f &a "in kuja vaankuja "where is this and where is that," signifies 'you can't even
(k)
one
is
so
much
is
**j
&\j
\j# fj
^\ y
the superior to the other.' old, but still in use amongst the Afghans &j*. chun az in ki dar inam jarigh shawam
:
mara yad
remind
bidih
(of
when
am
at leisure
from
am engaged in,
me
that)."
was stated that the demonstrative pronouns precede their nouns, but this rule is violated when emphasis is necessary. Ex. )\j* *$ <^A*f c u| jojj &> asp-i ki savar shuda budam In ast "the horse I rode this
(m) In (a) it
:
is it."
(n)
of demonstrative
pronouns perhaps
'
f*fj&*
^y^ jf
(^U *tjj ^{ )*
Ji
jW
ilia
dar
m panjah-salagl
bd
u kushti ml-giriftam ** otherwise in spite of these fifty years of mine, I would have wrestled with him, even with these fifty years of mine ." Vide also No. (8).
(2)
oj&S
*>U p*
j*>f
^^ j&t&
near, he too
rasidRd;
waqti-ki tmzdik-tar
^^*) ^^ ^^1
* f
ittifSq**
shuma
cJidra na-did
arrived
help for
."
Note the slovenly change from plural to singular in the verbs. NaztRktarj&ty means "nearer than you were when you rasiiRd Note the use of c>T for $ " he" better u,
Remark.
;
(3) ailSX*
o^ j ^^x
ci^xp^xC^
"
(class.)
killed
the girl."
"behold, lo"; used in writing and in m.c. adj. from *l*aJ "year'*: subs. fifty" and " the state of S ^ old." panjah-salagl &&{* being fifty years F^ 3 Qhayrat O^XP here jealousy this word has generally a good sense and means <4 a nice sense of honour; jealousy for the honour of one's womankind." Bl-ghayrat
;
now "
also
Panjdh-sala
^U
^^j
JU
Oj^&fcJ (m.c.) is
or raahk
-^)
used as an abusive term by Muslims. In modern Persian hasad W^. would be substituted for yhayrat c^fei in the sense of *' envy " in the
above example.
86
chand-i 1 ba'd a&%n (classical and m.o.) = ts***- jt **J " " ba'd-az chand-l a little after this **f e*y *** cs)j> r5-t cftand 6ar in bar amad (class.) " a few days passed after this." xi& ^jjj^. ^xj AJ owl&j A^ ejf <J& tj** oj ^1^3 j>U 'adaihJa-yi bad nor (5) has khud-ash bi-kunad " she little ddrad misl-i an-ki
;
angusht birbinwji
(a
girl)
Angusht
is
J;
(6)
o~*
life* aifa
' ?
gbuj
^ijf
tila
st
fifty
pieces of gold.
Remark.
Ji^
is
izafat after
dana ;
dana-yi
(7)
because
."
^5?)^ (j|^ ^AA,^^ &f ^iJU e>[jf.-^ hayrdn iriandam ki dirakht-l bi-dan buzurgl chl taur uftad (m.c.) "I remained lost in astonishment as to
(8) dUij )jlo A*.
how a
No.
have
fallen
' '
:
vide also
(1).
Remark.
(9)
The clause
jb (jX-o
jj>
after *
is
%&j
o*2Bu
{^
(jj^i V^)^
&\
^JJ
p*^ ^3
Zt^ba
khanum zud an
darb-i utaq ra sakht du-dastl baz karda" Ziba Khanum suddenly and violently " with both hands bursts open the other door of the room s (10) &&/ fa* ty Ay^ c^>^" 4^* cA^ pisJi-i -man cMz-i mpiya bud ; u ra
.
girifta
(Afghan)
*'
it
."
This
jRetnark.
Note
u-ra for
!j
idiom
is
common amongst
the Afghans.*
\&\ &*> **+*)
kar d&r In vaqt nmn ml'kardam va dar an vaqt an kar (Af^an) "at one (special) time I did one thing and at another fixed time another."
(11)
j of oJj of )&
j f*j**> ft
&$ ^
(12)
A^U^^cu^f
'
ast ki nabasfiad
<4
it is
as
if it
were
not /
'
i.e.
contemptible."
a little while.*' indefinite quantity some Pawjah ashrafl (now a two-ttlman piece) or panjah lira or some such phrase would ordinarily be used instead of panjah ddna tila.
I
Classically chande,
an
Chlz-l
4,53^
t(
a little."
In m.c. nazd-i
man
U jl
and ishan
i^lA-lf
except in
2 to
For
34
(a).
classical
however frequently neglected. 30 (6) and footnote examples of substitution of ^t for of vide
This rule
87
f<H~;
and
*Cif
13
ta
dnki
((
until, before
"
:
jl
h^f *&!
13
had died"
*j^iu
anki sharab asar nami-bakhsKid (m,c.) " every day I increased the quantity (a little) till (at length) wine lost its exhilarating
^y'f
ta
)>j?J
miqddr ml-ajzudam
effect."
(13)
In bud'
ki
(classically
(0)
and
in
modern
In
mak
:
**&>\
was the reason that": an ki *&f " not u ki. writing) "he who " behold " behold here, here is," and anak J^T yonder,
*f
''this
;
w &J
is
there is," the affix appears to be the diminutive affix, but the signification " tnak " here intensive *J&| ^U ufljj behold, here I am mi-ayad *tf
;
he
coming ": 'U$man Ag&a (Inak nam-iu) j /*l> wJU-ji ) Lef oUJc " Usman Agha (for such was his name)" mak-am f\ ^*u\ <k behold here am I." " (p) Ant cuSf is bravo!"; and ant ojf or anat cujf, for an tura ty of
is
e
l<
"
also
ml
' c
bravo
"
and
Int c^vf
or in-at
ctf
^f "this
Ha mm
one"
Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns. c^** "this same one, this very one" and e^+* ia-man
35.
!
<4
that
more emphatic forms of the demonstrative pronoun and are very of more frequent use in the modern language than in the classical. They are simply the demonstratives strengthened by the particle ham +*> dar haman ruz )j) O>UA >N = 1mm dar an ruz etc. etc. In m.c. the plurals e>T j^ ^>,
are
:
^H+A and
(a)
<(
^U^
illus-
trated below.
as
Ham&n&te haman d^ signifies when -- then (that same time)/* soon as" o *^ f)$j* &?j*j e>U.* c^ cJ^*f c^/j^ blrun amadan-i khun
;
Examples
murdan-i haradar-atu haman bud " as soon as he was bled iny ** no sooner was he bled than ." * This idiom is classical brother died,"
hajftfin
as well as m.c.
(1)
eide also
aij
(c).
Hamln ^^^
In
3*
d hamati ^U*
' *
also
mean
4i
the same,"
Ex.:
^U*
&*\
* *
haman
az
ast ki dldld
thivS is
'**
the very
we came by
this
is
we came by." <j.*+* &* ^^\^ khivaliisJi-i man hamm bud the this was same; my very thing was what I too wished" man " " I am that ham an-am f! <jU* *-$+* U> (m.c.) very person, I am he
the same road
"
desire
f*ty
**
^UA ma
ni.c.
'*
we
we have been, we
1
hi
often pronounced
hamun
for
^f
p* and
c)T
(**>
)\
of jl etc.
2
Or
birtin
88
(0)
" came, he went [vide (a)]. (d) *ta cj e>**A hamm yak
(e)
& i^xufc
hamln
ki
amadam u
"
raft (m.c.)
" as soon as
dana,
ja
&&>
e>fcfr&
hamm
spot"; l^ji cHt-^ hamln farda (m.c.) " to-morrow as ever English vulgarism
(/)
(classical and m.c.). " he was killed in this very kushta shud, " not later than to-morrow " = the
"
is."
^
bud
hamm
urt+A u-Mt*3***^ (^UA iJ^'Mjs*. harakat-ash " such was his conduct and such (m.c.)
36.
(a)
(1)
^i^
this
chunin
(for <^l
a one as
(2)
"
:
e^
c^^
=
'
like this)
also
are like, manner, etc." and ert^** lw>m chunin " such manner."
l
((
like that
*)
a one as that
"
;
cc
such
"
:
" ^> ejlia. j you did so and so chunm va chunan bud the matter was so-and-so
va chunaw kardl
( '
^5"^*^^^
:
cr-Jt^
chunin
(^ia.
Ml
' '
^f
'
Remark.
&&*
*n chunin 3
and &&*.
e>T
an chunan are
ratlier
more
emphatic forms.
b * bd chunin shakhs-l suhbat na-briyad kard j xjUi OA^V** ^^aa^ ^AXa. not converse with should such a one *s~*\ c/tumn a$i? person" (m.c.) " here chunm 5 ** is an adverb. is the case so ( is it so ? &****
(b)
4<
;
^^
as, ^cj*^ u^^ t^f U^o ma^i ?^ chunin chlz-l na-bud ki 'iwaz bi-diham (m.c.) ^AiX? " 13 " I had no such thing with me that I could give in exchange ^f
(c)
Chumn
^^
^t 6*;
^^ A^ ^u ^A-i
~
f*)f*j*^
1
in ch un * n
&
^^
travelled a farsakh
"
;
yah
fars<*M*> raftlm
<4
here In chunin
^^ ^
^^
:
(m.c.)
is
in
this
manner we
an adverb. 7
Chun
e>>^" also
3 *
6
Tu kaun liai ay aise taise ? (Urdu). chunin ja-i budam fty, Dor talash-i
{Jl%*)*
unity).
Or ba chunin ashbhas ^je^ml c^i^ ^ (without <^ of Chunin (^^- and chunan c>^^- are aama-yi Icinayat.
6 va faivr-i-ki an murgh-ha avaz ml-kardand Similarly chunan cJ&^ with an. Ex. an chunan gah-l na-shunlda budam fty e^^f^t ^^j^o Jyf l^o ^f AL'^Js ^ " I had never heard birds sing as those did.' (class.) 7 The of unity can be added to chunan c>^- and ham-chunan o^^-^ (but
^^^^
:
'
rarely
if
vide
2,
&l^b
e;lfA.
(Shah-Nama,
Jild-i
x> *&ot i^. j| Lojb j^l Chunan-i ki az madar-i parsa Bi-zayad, shavad bar jahan padishah Avval, Ra^y zadan-i Kaymis dar kar-i Sudaba va Siy*aush).
.j
.i^w jj]^
89
^\
In tawr would be
(or
more
usual.
e^y
cA^
guftan)
"to
pro-
crastinate, evade,
(e)
(/)
like things
"
er^f **
ham-chunln
is
Ex.
***>f
l^ijf ^Aaiug*
came here":
"act
like
this"
>ti p& I^Q <jyte>j>}>J ham-churiin Jci tu zur ddrl as you are strong, so am I too strong."
man ham-ddram
'*
(m.c.)
just
him "
"
merely a more emphatic form of &(**.. Ex. hamUJf \j ^*^f ^liasv.^ 4< I saw a man there dldam dnjd ^xja just like him "; ham- chundn sJiakhs-l man dar 'umr-i khud na-didam (m.c.) ll I have never in my life seen a man like (**& j^k j+& )& ^/o ^^aiv^ ^Usv^A
(g)
Similarly e>U*<i
is
chundn ddam-l
f^
vj* ty
A^SUap-^
I related it exactly as it
Jiam-chundn ki bud 'arz kardam (m.c.) happened (or as was the case)."
&* man
Remark.
It will
^jli^x^-A
^^S^A
&
is
for near,
and
ham- chundn
(h)
for
remote things.
,
may
be considered as demonstrative
pronouns and deserve notice, viz. }&& hamchu "so (in m.c. pronounced ** so much." hamchi), such," and ^r'*^ and c^loJ^ chandin* and chandan
Their use
is
hamcJm or cir^** hamchun. Ex. &jS jjb^,.^* \j^ kar-ra hamchu " * s the work must be done like this bayad kard (m,c) o^w^J^ ^^f >SX*A
(1) ysx+A
' *
:
**-**;
man
li he is such a brave ^pjlc Jiamchu ddani-i diKr-\st ki misl-ash nlst (m.c.) i( clear as that there's none like him"; jj^^f *^ 6 hamchu ruz (class.)
1
daylight."
Benutrk*
t^F^ hamchm is
is
The
follow-
(^** j c#+a
it
a^a>
^.u^
and
like that
like this,
hamchu ti va hamchin, hamchln-ash khusha (vulgar) "he does but this is the way that pleases him."
*
3
For *uto*- chunanchi and *&&*> chunanki, vide under Conjunctions. '* 'Arza daahtam I made a petition in writing." p**\& &*y* (m.c.)
The (s
by
of unity
occasionally
\$3J
Persians
p*>
added to ham chunan or chunan ki by the Afghans and is perhaps incorrect. Ex.: tawf >>jf (or
<x
:
j^J
(Afghans)
(or
imprisoned)
there
vide Adverbs and Conjunctions. " a few, etc.'* vide 39 *&*For chand (g).
Instead of hamchu
;&+*
O^f ^
1
or hamchunln
In (m.c.)
mil
90
c*w c^A-
Instead of ham-chftn
(^^
would
that
Chanddn
t^f^i*.
<c
so
much
:
as that; so
many;
that
amount;
all
e^^^
"
all this;
without a substantive.
Ex.
with or
f&>lj&
vLr** <$***'
(t
he gave f3xj chandan sharab bi-man dad ki na-tavanistam bi-khuram (m.c.) me so much wine that I couldn't drink it (all)"; chandan misl-i u naml-
danam +>l<^
jf
JUx>
^1^
(m.c.)
"I
don't
know such
<j**)\*
chandan dakhl-i* bi-zaban-i Farsi na-daram fj*i " I have not a great knowledge of Persian."
Chandan-l az ta'un To chandan ejf^^. the indefinite ^ can be fixed as murdand lei - &* ^^c u>y>Lk jt ^3}^ia. Ci such a number died of plague that ."
Chandan-i az in malikhulya firu yujt
U. AT
8
ki
buh
taqat-i guftan-ash
na-mand
(Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 21) ^tfjj* l^xuJU ^31 so much did he rave like this that he ceased from mere exhaustion."
^t^
'Umr
cliandan-l
ki
ast
<xU
Chandan
iX
also
means
fold
cU>Ux
c^^t^^fy j^Uj
an.
-(^fjf
"
mazlum shudam
sad chandan az
my
was oppressed
(3)
there, a hundredfold
(.#***
:
Chandin
!j
chandm
(t
am
(m.c.) <^<>^
35*X|^
l*-i
&$ c^**f
you
"
:
JU
it is
so
many
(i.e.
(<
many)
cx^x
^H^A^
Remark,
and chandm
^^^
precede their
chandanki *^t^^.
etc., ride
(;')
as oft as,
"how much
CWj unctions.
With the c5
of
unity
chandan-i
j*\&*^-
vide
(3).
2
firu
In modern Persian rabt-i fk*j would be used instead of (**> daWri. CJwndan-i <^>l<^- means " such a quantity" and not *'such a long time." jj* may be redundant, but I think it is meant to emphasize the fact that he raved one
in delirium.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
37.
91
Interrogative Pronouns
Ism-i latifhdm
:
faK*>\
pia^
*!
;
strongly accented in speakthe verb or come close to it. and for immediately precede emphasis ing, " which ? " both forms are used in kudam or kudamin* ; &**>)*<> (a)
**$.
There are four interrogative pronouns or adjectives ' ? are and <**> chi. chand " how
kudam
ki
many
'
They
pl*f
m.c. as well as in the classical language; they are applied to substantives, animate or inanimate, singular or plural. Ex. t^aacwi ^ fo^ kudam shakhs " " which kudam rah (m.c.) " which road ? " xJU^fij (m.c.) person ? f^ |*fo^
:
bi-farma*id bi-bmam man bd kudam l^cysvxsG ptitf fuj fjta na-mahram-ha dmad u raft ddram be pleased to say let me see with what
oi;
j cWf
<*j
c *
*& *~JfJ> ^^ unwarrantable people have I coinings and goings ? f\* c>T an nami-danistam ki wA/o kudam mulk u kudam nahr ast (m.c.) cu^f^j f\* $ " I did not know I it was." was what river or what (whilst country gazing)
:
"
Remark.
p\*f
is
questions. [In the last example the Imperfect " I was not " knowing (all the time I was gazing)
ftdf g-y* Inch kudam, "none, not ; but hlch kas meaning, as hldi yak <-*!
(b)
ast ^~*\ is
dramatic present.]
means "nobody
(at all)."
(c)
?/#&-?* is
:
kudam
khub ast
"
generally added, as: *z~~*<* *\<& o-f v ^UjX* ^t^" kudam yak-*-shan
**
^-o
Remark.
of **
Kudam
?
" who
"
:
^^
vide
Remark
"have you seen anybody? " 5 ^t^ j^^ $J\ uy &&*tf j^ $ kuddme* insan rd fty fc^oJ ^j^. ^t )$ \j ^UJj az roz-i dmadan-l man Ha imroz <( dar m jazira na-dida budam, from the day of my arrival till to-day I had
kcuse-ra
For fl*j* ^ each " or "every," vide 39 (j) and (k). (e) The Afghans wrongly use kudam f\? in the sense of the Hindustan i " kudam Ex. ^& some woman told me &#,?. ^s*** h ^J~? f o) ftf
(d)
:
* *
dull
For
chigiina
&JJA.
&*
a substitute
38
(a).
In the accusative
'*
\j is
kudam kar
ra kardl
(m.c.)
"
:
kudam
dadl e?^tO ordinary prepositions can of course be used for other cases.
U-U
*^
ra dadl
f^
(class.)
" to which
m.c.
ft*&
in
The
Na-mahram
j*juolj
<4
"unlawful man,"
'*
i.e.
haram."
Yak
v^j numeral
one" and
^5-
of unity.
is
Kudaml
tyof**' for
kudamin <&*{*\^
used in
class.,
in
In correct Persian
hwh
kudam
or
kudaml insan ra
92
INTEEBOGATIVE PEONOUNS.
" call never seen any man in the island": l^t** kudame-ra bi-talab " some one kas-i rd bi-talab). (for L> LS~? " dat. kira or bi-ki " acc !) *^ r !/ K^ 5 " whom ? (/) *L" wil
v^
v^
"
JB
\jf
or J&. 1
Ex.:
^ JU maW
strike
:
it
:
"
"whose (property)?":
:
L$*J
[f
za <
" who did it ? " ^*l to ***?! *>" istada <>y &f ki kard " " " a ast vXA^ ? is standing ? :i iJj^J budand who were they I; " " 8 *>J^-A> 5^ ki hastand Jb* vai/? &ard who loosed the dog? d/ ct^ ^agr
1
^ato( *&
" to
whom
H
^
" who
1 (
who
are they
"
hikmat az ki amukhti
(Gul.) '*from
whom
wisdom?
('
"
or
Remark
islifham
(
(*lfi&*f
noun
'
^[
it
is
called kaf-i
When
used (interrogatively)
(
imply a negative
:
is
called
kaf-i
istifham-i naft
^sb f\^&\
<J(^ ).
Ex.
^iiU ^Uo|
^^j
(
o^^Jf AT
)
(Sa dl).
The
particle
J^
A^
is
also a conjunction
Remark
but
vide
(g)
//.
is
Remark
Before
^1
am
'*!
aoi" and
all its
Jt
persons, the
of ki is
changed into
fa U-l is
**
^^
is it,
tu ki-l
who
is
he
who " ?
are
:
thou?" but
also
who
A
and
similar change
may
all its persons. Ex.: *&*<*? Kstand (or In the third person singular c^-* &? is not used.
The
plural
^i^ kiyan
is
in
of course
also written
formed as usual by the simple prepositions. The &* but in this caso care must be taken, to 1)
,
of
*^ kih
**
small
" or
of
huh
&>
poetical for
kuh
"a hill."
is
* It will
plural.
3
The
also used in
m c.
' 35
Also pronounced vel to rhyme with the English bell.* * is vulgar for ast. Vulgarly, tyf kiya is also used final be the contraction of vS**f *& rather than of o*~fc A^.
:
Kwt o**J^
appears to
Ordinarily written
&>\
In modern Persian
(
=Shahin-8hah),
.the
e)^ is used as the plural of the old Persian word term applied to the ancient kings of Persia before Islam.
kay
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
l?^ jt eA'l ** colloquial use amongst the Afghans. Ex. jJJUf j \ij^cf e>^ e>w ^ dar In fikr u khiyal bud ki Ishan az kuja bicKn
:
93
makan
dmadand va klyan and (class. Persian, and whence they came and who they were."
In the m.c. of Persia the plural
:
m.c.
(4*?
kihd or
ki-ha
is
of frequent use.
Ex. tA&a.^ *>**$ U*r ki-ha amadand va " people came and what things did they say ?
Remark.
did you strike
it
**&
" what
The accusative
?
though correct is by some avoided in talking, as in quick Instead like j kir " the penis." sound might speech ^j Ij aUS' &A. chi kudam adamha-ra be or ra zadl kasan used, (m.c.) might y^T f\^
.
"
plural <^aj
tj
bi-kist
<(
who
is
with
whom ? "
signifies
c:^
raftid
ai ^
shuma ra namzish kardandl Na khayr ki bi-last (m.c.) UJi ii*i>; *$ Uuf 4< when you went there did they >&j> <J*ity r>
?
treat
" you well ? No they were all in a bustle. " ^ v^-jf u sag-i klst whose dog is he (j)
of
"
in rn.c. signifies
**
he
is
The idea is that a dog has no respect on its own nobody, account, but has merely some respect on account of its master, and c: *f ^~ sag last consequently means 'he is the dog of no one of any account/
no account."
Similarly ^*-^
(k)
**
chi
**
<** U ma ^^ how
sag-i kistlm?
great! in
what manner
or
is
^j^**
used for the singular or plural, generally for inanimate objects. ** cu-juUT &*. chi kitab4*st kiim-khwa&l "what book do
better,
want? ", or
u^-s
i^jtif
&$u\X kitab-t ki tm-MwaM chtst? : " " what books are these ? a oJ^>j &*. (^fj^H^ %n chi kitabha-st
o*~^ ^r^>^
you
^\
?
:
"what books
J>
:
what
here
?
f
"
^
:
31
az dii jihat
chi
4i
for
what reason ?
(m.c.)
nishlni
chi niskasfafi
^^ ^-^J
ki
is
^5^^ "
sitting
barayi-chi "for
&*
"why
fe. ditto.
Note that
really a conjunction
For
this connecting
*
'
Or kudam
I
kitabha-ra mi-Wiwastl
^^ ^^
t;
^^
1
f\** vide
(ra).
things were in the boxes" danistam ki chi chlzha dar sanduqha ** this sentence is correct, a Persian bud &# (f*)&L* j& l*}**- *$(&~*\* (m.c.). Though
knew what
would naturally
sanduqha chi bud
in speaking
tj*
omit the word chizha &* lfljl*^ (&f) chiha p*~3\& (or
^^ and
'{*
say daniatam
(ki)
dar
less
common)
an Afghan
94
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Remark
/.
Chi ** like ki
it
?
how
"
:
word following
?
it,
chisan
e>^
"
:
Remark II. In m.c. az chi <**. Jt sometimes means " of what substance or material ? usually means
' '
what reason
"
(/)
"
gative,
The dative [^ chira "for what?" is only used why ? wherefore?" or as a causal conjunction
as
(*Z
an
interrochira-ki)
f^
" because that." The dative formed by the preposition can however be used. U bi-chi jihat " for what reason ? "
Remark.
of.
Ex.
In m.c., chira
[^
is
commonly used
in the sense of
"
certainly,
course"
(m)
(i.e.
why not
?).
An
is
ft***'
kudam, as
ScXxiU^
^^^
\>
tell me yourself what work you have combi-anjam rasanlda-l (m.c.) chi or kar ra bi-anjam rasamda-i looiU; ^Uuf ^ ^ jg Aa. (rare). pleted," ** which book do you want ? " Chi kitab mi-khwaht ^L?^^ (m.c.)
"
^ ^
f\
is
taken by
ra
l
j& ouj^
khud-at bigu
kudam kar
v^ ^
also
"what
*
kitab ra
book do you want?", but " mi-khwahi? ** which book do you want ?
sort
of
^^^
tj
^X ftj
kudam
\&^ j ** chi kar karda-% could also be used, but might what fault have you committed ? ' taken to mean
Remark.
4
also
be
'
s<
vt is generally followed by ^f^ chlz In m.c,, thing", j% kar ** word, matter." Ex. *^~*t jj^ work", or vJ^*. karf $ u chi chlz oat " " what is he then ?" j *<* chi cMz-%m " what are we ?" (i.e. nothing"); f
(n)
^
((
>^
we
are nothing").
The following are common colloquialisms: s &. ^^J bi-man chi *' what " business * is it of mine ? what have I to do with it ? &*-jt etc. also "is it possible?": "what do chi mean?", you ya'ni " what chi cJiara remedy?" ^b o^ ** chi jan darad "what is he able do? 6 (nothing)" xi^vo cxli^ chi hdlat mi-kashad can he to do? what
:
"what
a state he
is
i.e.
how
miserable
*<
is
^^
he 6 !:
**. jf
&*.
tS u-if
chi sag-i
fi^ j~
^^\
^>
The ra necessary
Plural ace.
after
kudam
\)
* 4
^
3
kudam
kitabha
:
^^-
what
" or
4 *
what thing
"
is
common
vulgarism.
4
*j
?
jL^j^ ^hji
**
bi-kushad
6
fl
(Sa'di, verse)
" what
utf
Lr*
u jan darad ?
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
ast ki
sar-i
95
(lit.
bald-yam
bi-nishinad
he
* shash nan ra har ruz chi ** What? Ex. I) " " mi-kuni what do you do with the six loaves every day? mi-khwahi chi-kuni (vulgarism) "what do you want to do"?: " what do I jjlj olo -*y iS *ijU chi mlrdanam shayad ki u ham najat ydbad
[
:
^>
then
what a dog
is
know but
that he too
(m.c.)
may
am
chi
L)
shud*
<x escape ? a^ p*\ ^*$+> nami danam asp" I don't know what became of my hcrse": fj *U~
:
"
chi f& *$* *4j&* fttfcvjj** siyah ra bi-tu bakhshidam; kanlzak ra " " the I is but what can do with the (Sa'di) negro yours girl?
kunam
Remark.
"
direct questions.
(q)
'
**.
How
!
Ex.
:
how
fearful, terrifying
it
unfortunate
(r)
**.
<(
&# ^xl^A
^^ ^ man "
said,
4i
chi-qadr* hawlnak
chi
bud
kambakht am
fine
' c
how
what a
'
mansion !"
'(ishiq
:
shuda-i
^U
<^
^ j ^M ^
Rum*
ra
" it
&
u maghrib bi^chi girifti ki (Sa^l) " Alexander the ** he had Great was asked how conquered the East and West, because (lit. " lt oJ,^o what manner didst thou conquer ?) they asked, In ^b
9
:
Why
(Sa'dl)
" for
afflic-
^y
(or
this
"
:
v^^^
:
wand-i 'dlim
oJjt^a-
^
**
*tit
Praise be to
God
What
a wise and
mighty God is he
(Sa^i)
-
&$* **
5
budi
(classical)
would to God
5 '
! :
a?
Governor had come here (or This idiom is still in use amongst the Afghans.
!
hakim Inja ml-dmdd " would to God the were to come here) 5)
&<*>
fj*
<^$*
better balatar az
man
(J^
4<
^f>**>
Also qadarjfr*
*'
quantity";
etc.
Cr
(without hamza)
" a
ball."
* But C5^ p*jp* j*!& JM jr^ **^t *^ chi ba&hadagar bar-i dlgar mutarannim shavi* " chi baahad or chi mlshud what " how nice it would be if you were to sing again if ." would it matter " would that he would 6 Ohi budl come Inja bi-ya yad *&> l^ijl (^&j> *%- (class.)
' !
'
'
in m.o. chi
w^ **- or chi
fehftth
bud
&j* (jSj^-
fy
is
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
5**
j\
(Sa'dl)
"
?
&*j& )&jf* agar dar mufdvazayi u " had he delayed but, one night in his
chi-hd
:
inter-
is
it is
I*
In
&*.. Ex. ***&*> modern Persian the plural is also written " what do or what are saying?": they they say, miguyand
** chi-hd
&$(&&*
&j& chihd ki na-kard va chihd ki na-guft (m.c.) he didn't do or say/' nothing &*.-&*. (u) Chi-chi signifies "what does it matter one
l^o. y
oA&
A^
"there was
or
way
the
whether
."
Ex.
v^Uv^^^
it
murdan
it
is
simple
the same thing to die on a throne as on the bare &$ chi amir chi faqir (m.c.) "whether gentle or
" shell
gadd (m.c.)
:
^t'
*J<x*o
*a. chi
chi sadaf
chi
**
whether
as well
wan' "
Remark.
examples.
f^
in these
This chi
is
musdvat (otf^l~x>
&*.
"the -
of
com-
parison or equality," (v) It was stated above, in (&), that &* is generally used for inanimate
things.
<xlb
however also occasionally used for animate beings, as chi ddamhd mi-bdshand (( ^xj^f &*. ^1 * SMJi pursld ki
It is
<H*vi
*^
the
(ni.c.)
Shah asked
<*&*>-*
who
are these
men?*";
{instead of
in
ddam-hd
*
klstand'*
In the former case, however, &*> has rather the sense " " of what sort of whereas * merely asks who are they? &>\
^jf
^0
&*>
o^
[in
?
In
mard
**
what
sort of
man
what
8
is this ?
"
^^ ^
ast o~s'
"
:
j*> ^3\
fm.c.)
"what
c/
sort of
*'
man
is this,
profession
chi
?
tu chi kdra-l
{
**>
&
^ ^
**$** (m.c.)
**- chi kas-ttu ki dar &* )* ** y haqq-i "who art thou who hast acted so kindly to-
is
your work
wards
me ?
' '
(w)
Chand***-
"how many"
is
The substantive,
if
used, must be
is doubled durr J$ and must therefore in prose Here by poetical license the word is dur. " Hindustani The distinction that exists between and (vide SteppingStones ") in Urdu does not exist in Persian between *l^ and *^.
1
Note that
the
final
letter
it.
t^
^^
&<$>
by
iJisan
farmudl
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
97
Chand ***-
is
also
an interrogative signifying
Ex.:
how
long? to
danad lei chand az shah guzashta " he " passed (i.e. how near morning it is)
how much ? how many ? axA^w^jt cxia. * **(**+* namiknows not how much of the night has
* '
(Sa'di).
1 '
" For the camel has no more endurance left in it ? s ^^\ ^a. ajAU^o y Turd mushahara chand ast? Guft " hich."
(Sa'di)
Pa-yi misktn piyada chand ravad K-az tahammul sutuh shud bukhfi-' (Sa'di) How far can the weary foot- man go
" how
1
much
:
bi-chand
* '
girijti'
?
how
often
"
is your pay?" He said "nothing": <^&^ *^^" how much did (m.c.) you pay for (this) ? "; jL> ^c^aric? bar
<>ia*
13
ta-chand
<*i^ is
i(
for
how
' '
long
years
1.
In composition:
JA. chand-sala,
of
how many
Chand
Remark
II.
years according to the intonation of the voice. *** is only used of things that can be counted.
?
"
adj., signifies
"of few
For quantity that can be measured t^j** and ^^^ are used. In m.c., chand taab w/f &**. means, ** how many parterres of ground each measuring five oj3 by five eji will this stream water in twelve hours?" A
plot of the size mentioned is called
(#}
(1)
by villagers *-*&$ Grammarians distinguish the particle (*J^) chi &*> by various names
.
Chi
*^ chi-mi-khwah*?,
is
called
cMm:
istifham
^fftx*f^a.
(
).
!
(2)
Ghim-i
istifhani*i nufl
^jto |*^^*
f^* c
tion, as
aw
^ra^ r^?'
ml danad
(
*>ifax
^^j^'f
nothing
also (6),
(3)
Chim-inahi
^e
^*^
(
(m.c.)
(4)
"why
=don't do
it."
Ghlm-i mvbalagM
&*)\*#
adjective and
intensifies it, as
nicely he reads."
(5)
Ch%m-i ta'zim
what a man (brave) he is " o~o^* the of disdain" implies negative (6) Chim-i tahqtr (^*a3 p**> as combined with o*f Jbll *^. ^( %n chi qabil ast contempt, interrogation " This chi ** " how can he do is he how fit for this business ? this; (m.c.)
In chi mard-i st
&&.
'
!
^jJa*5^^
is
Ch%m*i tahayyur
(m.c.)
^3 ^ "
i'j
<*
)
the
**.
A strong
7
98
(8)
INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
Ch%m-i tahassur
(j~*^* p**>
* '
Fatak ba
man chi karcK ^^/ *^ &* how has thou dealt with me
!
" as in " the ** of regret dar\g> " Alas O wheel of the ^ **&* c^f U$p
)
!
(9)
(10)
For chtm-i musavat vide (M). For cMm-i tasgj&r j**>*> p**> or "the
*
'
**. of
diminutiveness
"
,
Diminutives.
38.
" Connected with &*> are the inter rogatives A*^. chiguna how ? in " from &* chi and and colour manner state ? A3^? guna appar derived from &*> and the demonstrative pronoun of. o~>i <^^f a *^^ chiguna adam-% *st (classical and m.< (a) Chiguna.
*
'
'
'
e^
*' what sort of a man is he ? OM^yoaf *J>^ ) For the m.c. phrase vi*w *; fe &^ *^*i.J| ?w
"
mard
chi-kara ast
mWe
exa
at end of
(v)
37.
Remark.
qualifies the
noun adav
In the phrase &*&* chiguna-i" ho ware you ? chiguna &>*. is an ad^ ({ chun-% tu bt-ma Ex, Chun.* U^ away from us, how d< ^^^ (6) " 4t ? ") thou art ? what how art thou find yourself? jo> 'j JU^ju (lit.
:
^JL
_*^
<j*rt*
J^ t5^^ J
?
c5^^ darvish-i za
?/
M2
ra
<iar tongft
khust
magar
(Sa dl)
is,
**
how
he
unless
Indefinite Pronouns
+4** +*A
is
There are very few indefinite pronouns properly so called. ThS d of unity or by substitutes, as will be seen fron supplied by the
following
list
of examples
also
Guna *}y
gun &)*
final
e-t &*j* **&- chand-guna &>j>*$- chigvne " of different colours or sorts." guna-gun
of different kinds,
various'*; also e
is
Chiguna &>j&*- here equals )j> ** chifawr or p~$ **> chiqism. Note thafct adaml " man "), as in chiguna zan-i 'at that of unity ' (and is not that of
^
'
o^^>)
8
what sort of a woman is she? " Note the difference of meaning of ****. n the following two sentences
*'
i
^^
"
*
5
Quftarn-ash chiguna-i dar fyafat ? ^ j^- "-(Sa'dl) I asked him how he was feeling.*' Chun e?j^ is also in some districts vulgarly used for kun &j& the anus/' cki. which is certainly a commoner wo Another reading is Wmshk-sall Chwnln 9 chunan c^^> fulan >^, etc., chand <>i^, chandan and \&
is
?
'
hajl chiguna bashad ; <**? tej^f f*^^ *T^ )* ^ in Basra; how ran he then be a pilgrim from Mecca ? : ch
'
u*^
he
"
^^
^^
ouUT.
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
(1)
99
"Other, another," dlgar ^.^^ precedes or follows its noun, as: digar ruz)jjj&* OT ruz*i dlgar jt*t> jjj "the next day" also "another day"; " another road " dlgar bar or rah or rah-i
9
dlgar
bar-i digar
fy
.*,
dlgar
fy
jb
"
;
jyt*
"in another
state,
' '
jt** jUi
" % the of unity ** ^~$ kas-l dlgar " another person, some one els ^s.* " another " the other 'azvha (remaining) person, another"; c&gar limbs"; digar baradaran-ash ij*\)tij* jZt* "his other brothers" (Gul.,
>.*
^^
(class.),
or better with
:
U^^y^
Book I, St. 3). The expression ^* <^$j>& oJ>; ^. yak-i raft " is classical as 8 other remained well as
m.c.
digar-%
the
Yak
*
digar
^^ and
hatn dlgar
jl**.***
are
reciprocal pronouns
each
other,'
one another.'
I.
Remark
is
frequently
used as
an adverb signifying "otherwise, again, any more, why then," etc., as: j^Liu^JliJ j fi o*^^r^-* lia dlgar kas nam Da mshan-a,$h na-sMnavad (GuL, Book 3, St. of the Boxer, No. 68) "and no one ever hears of him again" here cRgarj^t* is an adverb " again," and does not qualify kas : digar payin" further down," tar
;
yi;
^J^a
{ni c.)
Remark
tl
II.
In compounds and
in
ct^^i
dt gar-gun
Bazarcha-yi qasab-faru$han digar ast store of Cairene cloth or silk have we."
(O.
vj>f jl
K. Rub. 58 Whin.)
another place."
lit,
"the mart
of the muslia-sellers is
Remark
III.
For the
vide
41
(p).
the other
* '
1).
;
^j
;
note position of
*'
^ of unity
in these
two words
^5^.^ means
chlz-i digar-l
should
mean
rectly
" the thing of some one else ; in m.e. however it often incorare These exceptions to rule. Instead of expressions thing."
**
C^34^
Remark
j^
)
^>*^ J oAjdJf JU
a^if
^C A^y **3ti^
.
c5X*u
4
JLc a^}f >j& JUtf j oJLycf Baxarcha *^> ^tj'j dimin. Qasab Persian).
u^ ji
in
v*
fine linen of
modern
100
INDEFINITE PBONOtJNS.
(2)
j*
JU
To
" is properly a substantive (pi. ag&yar Ex. strangers "). j*# ghayr 1 mal-i gbfiyr "some one else's property": cJi? ^j& o* 2*** #hakh$-i
:
gh&yr-i guft*
some one else said this." " the answer " are the question might be you a relation of theirs ? " I am an outsider.' *ri* ay* man gh&yra hastam (m.c.),
stranger,
'
"a
Dar
-5 ^f i
j>*t
p
his
^Ki/ fc/ob^i
me on
own
affairs
and those
of the
community
"
ghayr-i
^j*
stranger."
prefixed to substantives and adjectives, and Arabic " un- im- " etc., to form adjectives. 9 participles, with the privative sense " or uninhabited " Ex. gh&yr-i abad * *f j** < uncultivated gh&yr-i insaf
Remark.
Qhayr j+*
{
is
* c
o^l j**
manqula
<v
unjust" (but
ghayr insafl
if
the
omitted, as
**
^^\
A^y^ix)^ ghayr-i mankuha "unmarried, i.e. illegitimate (wife)"; **& jJ> g&ayr-i nafiz "inoperative, of no effect"; " maivrusi " not inherited (also ghayr-i mawrus ^5 ^))y*j** gkayr-i mod. Per.).*
immovable (property)
^ "
compound
(class.)
;
ivS
a substantive the
izdfat is
?**>. /
^^,
Ar.),
= " with jf ji
The
^3^^
izafat
^=
and uJJi^p^ va
;
"
et cetera"
compounds
^
is
perhaps a
corruption
of
the
final
^^,
kfwlis,
Mod, Pers M
**
impure/*
of
(l)^JUs^ yakdtgar (one word) classical (t another." Ex.: (numeral) and digarj&.z
dust mi-darim
compound
yak
**&
"one"
^*^f^** *z>**}*
"we
other":
" we went to each other's houses.*' bi-kkana-yi yakdigar YakcRgar j&.*& is used in colloquial only by educated people
^^
^1^
ham-dlgar
ji+*>
is
Remark
This
reciprocal
with
j&* 4J&
4^*r?i
J^
malri digar-i
**
The expression
;
o"ut p
is
Persian
B
fihakk* i yhayr-l is
used instead.
v**l*|
jg
uded after
ghayr j*P
in
compound
adjectives.
**'*4t
j**
It is
INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
101
is
Remark IL Note that in the second example <w^ would also be correct, but less usual, to use the plural
(2)
used collectively.
j&&
.c.)
oJ>x)f ^*j?,& p* v^* j' az *aqab-i ham-c&gar they are seated together amadand (Shah's Diary) they (the ships) followed one behind the other." " One " " some one " and <c a person.' (c) any one
:
"
p*>
ham
digar (m.c.)
f '
<
' *
'
(1)
"one"
with the
of unity).
Ex.:
sukhun bar In muqarrar ixiLU?^j ^ULjj ^^^aaJo tj ^j &$ j^^ax> ^j> ^^R id ki yak-i ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand va (Sa'dl) "it was
1
sided to appoint
e
.
"
dl)
to spy on
o) j:>
^
:
jyix> j| ^X* yak-i az muluk " some one loiocked dar zad yak-i (m.c.)
:
them
' '
the door."
anyak-i ^i (m.c.) "that one," " this one." Ex. 1 in yak-i <^>. pusht-i (m.c.) f* ^*U> jd ^^J of 6J I hid behind that there door." yak-i dar qcfim shudam (m.c.) "The one the other" is yak-i <^& dlgar-l v5>^^, or yak-l
'
^$
^^
c<
In
cc
j>*
<^ji.
'
Remark.
ir
Yak-i
*
is
also
a numeral
*j
what
is
average
tlie
answer might be
^ ^i
one in ten
rtridges, etc.)."
Note the following idiomn *>ty. ^H /**^ &+* hama bd-ham yak-i budand were all of one unanimous J^ -^} mind, key (yak-dil budand i{ in az 1 am one, alone," but yak-i man-am miyan n-yak-i~am ^ ^* ^^ ^ I am the one who ," * it^t ) f^o ^O (Saklf) is FaM For yak-i ^, adv.. ** in the tirst place," w/e Adverbs,
:
^^
^
^
>
For yak
e
41
(a)
unity, oneness, concord." the numeral, as a substitute for the indefinite article, vide also under Numerals. JLfa yaka u tanha ^p j ^i &*> (m.c.
<-?,
44
y)
"
alone."
of ox=*( ahad* (the Arabic numeral "one" with the Persian the in with m.c. is used as ty), though practically the same only yak-i <^, b in the negative, vide <l No one " (d) (6).
(2)
l Note the Preterite tense is used to signify that not only was the decision arrived but that ifr was carried out.
lasht
Haklm-l guft khilaf-i In *a/o6 budl ki an yak-i bisyar-bhwar bud halak shud va an dlgar tehwlsktanrdar bud "
ffiqat-i
b*-nava*-i
jt
** a philosopher replied> 'the contrary would have been strange because (Sa*di) former was a great oater and could not stand the fasting, so he died ; but the second
latter)
3
was accustomed
to abstinence.
'
'
Or
102
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark.
The broken
:
plural of
ahad **M
is
ahad
^f
"units,
alaJf
indivi-
duals.'*
Ex.
f^
j$
*$ i)\* if**
\)>
k&
^ of*^ cx^
:
&)j~$ j>
&&
mam
(Sa'dl)
chandan jafd u iawbikh rava nami-darl ki " he said you do not treat the sons of any one of my
jl c^ *^ fV<^ fj *& C5J^ ahad-t az ahad ra na-didam ki chunm kar-l bi-kunad (m.o.) " I never saw any one else do such a (disgraceful) thing as you have done."
you use
to
my
son
"
&V^
**
^T
or t^~$\ kas or kas -t. body said that ." Sa'di says
(3) ^v-^
:
Ex.
^0^^^
kas-% guft ki
"some
Kas na-<Rdam
Rectitude (or truth) is the means of pleasing God. Never have I seen an upright man forsaken."
**
Gar
bi-ja-yi nan-ash
Ta qiyamat
e
(Sa'di).
an
ki
danad ki bi-kas^
he replied because he relies on what he knows, viz. that na-guyam I won't repeat things to any one vide also example in Remark to (a) (1) ** ki sukfaan j'jf v^xyo ^ ^i& ^)^ (^> J^ t^*-"* t5*y c^k juz
(Sa dl)
' %
'..*
**
bi-hukm-i zarurat na-guftl va mulib-i azar-i kas bi-zaban-ash na ra//? (Sa'df) * 4 who never spoke unless it was necessary, nor unbridled his tongue to " hurt anyone's feelings Mif *Ua> ^ ; (in m.c, ka$-i instead of kas)
:
/^ ^
^>r?
i^^?M
u^ ^W
*'
u^
7X?
^ j"^ ^
body ')
1
bl-jan bi-ranjand*
c^
four people live in dread of four other people '* : jj !>^ qaza-ra az kasan-i u yak-l hazir bud" by chance one of his
was present."
used in the sense of "noble"
<*
Remark.
Kas
<jr* is also
(i.e.
some-
as opposed to na-kas
^&
ignoble,
mean"
Jn
rn.c.
lcas-1
**
<B5~*$'
this person." Care must some one," but ^^^1 n kaa word kas ijr* and not kus ^* (whence the Arabic kus}.
4*
Kaa
4 4
"a person, a body"; chunin koaqn eJ^ is properly a substantive, {jf such persons. ' 4 In m.c. and in prose kas-i ra \j ^j~ would be used for has ^jr^ in the example. " thafe 8 Ex.: person.* ^f J^>4J U vi^Xj (J3^^ da*t^f an kas
e^^
^f ^
' * 1
aah
bi-girift ta bi-manzil-i
" and
"are,
:
or else
person
both correct.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
103
Nd-kas
"
bi-tarbiyat na-shavad,
ay hakim, kas
(Sa'dl).
How
An
can a
ignoble
man make a good sword from bad iron ? man becomes not oh philosopher, noble by education."
;
ast
exi
*&~-
^^
$ Uj^cf (m.c.)
" he has
dar-i
kdm u
drzu dar-bastam
Nor sue
for favours
'
Kas u nd-kas
Kam-tar
kas-%
^^
^^
f at
^
(C
"
^ ^
"
adarn,
:
friendless, destitute,
an orphan,"
^j^^,
are rn.c.
as well as classical.
(4)
"One":
<c
^tf
adami,
&{~*i\
insdn
* c
man"; oaJi
:
shakhs*
(lit,
a person." Ex. oi**o c^*^ ^T adam hayrat mikunad ki "one a man) wonders that " insdn could be substituted in such sentences
;
*&jj*>
vi
ij
4ja^
iX?Ui
the scent
of the
roses
<S*A
intoxicates one
^U
^J^t
^f
shakhs na-bdyad In harna subuk bdshad 4i a person, (a man) ought not to be so (jaii^ (m.c.)
impatient."
Remark!.
s**j
oa=R-
shajchs-i
vahid, <x
jj
&jf
Ex.: **a person, some one." single individual," and shakh$*i ^*&** t o^ij ^?** &xsu wf^+i j& shakhs-i vdhid bd dah nafar nami-tavdnad
"a
<4
bi-jangad
single individual
(to
cannot
me)
"
fight
with ten
:
men":
^f
^^^
means
but^^
shakhsi adj
(note accent)
^personal."
Adam f^ and
mean *'man"
as opposed to
**
latter is also
not a savage.'
The following classical sentence, Mi-tarsa'nmabada va in hamrchunan ast ki bi-panja-yi shir giriftar shudan
adam-i jangalibi-yuftam
^'
(^^
S^"
*^*><V f>4*
^^^
j&j! j% rendered Va
,j)Ji
*$ <?"J^ *^
*^^*l
vy^*u^
^| j |^AXJ
(class.),
would
in
modern Persian be
shavad
girifffir
*
8
The
plural of
In m.c.
g$
or
*f glj or glch
in this sense.
104
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark
II.
The
indefinite
pronoun
"one"
*
in English, or
' '
:
may
whoever
*z+**\
cu*,|y
^U^j
is
parishan-tar ast
is
the
more one
(v)
;
whoever
nearer
4
is
45
^^xslj ^4J t;jA. AJ^iu ^iti c/ *!) )* j* harki dar zindagl na-khurand chun bi-mwad nam-ash na-barand (Sa'dl) "when a man's bread is not eaten in his lifetime, his name is not mentioned after
oijAJ
nan-ash
death."
The following
is
often quoted
" one" can only be expressed by putting the second the Aorist or into Past verb, person singular, as, gu*i Habitual, " '* you would say <^^y ^**j &* ^-^t^t ^j^*> j~/\ ^lia. $j*) &j fkojf izdiham-i zan u mard chundn-ki agar sar-i suzan-l-andakhll bi-zamln na-ras%di
(6)
The
indefinite
pronoun
(H. B. Chap. XI) "such a crowd of men and women that were one to throw (or had you thrown) a needle's point amongst them it wouldn't have reached the ground."
(d)
"No
&
(1) <_r'
$**
Jilch
kas
Sa'dl says
&>
&itiJ\
^ ^ ^ #&
y
or
kas
Ex.
na-kard
ta
<tf
*'no
'
me
"
;
^^>ojU^
**
^ ^ ^Jf
UUJ^
}t
^ &&
fit
for this
y&k az shuma-ha
layiq-imarhatmt-Iid'yimanmstid (m,c.) "none of you is deserving of my kick yak ma jam kindness" qalam-band ^ f^xU J^ &*/ xu
;
fl~-*ju
^15
^
"
I was unable to commit to writing any (Afghan) " &*> %*> d* 3 u j )j* rH* chaskm-i mur n one of the adventures ; " none has na-did kas ever seen ant's mulla nan-i (modern saw) pd-yi mar u * bread." eye, snake's foot, or Mulla's
kardan na-tatvanistam
<S
oJifc
*
*?**>
Mch
:
tl
na-guft
vide also
he said nothing
(/) (2)
hlch kas
nayamad
no one came"
and
110 (m).
Note
'
this
method
'
*
8
Nothing
is
in English a noun.
should be
riist
*^**J
this
is
an
example
6
so noticeable in
modern
Persian.
bi-kunam f&* * ^L-ofyu^j fj UyxU Jf cJo gA. * Mullas In m.c., rtMla-zada bleed people and are not bled.
*
'
fofj
H*
is
almost the
equivalent of
stingy/ etc.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
105
Hich *$*, which is used adjectively and substantively is applicable to substantives, animate or inanimate. As an adjective, it preRemark.
,
cedes
its
substantive.
(2)
"Some, any."
"
:
times implies
&**>
*'
none,"
Example
" Even should he become a Faridun in wealth and possessions, Do not consider the ignorant (mean) person anybody."
So^jAa. grAfr ($)*** ($* tu-yi sanduq Inch chtz hast "is there anything <l in the box?"; ^f l*vvi <^x> ^f g* hich adam-l inja amad did any man come here?": **&**> yf^r" g& hich mard-l nayamad "no man came": Mch kas is there hast one there ? z "
^A
hich
gtt*
ixiqt
hich
oJ^ g*A any mara yad mi-kuni " do you ever remember me?"; <c have you ever gone there " yah anja rafta-l (class.)
anja
;
'?
l '
j
hidihl (m.c.)
(3)
t4
^.'f vajh ^t^ can you by any means complete this work
^^V
A ^=?-^
hi-liich
mi-tavarii in kar-ra
?
anjam
"
<*& and
its
negative.
tf
Q.
kt
nothing," be ir*A
To the
no one."
who
is
there
* 4
Similarly
^e*
A-
"*
f,
siguilies
"
;
JJ^
^>
"
it is
nothing
"
:
In hama Jiicli ast chun mi-bugzarad Bakht u takht u amr u nahy u glr u dar.
passes away, (viz.) fortune and sovereignty, ordering and counter-ordering, empire and dominion." (Sa'di.)
is all
" This
naught, since
it
Hich vaqt
*^**>
ever
"
;
hich vaqt-na **
^.)*
^5 g*A
'
never."
Ex.
ghulam
W *&*>
-^
*r-y*
(*^* (v^a'di)
A hich ka#-l nist c^-oji or hich mar d nist^** &j* gt LT^gf*** ' * " he is of no sometimes the latter account, a poor creature signifies
;
>;t^
4^^
no
manhood
").
106
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Dunya
Van
ast.
" You see the world, but all you see is naught, And all you say, and all you hear is naught."
(0. K.,
"He
(m.c.), or
is
3 az hich chiz kamtar ast* ^<~\ jr^+O*^ g** az hich hich-tar ast ss^f j**** 31 y
less
than nothing
"
^A
Remark. It must, however, be borne in mind that Ac/i g**> properly " <f <c eating nothing is means " anything/' and WcA-na ^ thus, nothing " better than eating bad food would be rendered by hich na-lchwnrdan bihta,r
khurak khurdan
at
all,
^^ ^\>y^ g*
ever?"
Example:
^^
jW
^^sfej Q**
if it
while hich
(Indian)
would mean,
better
meant anything
is
than/'
(4)
"At
all,
In interrogative phrases
implies "ever, at
all;
in the least."
Ay
44
ki hargiz faramush-at
na-kunam
(Sa'di).
Hicli-at az
Oh
Dost thou at
"
'(
(Sa'dl).
:
^
**
it)
" " do r *f-2af (m.e.) h* c& you play the guitar at all 1 ** would it be (or is hich mi-slwvad u-ra bi-blnlm (m.c.)
&
at
us to see
him ?
' '
Remark.
futile."
**
contemptible, anything
silly
or
(like
(of
har j&) can be joined with kudam f\<*$, as, hich kudam the negatwo); anyone (of three or more)." With
tive, it signifies
" neither
Remark.
Isfari
Hich
(
*&
are called
p*& o/^
or
mubham
' '
p**> f~\
is
Indefinite Pronoun.
,
(6)
No one
:
"
vide
(c)
(m.c.)
in the negative)
(i.e.
e^
barham na-khurd.
(Shah's Diary)
upset (sea-sick).
For
Vaan
c/f
>
v^f>A *J^
2
9
(m.c.).
(rare).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(7)
107
Ghlz j#$-
or
"
by a negative verb
signifies
"So-and-So, such and such, Snooks, what' s his name ": &* fulan (in is a designation of an undefined person or thing, present or
&%* absent; as an adjective it precedes its substantive, as: fulan-kas " such a *$ <**U ^JU person." Ex.: p*.*(& ^aiy*^ cJ^^j t; yjf o)l^ va " basharat avard fulan qal'a ra bi-dawlat-i khudavandl kushadim (Sa'df)
1
fortress
' '
:
j^U
^jlk'
j^ j
cfii
^^
gu-*i
&A~ s$ ci-si?
f^
t5^; i
l
^)
f
j*.
ra guft ki
dar
liaqq-i
fulan
abid
(Sa d!)
"a
man
asked a pious ascetic what his opinion was concerning a certain religious " <vf (^iu* or ^^) ^j &%*, or *<1 &&* fulan amad, or fulan kas person
;
(kas-l or
shakhs)
fl
&&*
&>*
&.* eA>
dar
fulan iarikh
L
sana-yi fulan
on such a date
is
in such a year."
Ya
fulan
Fulan
e>j
etc., is used.
Remark
e>&, as: in
I.
The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used with fulan s< that **this So-and-So*' and an fulan eJ^i c^T fulan &&*
So-and-So."
is used for men or women and Remark II. In vulg. ni.c., yaru sometimes for things, as: yaru aniad **$ jfa ** So-and-so (man or woman)
came"
yam
^^i*
ra hiyawr *j*
s<
fjj^t-
bring the
wine"
gaming
futanl
is
refers
I)
to persons
only,
An
exception
fa
^&*
bring
it
A caller,
**$
In poetry fulani
signifies
a mistress.'
Fulan u Bahman
J^* and vulgarly Fulan u PasJimadan &]*+* ) &&* are also used for persons or things when there are more than one, as: Fulan u Bahman am" So-and-So with So-and-So came " adand ai*vf fulan u pashma-
cA^ ^W
^iii?
dan guftand
&1*+^j &&*
(m.c.)
"they
said such
^*)^j
and
;
*8bid
^^
the
former
*56d
*jl* signifies
Note the
*
of unity.
The
an inde-
cent signification.
108
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Fulan
the former
that
is, if
e;lU
is
can be used as an adjective, but fuldm ^llt cannot. indefinite (nakira *j&) and the latter definite (ma'rifa *
his listener,
referring to a person known to the speaker and would be used, otherwise fulan &&*. ^jiU
Fulan u
yjUx
&&?
is
also used in
modern
P<
" What's
-
his
Ex.
Uf ^Uu JAA. A^U foYaw; bigu bi-chi ch/iz, bi-Haji Agha (m.o.) whaVs his name, I mean Haji Agha " ^-^ f^, ^f e/ t>#->^ *^ c <( what's his name came to me (jj pisA-t maw amad-cfiulam Hasan Hasan." In,^>f ^J ^Hi ^$< )\ ^j^^ b^ ^5-f ay saba nakJiat-1 az kii-yi
:
"
go ar
'
ma'sJiuq.
Remark.
dard ra dava-i
e
this disease there is no cure, but the gall of a human bein| (Sa dl) has such and such qualities," the word fulan could be substitut<
" for
Both," and
neither of two."
4
**^^^> ^ >>^* har-du "both." Examples: ^j&> ra girift {m.c.} shutur oJ/ har du linga ra bar-i shut-ur karda mahar-i loaded the camel with both its loads and took hold of the nose-stri
J
(1)
A^
^^f^1 is*f J4^*^? M^^ J^j-tf bi-liar du dast dar dumbal-i kishti avikkl. (J he seized and clung with both hands to the stem (or perhaps the m of the ship " ***O^ ^^ j/ ^ tjj*j* of j** ^*^ guff biglr an har du tura sad dinar bidiMm 4C he said save both of those two and I will give
**
;
hundred dinars"
c *
5
;
+**j
^
* '
^ ma
liar
du
j*
we both went.
Note the demonstrative or relative (^5For har j* " every ", vide (?). " one out of a Linga ^*J is pair; the load
of
Mdhar jV*
is
certain districts
(Khurasan
mahar (camel without a nose-string) signifies refractory dering aimlessly ": commonly used in India. 6 Formerly a coin of value. At the present day a dinar is an imaginary infinitesimal value fifty go to one shahl or to a half penny of English money. tf for "and " j would be unidiomatic.
;
:
wooden key in the nose mahar )\%* is not used, the loading^ The classical expression jf* (jttj*** *' " and sometimes "
l
co
N<
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
In m.c.
109
j*y*
:
is
and
affixed pronouns as
l
ma dmad%m we following examples or or har or v^^ j^j** e^All tsj* j* har du-yishdn, cJ&^ y*, " l du-shdn, or har-du-yi uhdn "both of them t><jl>*y> har du-ash rd biydr (m.c.), or^Uj I; <jL>)*j*> har du-yash rd biydr (m.c.), (or har du shdn rd
shown in the " both came
har du-yi
:
^^T ^ ij*j*
"
biydr
^ lyU ^
e<
yfc)
"
is
for living
things only.
Remark.
In m.c., liama
all
si
shahr
three
cities.
"
<w
<u*, etc.,
si
"Neither
(of
o^
ty )
two) va turd
"
'
is
m har du nist
4t
expressed by j& with a negative. Ex. " arid both these (qualities) are
:
va sarv rd hich az
qualities
(3)
m har du nisi
"
(Sa'di).
mentioned
''Both."
is
A g- U J^r**J and the cypress has nothing of these two Fufealso (d) (1).
:
*^~**>
)&j*> e^3
Persian i#nayn,
(4)
in
Indirect
:
ways
of expressing
"both"
examples
pjjjj ji j
^j^j
md
:
go him, let 5 ou and him both go*"; ** f^f rd biydr, or more commonly In u an rd-bii/dr j$*
?
"
^y
us both (you and me) go t^f ) n dnlia, (or md bd dnhd) Mravim (m.c.) "let us both (us and them) " y b {+> shumd bd u (or shumd va u) bi-ravid (m.c.) you go with
^yc Mian
it
tu bi-rdvim
"
let
"
that
(i.e.
both)."
s<
(5)
Both sides"
<J^b ji
y* Imr du
tf
faiaf: also expressed by the Arabic the two sides, both sides; the con-
Remark.
etc.
du
<*
both," are
^uyfc Jiar $i
<c
all
three/*
<(
Ex.
*&*>jj*
&j^
V^ 7~*vJ*
^iar
P^^j^db-i
Ichud-ra farukhtam
I sold
all five of
my
<c
books."
<c
Some, several, sundry, few." Qhand ***., or chand-i ^^- a few," signifies an indefinite quantity it precedes or follows its substantive, which should be in the singular, and may or may not have the ^ of unity.
(g) (1)
;
Or har
(m.c.).
* '
<1u
t&
man arnadlm
* '
^^
^
e>^
<jlt
U
*
8
Neither
<c
nor
Lit.
na
&* na.
say
"
Note that the order of the persona is the reverse to that and thou (or you) *' and the English " you and I,"
in English
the Persians
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS,
M^rrf (Sa'df) "in short he sunl " s 6ar amad (Sa'dl) **f e*oOJ!> *** cAaweZ y5 6ar a few times" " few days after this"; *ia.*&if kalima-i chand (Sa'di) "a few words " " I went a few *ia. steps qadam-i-chand biraftamt (Sadi)
l
:
^Ly
<y<>**
^U
(Sa'di)
Chand
indefinite
***- is
an adjective.
'
<jr.
Remark.
ten.
Chand
.
1***-
a few
'
....
dilir.
Shah-Nama Book
4, Giriftar
shudan-i Mahuy-i
Sun
va kushta shudan-i u
Turk. bi-farman-i Bizhan-i its substantive, which is in (2) In modern Persian, chand^s*- precedes of unity, and the verb is generally in the the singular with or without the
***> chand sarbdz rafland* "a few soldiers went ": j*> murdand* chand-i (Afghan) "a few died"; j&**xL *&*. chand *^<y t5*^ <v some men," serving but^jK^<x^3f ^coia. chand-i az khidmatgar khidmatgar
plural.
ha
**
frequently put in the singular, 4uUJ (^4^ J&* chand nafar Isfahan* nishasta bud there were Ex. : some Isfahanis seated (there) "; the verb should be in the plural (budand
Colloquially
is
4 *
^^ c^)j> dar miyan-i darya in the midst of the sea there were chand kuha-yi digar ham budand, the singular should be used with the verb some other rocks," kuh kasan Chand &L~f <*&*. though sometimes used in m.c., in the singular.
il
***
&
is incorrect.
(4)
The Afghans
u
(not the Persians) in speaking frequently use a plural Ex. *>^ <*JU& ? oUxl<* ) * chand
:
^3y
e^U <i%
*^
**
o^cd^sxj rnasldfyat an ast ki chand riiz-lbi-shahr dar-ayi J*jr*t L5JJ) '* it is proper for you to come and stay in the city for a while." (m.c.)
2
6
*^
is
iJj) ^^
(class.); also
m .c.)
Ex.
The hamza
Chand Or bud
for the
^ of unity.
Colloquially, raft
nafar-l
l^?.
*
^
c*j the singular is used; but incorrectly. murdand *^>*y ^$j&> **%- a vulgarism and incorrect.
tajir j*>^ jto
the commoner.
This
is
Vjf
kothi.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
HI
owners of warehouses were sitting (there)"; &> ^Uy&Cf &*. ckand a 1 angushtarha-yi tila "a few finger- rings of gold*'; *# ($j* fUjf >ia. chand " there were several kinds of bud
aqsam-i 'araq
(6)
(m.c.)
spirits."
In m.c., <j?^ chand-i,OT yak-chand-1 ^v^ cJo, means (f alittle while," 3 Uuf several times. Ex. *& **>* ^aia* a*' <JUUJ( ^A. Haklm-^-lMamamlik ki chand-% bud mja buddida shud (Shah's Diary) " the Hakim^-l
:
" 4 Mamalik, who had been here for some time, was interviewed by us < s-^ " I have been here for some ^i*A UsJuf O*~A chand-i hast mja hastam (m c.)
;
time
"
e^^jt
1
^*?
tc
"
^^t^ CIA^I^ chub-i ki dar dast dasht chand-i bar sar-i u zad $ j\ j> j* o " he struck him several times with the stick he held in his hand." Af. )
(
)*
J*-
Remark
chand-gah
*
I.
chand-l
^5-^
is
used for
**
chand waqt
m.c.),
chand bar
*ia. (classical
and
m.c.),
c<
a few
"
;
*xx^
c^^ ya ^ dwnd
(6) txio.
budand
(m.c.)
tan-l
tan-i
chand
(class.) signifies
w^
sJjJ
i2*>
C^A.^
man
^it^ jj> *xj^x**jjb c>VV L azmuda ra bi-firistadand ta. dar shi'b-i jabal pinhan shudand (Sa*d!) " certain experienced veterans were senfc to hide in a ravine in the mountains."
W
,
**?*$ *-&* 3 *>^^ ***f^ c>l^ 3t ^. (^J to?^i chand az mardan-i vaqi'a $ida va jang
fj
In
is
in.c.
<xxa.
tan-t chand,
J&
*^ chand nafar
used.
(7)
(8)
For chand &*. as an interrogative, vide 37 (w). Yak-chand **& and chand ta U ooia. "a few, a
:
little,
somewhat."
vide (5) Remark II. Yale chand takes a singular noun, but a plural verb $ the verb is in If ta is added, however, the singular, as yak chand ta
:
mard
bud.
Yak-chand-%, adv.,
is
vide
(5).
with
the
demonstrative
&\***>
pronouns, ^^xia.
chandln
"so much
36(6).
For chandan
vide
ki
&|jJLa-
as, as
long as,"
etc.,
92
(d) (13).
I.
Remark
1
Chand
***. is
a-if,
and andak
Or
singular.
qisni (*>~*
ally
In the m.c. of Persia, aqsam f\~$\ the broken plural of be used under the impression that it was a singular word.
8
might occasion-
4 i.e. days,
chand
ta (m.c.) is used.
112
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark II. Ghand *** is only used for things that can be counted. For quantity that can be measured <^)* and;*fc* are used vide (h).
l
:
For para tyk some, a few," etc., vide (p) " a little quantity/' Somewhat, (h). (1)
"
(2).
^^
qadr-i.
Ex.:
qadr-% ab bi-dih "give (me) a little water"; jV *>^ ^AJ qadr-t jaw biyar " a little. " Vide barkh-i etc., "bring a little barley."
{(
(2) (3)
is j*$ ^f 'in qadr. So much, this quantity " " That c>f an qadr. much, that quantity is
"
^^
"
(4)
How
vide
Remark.
csrj*, et c. ? is
measured
II
"
(i)
whole"
etc,
(1) **a>
also
its
Persian,
<UA
precedes or follows
means
' 4
"
In classical
8
marduman
jjkiij
^^
c^y
all
*+*
Aama
;
the
men "
<UA
<
the
v^^yc
or)
^.^c
mardum
(or
marduman hama
raftand "all
(class,
and modern).
In the Gulistan, hama *** generally precedes its substantive (without an izafat), and the substantive and the verb are in the singular 6 or plural
" the whole according to the idea conveyed. Ex. _*& <*+* hama shab (Sa'di) " " the whole *** hama 'umr of one's life." night j+*
:
Naml-blm
4<
Biyalayad hama gavan-i dih-ra? (Sa*dl). Dost thou not see that one ox in a meadow
Can contaminate
all
"
?
l^e
is
;
A**
hama
is
the plural
1
aybha (class.) "all the vices" (i.e. every vice there here used in an intensive sense 7 to signify numbers).
l
Qadr-l; qadr, A.
and
P., signifies
4 *
quantity, value
' '
and qadar, P.
' 4
(in
Arabic qadr}
*'a person
"
signifies
fate,
preordained destiny."
* '
Hence
as
who maintains
*
opposed
to
cr*^
jdbri
predestination, a fatalist/'
To be
distinguished from
>^ ju
or
c$^
'
'
or juy (also
;
jtib)
*'
c51?^ jav-l
is
it
has also a
plural
6 9
Similarly
long times"
is
stronger than
]
&*** muddat-i
^a long
tirne
>f
:
X>U
^J^G ^^o
<
he was
ill
for ages."
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
113
gar
if
U
(Sa'dl)
'
' '
&+*
^
'
pe
&*.
&ug guyand
chi
gham
hama
'alarn
murdand.
"they say 'what concern of ours is it, here dlam is a collective noun perish ?
;
signifying
all
the people
of the world
'
:
Dar hama
(Sa'dl).
and gold come from stone "Though Not in every stone is found gold and silver
silver
.jj-
Chu
'*
dast az
hama
hilat-l
dar gusist
(Sa'di).
When
every
^single)
Then only
<xJL.JL
is it
oJbo
^ ^1^
A^
JA.
(^+*3
hllatrl
dar
mdnad
has failed by every single stratagem (to injure you), he then tries to make friends with you." In the last three examples hama, with the
( *
each
' '
or
6 '
' '
every
considered
hama
In classical Persian
follows
it
it either precedes its without an izafat, as apposition (of corroboration **?$ WA In modern Persian, e;!^* though the same con3 -^*^ ,^ ^(*;l^. structions are used, it is usual for hama A** to precede its substantive and be
in
coupled to it by an izafat: in this case it is obviously a noun. In Indian Persian, hama <U<* is treated like an ordinary adjective, it precedes its substantive without an izafat or follows it with one
i.e.
:
it
can also follow in apposition. 4 (2) In modern Persian, hama <u* generally precedes the substantive with 5 Ex. oo j/of 1^3 ** tiama-yi zanhd dmadand 'or zanhd hama amadand) the izafat. " all the women came." However, hama zanhd dmadand is correct (though
:
^^f-
For zar )}
,'
Or wand
^^
OiL^^i
Tamarn
8
(sing.)
<iAJj/x* j^>
^*A hama-y> shahr mt-guyand "all the people of the city say."
shud
f\+*
and jami'
***> are
izafat.
114
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
rare)
even in m.c. ;
*-**
&* hama-yi
" and jjj $+* shab " the whole of the night " but hama shdb *+* v* (or hama-yi
;
l^ fa) and hama ruz jj; *+* " o~>! " and " " every day every night & qassab ast (modern vulgar and incorrect)
shabha
;
(or
hama-yi ruzha
Ujjjj
*A
*)
mean
V UJ
e(
^^ *+* ^
"
(collective noun).
In modern Pe&ian, hama **A with a singular noun is equivalent to harj*, and should be followed by a singular verb, but vide end of (4).
Remark.
(3)
*f
Before the affixed pronoun U& there is no izafat. Ex. Jtt M> k julga hama-ash ba safa u zabz u abad ast (m.c.) "the >Vf ) jb J
]
**U
valley, the
whole of
it, is
Before the affixed plural pronouns, the izafat is either omitted or inserted $+&> hama-yi shan or &+* or &( hama *+A in speaking. Ex. <M*? " 6 are bad." them of all bad-and hama-shan (or hama*yi anha l^f ^** )
after
:
&&
Remark.
fiama *+*
:
Even
omit
the omission
Hama-yi
\n
mardum fty
however, rarely made even by the educated. " but In hama lt all these people
:
** may mean either all these ambiguous, f$j* *+&' (in.e.) budand ki people' or "so many people." In hama mardum jam' shuda
mardum
as
it
dlgar ja na-bud
*& ^ji>*
there
*$
^>?
**$
ft
(m.c.
is
so
many
people
had
collected that
was no room
However,
(4)
more"
"everything," hama-ja U- <w* "everywhere," " andAa/na tf *+* hama-kas always*' are vagi cJ> A*A 'every body, " all this In hama classical as well as rn.c. malcKarij ^;i=^ **t^f expense"
chiz
Hama
J^
&+*
is
followed
either
;
mind
plural
verb
a+* (in.c.)
Also
*j)j
^*A hama-ruza
every day.'*
a
3
No izafat :
^ji"
*+*>
J^
hama
$ang-i
*
6
Abad means "cultivated" and hence '* populous "; *~*** ^A^T ^^xijl mjaabadi nlst means "there is no cultivation here," or "there is no human habitation here."
For neuter things hama-yi anha bad
1
ast
c^|^
l^if
JUA.
the verse
** <^* ^ M ^
fj
hama
kas
<U* occurs as a
hama
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
116
*+* (m.c.) " all the people
"
everybody came
vide
"
;
(i) (2) Remark. The (5) Afghans in speaking also say hama Icasan ^^> 4Ua. " all (6) The m.c. expression p* csP *** hama tu-yi ham means together, *+* *+A hama dar-ham ^\ ^ bar-ham); indiscriminately" (= ^<y f*)t> ba in hama (classical and modern) "with all this, nevertheless, in spite " o*u*3 A+A " of all this ^f In hama nisi this is not all, something remains."
came,"
Remark.
It
will
&+*>
hama
is
generally treated as a
m.c.
The regular plural of UA hama, c>&*-* hamagdn is old and not used in Hamginan &{&+& is generally used as the plural of hama <*+*, and
whole collection regarded as individuals. is omitted in Persian, there diacritical bar of
signifies the
As the
' '
is
nothing in
panion
(8)
^^O) hamagi
^^fi
az hamagi-yi zanan
JJt>i**i
jumlagi is from aJU^ jumla (vide 9). Ex, " out of all the women (m.c.) ; <^>J* j!
1
dan bi'kiimmd
(m.c.)
^+* &*
n^ n hamagl-yi chlzha-yi khud- ra avardam {S I brought all f-jyf l> -^ ^^>^ my things." Hamctgl ^t+A also, like hama *+&, can follow the substantive
in apposition.
Hamagi
refer to the
collection.
went,
" but
by a plural verb, unlike hamginan e>&+* does not whole regarded as individuals, but to the whole regarded as a It is generally followed by a plural verb, as o*l>% (J +& fi all
:
^^, followed
vi*of
V^L
c<
J^tt+A
(t
all
of
it is
good,"
Hamagl
is
is
rarely used.
(9)
Jumfa
*W
sum, whole,
total,
:
usually followed
{ '
by the
"
izafat.
;
Ex.
^ ^Wt~*
Miwalmamti
welfare for you and the whole of the " the whole of the lashkar army (Sa'dl)
fy vi^f ^^ ^b^ &s guft du'a-yi m (a dl) " he said, a prayer of Muslim people* " j& ^Ua. jumla-yi "
f
y ^U^ j
it is
oUJjf
^U^
az
all
creation
*
"
;
jumla-yi kafinvt
ft
the
u***~j* eHH^
ejtlaJU
agar
man
Arabic.
^^
Hama
*+*
is
is
Jumlagi
1
course a Persian
noun.
*> is
CS"
***
There should be no
izafat after
gbuday though
colloquially
it is visually
inserted.
116
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
" had I fear< tarstdami ki tu az Sultan az jumla-yi siddlqan budaml (S'adi) God as you do the King, I would have been one of the Faithful * Testifi
A^ <&** jt ^ va az jumla-% ki dar firaq-i u guftam (*& J <3y j* and the following is an extract from all that I composed c (Sa'dl) separation (his separation from me) "; <xi^ ll^L aJU.^ jumla khata ka (S'adl) "the whole missed the mark"; jumla talaf shud *& cAtf <*JU*. whole was destroyed." Jumla <*JU*a> occasionally follows its substantive in apposition.
cx*t e^t
*'
Remark.
"out
of the whole,
' '
example";
jumla
* c ' *
*JUaaJ
"in substance, in short"; <*JUJf * "in short aJU^ ^-c /?- I- jumla
'
;
Jumlagi ^&+=*- (also ^t^*"^ jumlaht, rare) universality, total TJiere is properly a shade of difference in meaning between jumla Ai* Ex.: jumla-yi zanan amadand oJ<^of ^Uj ^JU^. "the jumlagi ^U^ or nearly of the whole of the women came," but jumlagi-yi zanan anu
(10;
li
Ra'iyyat-i
an
" the people (peasantry, etc,) of that district be 51 subject to him in a body (at once and without exception) jiJ t: the whole of the army"; i>- u&+*> jumlagl-yi jwmlagi-yi lashkar
(Sa'di)
(m.c.)
(i
Remark.
All
kama,
or
jumla
came," can be expressed by hamagi (or jumlagt, la Hamagi, (etc.) yi-khnrak sarf <*U^) aniadatid.
if
all
'
Some
are
Persians maintain that these uses of hamagi ^U& and jumlagi vulgar, and that tbe two \vords should be considered adverbs
4
zanan jumlagi amadand* <xi>^f ^^U^ &k\ the women came in a body.' (11) Jam!' *+^- *all, the whole, universal," is always followed by a Ex.: pj* *+*>jami'-imardum <4 all men, or all the men " i^)^^^^ fat. " zanhd " all or all the
;
women,
women"
^CSJ
of the
army
is
"
;
^^^
jami*-i lashkar
the
but in ^a*>f
^
*'
the
of the people
came," U**^
Mi
+%, as occasionally used for ^j+^x. tc of all the sons Adam, mankind."
majmu
-i
banl
Adam
ftf
^u
Siddlq
&&**
*'
" sincere,
Note the
true.'*
^ of ^
is
Or
zariun birjumlagi
(m.c.).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(12) Sa*ir
117
is
properly signifies ''the remainder, the rest," but ' it is always the whole frequently employed in Persian to express l U <xU> an Ex. followed by LS\A*- A-UsJf j *j& jf izafat. ^J*** j ^*(**>
' '
yU
'
(jp**o fi-l-jumla chlz-i na-mand az sa*ir-i ma'asl vamunkar-l ki na-kard va muskir-l ki na-khurd (Sa'df) " in short there was no sin nor forbidden thing
^*u *
that he had not committed, nor intoxicant that he had not tasted."
(13)
flj|
*&
*f
kaffa
"all, universal";
and
<uiU> qatiba
;
''altogether,
(
all."
&
kaffa-yi
^Jb
&H kaffa-yi
iilum "all
u^^
3'
^'
^^
'
kaffa-yi
anam
az khawass
u 'awamm.
(Sa'di)
everybody high and low.' These two words are not in common use.
,
Remark.
totality."
(14)
**^ kaffata
nn
and
*..
<:
all
of
them, in
Tamam
all
"
is
both a substan
live
it is
tv
and an
adjective,
/?5/a#-constructions as
kama
the whole day/* and Ujj +'*3 tamam-i shakr (m.c.) "all the city
^j^
**
;
^jJUx* fl+itamam-i makhlitq (m.e.) i chizJta (or fa mamchiz) hazir shud (ni.c.) fU3
;
3 ^Ui tamam-i ruz (m.c.) " ^ tanmm-i ntzJm (m.e; every day " " all
Ex.:
^^
)U>
j^.
+\+Z
the samo
tamnm
tammn}
'*'the full
moon.'*
&*)\z 4i>^U5
^W
UM
(0.
**
tamam na-t<tmamau darand And clumsiest workmen own the finest tools/'
A#bab-i
K. 141 Whin.).
tamam
when
it
precedes
/.
its
substantive.
kar-chi lamam-tar
Remark
as possible."
The phrase
:
as possible," as
6? zudl-yi
^U3
*xy* s?^*^
as qoickly
Remark
II.
Tamam
;
ended, finished"
(15)
shwlan &*> fU* "to be completed" or tamam kardan &>>/ ^Ui ** to complete, finish off/'
fc
to
be
Instead of
tamam
j*U5,
the adjective
fti
tamm
(class.) is
sometimes
The demonstrative C5 .
1
*' rast ra zinat-i rastl taniam aat to the right (Sa*di) ^U5 u$^\) ^^i) \) *&\) * and in itself.* sufficient hand is ornament its the the fact of complete right (hand), being
o**>t
In India
tamam
118
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
used in writing.
(16)
Tamm u tamam
'*
fti
Tamami <yU3 (m.c.), substantive, is also sometimes used f*j* " all the men." tamami-yi mardum is a substantive, old, but is still (17) Tamamat e^U3 (class and Indians in Ex. vi>&^ c^U> tamamat-i p by Afghans writing.
:
Remark.
(18)
UoW tamam*"
**
is
Kull J^ substantive
in
common
i^f kull u
universal, the whole, each": ** u- y n-nas lt all the people, ^liJf <Jf kull
Kull JS
the
kull-i
zandn
kull-i
women"
j%*>
"
city
;
^
ptte
d^
*alam
the world."
KM
Jf, like
hama
^
*+&,
Classically (ai
J^ precedes its substantive without the izafat. Pos the izdfat after kull in modern Persian is a corruption of the final vow the Arabic nominative case kvtt
Indian Persian) kull
tt
(19)
From
the Arabic kull J^, the Persian abstract noun and the Ai
Ex.
"the whole
* '
of the
men went";
ability
Arabic adjective.
*
bi-kulU raftand
kulll
ct
every
Remark
and
"
I.
#
^^^
**
bi-kulU,
adv.,
**
altogether,
generally."
Kulli
:
kull**
different meanings, as
**
J/#3
(not kulliyat*"
^^ (mc.)
" he
is
all
the
men can
but
?7
kMiyat*
razl
jf
(m.c.)
quite dissatisfied.*
is
Remark
II.
^^i^
(Ar.)
use<
it is also
*lc 'amma
"the whole,
etc."
Fron
'amma **to be general, comprehensive" is derived adjective fU <amm (m.c.) "common, universal" (as opposed to ooU. k m.c., "special"); AU^ al-'amma (class, and rare) "the common pe
Arabic root p*
1
Emphatic,
'
most complete.*
d^
&**+*
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
119
^*
am(m)i
(m.c.) adj.
"vulgar"
and
|V+*
'wnum
(class.)
"universal"; ****)
in Persian +*j*
^plj
"universality"; <.$*>* 'umuml> adj. (m.c.) ^**s rf jl (*** u^** "his universal liberality."
'amim
Hence
(m.c.)
<toU
"the whole
of the
people";
" these fnmakhluq 'am(m)i aftd (class, and m.c.) 2 mard ara(w)i-stf people are ignorant, uneducated"; o^t ^o ^jf <c this man is common, uneducated." " noble and plebeian"; (22) @a98 u amm j*U ^ ^ia. also means
(21)
*Jf
'amma-yi nas (class.) " the whole of the of the people" peaoa*j IcU 'amma-yi ra'iyyat (m.c.) " the whole of the women." santry "; c>^3 ^^ amma-yi zanan (m.c.)
pj+6
'umum-i nas
;
and ^-U
"the whole
'
^U <3jJ^A> c^t
(
'
^U
the plural
(23)
is f!>* j
ul^
f
-d^ ^>4^
' '
the people
adjective
;
u 'awdmm. {( the people generally, very nearly all mardum 'umum-i " in ^*j+* &**+* a common matter," umum* ^^^ is an
Ichawass
'
is
common **).
i
Bemark.
general,
i.e
From
as a
the
nmuman
in
umum* n mi-guyand
tf
it is
commonly
said."
(24)
**
^^
v<
yak-sctr (m.c,;
all
suddenly"; also
"
^j*har
yak
(or
6ar "every time"; Ex.: jb^* / j* har ja "everywhere" Jiar mz j&j*, har sal J^*, ter waqt oJ| yk, fer ^Aagf <^**^* e ^J> " " every thing, every year," "every time or continually," every day,'
(l)j*kar.
;
*
etc.:
** let me na-bas/wd bi*har 'uqiibat ki farma** saz&var-am* (Sa*dl) yam, agar I fit not am does for if it and word more any (or every) prove true, say one
sujchun-idtgarbi-gu-
rasl
<iJf
f\j*
jk&* ^f
**
-f
{m.c. only)
<4
these
Not
word
umml
(Ar.)
*'
illiterate
,,.
<s^o|
utnrnah
3
&A>]
j&
har ahad
is
is
classical Persian.
*
6
vide (d)
(5).
of the
of unity (?),
which could,
of course,
be inserted.
JdiU) jU*o ^
cJ^ ^^
(slave girls)
and
**
(Sa'di)
zamanin
this
120
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
punishment you may command"; j* j^j* c^ie e o-J+ bi-har zarf-i-ki sar-irtdn bi-gunjad klla-yi an
'*
(m.c.)
any
az har taraf
o^ty* jf
Harj*
by the
^
is
properly a distributive and precedes its noun. It is emphasized A of unity, as har mulk-i zabdn-i darad ajf^ <J*^) <J& ^ "each
is
1
its
own language."
sometimes used for har arisen from the fact that "every
all
"
Har ^A
is
"
sometimes used instead of ha ma <u& "all," just as hama *+& " every." [This confusion has probably
man
says
" = <l
all
men
'
say
'].
Remark.
Har an
itfj&,
and har an
ki *$ ^j*>, the
and
'
(I),
(2)
f!<>>>*
J*
(or
^j j&)
l har yak (or har yak-l) every one j* har ka$ ^ij*> har yakl (or har yak) and (!*$' y> har
;
'
'
singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's but the mind, j* or ) <*&j& singular is the more correct. Ex. ^? J**^jXxx or ^y^* har yak (or liar kas) ehlz-l mi-yuyad or ml-yuyand (m.c ) )? " ^ c!^ &*t& j &*t <^? j* d-&*j& every one says something different *&& ^+& &[* har yak-lbazla-l wa latlja-lchunanki rasm-1 zrtrifan bashad ham-i
:
(
guftand (Sa*df) "every one told some good story or pleasant jest after the manner of wittv people"; (here the plural is used as the writer had in
his
in
writing); ^t; tjs*. tj^lt \J*5j*. ray mi-zad (Sa'di} ",and each one, according to his knowledge, gave tf Jb his opinion" (here the verb could not be in the plural), U^ii^/^ff
;
the assembly concerning which lie was t^O*-* va & ar */<*&-* ^Jar vtf<l~i damsh-i khrud
JL? ^\&* j& ^jb ^b^ agar yusfandhd dah ta hudand bay ad fi if the sheep were ten har kudam-l yak yusfand ddshta bdshand (m.e.) then everybody should have one sheep apiece"; (here the plural is also
same
reason).
Harj*
also
means '* whatever." Ex. i/ J+** o-^b^i aisJ AC^yfc ** we must act in whatever and bdyist Carnal kard (m.c.)
:
(lit.
in every
directed, in that
way
it
must be done).
51
It is
perhaps this
<j?
^ that
is
to a relative clause
*
8
*
when
the antecedent
Or
<JN
A*A, vide
(i) (4).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(k)
fc
121
*'
"Whoever, whosoever"
tf
pftfy* har
kudamki,
of y>
haranki,
har-ki,
(1)
&~t j&
/^;-
&&$-
&&, &'
^^^
<*+a>
hama
kas-i ki.
Examples:-
(Sa'di).
'
evil seed
and expected
;x
reap) good,
imagined a
in' am-l
'
/*l^yfc
harkudamkiaxp-ldarand
wl*
glrand (m.c.)
Remark.
bl-glrld *>-!^?
take whichever
*'
!;
you
please
ra ki
ml khwahld
A^fj-* ^
1
fj
would be taken
to be the subject.
j* harki
9
s$ j*>
&ndhama
ka#-i kl *$
j*>)
in the
same way.
Har
J
^
I
^s
+* are used
*j**
^^^
J A (m.c.)
c<
whoever comes
every one
who
Mar-itu, ki har
Mra
bi-binl bi-zani
Ya bum
'*
(Sa'dl).
strike.st
'"
?
Or
Remark
understood
Remark
//.
Har an
(I) (3).
ki
^T y*
is
in
classical
language applicable to
Remark IIL^-*k
f
& j&
har-ki bashad
;t
(I)
liar
ckiz,
Whatsoever, whichsoever, whatsoever thing ^f j*> liar an ld^ ft* j*> har kitdam
y
a^yfc
Mr-chi,
chi ,
*<*>
&^ j* har an
an
(1)
j
chi.
A^A
J5
har
;j>
cM
(classical
and
m.c.).
Ex.
<^
U-guyad
j>jU
Note *$
jf
j& har u
Har an
ki
har ki ** j** though old is not obsolete. It is more emphatic than Persian. modern in * Har kaa-i ki is better and more common
3
Har
kas-l ki
would be preferred
in m.c.
122
' *
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
(Sa'di)
of life, says
whatever
is
in his
mind (without
fear)."
Har-chi a^y> can also be used for living beings (in classical and modern
Persian) as
,
:
syfej
\)
ejl&ji
*i>&^,>
k^* ^S
guft har-chi darvishan~and ishan ra vam-i bi-dih va har-chi tavangaran-and such of them as are poor, give az ishan ch%z-l bi-khwah (Sa'dl) "he said, them a loan and such of them as are rich, ask a loan from them* (lend to
;
whatever method or time he pipes)" or " the more he " " " ^) &&*> har-chi zud-tar as quick as possible ; plays the more he dances " " as complete as possible ji*U3 &xj* har-chi tamam-tar A^A ^y ^*^
one dances
(i.e.
such of them as are poor, and borrow from such as are rich)/' The following uses of har chi *^*> should also be noticed **>** e^t &*?& *MjVo vi/f har-chi In mi-zanad an mt-raqsad (m.c,) "as this one pipes, that
:
in
^^
&j
har-chi tamam-tar sa
har-chi gasht 'aqab-i jaw, glr na-yamad &*>j*> &*huj$ -j*- V-&* he for much however sought (m.c.) barley, he couldn't find any (in spite of all his seeking he failed to find any)." z $ **! (2) Har-chlz JJ^^A (classical and m.c.) c^r^ y ^ i^J^j*
;
be made
(i
"
ft
let the
utmost endeavours
^^
&+*>
ba'daz
had need
and put
it
on
shore.'
'
e/fr*
kar an ki;
c*^*J!&
*v**
^**1
t-T^
fl*5
qadlm lei pish dmacR bi-quwwat-i bazu bi-yafgandt (Sa*d!) ^whatever old ruined wall he came across, he cast down by the mere strength of
an
divar-i
his
arm.
' *
Ex.: *Cf f*~> bi-hukm-i an-ki har an t^U^i ^^ b tty Cir4^i ^f j& dushman ki bd-vay ihsdn kunl mukhdlafat ziydd Icunad (Sa*dl) ** because whatever enemy you treat kindly, he increases his enmity towards you
ki
Har an
A&fj*
is
&S
o^iJiatvo
&
kindly he increases
his
enmity
5
vide
Har kudam
ft
fl**j*
whatever, whichever."
Ex.:
c5>
1 Note the plural of the adjective : the plural here makes the adjective definite harchl darvuh aat would mean " all the poor of the world."
&& ^rt$j*>
the following
&
**fj* or
^ ^)J? *
l/
***J* (m.c.)
(kinar ml-
gutaahtam
B
^t^A^j^).
&+<& jb might be
In modern Persian, har divar-i qadim-i ki *& t5^^*^tj^ j*> * Or har dushman ki or har dushman-l ki fci+^ ^A O r &$
used.
6
Or har kudam
lcar-l
ki
*ij
ki
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS.
ti bi~har
123
dast rm-zarii khardb mi-
kuddm
kar-i-ki
kunl (Afghan) " whatever you put your hand to you spoil": ^fj| f\*fj* har kudam az o*f CJ^L <JTJ*& kitabha bi-gm khub ast (m.c.) <6 whichever one of these books you select, it will be a good business for you,"
W&
Har an chi **uf^ (classical or used in writing only) of*Jj ***j* f^j **uf y> (class.) "we have attacked the rinds let happen what will." An-chi *$uf (classical and m.c.). Ex.: ^3 JjA3 afofyb Aar ^lif an-cAt (or har-chi) guftam qabul na-kard " in no matter all I of said, spite how much I said, he did not agree (lit. whatever I said)." * v Ui-o *^>T j
(5)
;
aU
fjj
'
*>^ ^a awc^^ dastyab shud tamam ra avurdam (Afghan) "and fU3 whatever I could lay hands on I brought (the whole of it)" OAI^V* tf A^f 3 *i>* anchi rm-khwahad mi-kunad (m.c.) <c he does whatever he wishes"
f*jtf
t>
y j*lU dsxif ancAi ghulam u asp ddshtam farukhtam (m.c.) whatever slaves and horses I had, I sold " <*# **** f; 1*&* <{ I got *# *^ %? a^c/ii ^a/ar torda mulkha* ra dida budam bj-fa*ida bttd (m.c.) no benefit from all the travelling and visiting of countries I had done =
;
^^ *^
I got
no
advantage."
'
(m)
(1)
great number,
many, enough
"
;
bas u+*+
Ex.
namvar
bi~zlr-i
zamm dafn
karda and
(Sa*dl).
Kaz
' *
hasti-yash bi-ru-yi
a famed one have they buried beneath the ground, Of whose existence not a trace has remained on this earth."
Many
Bas gursna 6
4<
kjhuft
va kas na-damsi ki
na~girlst*-~ (Sa*di),
man a man
has slept hungry and none knew who he was, has been in death's agony over whom none wept."
Ba$-l tjr*
(vide
"a many,"
7
and bam
Uo with
the
"ali! of
excess";
**&
lfk
by him"
^^
Or better harchi
**-;*
*
3
also
or harchi
^^T.
is
necessary here.
ki az.
:
**
"he
looked."
perhaps the only instance in the Qulistan where 6fl-5 ^r*J occurs in the
;
prose portion
and
it is
followed
by the
modern
Persian.
124
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
" bas-i zanan " many women," people say &(>j ^^ (m.c.) or zanan zan bas not bas-i az (bos farsang (Sa'dl verse) used) ^&*>y c*~* J " from many a farsang"
(m.c.)
"
many
wJJJy* tf
-i
<^>Uj
&'
j>;
J*>
c-**o
>z
U> ^|
tiz-raw ki
bi-mand
"
Ki khar-i long jan bi-manzil burd (Sa'dl). Oh how many a swift courser has flagged and failed,
When
(m.c. ? but
dar
Kirman hastand
;
fc 8 uncommon) there are many loose women in Kirmaii" oU^| U*> " **^*j basa ihmn farmudand (Afghan colloquial, and rare m.c.) he (respectful " ^as zirak pi.) treated me with great kindness jy3 (cT- ^ or cT- ^
;
^
:
tfc
colloquial)
ki
ki
Bas-i ur^ is also an adverb. Ex. & ^^ " a time did not before long ^^^ ^^' bas-i bi-gardid (Sa'cll) elapse he wandered about backwards and forwards a great deal (or a great while) "
^^
'
'
(3)
Basa U~
li
is
^)^
bam
buzury
(classical old)
88
(1) (3).
(n)
(1)
Many of them, a large number/' ^*i guruli-i ^jU-j hixyari. From the adjective and adverb ^^bisyar ''much, many" comes
^^^blsyari (modern
Ex.
:
"
the substantive
(with
**
of unity).
^^^
^s)^!r**
mi-guyand
(m.c.)
;
say," or
bisyan-yl
of the
**jf
^
but az f*j*y oj^-^ bi8ijar-i az mardum mi-guyand (m,c.) ** from the excess tnardnm rah na~bud JA* fy &j* ^j*?~* $ (m.c.)
' J
pass.
(2)
f^j*
$ ^*tj>
Ex.: fy^ <j*Jjt (class.), or troop, band, class/' a body, a guruh-l mardum, or gumh-i az-mardum (m.c.)
*
"a
number
certain
men";
^j^
4<
(class.)
cla.ss,
number
(of people)
say/'
%j
%*j>
Remark,
(ruruh gunth
signifies
mi-ayand
1
^T
fyj*
^ in troops";
guruh yttruh
v<
In the clause
j* ^^ j
shukr gujtam
(Sa'di),
it
is
not dear
whether
fjujtan
bcts-l qualifies
(J& j**,
This
is
the substantive shukr j*"', or whether and moans " a great deal, a good while."
alif of
it qualifies
not the
*&*
(m.r.)
(t
prob-
ably."
5
*)!&
^^A {^w
6
of ray servant
wa zari-yi banda sharm haml daram (^)\j j [*3 c$^*H )\ *$ " because from the excess of the (Sa'di) beseeching and lamentation feel ashamed. Note accents.
'
'
*1*
\)
e>^^
people
"
:
on account of C5
of unity.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(o)
125
' '
" Mostof
them"
()(&
yf
c/^&i aksar-ash
most of
it
"
;
v_J^t
(1) &\>*J&\ aksar-i-shan (oraksar-i ishdn) "most of them"; (Jyi'\ aksar' ' most of it." Aksar-i mat (or better amval) , Jf^l or) J'^J'f " most (m.c.)
l
(
the
ir-i
"most of the women" ^jj*'\ property kasdn (m.c.) " most persons " (aksar kas ^\ not used).
;
"
aksar-i zanha
Remark.
(2) *-A*\
-j*\
c<
for the
most part."
aghlab
or
e^r^^
little,
"
(p)
Something, a
nothing
"
^^
:
(1) Chlz-i
c<
$y**>
e
(lit.
a thing ").
as
Ex.
ki
^j.Aa. dar
ilm-i
muhasaba chmian
is
*'
know a
-I
little of
accounts
known
to
ast
;
chiz-l
danam
:
(Sa^dl)
az
man
bi'khwah (Sa'df)
dur-tar
(rn.c.
ask
me
for
1
?
'
(Afghan) i( has anything in the armed force been sent there ?)."
onlj^)
little
a boon)
^^ (^y^^1
sarbaz
?
c>^
chiz-t
way
of soldiers started
(i.e.
has
" not a Ghlz-i ^51*^ with the negative signifies Ex. thing." 4< I have read nothing, A^a=u <^>a- ^ va chlz-1 na-khwanda am (Sa'di)
Remark.
:
ti
unlettered
v "
\)
(*^^ ;t c>b^ ^r^i^ u^'jf ^<^ *^ sabab 4 for this reason I did no work." <x^" <^>^ t?*
;
"
chiz-i
kar na-kardam
^^
ch%z-%kam shud
Chan)
(2)
al.
g-t
Pam4
a piece, bit,
Ji
patch"
is
usually followed
by the
5
In m.c. only,
signifies
little."
Ex.:
u&+^
^^*^
^^ l^b
harfha dasJitam bi-gnyam-ash (Shah's Diary) "Iliad a few words to U para-i sarbdzM raftand, or para-i sarbaz raft to him" **&*) UjU^* s;
; ;
b (Ti\ H B. Chap. XIV) " ^J l)b mcerning some small arrangements of the harem &*.tj<~ ^ ** (H. B. Chap. KXIII) **I used to see some women in the court of the
'j^j~* x;U
^^1 {!*<*&
l;
^^
dm, but
(3)
."
Khurda-i
s^;^
(m.c.)
(lit.
"a
also
*^Xj
yak-
wed by a
* 3
Aksar j^l and ^-J^' aghlab acoorcling to the regular rulo of the superlative are The*za/aJis, however, sometimes incorrectly omitted after these genitive. words in m.c.
1
<*)***
-***)
Or
In m.c.
'*
J^^
,
v^J^r** (m.c.).
\)& signifying
hawci for
6
"
air.'*
Or
better
Uy*- ^***>
ba'zi harfha,
and
ba'zi az sarbaz-ha
126
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(m.c.)
khwurda
"a
give
}
little"
(m.c.).
Ex.
*AJ
"
VT
t|
j*
l^y*. khwurda-i
jaw
Kam-i
little."
Kam-%
^ ^
me
"a
*
little
little
"
L^
(classical)
"a
little,"
or
"a
little
time."
Ex.:
' '
;
"
till
he gained a
*
little
strength
AJ
Wi
az bisyari-yi
mdl
(Sadi).
and andak-l ^/^t " a little." ^4ttda& J*Jf is an adjective, pure and simple: it is according to some Grammarians the diminutive of and **\ but according to others and <M is a " contraction of andak c^Jof vide also Approximate Numerals."
Andak ^^1
few"
Remark
/.
Andak
also
means
Ar.,
4<
(classically)
4 *
a few," vide
;
first
example
" a few "
Remark IL
Qalll cU^,
little,
few"
and
qallli
^^
*^\ and
andak-l
:
^^\.
Ex. <jj&M (old classical). )\ uV^5 ^ *-^^ ** u az zama^im-i m&lum shud a portamf-i akhlaq-i (Sa'd!) j-^ tion of his crimes became known to the king''; <_>? al<Ux> } ^^Jb
Taraf-l
^^3
a portion
^^
o*
rwa^'A; r jt
^
31
^ &xwj
(7)
;<
(Sa*dT)
Ins ears."
&>***)<
Ex.:
^ ^^
j
;
va barkhri az
2>?/a^
barkh-l
amadand (mod.)
few
a few came
"
^)
Jt
^5^;-?
barkh-1 az
zanha (modern)
a^ar
r/ar
"a
women";
*^>u
ada-yi an
little
barkh-i tahavun
\jj J-*^ ^ e^V c5^-? ^f c^f^ ^^_^l takasul rava darand (Sa*di) " if they
' '
show even a
>jj^*>
^a,
}j>
namudtm
^W^ "
slackness or neglect in performing (the duty) ; ^jj j j+e y va barkh-l az *wnar-i giran-maya bar~u kharch
r
(Sa'df)
we expended a portion
of our precious
It is
life
on
it."
Barkh-%
^^
is lit.
it
is
az.
Compare ba
z~i
IS of unity
also
kaml
s
&
(^^
aJf
Andak,
Ij
u^X>l
(J^^ (Sa*di)
bi-andak
muddat
&> (Sa'di)
in a little time."
logically
Not
bieyar-l
c^J^rt as might
be expected.
syllables and mal one, euphony requires bisyarl-yi mal J^ Lfjfer^ to balance andak-l
jamal
6
JU>
This
^/^t.
first
az }\ omitted in
some
copies
uneuphonious.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(8)
127
*>
Juzv-l
isjj>*> (Persian)
:
juzvjfr**
Ar.
"
juz*,
(t
on of a book"
izvi,
and cj>*
is
little,"
^[^
little
"
partial."
Ex.
dashtom (m.c.)
.)
"1 had a
cost";
;
money"; c>^
j>j>
bi-qtmat-i
juzvi
(m.c.)
"at
trifling
little
f>*j>
<*&*
juz-*%
birinj
giriftam
least
Dook a
partial
rtial
rice"
' '
;
word
' '
^^ c*^^
i
^j*> ^J-^V
"at the
word,
bi-jut.}
wind.
Remark.
Kull u juz* *y j
ctf,
or kulli
juz*-i
L$l&j
^
^j
or az kulli
is
c<
3'
entirely."
also the
ic
^y*- ^^].
Lakht-i z
piece,
^^
(old classical,
"a
In
a portion,"
etc., etc.
Ex.:
osi>
laJcht-i
andisfiid
%.+
(Sa*dl)
" he considered a
*j^ ^^
particle, a
c<
^^
lakht-i
t^?t )**\
little
(10)
),
Sliamma-i
:
"an atom,
etc/'
^j->
V)
^^
;
vaztr
"
cui&xj i*Ji
ii)
u da> rat-i inalik sJiamma-i mi-guft was mentioning a few of the good qualities
."
of
boy
King, saying
4i
much
X
.)
From $)i zarra *' an atom, a mote in a sunbeam/' comes yak zarra " one atom, the least part." Ex. %> $j& *J<* yak zarra ab bi-dih " give me just a drop of water."
:
(12) Bi-qadr-i
:
a very little/ j*&> bi-qadr-t yak par-i kah~% qimat na-d&$ht (m.c.)
^K^^
j&*
* 4
'
(m.c.)
(lit,
^Some";
^^
ba'zi,
(lit.
"a
portion"),
some say"; ^j3f<^*u ba'z-lazzanM oJujxA ^Mi ba*z-l ml-guyand >me of the women"; *>*^ <^*J ba ( z-t chlzha (m.c.) f< some things";
I
l
dadam
<s
(m.c.)
gave some
But
p**jr
t)
if*j?
-0^
'^
ice."
" a corner of one's liver Lakht-i jigar jf^- iju^bj (or dil J<3) (or heart) "; meta" a beloved child." ioally
8
Par-i gul
(J>
j*
is
"
petal of a flower
'
'
^^
has the
of unity.
128
of
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
txijj&x) (jcUvJif
ba'z-l ashkhas ml-guyand (m.c.) "some khavamn "some Khans "; ba'zi az khava* persons say"; ^-^ ^***? n%n ^\^ )\ t5^ "some of the Khans." " is not used in m.c. it is Ba'z Ar. substantive
my clothes ";
^***
ba'zi
by the
is
followed "portion and by a plural noun or by a collective noun, vide barkh-l i^s>. Ba'zi 4^** is an adjective and therefore does not take the izafat, but ba'z a substantive and is correctly followed by the izafat, as: ba'z-i awqat u*
;
o^V
izafat,
c^Ujjt
'sometimes.'
The
plural of ^>**t
is
^.^^
<
-^** " Ba'zi murg&ha didam saw some birds (indefinite)." f**i (fy& Ba'zi az rakht-ha ra dadam ^of.* Ij U^j jf ^<A+* = ba zi rakht ra dadam
(
"
gave some of
*
the clothes."
The
plural
is
and adv. Ex. (^+3 *Uv* *$ ^fj W. )^* avarda and ki sipah-i dushman bisyar bud va Indn andak <{ it is related that the soldiery of the enemy was much while the (Sa'dl) " o &{ yjf cJC^uj j^>L^o G ool<^ latter (were) few j *-' J i*j (*;^
(r)
"Much, many,"
^^
^^
shikayat'i ruzgar-i na-musa'id bi-nazdik-i man avard ki kafaf-i andak ddram va " complained to me of his wretched state (saying) that 'iyal-i bisyar (Sa^di)
v
'
'
' J ;
large family
^^^ cu^o
used to repent much and then " ^^f )* &j^~*j*"* aar asn&-yi r^h shutitr bisyar' bud (or shuturha bisyar bndand) <c on the way there were many camels'*; o.x^^o ^U~j ^^j zanha-yi (m.c.)
kardl (Sa*di)
(Sa'df)
^^
^-
^^y
b*-ma*haqqat-i bisyar
tawbat-i bisyar
;
yak-i
man
Ow^C j
&)JvJ J^*}-^
\J^* J^'~~t
^- ^
"many women
O-^J j
,,_-.
"
say
^i^O ji
&
{J***
Ma-kitn
Ki
*'
takija bar mulk-i dunya va pusM (Sa*dl). bisyar kas chun-tu parvard u kusht
For many
like
you
it
Note the meanings of bisyar ^U~- in the following sentences az shab <% a great part of the night had bisyar guzasht c^J>? t^j ._~ )t (m.c.)
passed"
;
or)w^^>^--o (m.c.)
;
" maiw
o t^
l
jj
(Ayj
(m.c.) bisyar
kinds of birds
"
"
=
<
^J ^^j
jl ;
Uj"f (ni.c.).
Bisyar-t (az)
dance" "
say
:
bisyar-l az
bisyari-yi
a much," and bisyan <^f)^~~> (subs.) "abun** mardum mi-guy and *^jS f*^ jl o;^ many men " wrath mal
c^'t-^
<{
Jl*
^^
^
of
"abundance
(5)
and footnote.*
J
In Urdu ba'ze
is
an adjective.
^
&
The
Or
In prose kasan
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
129
"
(s)
by
t^k bdqi
' '
(adj.).
Ex.
"the remainder
remaining days
c^a?**^ ^b
bdqi-yi ruz
ham
guzasht (m.c.)
of
;
l*jjy
^(*
A
bdql-yi ruzhd
"the
Jib
*
dil
<.-> *U3
<
Imshab-am dard-i
tamam na-shud
Baqi-yi dastan bi-farda shab (Salim). c< I could not relate all rny suffering, To-night The remainder of the story stands over till to-morrow night." Baqi put ra chi kardi or baqi-yi put rd chi kardi are both m.c.
v
(2)
4<
sipdh
of the
<ui>
and
;
m.c.).
ixaj
Ex.
U~
^
j.<+>
' '
baqiyya-yi
jjj
baqiyya-yi rUz
the remainder
day."
(3)
^ U md
This
baqiy
is
:
a
,
Ar.,
lit.
* f
that which
remained."
substantive.
Ex.
used in modern (and perhaps in classical) Persian as a ** the remainder of the jj) ina-baqt-yi ritz (m.c.)
^^
day."
" &+&1atimma, Ar. subs, completion, appendix, etc." is used the remainder or balance of an account, as V U^. <u tatimma*yi hisdb.
Remark!.
tor
The
mizdn
lias
Remark
of food bag*
;
//.
Pas-manda
5 (
*<x>U
4<
^j
is
what v^ aqab rnanda mdnda "to what remains over" (of an account,
*^U>
to
^^
or of people,
CHAPTER
40.
1
IV.
(a)
Harf-ita'rif
Ju_j*S
oj^
).
There
is
no
If
the noun
is definite
and
in
\) wt <C I saw the water"; du asp-ra dtdam p^ te du asp didam I saw two horses," and 2 f*j*> w*-t 3L0? ^13^ j* jjj*\ imruz dar ki bazar asld* asp na-didam (m.c.) to-day^ I saw no horses in the bazar."
t>
ab-ra bidih
"
water
"
Ex. it requires ra. but &V vt ab bidik " give me two horses"; but *-***! j$
;
Remark.
" armies
(6)
j&J
mean
* *
two
or
"
Proper names,
^JU.=k
titles etc.,
reflexive
+A , etc.,
4
;
^S A*A
^^U^
(
g*A.,jjL
),
^*>.
and
fj,
<*^$
j*9 j* j* ,
etc.,
are considered
so
definite or ma'rifa
&>j**
and require
.
especially in
modern Persian
pronoun tjak-i <^ In modern Persian, the affixed possessive pronouns when affixed to a
noun
by
f>
tj
In
rare.
is
The
Syntax.
fj
For further
rules
on
of the accusative
and dative,
vide
under
Remark,
(1) All
also definite
definite article Jt
j>
as
)^'ti\
"The
(2)
Nouns preceded
tive pronouns.
(or
demonstrated aJt^liuo
by the demonstra-
Ta'rif
( *-*>j*> )
also
means "
definition."
2
3
For asZ*.
t> of the accusative is often omitted, contrary to the rules of syntax. As a rule the reason of the omission can be traced to tho exigencies of the rhythm. Imitators of the style of Sa'di, especially Indians, raak e
Fulan&%* (adj.) and fidani j*&* (subs.). In the Gulistan and in classical Persian the
modern Persian
does.
131
(affixed or separate),
c\*
The vJl**
:
(4)
a proper name or of a pronoun Uf etc. as or of a ^Ui ^x>, as f3Uy v Some nouns in the vocative, as
of
;
: :
*^*y*.
(5)
L^aJiJ
) 9
and
(d)
>
sarbazka)
as, ***rt^*> j* U^l^w or) olj^** sarbamn (or m.c. du hazar budand "the soldiers were two thousand", the plural makes the noun definite; but du hazar sarbaz jbj** )^ j* signifies "two " or " the thousand men two thousand men" vide also example in Remark
( :
In sentences such
to
(a).
Remark.
(e)
The
cardinal
confused
with the
of unity (sometimes accented for emphasis), with the connective * makes the noun definite vide 42
:
in conjunction
(6)
and
(g)
to
(r).
If
the noun
is
^ (or
*)
vide
42
(p).
(/)
p*& ^U^U padishah-ira slianidam (SaMl) I have heard of a certain king," ani *& ^<^ ^^^ <# ^^ yak-i ra az muluik
In the sentences
\\
\$
the kings of
Ajam^'
(Sa'di) "it is related (they relate) of a certain one of the objects are to be considered definite though accom-
affix
of unity or so-called indefinite article : for the rule of the panied by in such cases, vide under Syntax. fj
the
(g)
Atimaxrdki
amad <Wf
;
^^of
(for mard-Z-ki
amad&tf ^?^y)
learning
4i
the
man who"
"the man
who."
41.
(a)
The
Indefinite Article.
(
The numeral
article.
^ yak
e
ct
one
ftfy* " " one guzashta ml-kardam (Sa di) night I was pondering on olden times here shab-i could be substituted ivvyakshab *-*& *Ji, without altering the meaning. Vide also examples in (m). In m.c. this yak^&> is more often used
:
Ex.:
***
ox^3
<^b or takes the place of the indefinite yak sJiab ta*mmul-i ayyam-i
^^
than
is
the
^ of unity.
^ of
<xUa.
Remark.
certain person
Yak "
:
<-X
unity, as
"
one, a
o*f ^f
v^I
^U^ ^\tf
Poetical nom-de-plume.
132
companions
is
of the kings."
There
^k
When the signifies unity in this case its place difference in signification. can be taken by the numeral yak it is known by the first name. When the <^ is used before a relative clause and is equivalent to t lie demonstrative pronoun,
it is
known by
Remark.
The
c5"
that follows
j*> is
but the
(6)
of unity.
The
^.
or
of
article.
This
more or
less
emphatic,
In modern Persian
is
is
pronounced
i,
and with
it
Thus
" a certain man", but mardl ^Sj* ** manliness" in modern t( " manliness." a man", etc-; but mardl colloquial mard-l o^y This s is supposed to be derived from the numeral yak <-& (or yog <-& )
"a man"
or
^^
of
which the
water
_G, exists
still
* *
in
some
Mazenderan.
Yi-qadr
aw
bi-dih
t* tf
)<&.
give
me
it
' J
little
is
common
in S. Persia.
it
noun
If the
noun terminates
is
in silent
symbol hamza
pronounced
J,
[Me
26
{/)],
as
and bachcka-*
(m.e.)
"a
child
}
"
or
If
the noun
is
the
^ of
the noun
is
^ of unity,
*
(1) If silent
precedes
:
o^f
ast
"is", the
may be
written o*wt.
Ex.
Var shakar-khanda-isl
'*
shirin-lab
Astln-ash bi-gir u sham* bi-kush (Sa*dl). But if she be attractive and sweet-lipped Take her by the sleeve 3 and put out the light."
4,
Vide foot-note
page HI.
*^'
*&? (mod.):
difference in transliteration
and pronunciation.
8
still
worn by some
darvisheg.
133
maht-ist
st
may
,
be written
^^\
*L>
or
may
be
cs^fc^
etc., or v^~j|
Remark.
this
' '
One and all need each other, Even a small spider can hide a great prophet
' '
the
first
is
^ "the
^
diminutive ya" or
tatiqir j*&**J
^.
"the
i/a
of
contempt",
of respect." contrary meaning is called ya-yi ta*zim f*&** ^Ij relative the For the names of the relative definite article in (expressing
" the ya
having the
sentences)
(2)
vide
42.
is preceded by a *, to disAfter final alif *-&!, ?/a U, or udv *\j, this " a scent J ' but <J> of the f?a/a^ o^Ut as ^5> 6?I4 ^>i tinguish it from the
<f
6i-?/e
gul
<c
such a very great empire." should be inserted as bearer for this hamza. Some Arabic words end in a hamza, which may or may not be written in Persian, but before a suffixed ^, the Arabic *must fall away, thus: ** " a desert " and desert, or jungle as opposed to cultivation ", ^t^**
(m.c.)
^Ja* A ^
^^ a*^
cs
^*
*"
^at
'
desert.'
*
(3) If
a?if-i
maqsura \& or
^ of unity, as
^^f a'ama
?
** a blind man." The word <j>** is in blind"; ^U^l &ama~l Persian pronounced ma*m j^^ or mafnq i t^**; its final letter may therefore in Persian be considered to be either ya I* or alif-i maqsura %)}>&* ^t, thus:
^tj4*i
>
4i
a meaning,"
:
Remark
I.
The
9.
^
c<
is
sometimes added to adjectives, as JU^ ^/^f " a few." For sal-t du little beauty": chand-%
^ JU,
vide
(/)
In old Persian, the is added to the noun when it is qualified by an adjective, and not to the adjective, as: mard-lkhub ^ty* "a and man" dat andalc zaman-l (class, (class, and mod.) c^^t^^ ^l*} good " for a little while." In to added is the modern mod.) generally Persian,
Remark IL
^^
combines with o^i in pronunciation, but may be Khub mardi-st written separately in full, or combined with the ast. Ex. " is written o-*| " he is a or man (m.c.) good ^tj* v^,
(e)
The
of unity
134
Examples
t\*
>z
are:
(1)
^.^
L$J~!
cs*^^
padishdh-l
pisar-i
bi-adib-i
dad (Sa'dl)
pas-l az shab
king handed over a son of his to a tutor cJj v^ jf t^^ " one watch of the night passed." guzasht " I have no special business (2) fjf^ <^;( lcar-1 na-daram
certain
;
'
"a
"
U^J ^ly*^^
<c
mi-khwaJiam bi-shuma khidmat-i ruju' kunam (m.c.) pit a^j ^5^*^to entrust you with a (special, or a certain) commission."
(3)
j^jj
want
' '
;
{}#<
' c
o**,| <M^*XJ ijLc&L ij>\j=*- j tylfaJu^JL. jt ^fy* jj bar liar yak-i az sa^ir-i bandagan u hawashi khidmat-i mu'ayyan ast (Sa'di) "for every single one of his slaves and attendants a special (or a separate) duty is appointed," (4) ij&$ )\X Uuuf c^^ J^*Jt *$ ^^\ ^t c^i^ bihtar-ash In ast ki al-hal
\\
bi-taivr-i
'*
(m.c.)
is
you
at once get
(5)
^T^e^J
(Sa'clT)
a short time
^^^
c<
or " one
hour";
!<
in
time "
;ti^
"also
** *
ham
shakk-i
lest
pay da shud
(but
ki
mabadd
(m.c.)
a bit of a
doubt
"there
*l&f
arose
"
lest
va
^
j|
t<^j
cZ^
^j
was doubt
"); Ji^o^
&^j)t
*z++*
a/ UvJf
^i? j
^ ^s ^^
^JU{*x>
va,
guft az anjd ki
himmat-i darvishan ast va xidq-i mwamala-yi tshan khatir-l luannrak-i man kunid ki~^- (Sadi) "he then turned tome and said, 'on account of the gracious
magnanimity
attention to
to his
of dervishes
for
'
and
<xu
their
me
"
;
^-^
burut-i-1abld (m.c.)
moustache."
*>$
j*
(6)
^*
ta
v<Jiy
tf
e^v' pv
(Sa'dl
).
tavam
dil-i
Ki
'*
ah-i jahan-i
if
Distress not,
it, a single soul, For one sigh to God (from a broken heart) can destroy even a whole world." 6
tjin this sentence, there is yet no con fusion as to sense. (^ has the adjectival sense of "a certain" and is followed by an explanatory clause, its noun may be considered definite, and if in the accusative case 40 (/). requires the affix ra, vide
1
When
More common in m.c. Jcinara kunl %y*S In m.c. ruzagar )^)j)' 6 It is this sentiment, the fear of the distressed sigh, that so often prevents the a of convinced malefactor in Persia. Some irresponsible person intercedes, punishment
8
(t
and the Governor, to hide his superstitious fears, professes The idiomi s biham kardan (and not kandan)
to be
overcome by
pity.
135
into
leii
usw ^UaL ***jj)j Vazir chi khiySLt-st uftdda ast? (m.c.) what a way of thinking (into what kind of a fancy) has the Wazir
wonder
vs**f
' '
o~ ^W|
?
(8)
^Jf
(J^js
i$hq dfat-1-st
((
love
is
a great calamity.
f '
In despair
is
many
a hope
For
(9)
bas'l
''
is fair.
dmad
(Sa'di)
^ JL^*
fasl-i
du
(Sa'dl)
"a
couple of chapters.
]
"
For
(10)
^ with
the plural in
modern Persian,
itim-l*
" <^*y Fir'aun-i a Phararoh (i.e. cruel and overbearing " a Hatim", a man generous as Hatim (but Jiatimi
^^ "genero-
(11)
* 8
L5'J^3j>
Aij
na
giriftdr
dmddl
bi-dast-i javdn-l
ki liar dam havd-l pazad wa liar lahza ray-l zanad va har shab ja-l Jchuspad har ruz yar-l girad (Sa'dl) " you fell not into the bondage (of marriage) bh a youth vain * * *, who at every breath starts a fresh fancy, and each
?,
>ment states a new opinion, and every night sleeps d every day takes a new love."
(12) SiX^UJ U jjoA^f^k G vi.^1 ^5-i^i
j^iJJLf
in
a different place,
-tarashida (m.c.)
(13) (./Ui~A>
4<
a Calendar
is
Muslim
umd.
like
you
011
^UL-xs^j oW
mnsalmdn-i misl-i
ft jj*> u>jl (^ di e)ly^ javdn misl-i man jur kdr nami-kunad a simple statement; but javdn-t inisl-i man-l ^^ di (^1^ ex " esses a considerable amount of conceit and "brag" and" lays a stress on van vi>!>^ and man javan liamchu man-1 ^ix^si^A ^t^. expresses the
(14)
*>XA+J
i.e.)
is
me
would be no
stress
(>[}*>.
(g)
its
preceded by the
JP/r'awn
er ones.
ne to
2
5 e^^j a title common to the ancient kings of Egypt, as Ptolemy to the The Pharaoh of Hoses' time is known to Muslims as Valid. Fir'aun has mean a cruel tyrant, insolent and unbelieving.'
*
In Persian sometimes Hatam +&*> an illustrious Arab of the tribe of tfayy who ed before the Prophet, but his son, who died at the age of 120 in the 68th year of the ght, is said to have been a companion of the Prophet.
:
&
Dust
*-"**}^, in Persia,
is
is
a man-friend, or a
stress.
136
indefinite
*,
^-^
"
;
Jo
(*\
agha yak
cJiiz-t
"gentleman, give me a trifle muddat-l bimari dasht " so that he was yak than muddat-l (more emphatic alone).
ki
1
*^\*
from
^Uw <y<c ^ tf
it
ill
quite
an age"
*-*J?
(h)
The
<^ of unity does not admit of the izafat after it, thus
wf
^f****
"a cup
of
iced water
(i.e.
knot of
ejky i>s*jj> guruh-i marduman ra did ki men who " vide also (/) (1) *xuf^<S? ^yf
:
**&*
For a
(b) (5).
(i)
classical
qualifying adjec-
(Sa'dl) khuranda-yi bisyar man had a large family " 5 ^y AA-^O ^1^^ padishah-i c^^* f^* ^ ^ A ba gJiulam-i 'Ajamt dar kishtl nishasta bud (Sa'dl) "a. certain king was <( " b ^* a seated with a Persian slave in a boat pddishah-t ba vaztrjtjj
;
meaning, sometimes discards the ^s of unity, as o^u^i &Afc ta'ifa-yi dustan (Sa'dX) " a party of friends"; but ejUL-j,* J* ^Ifc L ba td'ifa-t az dustan s^;y^ fUic }f " a certain learned 4 az 'ulama dasht
:
noun
in construction, even
if
indefinite in
ow|^l^ yak-i
^^
*^
king with his vazir ", but padisliJah-i ba-vazir-i a vazir (perhaps the vazir of another king).
^)) ^
f
^^^
it
"a
king with
Remark.
Note that
"one of"
requires j
(/).
after
in all cases:
it
izafat.
Vide also
I
of unity
but the
first
U in writing
cases.
is usually represented by a *, as Sufi-% bi-man yuft c^i? In m.c., however, the indefinite *J^> usually takes the place of the
^j J**r*
in
such
Singular abstract nouns in ^5 do not admit of the the indefinite c& is substituted.
Remark.
^ of
unity
(k)
(1)
of unity
is
generally added to
tfce
qualifying adjective [unless the adjective end in ^c, vide (m)] following the noun and not to the noun. Ex. v^i ^^3 qushun-i khub-l budand
:
^^
(Shah's Diary)
"
"
;
^/ s?^ ^^
a sick
nutq-i ziyad-i
Bimtir-i
tS)^
is
\) is
mean ho kept
*
man
in his
house/
2
3
In m.c. qadah
a basin.
is
Here ra
*
6
In modern Persian
*** and
kishti-i
137
The
can
also
refer
to
a plural and
seems
to
give
it
Ex.: o*-f ^jk^ ^(^J&A. chakushha-yi ykarib-l 'st (Shah's " zanha-l darad Kirmdn " are (were) a strange lot of hammers Diary) they *$ ki zarda-yi tukhm ra az miyana-yi safida ml-duzdand cjjl/y j>jf^ (J*^j p>**l **)) " frxxil* <xHx*> Kerman has a class of women so
collective sense.
]
4JjJ<X
\j
(m.c.)
tricky
that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of the white." Jn English, the indefinite article is still common before a general
noun
denoting a
sum
of
money
or a space of time.
The answer
your pay?" might be: liich, du tuman-i ^^y "From his birth * * * * to "nothing; a paltry two tumans" stroke on the field of Jena, what a seventy-one years"
is
" what
to a question, *r A (me.) j*
his death-
(Carlyle),
o^xl U*
_AJ
.vliiA
&*.
ixx^ jjj^K
^
is
ijtfj*
13
j*i
a)y
jf
az tavallud ta dam-i
sal-ist.
In,
du farsM^l
bishtar
mst
(3) If,
is
noun,
the
'
^
he
is is
naturally
affixed
to
the
mard-l-st
a good
man"
(m.c.);
$ty* j#
f
plr-i
mard-l (m.c.)
"an
old
man."
(I)
In modern Persian the constructions murduf*>& 0^^* ^5*-*^ jam'-t a body of men" or jam" -I az marduman dldam and jam' -I zanha didam f&>* ty) (jr**^, or jam' -I az &l>c-j*> y
;
3>
of
women ",
(&),
are
used.
Vide
also
the
is
generally added
numeral
is
however, the adjective itself end in ^, the " an Abyssinian slave girl >j^ preferably substituted, as:
if,
' c
^j^^ yak
^i*^ ^sJ^^
1
"a
or
spoonful of
shir, or
milk"
(c) ^sj**
(a)
j*
(3-*^
*-&,
yak
^#>(
qashuq-l'
(5^
(jtlas-i
qashuq-i
ab, or
shir-i:
^f ^r^
gtlas-i ab-l, or
^ ^^^
u*^
J^
yak
(n)
gil<i$-i
c=~b
v^JJb
% palang dasht* (Sa*dl) "he had a (the) wound from a leopard zakhm-i shamshir khwurda (m.c.) " he got a sword wound ";
;
"
^)
zakJi-m-i
1 i.e. the women of Kerraan generally are of such tense with the idea of " can (and consequently do) steal."
a class.
For qfahiq <3^', T. Here zaJshm ^j is used as the description of wound and it therefore becomes (lefinite. It would be also right to say zaWun-i palang-l cr^J or better zalch.m-1 az (**3>
3
palang
138
did
(Sa'df)
possessed of
aeems to mean
(m.c.)
dddam
(p)
"I
^^
^fo ^AA&A
^^
pul-i hanguft-3,
another person",
dlqar meaning
"anor
other" does
yak
take the
of unity
3
:
^ y^
may mean
' *
another horse
is
"
not observed,
or
a vulgarism.
f
vide
For an example of dagh-i diqar-l ^j*s 94 (i) example from 'Umar-i Khayyam.
"another misfortune",
The following
boy
is
are m.c.:
*-^~t
5
cu~
<uUax
( *
j~*> &>.\
a devil
' '
,
but
e^-^ ^j~$
?tf
he
is
a devilish boy
;
or in
4>Ji
adam
Jchar ast
o*t
^
'
^cj=^
cJ^^^j or
It
in
is,
inardum khayli
khctr
and &\ **
(^^ C
^ &^
Remark.
however, correct in modern Persian to add the relative ^ ^e other book which (or that) ." ^j^-* V
&
'
The
*^ltx
\\
is
^y^*^
a place
AT
(class.)
"in a road
(lit.
in
4
a road of
the roads)
"
;
&\j+*
jt
(^*^
;^ dar
mamarr-i az mamarrat
;
(class.)
*m
of passage, in
j
cX)li&
vJWi
Icy
^^
dar-%
lfl>
o^b
nagah az
altaf-i
khwish
lutf-i
numayad va
az darha-yi ruzi
bar
ma
bi-kushayad (mod.) "it may be that God on High out of his gracious good. " ness may suddenly open a way of livelihood (out of his many ways) for us
(j*?^ bi-taraf-i* az atraf ravam (m.c.) or other, somewhere or other."
fj; vJf^tf j!
i
"I may go
in
some direction
In modern Persian incorrectly martdba-l ***?*. This is the incorrect reading by modern Persians, even when th e is omitted in the copies of the Gulistan. * The added to t.ifl* (.5 could not be " is a common S In "another shabha-i
m.c.
L^r^ U**^
c>^^
is
cKgar-i
person
vulgarism.
*
5
Lji^
<^J.
an adjective here.
In Arabic
tarf c*ji> is the
Erroneously
f.arf
J>fe.
"eye", but
iJj-k toraf
is
"a
side, extremity,
margin,
etc.'*
139
:
The
is
hazar-i az ta'am iartlb kardand (Sa'dl) "they set out a was ready in the way of food what here ma is the relative something Arabic "that is the 3rd person singular, which", andAa^r^a^ pronoun
>3jf
*-*#j>
ma
of
be ready."
When
is
added to the
f
last
j d&* **?*** J^J^f ks[y*)*j* \j l Wj >J*>j~> only J^&jp&j <2+&\$ Sarhang-zada ra bar dar-i sara-yi Ug&lamish" didam ki aql u* kiyasat-i va* fahm u firasat-i za^id'^l-wasf dasht (Sa'dl) "I saw the son of a certain (?)
cA-^f
*5\)
J>^
officer
at
intelligence
^t^U ^ UxJU^ oi.y a^/f o**0u ^^y fa jf ***> ^i&o A&f ^^u ai^U bi-hukm-i an ki malaz-l mani az qulla-yi kuh-l bi-dast avarda budand wa malja u ma*va-i sakfita (Sa'dl) " because they have taken possession of an impregnable asylum on the summit of a mountain and made it a place of
c
safe refuge."
In
ni.c.
the
first
yak kard u
.
chancjal-i bi-dih
substantive may, however, be preceded by yak uj, as: <X' ^ dj('v^, or kard u changal-l bi-dih j
^&a
"give me
[.
Remark
only of
-Similarly, in
^c
is
two adjectives qualifying one noun, as Si a long long journey." <syj* ini.c.)
of
safar-i
)^J^
Remark II. For an example in classical Persian of the ^_c added to both two adjectives qualifying one noun, vide last example of (c), 125.
(t)
When
the
^_-
its
^^
aUu*ji pish-i
**
In the sentence AX^JS^J ^^> >x^ f; ^i^j zamin-i ra kanda sang barddshta " having dug up a (certain) (Afgfian) the sense requires the definite sign t;,
special plot of
ground and removed the stones." Note the distinction in meaning between the two following " khana-i atash zadand (m.c.) Ck they set fire to a house but *5Jj>J
:
(J^>T
\>
<c
they set
<^)J>
I
fire
I;
In the following
buzurg-i
^Uj
lf
rihamd
,"
(Sa*dl)
is
^teA**^ (**& shumdam gusfand-i ra heard that a certain elder released a have
sheep
the ra
make
the sense
If
sarhang-zada
2
&
"an officer." Probably a copyist's omission; sarhang-zada-l ra \) 3\) v&A^ " W) ^j!iA^. be the correct reading, it means ** the son of the Colonel
of Chinglz
The son
Shan
140
clear
:
Remark.
unity.
1
t;
of
(u)
4J
The
^5-
Ex.
(^frojji ij**>
zamm nami-khwabad
;
(m.c.)
"a man
like
me
amad
act
(m.c.)
"a man
like
you came"
cU*>
^j* dl* jof adam-i misl-i tu-i **& ej*A^ <M^ <^U* L& adam-i J*M
"a
^T
man
like
thus"; *
like
^^
jl<
<^f
u-i kar
"a man
The
(v)
^ could
must be omitted
not added to
p**>
U ma "we"
man-am
yak-%
&^ ^ )*
"
<^j yak-l
"
(Sa'dl)
am
but
man
am
^6 ^c
"
(m.c.)
am
alone,
a negative proposition
:
the
none."
^A>
Ex.
&j*
laajf
)
^~
l^T anja
kas-i
must be translated " not a na bud (or anja hich kas na-bud
chanddn " much, so much ", as: ^'ta. ^***- o>^ ^ ^A*O^ ^^ ** I was in search dar just u ju-yi chunin ja-l budam ki (m.c.) man pty " <xij of just such a place as this \&y jyio ^>\ V^ ^^A^^ &&$- chunan
or to
cjf'**^
" there was not an animal there." hayvdn-i na-bud (m.c.) (#) The indefinite ^o can be added to the substantive qualified by chunm "such an one as this", or by eA^ chunan " such an one as that",
^^ ^A
(m.c.)
^f)
^^^ ^f
*'
"such a person
chanddn
like that
rabt-i biought not to act in this way" ^>'^ <j~*)** ^3 ^ <J**-> c>I^J^ " I do not know a great amount of Persian." zaban-% Farsi na-daram (m.c.)
111 This ^c can also be added to the substantive qualified by e>*^ A but not ham-chunan, chunm, &\**> \*$ an chunan ^^iacu*,* Jmm-chunin, &&*,
For the
chandan, vide
(y)
definite or demonstrative
(relative witli *$
42
(s).
The personal pronoun 1st pers. sing, man "I" makes its accusative o*o^M fj ^f**j&+& hamchu man-% regularly when the ^ is affixed, as ra as%r-i dast-i tu kard "he made a person like me a prisoner in your
:
^y
magar marduman-l ra
**
vagt instead of gahl)
"but
to
men
possessed of a modest
141
hand "
will
l :
>**"
^v
luJI
crHH# like me as a
I)
<^* d**
O+^
by
:
^/o
J&o
be substituted.
^5 can sometimes be added to the infinitive used as a noun, (z) a telling of a secret * but raz-i guftani as ^ftf jt; raz-guftan-t a secret " one visit " Yak-didan-i to be told." one killing" (of one ; yak-kushtan-i
' *
The
' '
fic
42.
42.
HARF-l
(a)
MAWSUL OR HARF-I
3
(
) .
8ILA*
*1^
.
J^*. or J>*>^
).
ki is
J^>- <Jr^ The man that came yesterday, came to-day ", would From this it will be be " The man that (ki) he came yesterday came to-day.'
'
used as a connective,
seen that in every relative clause there is a pronoun expressed or understood. If this pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, it is usual
to omit
it,
except for the sake of special emphasis or for clearness. In In m.c., however, ifc is oftener omitted
mi-sham
in in.c.
(b)
;t>~ e>fy *^vo! asp-i ki bar an savar " the horse that you ride on it (the horse which you ride) the e/[^ would be omitted. The noun that precedes a Persian relative clause may often be
Ci
^^ ^
(class.)
it
J^^
is
:
made
this
specially definite
it
by
affixing
^ connects
Manl (j^>
is
**
P.,
is
also
sufficiency that
peculiar to
God
a subs, "presumption; egoism; also the quality of mam, AT., * the seminal fluid also man-i, as in,
' '
' '
65 man-t
Persian
poets frequently
play on these
various
meanings.
2
Sifa
&be
:
conjunction
&
**
is
considered a particle
-^/
a*
)
and
Relative Clauses.'*
as
is
also considered
it is
by some grammarians
a connective in
relative
sentences.
As, however,
j*
or of, as
^j*
and
A^vJl, and does not moreover admit of the "relative C5", the author has preferred to omit it and to treat the words **-j* harchi and *^cuT anchi as single words, indefinite pronouns. Anchi, harchi etc., are applicable only to manimate objects in the singular:
,
if
the antecedent
4
is
irrational,
*&
is
Thus "a fool who lights, or the fool who lights, a wax candle by day" have much the same meaning. If the noun before the relative is to be kept indefinite the sentence must be arranged differently vide (p) and Remark to (r).
:
142
ki.
As however this ^, unlike the of unity, 1 admits of the accent in modern Persian for the sake of emphasis, it is perhaps an extension of the Ex. *^** shakhsl-ki (nom.) izafat that connects an adjective to its noun. " a man who " or " the man etc." *$ shakhs-i the man
:
who,
that,
\)
^A^^
rd ki (ace.)
strative
"a
(or the)
person
whom."
It will
#> corresponds to the restrictive relative pronoun in with (r). English compare is called the ya-yi si/at or of qualification and implies the (c) This force of the demonstrative pronoun that.'
followed by
^
:
' '
'
This ^5, however, in such sentences as cux ^> A p*^^^c A^U^ kitab-l ki m\-khwaham ham-in ast " this is the book that I require ", is distinguislied by some grammarians as ya-yi mawsul 4r^> x> ^^ or y<*-yi muzmar j+*^*> ^Ij " the ya of the pronoun (the noun that is kept in mind}, or ^f ^b yu-yi ^nl " the ya equal to the demonstrative pronoun an ": while in such sentences
(
)
3 '
as
Os9i-~x> d*j>_
jf*&
&
.*>
<*r
~ AJ
el*
jUu
*o
(jJ^j*>
' '
~~*^ytj>
'
and call it such to be the equivalent of chunan " the ya-yi tawsijl <J***j* ^> ya b of description." For further remarks 011 relative sentences vide 130.
they consider the
a'
In writing, this
thus ACx*A3^ or &
*>
or written separately,
Remark.
^5, but the
*
The
after j&
J
and c/T^
is
^ of unity
as in *#
w^ ^^
in Pronouns.
{(f)
The pronoun
may
It is better to
the sense [vide {/)]. In the following examples, words in parenthesis do not belong to the examples, but may be inserted to show the complete construction
:
L$^ abla-l ku ruz-i rus/ian *y LS)>& Ct~ eA*) j " who fool the sham'-i kafun^ nihad (Sa'di) lights a wax candle in broad
Nominative
>Ai>aA>
:
day"-
j*
' '
mi-kunand (m.c.)
Genitive
1
:
t j ^ j\ gav-i-ki (u) shir mi-dihad *uvo &** &(,>\ ) A&JUjbj*. sarbazha-t " the soldiers who drill."
(
<fc
(m.c.)
the
cow
ki (Isfian) masJiq
e/
viJiu
^^ >JA*. ^
e
:
*$
ki
However
i.e.
and the
41
(6).
unity had
the sarno
sound,
*
3
the
J^?^
'*
majhid sound of
vide
For kiu.
camphor." The adjective is frequently applied to anything white. Falconers even apply the term to a variety of hawk that happens to be unusually light
From
kafur
coloured.
4
t*/
*>
143
Him
puaht-i
man
of
(Sadi)
;
"I am
t>j*
man
"
;
whose back
day
" battle
^U^
bimar-am kard
OM*|
cc
(m.c.)
pills
tabib-% ki habb-ash
^j
a&JUjtiu.
^jj
" the stars whose &\> sitarahd-i ki partav-i shdn rawshan ast (m.c.)
Dative
&j+>jj&a*
cJ^ (j&^>
<:
(Sa'dl) (shakhs-i
p*\s J)$ u*)*#
man
turd)
tf ^] ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqir namud oh thou to whom my form appeared mean "
;
L$r*t
dddam
f;
(m.c.)
"the boy
money
"
:
^^>\
*&/ v^
*^
^ii;
l^ijf^j
*xJU^w
t(
shahrha-i ki bi-danja (for bi-arifia] raftam liama-ra ab girifta ast (m.c.) cities to which I went, have all been washed away."
the
Accusative
^J>
tj^l
**
^^^^
shakhs-i ki (u rd)
dldam
*'
(m.c.)
the
&?*- *^f person whom I saw" (lit. that J saw him);^*^ A^A (J"<m c( he whom I beheld all kernel dnki rhun pista didam-ash hama maghz -(Sa'di)
^^
&tf )jj& *<jJUjLo marhd-i ki diruz (dnhd rd) " o^A^ " the snakes which we killed yesterday kushta budam (m.c.) A^U*t <c 5 A asbab-i ki dasht fiama rd farukht (m.c.) ** he sold all the things he h ^*JL?
' '
]
;
^^
had,
all his
property."
:
Ablative
khatar ast
" AT^U. " the proceeding in which there is a suspicion of danger khd-na-i ki (dor an or dar u) dakhil shitdi (m.c.) <4 the ^** i^L^ ( ^f house which you entered" c?Tj^ )*> jay-l ki(dar an) mi-nishinl
;
o~f^.k:L
AjJax?
^j
^ *f fe ^f
an kdr
(m.c. I
^^
+&
sit
';
w^
."
'
c>^t^*f c?^**t
ik
Jt
*^^^
the black-
whom good
Locative
o^ioJt aja *;
^J^
^ **^ ^
)y
&
**
3*.
<^+$
gilim-i ki bar
an
he cast the rug on which khufta bud, dar rah-i guzar-i duzd anddkht (Sa'dl) he was (or had been) sleeping on the way the thief would pass e>&*^? of 3f
' ' ;
c<
^jyf
cux>fy
*A:CU **.
fjUo
^*j>
( vj/f
j*
az an bustdn
md-ra chi tuhfd karamat avardl (Sa'di) **what rare present hast thou in " generosity brought us back from that garden in which thou wert ?
:
had
turned out to be skin on skin like an onion," sterling qualities proved a fraud.
1
'
'*
i.e.
the
man whom
thought
or az vay.
pile
.
3 *
5
fiP gillm
is
traveller, passer-by.*'
&*
4,^^
()&}*
e>T )
144
Tardam
na-rasi,
bi-Ka'ba ay A'rabi
ast (Sa'di).
K-m rah
I fear
ki tu
mi-raw* bi-Turkistdn
thou wilt never reach the K'aba, oh Arab, For this road thou goest leads to Turkistan."
i.e.
u bdshad, or
iqbal
[This
construction has led to the following erroneous but now common construetion: a}- xi5) ^^. \^\ *S lj?.*s* mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud,
where t^y mard-i ra is the object of the verb in the relative clause vide(e)]. (e) There is another means of declining the relative (if in the dative or
:
accusative case)
consists in
commoner perhaps in modern than in classical Persran. It putting the noun first in an oblique cavse and then the connective
pronoun cannot be inserted in the relative clause, as
taken by the substantive in the oblique case at the beginning. kishtt-i ra ki Nuh riakhuday ^Jt> a. ^*| tj^b -^S * \^ J
(
<^
its
place
is
:
Examples
'st
^^
bak az tufan "what fear from the flood to the boat whose Captain is in the dative Noah ? " In this example, instead of placing kishti-%
chi
^^
case at the
commencement,
it
could be put
tf
in
the nominative;
and the
ast
pronoun
\J*j
v^t <*^
o~f
fjtfk tj
fjjf
i^&S
\^^
kishti-i ki
X>
\)
an-ra
Nuh nakhudd
jJ^j
v_^.
" the
^zj*> mard-i-ra
ki dlruz chub
'
(/)
An
I
whom
sense,
(g)
expression like j*^o \)j\ *S ^af ddam-l-ki u-ra didam "the man saw ", though correct, is heavy: as u-ra \jj is not necessary to the
better omitted.
relative cannot
it is
The
a cube." The cube-like building in the centre of the Masjid^&t Mecca it contains the black stone (hajar&l-aawad), white as milk when it first descended from Paradise, but now black from the defiling touch of sinful man.
1
Ka'ba,
lit.
'
^
3
The broken
Poetical for
pi.
l;
is
y^l
*
the pi. of
f*j
is v-j^c.
ctff
ki In rah.
tu ( dar n ) ml-ravl. <*Jj* ( df )* ) J>* ** This sentence, though grammatically incorrect, the noun at the beginning being the object of the verb in the relative clause, is not uncommon in modern Persian. The
4
6
construction in *>jfjUj f* c^# &>\& ^jf *-&^f/ <>sj+** \) bi 'wmr-i fara chang arand na shayad ki bi-yak dam bi-yazarand (Sa*di)
it
&
&
c5^J A
**
dust-l
ra ki
to a friend
is
whom
moment "
different,
-.
145
an
and In ^t, nor to har j*> " every. " It is best to consider an-ki an-chi *^T, tw-W <*&*!, har-ki ^_.t*, har-chi &*-;*> as single words.
c/f
,
However the
and
*f
man
&ty,
]
mha
etc.
plurals of the demonstrative pronouns l^ij(, may take or omit the ^, thus
anan
:
a&J^T anha%-ki, or
definite, the
As the demonstrative pronouns are already anha-ki, definite ^c is a pleonism and may be omitted.
l$jf
relative
(m.c.)
^;
vide
41
(u).
A sentence
"
is
like *&*) *T
^1^1
tshan-t-ki
raftand
incorrect;
the
should
be
avoided.
(h)
As the
'
relative
'
^
is
before &t
is
already
made
nouns
[vide (g)] or
by j*
cu-Jf yt *>Jixjj +ty &&> p X 1*1*^ j va an " and those skins blnand asr-i an-ast gazh-dum (Sa'dl)
har.
Ex.
that are found in scorpion- holes are the sign (remains) of that
"
^) w* j~> J
*
f^;^
&&* )*
^^*
cr*
^+&
e^l ^ guft
man
fulan-am va In
man zadl (Sa*d!) "he said, am So- and- So, and this stone is that very same stone with which you struck me on the head on such and such a date " jt <^>& ^^-^ P ^s*** <s* ^
ast ki dar fuldn tarikh
bar sar-i
bi-guy a*, anha ki dlda-l va Ifjf shunida-i (Sa'di) 'he said, 'oh Sa dl, do you too relate some of the things " * you have seen and heard ^5^ ^^ Ai^fj, c>^; j} ^j* <&* &t>
guft a?/ S'a^i
4 c :
|j^ ^
lj&
^ niz sukhan-1
o^f ^
bidan band-i
** he vay nihan dashta bud ba vay dar avlkht (Sa'dl) closed with him by means of that tricky artifice (or throw) which he had kept " 6 jJuUi * \^ to himself har jd ki ravad bi-khidmat-ash p\&5\ jjSJ^iu ^^ y*>
ytharib ki az
iqdam numayand
*z+*+\ ^f^oh.
( *
(Sa*dl)
wherever he goes, he
is
well served
"
;
)t>
it k?uf ^
khwar
cu^t )\j^ va anja ki durr-i shahvar ast nihang-i mardumfOj* vJo^ l< ast (Sa'dl) and where the costly pearl lies, there too is the man-
devouring shark."
j ya k-l Sa'dl generally omits the <j? ; v^rp cA<J **&/ y* ** & y az anan-ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash diistl bud (Sa'di) 4 one of those who had mutinied
i
'
' *
In
tar ast
yak-l az
shuma
is
ki dilavar-
"any
make
one of you
who
braver than
the connec,
of
arm
"
,
before
If it .be required to
some such
",
phrase as
Jt
hw nafar-l
*s*~-fc&*o
ki az
shuma "
the
is
would
be
used.
3
If
).
*
^
Or dar
yajt (Sa*dl)
But compare o^5 ^? Owo ($* j. '* to-day by that one single
10
&&
tt>f^?3j>y*t
artifice
he overcame me."
146
^^
**
<J^*& of _
oif ^
cx**i
*\i*i
JLj
)*
ham-chu an na-bina-i
<>*;j^ ^U**!
Khurshid
Khurshid
"; ^AJ ^< tf ^sj&*s urf M dukhtar-i-ki rni-bim ismrash (Mod. Pers.) "the name of this girl that you see is
in the mire
H>$i
jl
<X5
and exclaimed
sjft^U
^^
jufcfyiuu* A>,
^-^^
khwahad bi-pushad bi-andaza-yi qadd-i u bi-burand (m.c.) "let it be cut according to the size and figure of whoever is going to wear it ": t har kas ki or &>j& har ki, or u*^* har ka$ could be used instead of har kas-i-ki.
y
^ could be omitted.
^
unless
(;) As proper names are definite, they do not require the v^J# i>f tf z?*^* Mahmud special distinction be required 3^7! * "; but ^f guft (m.c.) "Mahmud, who came yesterday, said
:
some
ki dlruz arnad
)^ ** ^^f**^
bi-i'timad-i
Mahmud-i
sentence
vus'at-i
ki diruz
amad
is
"the
this
vi/^-^j
v^L^
ki
o^V <j^'
o,-?j ^UxcU Ut
amma
akhlaq-i buzuryan
'avayib-i
zlr-dastan bi-pusJiand
(Sa'dl)
and magnanimity
of the great,
'
' ,
mean "those
who
."
cede
its
qualified by a simple adjective that can prenoun (vide under Adjective) it is better for the adjective to precede,
If
is
**> tf
^i-^^^i-su nafchustln dushmati-i ki bar sar-i ishan takht khwdb bud (Sa dl) " the first enemy to attack them was asleep " ' " *x?^ t$ )j$z &<f Jj awal kaS'l'ki (m.c.) the first person who f\ " dilavar-tarin zan-i lei dida am (m.c.) "the bravest woman I have seen
v
as: ty
v^
!
d>^,\j** j> *$
'
^ ^}
tf *J\j
(S^dl)
"
the greatest
_L?
{J
^^b
^^
na-blm-ki
what an amount
"
of gain I
bi-aabiqa-yi m&rifat-l ki daxhiim p*&te ig**j** the former ." by friendship that we had (I) If the adjective cannot precede the noun (vide under Adjective) it follows it taking the relative ^, as: c^f j) yt* *&$ o^>^ y^^ dukhtar-i
?
;
trouble I underwent
"
have brought
&f
in
^^
diruz
amad
(m.c.)
girl
Similarly
' '
,
^p->T
4.5
dashtam (m.c.)
had
2
anchi asp u mat ki daehtam) whatever horses arid property to a confusion of two constructions. be appears
this
In modern Persian
ki.
would be
&> OM*|
^f
in (Mi
^5.
147
Ichwlsh ast
is
hukamd* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh ast na baradar ast na " the wise have said that a brother who is wrapped up in himself
brother
neither
nor kin."
Possibly Sa'di considered j^fy baradar in the above sentence aa a generic noun, or the copyist has omitted the ^. The reading in many Gulistans is barddar-i-ki.
barddar-i-ki.
*^^
^
can accompany a substantive preceded by a numeral when *& ^* }**+ ** it definite, as \j c/T *y &\> r* j\ fi~ " I broke si sanduq-1 ki az sarbdzdn bud dn-rd shikastam (Afghan colloquial) the three boxes belonging to the soldiers," but *$ o^^> *~* si sanduqki
(n)
The
it is
required to
make
'
*'I
."
The phrase
If
^^
:
41
as it appears/'
(p)
a noun
ki,
is indefinite
<j?^j^ &^ of ;^ ^^^ ittifaq*" &x*)y cA^^ &lj&* l&* & dar an miyan javan-i l hud ki mwa-yi 'unfavdn-i sJiabdb-ash naw-raslda (Sa'dl) there was in that assembly, by chance, a youth, the flower of whose youth
the connective
as
fc<
tvcf
ki (rn.c.)
"an
oppor-
Sahmfjin
rib -I
ki muryjidbi, dar
u Iman na-bud
Its smallest
"
;
in this
example ^
understood after
db-i,
hence db-i
Vide
(r)
Remark.
(r)
of
^ in the following
11011- restrictive
relative clauses
aju^
eJfJ k.y*^ ,>d &> (j**^^ **b* } c~*t %z&*\ p\y* *t^>{ j^ &Z ^s&*~* J^-*^ j^b zikr-i jamil'i Sa'di ki dar afvdh-i 'avamm u/tdda ast va sit-i sukhan-ash ki dar
basit-i
zamln
v<
rajta (Sa^di;
it) is
in the
mouths
of all,
which (and
^fej$i
wide world
-."
^(a o*)^
ki
<vcT
liar
^ j* U *$
b
^^
it) has gone out into the O^A^ c*)U^ dar 'imdrat-i
^
<
hazrat-i sadr-i
of
a*gam
ma
du dmad u
AflxJU
raft
ddrim
(m.c.)
:
inthe palace
*^j
J ^jJt c$V**J^J
khub va kushkhd-yi buzurg u kuchik az ru-yi saliqa bd kamdl-i qashangi dar kindr-i rud-lchdna va
tak tak
qasrhd-yi
Should be
\j
^T
anha
'
ra.
;
% i.e.
"a
certain youth
'
the
noun
is
hardly indefinite.
148
bdld-yi
kuhhd ki mushrif bi-rudkhdna ast sdkhta and (Shah's Diary) "here and there on the banks of the river and on the sides of the hills, which
residences (and they) overlook the river, are erected fine palaces and summer both large and small, all in good taste and of exquisite beauty." In the is not added to kuh-hd, as the hills are not last example the restrictive
particularized;
^
The
hills
that."
Remark.
as
:
will also
make
zird'at-% ki
called rape
."
indefinite article, as
:
^ILol aJU^U &j2* )*$ )j*a* )& *^ir~j JJ*^I )y***> ja dar huzur-i u misl-i pisar-iki f{ he stood in his presence as a dar huzur-i pidar-i khud bi-istad istdd (m.c.)
"
:
toxif
cj!jj>
^>
*4 &>
Ji
^^ fUj
xb
an uftdda bdshad
az
ham pashidand
($)
like
attacked by a wolf
Chundn
"
;
eA<*-
manner, so
in India
*T, or
etc.",
may,
omit
vyf
o'^a ^*
>
^ry*yc
^^
^(xa. yiuib
d/idagan maqbul
agarcM
kafir
du a-yi mazluman mustajab ast va nala-yi sitambdshand chunan-ki dar haqq-i an mahbus (m.c.)
oppressed is accepted and the cry of the distressed heard, even though they be infidels, as was the case of that prisoner (previously mentioned)" here instead of <*U^ chundn ki, **>&* or <*J^ could
*'the prayer of the
;
be used
nazd-i
just
xUyo
*-^tj^
J^ U ^AJ c^t vi^tj>3 *+*> )$ *^^ chunan-l ki dar 1 " we have ast plsh-i ma niz zira'at ml-basJuid (Afghan)
quality of cultivation that you have tufan-i dmad chunan-l-ki dil-i md-rd
&
"
:
o*of
zf
as struck terror to our hearts (Afghan)": " chanddn ki howevermuch guftam qabul na-kard (m.c.) ^C I said, he did not agree; in spite of all I said, no matter what I said, he."
J.
^^fc
khmhk kard 3
An Afghan might
For
with the
olia.
Hamchundn-i-ki
chundn and
vide
^
;
^ of unity,
41
(#).
noun
is
necessary here
to indicate
2 S
Chunan-l-ki
*^^
class.
rarely used in
modern
Persian.
In modern and
classical Persian *$
**f ^j^ 9
isfa*-
would
be better.
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t)
149
40.
(u)
of ay, as a
definite
40
(g).
As with the
of unity [vide
41
(j)
o'>^ (Gul. Chap. Ill, St. 27). The relative 45 may, however, be used with plural abstract nouns,
az
darad ^*s)t>*
^tf*)^
as: cu-f **jj~* Uji A&jJlfjjUji (j ndfarmdmhd-i ki *& *c>y U^ a&xSlfAJjflb, khubiha-l ki shuma karda td.
ma
may
'
t$3kX*U
e^V 1* y
:
**
^f^i <^**
aS (Gul.).
When
^
1
is
added to the
Khan Mid bi-u ddda ast kifayat-ash ikhtiyar nami-kunad? *&+* j^&lir cu**! a^yj JfU. &(. &*&* j ; ^! j&* (m.c.) *' but the authority and importance that the Khan has already given him are they
magar
izzat-i-ki
"
CHAPTER
43.
(a)
V.
The Adjective.
is
Ism-isifat (osi^^i).
)
The
(
adjective
).
called sifat
oA*
qualified
mawsuf
OJMJ^O
Persian adjectives qualifying nouns are as a rule indeclinable. In construction, they usually follow and are coupled to their nouns by the izafat,
as
:
asp-i qizil-i
(b)
>-~*\
s (
my
grey
horse."
its
izafat.
and
called the
inverted
epithet
izafat-i
maqlubl
^^^
(
^t*
).*
man";
The
*)te
Mpi^f
v>^ M&& mard-l (m.c) **a good Examples: hava-i mja darad (m.c.) "this place ^j* ^-^^ ajab
^^
has a fine
air,
" and
bad
f<
bad"
good
frequently precede
"
modern colloquial
3
in the last
"a
**a bright,
cheerful,
woman";
mard-i
(m.c.)
1 Can this be a translation of the Arabic rummanl "scarlet like Qizil, T., "red." the flower of the pomegranate," the epithet for a nutmeg grey, or is it applied to a grey horse because in Persia the tail and legs of a grey are usually dyed with henna ? 2 Vide 117. 3 m.c. for duru&bshanda.
150
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t>j*j?.j**
"a
wicked man,"
etc., are
emphatic than tfce ordinary collocation. the nouns (c) Arabic adjectives and compound adjectives should follow they qualify, but vide 117 II (e).
lit.
Turkish adjectives precede their Turkish substantives, as: (J$> J>i> (m.c.) "red-head," a name for Persian and also for certain other settlers in
' '
"
(lit.
prey);^ty
(d)
qard-kahar , adj., "dark bay (horse)." In Jjl? fy qardqdval, 'a pheasant," the first word is perhaps not an adjective.
'
The
'
many/
e>;
and bisyar (class, and mod.) "much, or take either a singular plural, as khayll (or bisyar) zan ( ;U~j or) ^J^adjectives khaytt (mod.)
:
"a
lot of
;
women "
women "
khayR
(or bisyar)
zanhd l^) ( ;U~J or) J^- " many c$Vj> but not zan-i bisyar zan-iziyddis,
;
however, used.
Note that
its
noun.
for it
may stand
either for
many
For examples
of bisyar as
an adverb,
vide.
89
(e)
(/)
(2).
Ghand ^x^ is followed by a noun in the singular, vide 39 (g) (1) to (7). Chanddn oi^i^ has many meanings; "many, as much, how long, (/) " " etc." When it signifies much, many it is followed by a singular noun and in Modern Persian always by a negative verb, as chanddn sarbdz dnjd na-bud '* Uuf jLy. i^'o^ (m.c.) there was not a great amount of soldiery there ":
:
chanddn sar-rishta-t dar zabdn-i Fdrsi na-daram ^3 )* <k*;^~ c^t^^ " I don't know very much Persian." (m.c.) Remark. Chanddn sarbdz dnjd budand *>ty l?^f 3^ ^ <^i*- " there were many soldiers there", is old. their (g) In modern colloquial, one or two adjectives sometimes precede
substantives with the izdfat, as pir-i
:
^^ ^^
mard *?<;** a
' '
the old
man
' '
;
pir-i
mard-t
The young
Plr
is
of the
Golden Eagle
is
black.
:
any religious sect o&J jb .x> plr-i tfiriqat *a spiritual guide." Sabza-Maydan, a square in Tihran, is vulgar for Sabz Maydarl. Sabza &*** is also used as an adjective, "dark-complexioned," of people; rang-ash
2
aabza aat
o**
)A*
eA^;
vJl
(a.c.)
t;
but
ll
he looks green,
ill."
^]{
x>y'f
*x*
>>iA
tf
(jj$
AXA
|-U!i
>>*
J^J
" There was not a dark face, bad-looking, in the whole of Ind. 'Twas as though Ind were created of salt." " [The word green," 'sobza? adj., is applied by the Persians to a dark complexion, face is said to be " saltish" or " "ull of salt" while a or
pleasant
good-looking
J^c
_j:
is lost in
English.]
consider the
THE ADJECTIVE.
151
eJ^^xj
m.c.)
the grey-headed old woman" W-* fartut-i (m.c. and class.) " a decrepit, worn-out old man" but JM bdyhbdn, or ^u &\*c^. bdfj&bdn-i pir (Afghan and m.c.) " the old
ld
;
" au
man"
pir-i
zdl
JfJ^
"
gardener"
plr (Afghan
and
or
jj;
"aged" is an Afghan expression for JU te>j*t> dirina-sdl *^r^ dirina-ruz, or s^>^ JU sal-khurda. For the modern colloquialism L ^^A^ marhum-i shah "the late Shah "
Plr-sal JL-^jJ
and
bachclia
Turk ^Jy
117, III
*^->
(6).
or
Turk bachcJw
in
*fxJ
uiy
(for
^3
is
<texj
bachcha-yi
Turk), vide
izd/at
omitted,
thus
<^y ^,
as: ._&>
etc.
may
compounds, " " docked (of horses) y^ dum-daraz " long-tailed, i.e. donkey" 3i>> c4/ " gush-dardz (m.c.), more commonly ij donkey" vSAftlT 'J\^ dardz-gush
;
^^
ot
yardan-kulujt, adj.
4<
sense)";
to
also
"a man
power, no weakling."
(t)
When
several
adjectives are
attributed
the same
noun they
izn*at
:
may
(1)
Be connected to
is
their
9
this
construction
called
tansiq* s-sifat
'
ei>&^(
'"
^>-^^
the stringing,
or
Examples
t^ "the
mountain":
ydr-i
gul-
^ J^>^
*
body and honied speech. a construc(2) The adjectives may be coupled by the conjunction vav j (A tion not common. o^f^ ^i^ Examples Ja p ^ft. sjty ^ w^JG a$ ^\
:
W
of
f^
e>-y
^3
^J
(Tr.
H, B.
in
soldierly appearance, he
was
XXXII)
"
men."
j
.,
OSop. F.,,%
20.)
'
Pledged
xojbf *$
sJujax:
A^ (Afghan)
4<
what
From
In modern Persian
152
THE ADJECTIVE.
does he see but that Ayaz has opened a wooden chest and taken out some old
and dirty clothes." (3) The adjectives may follow the noun
junction
j,
in apposition
vide
139
did
(b)
(a)
Example:
l^aJl
shakhs-i
Ck
siyah-fam
anddm
(Sa'dl)
ftfU*
^^
"
:
(5).
*-&***o
he saw a person
j^AiL
dark-complexioned
^b iJ**
into
j j**j+ ^\)
^ ^.3xjM3
^^ c^-^ <^*^f
foolish,
!;
;1^>J
hot-tempered and
"
(Sa'di).
Remark
In modern Persian
it
^^
shakhs-i, otherwise
(j)
might be mistaken
also qualified
If
the noun
is
affixed to
the
adjective
*aziz-i tu\
by an affixed pronoun, the pronoun is and not to the noun, as awqat-i 'aziz-at otfjl " thy precious time."
:
The
I;
added
only, as: jy
9
^j* *-<
*H?
*'
robbers carried
c/2y*-
off
"
;
*-*>.
<^tf
f***3j
b ^s)^"*
If
**jsJ^
^&)
(k)
izafat
is
a predicate after the verb "to be " (in English), the of course omitted, as barf sard ast va dtash garm j o*i ^* iJ/j
an adjective
is
in
by an
(I)
epithet, vide
If the
119
(o).
predicate
is
noun
qualified
by an adjective
of the class
the adjective may, according to ordinary rule, either ^3 jx>, precede or follow its noun, as: pidar-i tu mard-i khub-ist o~jj^ In such cases the noun of the or pidar-i tu khub mard-ist cu-j^o v
in (6),
mentioned
^f^
^ of unity.
:
An adjective used
substantively may be in the plural, as *,j&+* o*j c*!^^l<! j| az a1cbir-i Baghdad ast *'he is of the
^;>
Baghdad."
in
an
is
usual; but
khushnot rigidly adhered to in speaking: O^ P^ " 4< is and m.c. incorrect: big things ^>jj buz^^fha properly gilha-yi majlis **ixe (soldiers) as opposed to is sometimes in m.c, applied to persons f kuchak-ha; but olf;^ buzurgdn "the gr^at in rank forefathers."
c^M^A
'
<
l^y
In English, adjectives
(3)
may
and Remark.
1
*
The
an
indefinite sense
either
or
'
scattered Turkoman tribe whose head-quarters a**e said to be in Azerbaijan. are nomadic and live on the produce of their camels and flocks. The men act as carriers and the women weave carpets. Nadir Sh*fc waa a& Afahar.
2
Many
THE ADJECTIVE.
(n) (I)
153
In a few instances in classical Persian, sometimes imitated by writers, a plural substantive, Arabic or Persian, animate or inanimate, is qualified by a plural adjective, Arabic or Persian.
modern
(2)
The use
noun
in imitation of
4.
in Arabic, all
and may, therefore, be grammatically feminine singular, and that the commonest Arabic feminine termination is * sing., and of pi. * (4) and (5) Examples: <xu~^ ;<v e^$' j\ ^^y* &\*j* (Sa'di) "the brave men sprang out of their ambush": <^U? j ^ ^\^ ^LfexU (Sa'df) "they
collective nouns,
."
o^ty^#
;^
c^V (Trans. H. B.
Chap.)
here
are treated as substantives and predicates to oUfi ^shdn and are qualified by the adjective kar-azmuda *.^jT;l<. Ashkhas-i akdbir j&i ^(^^\ (mod.) "persons, grandees," vide (1):
9
the people,"
would be an ordinary
^
Qasamha-yi
^oJtj
cfaildz
*U ^l^-j' (m.c.)
*\ . Je)U
"solemn oaths";
^^
(J^*&r
&lj^>
,>fo^
In the Quran
"angels strong and harsh," and this the Arabic for accounts plural adjectives being (incorrectly) used probably
occurs the phrase ^<*5
after
A^j^lx
U^JJ^ and
(f~~*.
Common
^1*
\
Shuhud-i muvassaqa
(rare) *5^A)
o>^
(or
"
plural of adjectives
:
sometimes used
for
men, but always in the oblique case, as Ghuzdt-i mujahicRn* tifcf**^^" *}j* " kubara*-i 'arifm &*j\* dy "great mystics." "true warriors of the Faith A regular Arabic masculine plural substantive may be qualified either by
:
else, less
frequently
in Persian,
by
be
in Arabic,
'""
Or
K^jf
)&(tf
)}$& ejLkjf^Lij^ Or
*ty$
j*i
dill
But \f
J^;
is
used in Persian.
pi.
Not
e^*^^
nom.
154
qualified
THE ADJECTIVE.
by an adjective in the masculine broken plural, ^t " the Imams/'
tahirin) ;t^f
(3),
:
as
A^imma-yi athar
As stated in
grammatically feminine
*j*lJD
it is
hukkam-i 'azima **& (&*>, etc. but **j* Jl^;, however, does not be used in Persian, though correct Arabic. If, however, the broken plural is not applicable to rational beings, it is usually followed by a singular " the 99 feminine, rarely by a broken plural, as: asma*-i husnq <j^~^ *U*ot = attributes of God; ^<3^ ^&" exception ^* &&> c>^ vide (4).
&J|
;
appear to
>
Arabic regular inanimate feminine plural is usually qualified by (9) a feminine singular, less often of a masculine singular, and very rarely by a feminine plural: darajat-i aliya &J^ eL*p " high ranks" is commoner than while oUH* oU^a is rarer still. However, in a few instances a <^U
'
An
oL*;ii,
is
qualified
by a regular feminine
' '
:
plural, as
' '
:
euUJU?
the
eirUJ'b
first
"
oljJU c^Ula*:
<
high places
dual denoting rational beings may be qualified by a dual, as '* noble parents." walidayn-i majidayn ^x^U <^aJ(j
(10)
A dual denoting irrational beings or neuters is rarely qualified by a masculine singular, as tarafayn-i muqabil cMa/o ^J^Jb. but generally by a dual. (11) An Arabic feminine singular denoting a lifeless object is usually
followed by an Arabic adjective agreeing with
it,
c<
the
white hand
(of 3Ioses), a miracle"; rutba-yi "ulya UU &) It does not, however, always agree, as yad-i rahid ^Ij
If
CL, for
?
Ji,
the adjective
usually
masculine; thus
^U
CU*A
vide
(t)
rational
(ya-yl
noun
is
followed
by an
is
with
the
it
-.
relative
nisbati),
the adjective
]
feminine:
**
if
irrational
is
cs-JtrJ^ "
v^^ ^ u ^
A>ij^
AjJUlc
^j.
denotes a rational being, the Arabic
and adjectives in Persian usually follows the rules of Arabic grammar. (0) Summary of rules of concord of substantives and adjectives other than the ordinary Persian concord.
(1)
adjective should always agree with it. It will be seen that the concord of Arabic substantives
'ified
either
*
f
^ A
regular Arabic masculine plural denoting rational beings can be by a regular plural or rarely by a broken plural. broken plural denoting male rational beings may be qualified by a
ral,
But
THE ADJECTIVE.
broken plural not of rational beings feminine singular, rarely by a broken plural.
(3)
155
is
usually qualified
by a
A dual of rational beings is qualified by a dual agreeing with it. dual of irrational (or neuter) things is rarely qualified by a masculine singular, generally by a dual.
(4)
(5)
agreeing with it, but not always. If the noun ends in o for the servile
X,
the adjective
is
usually masculine.
An
(6)
Arabic noun
If
adjective ending in the yd-yi nisbatl and qualifying a feminine rational is feminine in form; irrational, masc. or fern.
tive should
always agree with it. Plural Persian nouns should not be qualified (7)
by a plural adjective,
few Persian adjectives are also treated as substantives, as: " j fjt j 3.>f> e^a* j aliu (Sa'di) (thou wast ibyejT fkf ^jj t-&jj j ^&a. j(f)jj most fortunate that thou fellest to the lot of an old man) experienced and
(p)
(1)
travelled, one
downs
of life,
,
and
tried its
good and
are often
bad."
so used.
(2)
The
adjectives
*& and
,
'^ j cW>
may
and
^JJb >
o~J
of^of
(pi.
'
'
;
also
vide
(r)
and
115
(r).
(3)
An
"
:
adjective, as
sick son
^^-
*V*
c5t^
c&
*=***
lJiAj*H
Remark.
i
the past."
In English, -adjectives occur as nouns, generally in poetry, as: " and the "irreclaim" painful right George Eliot talks of the
able dead," but only a master of English prose can so introduce an adjective
by another adjective. an adjective is better, or as well, known as the substanSometimes (4) tive it usually qualifies, and hence is used alone, as c-Lj
qualified
:
figi-i
Hindi.
Compare
"
my
Toledo
"
for
my
Toledo
as:
few substantives are in modern Persian treated as adjectives also, kishti bisyar aram bud (Shah's Diary) "the boat was f l;f ) #~J
{
&&
comfortable."
": e^( o^i; ^U~j C5^>i^> ^\ (m.c.) "this chair is very That dram and rdhat are considered as adjectives arid
not as substantives forming a component part of a compound verb, is shown by their having in modern Persian a comparative form dram-tar and
rahat-tar.
Tamizj+>
(for _>***>
signifies
"clean."
156
(1)
THE ADJECTIVE.
(r)
The noun
of agency,
and
the present and past With these must be classed the verbal
as in English
adjectives in a.
The noun of agency is not much used. In modern Persian it is nearly an adjective: shakhs-i bakhshanda (m.c.) &x&4u o<aJ "a liberal always man"; ru-yi darakhshanda (m.c.) *xiA)^ ^^ "a bright-looking, cheerful
(2)
face''; mard-i
'
ata-kunanda (m.c.)
*>ixf
Ife*
a generous
man."
Vide
H5
(r).
Even
classically, the
noun
of
mosque and school, and Heaven's lures men's bosoms rule. 0. K. Rub. 49
cloister,
is
Whin.
from an
Remark.
obsolete
The
Pers.,
is
connected with
Pers.,
fromy
far,
"
dropped.
the ^^ "grazing beasts, and birds," " an adjective, meaning bosh, rot ^^ alone,
is
is
' *
Manand,
'*
prep.,
" like"
(in
iuS
to be like, to resemble."
other adjectives, possibly derived from obsolete verbs, have this {< agent form, as diranda (m.c.) >J^ slow to act."
:
A few
(3)
Present Participle c>D^ eA'0> ^ ** ^^ J^" T^^^'* 3; of c^j " 1 said you are like the fox who was seen fleeing c;^j (Sa'di) and stumbling blindly in its haste."
:
away
(4)
Past Participle
c
jj^C^
table
* s
(/Sa ^?)
:
in short
his
spread"
(Shah's Diary)
them":
ty.j^ jjj BH* ;^ l$~^U? gilds-Jia " the cherries too were ripe and (the trees) well laden with ^j^iwU kar-i na-pasandida kard (m.c.) "he committed
^^
a displeasing
* '
(5) According to Platts, mast, dust, and a few nouns and adjectives were once past participles. (s) (1) The Persian adjective ^xj appears to have a feminine r^j;
</^ -^
*&
(L>*
il
Jb;
e^O^
C5^
(Sa'cfi)
"
treated
me
When
Pira-zan
It
woman."
cjj
s^u
is
must be
THE ADJECTIVE.
izafat
157
*
by writing
it
as
may
sfeand for
an
<;
izdfat y
vide
(g).
(2)
"
me"
is used by women for the In modern Persian, pronoun when writing to a superior, vide pages 51 (/) and 69 (e).
&^
"
or
In classical Persian,
****
kamina
is
"
mean,
vile."
*\*&
^(fiXw
uA
*c
)&
1>
^ijj
f J*-i
(SadI).
&
y&&
(t)
(1)
"Permit me for I am just a humble personTo rank and sit amongst the slaves." As stated in (n) (3), all broken plurals are grammatically feminine
is
.
This feminine
is
frequently
added to Arabic
participles
:
and
Examples masha*ikh-i adjectives even if the noun qualified is Persian. " the mazkura *)** ;~5U^> (class.) Shay kbs mentioned above"; "the women described"; ty^*^ oUuitf " the duties mentioned
^^JLoj^j
Axiyyo mukatdba-yi
marquma
bi-dusti (class.)
*'
correspondence written
in friendship/'
(3) If
the
fern,
rational beings, or
JU*j,
if
noun is Persian or Arabic, singular or plural, and denotes the qualifying Arabic adjective is of the form JW* or
is
the adjective
o^^
of
or
(perhaps incorrectly)
cW< o*+^
^^
man's
power and
(4)
it
Al<tf
If,
o)x? of divine power; vide (TZ-) (11). however, the Arabic adjective is separated from the Persian noun
if it is a predicative adjective, it is preferably left in the " masculine form, as: *^*f cU'b ^LxL cjjy " she is a very intelligent woman. *
qualifies, or
In
e^j e^?t **this woman became famous in the town," a^Sfc/o^A to substitute be better would ;^^.
txi
it
(5)
It
appears that
it is
'i
to Arabic
adjectives and
participles: in speaking
1
writing
writing)
it is
"
generally inserted.
Examples
rich apparel
(m.c.), or
*>?J*
x^wfc
(in
writing).
There seems no
adding the
in
example, as libSs is masc. in Arabic in fr^ <j^ the is correct, as khil'at o^JbL has a^l* os*U> the
termination,
is
never added
but
itself
the feminine
used as a substantive signifying " a woman (in m.c. especially a married woman)," the feminine termination is only added to *-AVA* when
As
&&****> is
is
e^U> madiyan-i
za'tf
"the
adjectives
The author is of opinion that it is better to add the 8 when they qualify a noun, Persian or Arabic, that
is
grammatically.
158
THE ADJECTIVE.
weak mare," but madiyan-i za'tfa "the mare of the woman": " the feeble lady" is commoner than &&$*<* ^JU.. (m.c.)
In
AaJiXp
word
is
court of justice." the second an Arabic abstract noun formed according to rule, from the relative
jjj^-o, generally translated
to Arabic participles will be seen
"a
adjective.
(6)
The advantage
:
of
adding
from the
following
" the deceased woman/' but (*>^ x ^3 "the wife of the " " the river *A5l^ iXK^ deceased intervened," but *# u*;y. j here <J5U^ could be (mod.) "the intervening river prevented an assault"
Axyx^x
it is a qualifying adjective and is not feminine. not predicative, though or participles that are commonly used as adjectives (7) Arabic adjectives There is, however, no rule; for inflected for gender. in m.c., are seldom
011
grammar and
idiom.
is
partic.
m.c.
is
hence
rarely inflected:
however
(8)
In 4U)U
oi?
most
of the
(9) *
common words
s*
Possibly the explanation lies in the fact that conversation are feminine.
'
'
Musammq
*
1
"
fe*~*>
named "
+>
(in
musammat o>U~^
C{
^
(10)
t
&
(^
"
^ ^^*
;
vsU
l
but
^
is
^j ^^
Issjf (m.c.)
*U
j^v
>>
U~*>
is
^^iU
^ ^ ^^.
**
ci^U**^
prefixed
to
almost every
(
Mrs., or
?
Madame,
is
or Miss.
ulya-jdh
Ali-jah slaxJU
women.
'THya
UU
the feminine of
i.e. U>U. IJLc
^^
"
the elative of
to
^^.
to be Arabic,
high as
rank."
it
Nikah
',
celebration.
The past
mankUhah A^yX-c
'
applied to a
woman
&
as opposed to that of &***> (lit. usufruct, engagement), which is a marriage contracted for a fixed period and for a fixed sum a kind of legal prostitution. In Persia the word
****
is
**>>?*
ceremony and for the temporary wife. The children of a riyha wife are legitimate, but do not rank equal with those of a &A>J&*> mankuhah wife, except in the eye of the law. Though the Prophet sanctioned temporary wives as a preventive to vice and the Shi'as still practise such marriages, the Sunnis consider them unlawful. Kirman, in Persia, is noted both for the number of its *** ?igha women and of its prostitutes.
'
'
THE ADJECTIVE.
159
is still an address for In India, and probably in Afghanistan, U persons of position, but in Persia it is used for JjjG ^.5l> ncfib vakils, etc. (11) An Arabic feminine elative is often used to qualify a feminine noun, " " the most Persian or Arabic, as dawlat-i 'uzmq j^Jap <^Jj* great empire
^U
'
^t
fi&&
ty **'^
ofy cJ*V
^^
*f*
&
of*aa.* ^ &/cf
Remark.
If
an Arabic adjective
is
of the
an
elative
on the measure
\^*>
but
f
if it
denotes colour or
fern.
deformity
S\
its
feminine
fern.
is
"
j**>
yellow,"
"lame,"
(u)
^is
substantives
friend
make
ll
their feminines
&*>
in
according to
as:
*
9
er*
v^^" "my
(male)";
i^x^x
"my
"
;
friend (female)"
deceased (female)
^^x^ and
A3y^/o
afiJJa*>
4<
a divorcee."
is
"the beloved"
it is
is
necessity,
and hence
to
distinguish
it
as feminine.
" which a rule that " nouns by their nature can the do take feminine termination. to females not Sa'dl, neglecting apply only " this rule, writes M^l^ pregnant," but observes it in the word (j^*^
In classical Arabic,
it is
4
(
mistress."
And
In Paradise, they tell us, Houris dwell fountains run with wine and oxymel
be lawful in the world to come, 'tis Surely right to love them here as well."
If these
0.
9
K. 185 Whin.
both a sub-
(v)
(1)
Mushkil Jlwo
(pi.
mushkilat)
is
in classical Persian
In modern Persian it is generally used as an adjective only, ishkal being usually used in writing and in in.c., for the substantive. (2) 'Umda **+* is both a substantive and an adjective: i*+j^ "an
excellent
J^
thing"; ^y
^Jby^ J^w
<{
jfy (mod.)
he was one of
my
best
Great offence was once given to a Persian Governor by the Afghan interpreter of
official
a British
160
THE ADJECTIVE.
1
customers'
66
*tjij}
x*+*
*'
)\
$&**
jt
my
real object."
(w) (I)
Two
OJ^A> t>jjb cu*# ) "he was endowed with high aspirations, a noble ambition" c>U* *** <^iy^^ &LU " o,**> " by the previous acquaintance we had ^y U> (Sa'dt) &\y~> (Sa'dl)
(or ty
: ] ;
^ v3^*yoo^A ^AxJLw
"by former
days"
beneficences,
by previous favours"
(*l>*
J^fj** (m.c.)
''former
became changed to good ones " _j& AxjjV (m.c.) "what is necessary for a journey "; ^xi &c)iJ (m.c.) "what planning is " e^.^ ^j (Sa'dl) " what is proper to necessary, the right course to take -=~' ( *)t or) w^'lacu: jl j ^t "this is a wonderful good companionship";
their nature, his evil qualities
;
(Sa'di)
"by
"
exploit
:
<xxi-^
health";
' '
JU*'
oy j
4<
<ui)
JU^ ;^
(SJiah's Diary)
"they are
in perfect bodily
^^
^^
*
^<
complete
(2)
error.
j*^
A^
is
is
an Ar. adjective.
",
kulll is
&&
is
also
"
totality
"
;
the Persians
same
o>
its
antonym
*)
are in classical
:
and
in
of adjectives
*&lb
^f
^^ ^
c^-iu
this
&* (^
sect";
*
er-*^
(Sa'di)
"he
entertained the
very
9
f
highest
opinion of
vJ>^Ju
r^^
"upright conduct"; v^
<jjUjf
i^xu
"
"
;
fl&if
is us
.9 ^r^
"
good adused.
ministration, also good discipline, etc/' " " the good thing about him is this
m.c. phrase
vulgarly also
^f^j^ &~*
is
(pl-
of *i^^
the
fern, of
<j^U
"
)
"
precedents
:
&^<
birlcar-i sabiq
2
4t
based on a precedent."
In m.c.
'*
^3Eu0 means
(pi.
''conversation, also
^^1^ OAS^
' *
i&A^UMiy jf
(m.c.)
3
gama'im
4<
)
Jiama 9id
(pi.
of
84^4^.
distinguishes
it
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Similarly with sy#
1
161
" <JU* * " evil " 1&& ty evil thought, suspicion " " ^ bad +<*& or j~ *j~> doing" J plight" indigestion"; ^^ *y ^^ *f " rudeness *wl^ $?* "evil end bad temper or nature. Jjl^ *r*> " is not so " a common or well-known matter (x) The classical j*U ^^iu*
:
' '
'
'
' '
'
'
common
in
modern Persian,
as
^f+* c^**>
or
^ *U ^^^
(m.c.).
'Umumi
is
an Arabic adjective. A few Arabic adjectives and some Persian and Arabic participles are, (?/) before a substantive, followed by an izafat instead of by a preposition
:
J&c
'*
' c
it
is
o^
(m.o.)
"
;
^i <^^^
"
(rn.c.)
your
Muhal-i
mumkin ^+^
vJ'b
Jt^x* (m.c.)
*
is
na-nmmkin
(z)
^^./ob j Jl^x/c.
In
m.c,
moans "
clean,
^smooth, level"; o>^ ^*>, however, is to strain liquid through cloth," clean." and o^ j -b is and Indians Afghans use cJ'U in the sense of "pure" only, and <JU in " also ll " of clean
' '
the sense
completely wholesale
(of
a thing)."
121
Remark
(aa)
I.
^ andy +f
vide,
(6).
The addition
ana
<*>
and to
adjectives forms adverbs, as: **\tyo manly, virile ": " <c ^ malik of muluk, pi. king") *>\^& bravely, boldly
:
"
&>\4^*
&(&$
t(
vide also
108
*
(a).
After a
is
&UUi^,
etc.
Ail^Uuaf
adverb
is
"in a more masterly way" seems to be an exception, as the here formed from a noun.
44.
Compound
Adjectives.
/**>
(a)
whole phrase
Any noun with a particle prefixed may become an adjective, or a the man possessed of may be an adjective JU I ^ A
' c
:
property: o^jj^ij (Sa'di) ^poor-spirited": Jf^^U pa dar gil (m.c.) = sar dar hava (m.c.) "awkward, thoughtless" jjjjLo^^ dar manda: \j*>)t>j<
sar bi-giriban &\**j>>j* *'full of thought,
anxious"
" out
e>'^
**>
kun-ma^kun
"fearing
e^^
none":
^^ ^
i
"hesitating; also
has
command": uy^
of
^ignoramus"
has ma-tars
outlandish
ma-purs
the
way,
Jlacuxj^jja.
"impossibility."
11
162
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
i^." In sar-i dast 0*0^* "ready at hand," sar-i zaban the tip of one's tongue," sar is practically a preposition.
(>(>)
j~
"on
of
a whole clause, as
<jw>&
:
w*Acw l**>
banda-yi halqa
mulk-i dar
"
A!*/ <_&^;j>
c&x
country taken in
" war
o;^l^
^jfj j
Ai~<
^SAf efj^
*x~^
l<
(Sa'di)
who has
"
(fla'dt).
"
Oh thou
mara bi-khalvat-i f^x5 karam kuchak-i si su-yi basta-yi dar-ash bi-su-yi rjushuda bi-khwast Tr. H. B. Chap. XVIII, "he called me into a private place, closed on three sides,
o*tj.=su fc(Z*
LS}"^
u*P
<x
with "
its
Note the position of ^ in: ^ *vxJ^U ^ ^ ^^x ^.{j ^f^^j?^ have never encountered such a difficult law-case as this." (b) Compound adjectives are formed
:
(m.c.)
(1)
to a
noun
} >
j
*=*f3 ^A
erf
ugly face
i
i
4.
*-*> i, broken-hearted
^
,
in
wretched circumstances
>
of pleasant voice
ill-tempered
^i
J^ ot*
Mnixed
elements.
Remark I. Compounds with e>i and The compound fi ^i^ is common. quial.
Remark
^G^iUI
are
rare
in
modern
collo-
II.
strong, 'All
Qajfcir
Jbj Jb ^y jij> f^W (.ftf. CVzap. F/) " here by name J^ Jb c^y stands
;
"a
for Jlj
is
preferred.
:
*-
and
or
-AxW
and <-M^
(pi.
JU.
'*
$5n
of
^n)
notes'*
ilhan inftn.
t(
chanting."
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
(lit.
>
163
Remark.
The members
"
<*+&*>
of the
o or 4ji^
(3)
inverted, thus
Two nouns
lion-hearted
r
.
")
an ^
[both
j
!
an
el -
Arabic.
diabolical in thought
*J ruby-lipped
scattering pearls
billowy
as
^.Persian
j
and Arabic.
large army).
munificent
w^J
,
)
[
)
oyb
ruby-lipped
Remark.
as
l
v->t*yf
(^d^x;
^jcliv^f
"
(4)
root
scattering
"1
$$ J>
2&
heart-afflicting.
Lsubstantive Persian.
)
^^
Ifci t^x>
^4-=
world-conquering.
fault-forgiving.
assembly adorning.
x)
) 8 ubstaiitive
Arabic.
AlLxj
"Pardon
K. 884 Whin.)
often a passive, not an active, sense, as: ^wj txk " known ru shinas khuda bakhsh "given of God": <jA& by face, i.e. " tamed (of wild birds, etc.)" JU acquaintance" 3>^T ^"^ dast-amuz
This
compound has
:
^U
pay-mal
"
In modern
' '
as
well as
classical
Persian,
shir
is
adjective
' '
brave.
2
Mahasin (*y(^*>
:
pi.
of
nr^
<f
beard"
adab v^f,
pi.
164
(5)
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Adjective (P. or A.) or adverb prefixed to a Persian verbal root
*
LvJ
1
sweetly-singing.
well-wishing.
^
ft*
*-&)
quick apprehension.
thinks after
the deed
is
[>
prefix Persian,
who
1+J^.xft'
>so
in
1
I
.
.
in
j
-prefix Arabic.
Some
of these
signification, as )
be obtained, scarce." experienced, a beginner" v^ f (6) Of substantive (P. or A.) and past participle
difficult to
:
<)^
,y
experienced. r
i
i
substantive Persian.
T>
j
"i
shame- stricken.
J
1
substantive Arabic,
is
dead (abuse to
j
is
subs, froth,
God."
Compounds
"of ill-omened
(7)
of Arabic
fate,
*J
<y -j*
yj
j>.) 9
etc.
unjust.
cowardly. unwise.
lasting.
}
>j
imperious, tyrannical.
subordinate, oppressed.
useful.
ti
9
jjV
jj
j
with
salt
pleasant-featured
pleasant of conversation,
possessed of sense.
a Persian verb from the Arabic root
fefaajlat.
From
c"**+t
Properly cJtap^
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
(8)
165
bed- fellow.
__
v
j
Persian substantive
.
fellow-traveller.
T*
'
)
;
, "^ *
Arabic substantive.
,.
^;
3^>
travelling together.
(9)
A substantive
^j>3 f*
1
as a privative
.
weak.
inexperienced.
,
1 ^ ^Persian substantive. J
.
aj^su
^.r
cucUu
(10)
..
possessed of
r Arabic
substantive.
U a prefixed to adjectives, substantives, Persian verbals and past participles (compare with 12)
:
Na
H^ ^ displeased
(class.);
unwell
(mod.).
impure; in m.c. saucy, roguish ^adjective, Persian. (of a woman, in a good sense).
J
J
) '
^
A u adjective, Arabic.
...
,.
*>
rough.
of
k useless.
1)
>
various compound*.
out of place.
^ of
mean
resolution or ambition.
ignorant.
C unpraised.
unabridged.
Was
L>
e'er
man born
"
K. 391
unmanly, coward.
worthless.
hopeless.
l->
Ij
of
f$ and
^,
vide
121
(6).
Before an
infinitive either
l->
or
166
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
In modern Persian
&
is
li
as
Axafaoi
o*&/
in
modern Persian
is
preferred to
o^/ **x^
:
cc
(*>
^J
rice
not steamed
(after cooking)."
In negative compounds, when part of the compound is a verbal root, the '* Godless vl^ l*/^ negative should immediately precede it, as vj& !*** "not having slept." Sa'di, however, has <j*^ (j*& for <jj^ J^.
'
'
:
Remark
(11)
I.
In speaking, na-ghafil
l
is
an
gh.afl,at
.
The privative^*
yhayr-i
:
j^ g&ayr-i insaf
x*
ghayr-i tahqiq
absent.
p unconditional.
11 ^
or(i er or
proper arrangement.
unmarried
(wife).
uncultivated, etc.
involuntary.
not allotted.
uneducated,
ill-bred.
(m.c.) unofficial.
jj)'
^
of,
is
,
^7
(Shah's Diary)
in lines
14
on
unappropriated" and
feminine to agree with it is not clear why the
AJjiux j**
In
A-'yiU
used.
is
rare
in
modern
Persian.
In Arabic
^
^*i*
^6
is
a substantive, and
when
privative
followed by
is
CJ^
JL
"impure."
nom.
corruption of the
ft
of the Ar.
case.
2
51
alu.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Sometimes the participle has the
inherited."
(12)
167
it,
added to
as:
^5)5*
j& "not
Arabic
SI
Of a Persian or Arabic substantive or adjective prefixed by the "no, not" [compare with (10)]:
;
unique.
)
>
\U
*
J|
,. u
helpless, without
;l^
remedy
*)U.
).
Remark.
La-uball
^JU
"'x>>
K,
adj.,
'"careless,"
),
is
really
an Arabic verb
"I do
alfUxj
(root
.fo*-
vwfe (15).
" void of Arabic substantives prefixed by the privatises, *>**, adj., " and *j.**>c, past part. " non-existent
(13)
j*>jh /*jxc
yjli
;
"
non-existing.
(m.c.) lost to ken, disappeared (of a thief).
-^i3Jt
*~:pJt
|^*x**=
+,y\ 2}**yo
i.e.
fabulous"
Remark. --The
Uy
,o^, Ar.,
14)
and
^,
^j^,
Compound Arabic
*
adjectives,
comj)ounded
'
of
an adjective or a
known by name
s
2
only.
(15)
Arabic
phrases,
at ";
as
S
<*^t
jtxil/o
"mentioned
above";
lt
:
Axff
^
.?
^>*>
U
' e
"
beyond expression
' '
"
o>j*j
Jl
immortal "
:
(lit.
"
)
:
f j>'^
will
uncultivated
(lit. it
<{
^1 r
"
"
boasting
i
lit.
"
you
:
not see
*'
me
")
uXl^U
;
possessions," subs.
{<
(lit.
what he
possesses)
;
-ka^
J|
unceasingly, adv.
as for-
merly"
Ja*.
SI
^^^
mast-i la
nothing "J.
Remark.
ta'ala
When
"
^^ &M
The
the phrase contains an Arabic verb, such as in Allah God, may He be exalted," the Persians, if the first word is
vowel of the genitive
is
final short
omitted.
1
Many
(>?).
^^.
Mitshar 11 *
q ilayh
^V J^y must
1
'
qualify a noun.
Lam
168
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
:
Khudawand-i
ta'alq
Jl
(16) Adjectives of resemblance are formed by affixing to nouns certain words, chiefly substantives, vide (3)
:
.*
like
an angel,
like
angelic.
(3w shaped
a boat.
with a face
like the
is
moon
beautiful.
Mdnand
^U
adj.,
"like",
Rarely, a broken plural is used, as haza*ir-i falak-naza^ir J-51& c^U^Lka* enclosures high and inaccessible as the heavens 8^k> vJU* falak nazlra (or
:
' '
nazw) would
also be correct.
(17) In a
is
prefixed to a
noun
alert.
;
U- four-cornered
square, oblong.
four-year-old; vide
98
(6) (4).
Remark.
<4
to
6 *
^i-^
to
sit
tailor- fashion
"
^*^^
j~*
(c) TliQ following words, chieily Arabic, are frequently attached to substantives and adjectives to form compound adjectives
:
(1) ^jikj "receiving," JP.JOO Jy<^ "possible"; jto j**** (m.C.) " " can be mended (prop, of buildings). of tia (2) &&* pana h "asylum, refuge, shelter", as: e^i*>c "asylum
'
'
as:
pardon
(3)
VU
ma-ab
lit.
"
place of
return":
v^
^ c t^ "
l
(^ or
kings).
ij^j* (in5d.)
Europeanthe
ized."
(4) ^Uxi
' '
body
;l*
shi'ar,
anything
that
envelops
Kirdar
^^ from kardan
Pers.
&&j$
',
*Lwli>/
Hurl <^)^
is
of
j^,
fern, of
)^\.
is
In Persian
huriyya
4
pi. in
From
to receive."
From vV?
Vf
' *
return
' '
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
(5) jjf
169
"
:
j*\
^ o^
"
^^ "
:
"
friendly
mark"
cjUJ
e^}.c
"
#55 =
: :
(of people).
o^-c *_^l*.
*
s
v^f
"
;!y>'
i**fe&
''arrangement,
(of things).
manner"
^^1
)j*
j*$
^j^T ytf
o4^
(8)
well-shaped
abode"
:
"dwelling in Hell."
of returning,
^XL-^/O j^oUx
Pers.)
"wicked."
(lO)^A^
ojl&i
(11)
7/ia5?*
(rare in
mod.
"
"place
going":
unfortunate."
4<
^l^ maddr
centre, pivot
"
;
j!^^>
of respect."
(12) ^j&o
^^ ^^
"dwelling in Paradise
JJ S
(of
Muslims
only).
(13)
v-Ajj^J
cr^a.
award
of Paradise."
(14) A^LXJ
(15)
44
" <**^u " = j(^ /j^M "trade tyrannous." " and " joined, contiguous maqrun ^^i ^arm adj.
:
^^
past. part.
joined,
ft ' c
contiguous"
oO* ^^^^
viA^^o^
3
^.^l^;
e,^ c^.
< 4
c^Jj^ "fortunate, wealthy"; ^JL?^ ^l*** = o^*- I. ^jr Note also the following qarln-i maslahal o>*0la^ ^^jl
advisably ":
(10)
in alif is
' *
:
jadtt-kuna (obs.)
practi&ing-inagic
desert."
5.
Intensive Adjectives.
is
(a)
(1)
An
jective a iinal
'i
ta'ajjub
<4
formed by adding to the simple ad* Or alif, called alif-i kasrat *j& -^i, or alif-i mubalay&a k^U>c bi-hdl-i Khushd as: JU> *^>^&* <-AJf, sulh-kunandagan Jl^u U^.
intensive adjective
1
>^
Blessed
;\re
This intensive
alif,
which
'
is
alif
and
3.
is
ot
rare
jj
and
^^
usually precedes
(I)
but
vide
'
(2) In old Persian, the substantive so qualified has often a final alif O'' " &* as well, as khusha Shir am " oh delightful is Shiraz tjy &>jj* \*>
:
(b)
(1)
intensified
From jt**?.
y**
^f,
^*^>
*$& (j-^^
f<*>
,
vide p. 12.
170
tive, as
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
:
JX^^. "
^^
'
<(
"
very pretty
:
(rn.c.)
& ;U-o
x
;
f
"
very bad
:
"
:
"a
great eater,
:
glutton":
J-a^
sfead / unpalatable shud (m.c.) " he became very delighted": ojlfj^ J^A ^^Jk;j ^su the precipices appeared in my eyes extremely terrifyj^+jujx ^sJiA^^ vsJ^
"
^^j "a
perfect fool
"
jf^li
o*iu*.
o.=fcu
quite easy
"
"very
% saMtf
j&
ing";
vide.
45:
*X;<xJ
b^A. (m.c.)
f
"an
again."
etc.,
mWe Adverbs
" =
of
Quantity
:
(I)
(3).
It
may
be intensified by the
of unity, as
c/?t
z}$
^&
' *
tw 7^?
what a very
(1)
Repetition
may
4<
*VxrU j e^U
pak u 9 pdklza
**>j
give a continuative or intensive signification, as: <c " very far 3 ;^j;j^ ^wr u daraz very clean
(
away
(a)
"
:
*i^
rujta sliusta
(lit.
this
(3)
in
the plural, as
'
mast-i mastnn
^>ft>
ejlw^ o~x: "dead drunk": c^**^^* faqir-i jaqiran, or ijzti a pauper of paupers very very poor. fuqara*
"
faqir
'l-
In the
title
izdfal.
Mons.
Raymond,
Seir Mutaqherin,"
izafai.*
is
who knew
at least one
used the
title
equivalent to
Amir^l-
Umara*
(d)
(e)
\j*y\j**
117
to a
The
prefixes
^ -#&
"a
(j)
(4)
Remark.
form
an
ism-i
substantive
mukabbar
Wj *&
etc.
* '
j&*
:
^
'
(of wing)
big cup or
large variety of
mulberry
pot": "
:
*'
"flight-feather
j;f*i
)*j*
t&,
^, <^^
li,
pavilion
"
large tent,
' '
:
'
'
^J^*jo*
large
*xiuj^
species
large mosquito
**
much
8 4
prettier.
Vide,
Repetition of words
k
140.
'
He however
writes Rtiy-Bayan
(an Indian
title).
171
Jy*^
t& #*
p*& #&
"ass-mill": ^/f "asinine": o^^^aL " stupidly drunk ": very large penis."
(3)
khar-as
^ ^Aj ^
(
signifies
" ass
"
large
:
hog- backed,
tomb":U>y^
ass-like or
j^ j^
vulg.
"having an
Whether
^^ ^
means "big-eared"
or " ass-cared
"
is
a disputed
point.
46.
(ft)
(1)
is
formed by adding
y
:
to the positive,
>s:
Mod. Pers.
_3 ciy I.
(2)
c^>
b
;
" more populous" y cj>*j (Sa'di), in "more honoured ": y vs*I> (Sa'di), in Mod. Pers.
is
not
much used
in
Modern Persian
[vide
r ( ) (3)],
q i.
^y
to the positive,
sometimes contracted
to
in the plural,
as
U ^Uy
cJ;>
(m.c.)
The
Remark. Note that the comparatives of the past participles *j^f " " " more " (< (( comfortable more humble ^^ more y intelligent
;
are in
use.
common
use
but not
&v^ y
*&!-'
^-h^,y ^-'^^,y
**>
(6)
(1)
Arabic adjectives,
9
in
?'
Arabic,
^**
feminine,
as: kabir
y^f "great,"
is
comparative and
*'
superlative
y"
followed by c^^
x
lative
by the genitive.
The Arabic elative (ao called because 1* includes both comparative and superlative), when it is a comparative makes no change in Arabic for gender or number. The Arabic elative is used in Persian.'2 dar vaql-i ahsan tr~^ oJ^^ tc in the most (3) Note the superlatives in
(2)
1
>j
The Arabic comparative has no feminine nor Both as a comparative and a superlative.
plural.
172
time "
propitious
:
(4)
J
tf *jU oUUxj a^&j} (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXI) "no, lyo fiUut ^Jsf no, such an honour is fit for me who am the most skilled of physicians " ^t \j*& ytfit (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) I am the most poetical of poets.'
* '
:
^^
'
of
Generally speaking, Arabic adjectives in Persian form their degrees cl^U*. _y JLel* ... comparison in the Persian manner: JLel*
(5)
^y
(6)
The
j
affix
t^
tarln
is
sometimes
a
contracted
to
In,
as
<jV*
^^
-or :
u^y
:
&
or^yyo
are
"the
or
classical
poetical only.
double comparative is sometimes formed by adding the Persian cXa*f Arabic elative d** l^Us j **jj (Sa'dt) " he asked p\c " " the most excellent*' (J"A' (m.c.) what is the best kind of worship \*j>j* cu~M V^i c>^ ^i=i^ ^,1^*1 ^U! ^ cL*i ?i6^ ?* labar-i Islian munqati' kardan
(c)
affixes to the
aula-tar* ast
(d)
and
root
it
out."
(1)
expressed by
have never
bihtar
in
your
life
"
(m.c.)=y
^^
m.c.
^^^
"
"
3 (Su'di)
!
you
j\
az
m chi
"
:
Remark.
Note the
Jl
one of
"
in the following
o
me
'
JU;
^Ui y
*t
** ALJf^
[Tr.
that he was a
man
of the greatest
consequence"
poets"
(2)
vide
(e) (4).
Nisbat
o^,
or bi-nisbat oo~j
as:
nisbat
cuf-o
bihtar-ast (rn.c.)
is
^j&>*
g >od
*>**>>
:
o^f
yy
(3)
"
J
1
m comparison
is
"
or)
^^^
bi-nisbat-i n bihtar
ast (class.)
" she
better than he
"
;
is
'
(J)j**
^+&
(Sa'dl)
" he
said,
dismissal
from
office is better
than employ-
The
plural
^xfc>r
pi.
eAfir^ here.
4< Mihtar, the comparative, alao means, prince, lord," and is the title of the ruler of Chitral. In India a sweeper is by a euphemism styled Mih-tar, just as a tailor, In Afghanistan and Persia mihtar etc., is called Khalifa, and a water-carrier Jama dar.
means
3
* *
a groom.
aulq>
'*
' '
^V
more
y
or
most deserving*'
is
an
*,
na-kuriim, (m.c.)
be confused with d?J ulq the feminine of <Jy 4< first." ** it's best for us to hold our tongue."
* Plural of
Jacf, elative of
Aulq an
kl dlgar gu/t
173
"
:
L> jf
is
better
^ than
^
thy
**
^^ murdan-at
]
bih ki
' '
:
mardum-azdn
(Sa'df)
"thy
afflicting of
mankind
thou desirest the truth, then it were better that a thousand eyes should be blind (like the bat ) than that the sun should be darkened."
If
(i).
yihtarln guzin-i
Dm, Bukhari
(e)
(Nam-i Haqq of Shah Sharaf^dthe Prophet) "better than the best and chosen of all " =
:
is followed by the genitive, * and generally by the plural ^ o^JU-c ^y u4f& (Sa'cK) 'I will not grant the rule over this country except to the meanest of the " the most illustrious of the oli5l JLx *U*> slaves prophets (Sa'di] oy^
:
The
^^
^^]
' *
' '
t4
J,*(
(Sa'di)
"the meanest
of existing things."
In J^Sff ^r-a.1 <l the best of shapes, the best shape" and like constructions, the second noun is in the Arabic genitive plural.
In
correct.
cnJJisx
(^^t ahsan-i
khilqat
"the best
** hama and
the superlative qualifies a noun absolutely, it is treated as " the an ordinary adjective, as: pk? &?) greatest support": ^Jkf j&*> "the
When
Prime Minister
or
"
: <
^~ cHt^
!
W)
<:
j*
o^;^
31
-^*
it,
Such a
terrible
Its least
1 will not say I have given a most noble pearl (lady) to a most renowned husband." 3 (3) Such sentences as "go to the nearest village" may be rendered, e>U^ eVT $ ^^ e? y *-&5>V (class.) but more usual *k >j>
j
;
"
(m.c.).
O*?"'
is
" * no hat
"
2
s
But
khilqat-i
This construction
tho best creation. ahsan w****\ is not used in this sense in Modern Persian.
^^
'
'
' *
'
174
is
Buzurg-tar 'imarat-i
in five
ways
(ii)
Kirman
ast in ast
(Hi)
Buzurgtarin makdn-i ki
&> (iv) Makdn-i buzurgtarin-i ki In makan-i buzurgtarm-i Kirman ast o (v) " is " One of the most Rustam yak-i azdilavar(4) expressed by y tarin-i Iraniyan bud ty e/t-^f e^y ^S^Jf vide (d) (1) Remark. (****;> (/) The comparative can be strengthened by prefixing the adverbs 45 (6) (1) ^\ jt-jr ^s^* ^$1^ and ;^, etc. vide Intensive Adjectives, (Shah's Diary) "peaches of a very excellent kind" o*t ^-Ji^L^j "this is
(m.c.):
o^
<^j^
" this
as
o**
:
v-^^Ji
(m.c.)
"
&>
(m.c.)
better course
is."
of <J^K "perfect" (a super(h) The Persian comparative and superlative lative in itself) are vulgar or poetical, and correspond to the incorrect English more perfect, most complete, more unique, etc." The Persians expressions
'
also say
(1)
y ^y
(1)
:
farid- tor,
The
positives
Af
AX>
and
parative
(Sa'di)
^ are
j~** & (^
ji
o^U* cxp|y
"we
[the
king] will
^^ ^
'
' :
you in the
'
obtained city, so that leisure for worship better than this may be " : lt this is better than that in bih az an ast (m.c.) c^* e>(; *t
t
f
by you
JU^ ^f&
'
bih az bisyari-yi* mdl (Sa'di) a little beauty cuiu. ^jb tf au o<iu bazu~yi bakht bih ki
^jb
Vide also (d) (3). bazu-yi sakht (8a*di). AJ is also a comparative or optative in poetry Bih (2)
"
it
be disbanded,
The
Uj
(j&ty
(4)
Ziyad a^j
a comparative for
^
;
jU3
for
Muyassar jr*^ properly means "facilitated." Here c)^r^ might be either an adjective with the ^$ the sake of euphony (number of syllables) Persians make
i
of
it
unity, or a
noun
but
mal.
8
means
**
ashamed."
175
(m.c.)
' '
people.
az hadd
(5)
^
-y
give ine more," nutq-i ziyad-i " an excessive concourse of a long speech"; but oa*+;x <x^ jf ^Uj Ziydd az hadd*^ jf ^,) is a modern vulgarism for ziyada (or ziyad-tar)
x*>
^j
or fcvy ^bj
"
jt
Pish Jk|J
6^
Ji-AJ
" more
"
time),"
has
also a comparative
However
y
jf
cj^t
(6)
andy
j&.>
cKgar as,
j^^
ki
'alava bar
f;l<^
,<j& *'
man yak
harj-i
dlgar na-daram
bi-guyam
(m.c.)
An
English
adjective
:
positive (as in
Urdu)
qualified
by "too"
(
(
is
by the
is
-&r^
^~ ^s^ u*M
" this tea
:
c^>t
^~*
^l^
e^t (m.c.)
is
^ ^-^
tf^'
yak-1 (m.c.) eM *^ qafo-h kJfwyfi bad astfiaz but this one is somewhat better (but still not
J
a comparison is drawn between a person or thing and the rest of the class, either the comparative or the superlative may be used, as " A \\ &$ " u follows They say the ass is the meanest of animals asl IA c^t o~j JT>U guyand ki khar az hama-yi janvarlia past-tar (m.c.).
(/)
When
^
1
ft
o^^A.
:
;^iU.
^y
o--)
A"
^/
or
^ ^/
a vulgarism kucJmk-i fc^ 4^!, -si dukhtar dasht, yak-t buzurg, yak-i kuchak, yak-i kuchah-tar.^oi. 8. T. "he had three daughters, one big, one little, one The third term should be az hama kuchak-tar smaller than the little one."
(m)
The following
is
jf,
(ri)
or kuchak-tarin-i
hama
&+*>
vifa-jf:
(1)
The superlative can also be expressed as follows " as Ear chi tamam-tar y^U JU^A complete as possible": e^|*J b '* I came out with feelings of the greatest regret J *^;* (m.c.)
in
,
my
mind."
(2)
kiazan
buzurg-tar
(or
kamtar,
(or nami-shavad)
f*xu ^,-Ui lif^ laxxj) e>f 31 /JU^5A> o^f 8<x has been found here, the largest in the world (lit. as large as any in the
o^ojy ^j>
cuilJLc
<xb
v lka.
^jf Jf yjfb
^^ cXU ^ ^
ki
dar mulk-i
Dakan
bald-tar az in
Batar
a
colloquially usod
176
Beng.)
(Tr.
^
By an
intensive
H.B., Chap. XXXIII) "the water-carriers had so sprinkled and swept the roads that their work couldn't have been better done."
(3)
perfectly, unique,"
etc., as:
^j
o*&j c^U.'
:
bi-yjiai/at zisht-riiy
extremely ugly
^^ JU
b (m.c.)
ilq
" ~< ^Jr^U j J^ j> "he excelled all the ty) cua>^ ^J ^,1U| ^ "he was most the
"
of
utmost prettiness
1
pious
of the e^iy t5
J
Muslims": dar
or ji&^V or )
'Urn
c
/*^
o^t
^^
(
i(
if
O^I^-^P ^(&*
he
is
unique
jk
in his ago
_
r^ar
"
(J,j>
*> G
A^^
^^,
in.c.,
abuse)
^^}',
= ^f^
z &a-5
j!
1
e^.
_,
Azhadd
bi-sliiddat
oaio,
are similarly used. or ^ar nihayat-i martaba ^^(^ Inhtar bihtarin .42 Jiy w>j>? $ "better than the (4) c (^) ( 4 ) etc v bihtarin, e/irV^)*
^^
:
best"
(or bihtar-i
" the positive, as ou^t 7t ^Lif^ he is the clever man of the city " = he is the bravest of his tribe." o*t pj$ ))$3 is sometimes prefixed to an (6) In classical Persian bar adjective to give f< bar buland &&> it a superlative idea, as and rare) (class, high."
(5)
By
c '
very
The comparative or superlative suffix is also added (1) To participles, as: *UJUjf^ c^>' ^i^v-jti ^, ^La &f j& y jf*yAx~jU (Sa'di) "sin, by whomsoever it may be committed,
(0)
:
CUX^AVC
is
objection(m.c.)
JujtiL^-o
it is
especially objectionable":
^jy Jjf^
^.^y;
"the prettiest": ^jy J^U sabiq-tarin " the most used." musta'mal-tarin
Remark. The superlative suffix ^.y is seldom added to Persian participles. The comparative takes its place, as In rang az hama girifta-tar ast &+& jt J^) e> o~! y Asuda-tarin er^J te^, (m.c.) "this shade is the darkest."
:
Jf
&
mahbub-tarin
(2)
To a few
(
"upon,"^y "higher":
e>y ^j or e^7^
:
j>
^0 and
^
(3)
Sib,
etc.
To
in modern Persian
and
vulg.)
l
"more
rfar
^^^f (m.c.
^j UT
1
y o^T p
Dam-i
^^
^ (m.c.)
*
*'
mean
kV
1
that
v'j^
^5
"a
In m.c. ()&
' f
means
'*
mark," and
radd-i
pa ^
&) is
'
foot-print.
177
Lankuran, stage direction). " Taymur Aglja crosses at back " " " a little more this door y oj-k <^)&* way " " a li^ e more that " y ijjj? c)T e;^ way y o^tj more comfortable" ^*-f y^xi^xwjt (m.c.) "he is more of a lion (braver) than a lion": dushman-tarm-i dus/imanan (m.c.) c>^^ ^.y ^.^^ <f the most inimical of one's enemies": dust-tarm-i duatan &$*j* (&*j**)& (m.c.) "the most friendlike of
(Va^lr-i
on
all
one's friends."
(p)
To compounds
member,
of
an adjective and substantive, the comparative suffix be added, either to the end of the whole compound
1&>* eAt"*> ;*
-^> ^^ j <>juui? i^ ^U? j*>l^ had he if ever Ta*i seen anyone with a more asked Hatim-i (Sa'di) they this In nature than himself." example buzurg himmat-tar CU*A ^jj* generous CU*A y ^)^: and this latter himmat could be substituted for buzurg-iar
as:
^**y
"
reading,
ear, occurs in
some
editions
of the Gulistan.
It
is
add the
suffix at the
end
of the
compound.
Remark.
The
superlative
is
C^+A
:
&j)j*
*
but
ali-himmat-tann
^y
c^wfc
^U
:
is
(tf)
a>
<>b
e/f
of Resurrection will
l
comparative sometimes gives the meaning of the superlative ** cu>oLx5 3^ c^T^y ^J-^ " (Sa'dl) the greatest regret on the Day be a than others
)
TJie
this, that
(lit.
regret greater
j**>
c^xxy *J^y
^I^Jr;o>
:
o^ 'txc ^ac^
3
:
(Sa'di)
"
in the sight of
*
enmity excellence
is
is
:
the
greatest blemish"
o**y^
^'tf l^vi
31
which of these
the best
"
^;>
(m.c.) "the biggest and strongest horse in the A<-^| *y ^y> ^ " tf C^^A stable (*$*j*J&)y. buzurg-tar mard-i, dar shahr kas-l hast ki " the ." greatest man in the city is that man who (m.o.)
o*f
^J j^^
In
all
is
an
ellipsis of
az
hama
A*^
jl
or az dlgaran
^'j&z
jf.
Note the
*:
of unity.
(2)
1
Buzurg-tar az buzurgtarin
vide (d) (4).
^y
^)^
3'
y ^;^
<
highest
(3)
As already stated
:
modern
a+*
f<
Persian.
hama
usually substituted as
o~.ty
cjlaeJf
31
cJUb
31
is
(m.c.)
this
Hatim
is
is
Satim
* s
T&i
Or
aat
12*
178
still,
etc."
is
rendered
y&
:
A- ^Jf (class.),
y ^j*
(mod.).
in English
(m.c.), or
is
(s) The progressive double positive " " He got worse and worse cu**y<x> j^
rendered as follows
;*
more correctly
(t)
suffixes
may
If two or more comparatives or superlatives occur together, the can be added to each, or to the last only in the latter case the clause sometimes be ambiguous: L^T J J^ y &{** +& v UfA>^ v UJf jf^f
(I)
;
f
>
&<
(f;he king of the gods) is more ancient even than the sun and the moon, and is more lasting and enduring than they." In khana . buzurg va va&i'-tar ast o*,y \J^ &{ ^\ may mean either "this house" or " this house " is and more is
" he
^^
is
spacious
j
o~!
l^U- <UA
all
^y g.*.)
^^
spacious of
the houses,"
in cu^> ^&j>
and more spacious aiUL ip>\ (m.c.) "this is the largest and most open to the same criticism.
larger
:
Note that
^U^
&+A
^y ^U
j>
(ni.c.), digctr
should be omitted.
(2)
first
may take
(m.c.) "formerly Kirman was one of the most important ^yo'yf and most populated cities of Persia:" in this example ^*>c -, or ^^^^^,
^^
u-l/o^*^
^ ^y ^^
^C<
^Uy
^U
is
^U;
could be substituted,
as a superlative.
but in
all
adjective
regarded
" " the " the quicker the better are rendered as follows " farther you go, the f deeper the water becomes .>Lj v ^j^y;?^ **>j* " the nearer we the shore the (m.c.): approached rougher the sea became''
(u)
Locutions
like
oWy
ti
**>
ki
l
bp
;*X5
^Jivof
<*
J>
^*y
is
;U^
<^*
^y
(m.c.):
zlra
Mr
nazdik-tar
ast
parishan-lar ast
is
(m.c.)
y>^^
c^^t y^j^>
tfj* >j)
4<
the more
one'1 distracted."
are
illustrated
in
Comparisons
:
between
clauses
the
following
examples
(1)
s*>
^Ubl^ib ^j&u i^i&i'co^x &' &jj ^lx3B.x> ^ftXx/o^i^ CU^UJAOXJ " kings are more in need of the advice of wise men, than wise
tion with
c;^ A
^^^( (Sa'di)
of associaf
men
kings"
;r^
*f
>> **
^^ ^y ^*
8
jt>
^**^
^*>
\
&***- c5
^t
(tiaidi)
"the performance
friends!
of such a service
is
presence": ^ld> y
^U^jASi LU &)&> ^\
^;
lj
(Sa'dl)
"0
"
:
I'm more
am
of the robbers
)&$ itf
is
heard in m.c.
*
8
Note that A^^k " whoever " takes the place Ghaybat ^^^ absence, but yhlbat ^***f "
In Mod.
pronoun "one."
back-biting."
him a mile
or so on his journey
179
chust
c/* y & dar an &ar bisyar u chaldk bud (ki) man bi-an miqdar na-budam (Afghan) " he was much quicker and cleverer at the business than I was." " o~*f (2) "I would rather die than beg j^ <vf^ jl &*j* &* <_y (m.c.),
more
(3)
or
'
To be
like,
equal to
"
e>^ & &' o!ay v-$* t^l " To do kindness to the evil,
(4)
o**:
is like
&(**
c>^/
c) **
L$^
(Sa'di).
'
"She
(equal to) ill-treating the good.' " o^-oc was as much renowned for chastity as for beauty ;>/ " (m.c. and incorrect): "he has as much right as you
.
*^
c)^
;
(m.c.)
have
an qadar na-khurda budam ila In vaqi :^iu xo>ajf oJ>^ ^xtb he was as brave as Rustam 2 and as wise as Luqman" 8 (m.c.) uS> "he was as beautiful as Joseph 4 )$ y and as faithful as Majnun" 5 ^jiap-* ^he was as j o^tj> ^Ay ^.^wx ^f as Job and as afflicted as Jacob" u dar tahammul Ayyub va dar patient huzn Ya'qub had j^i ^^ft*j CL>^;>J vj-^ cA*-^ ;5 y "the carriages and nor neither as numerous horses of this as good as those of are carriage city
hlch vaqt
'
now"
^^
1
(j
Russia
s:
*o
' '
vo It4-
) *j*j)
* AC-J
l^uf
(Shah's Diary).
as:
(5)
So
7
^ p*1
J
^toJlL
by ^A
cu^j>
"Never would a
"As Thou
Or bhurda
<
am
+\
fc^j^.
cui'j
jJ
it
would be better
to
:
say
JjLx &>
is
ailed
also
^_~* ^^j
he
the
Hercules of Persia: his exploits are celebrated in Firdausi's great epic, the Shah-Nama. In IV tod. Per j?*+*> is pronounced hamchi.
Luqman, the sage of the East, said to have been a black slave and the author Others state that he was a son Lnqman's FaWes. Ho has been identified with /Esop
"'
of of
Job's
*
sist
Israel.
k *
Joseph
a second Joseph,"
and
Yuafif-janial
&
JU^>
^-&*f>, adj.,
mean "extremely
:
of Layty
6
MajnTm ^jJ
.
signifies
the
name of the
celebrated lover
Taha<nmul Jl^aRJ " enduring a burden patiently.'* The grief of Jacob is proverbial amongst Muslims from mourning for Joseph his eyes became white. When Joseph's shirt was yet a three days* journey distant, he perceived its odour, and his sons said ho doted. The shirt was the same that Abraham wore when cast into the fire, and it
* '
:
it
as an amulet
when he was
'
in
Joseph, cast on any one afflicted with disease, but he shall be whole.'
7
by command
Jacob
for
it
shall
not be
Khurtadan
for fchandan.
180
such as In this example * may be translated merely as the connective of a relative sentence.
'
" had
*^ $ o*^\ e;&L> j'y ** \j****j* v*^ (Sa'di) <e I but feared God as you do the king I would have been one of the
jt
f
^*
Faithful Witnesses."
(6)
^~**>
"Compared to";
^b ojliu*j
to the generosity of
to the ocean.'
(w)
(1)
"
o*j~i ^ax/o ^IkL, o;Un*9 ^sS H. B., Chap. VII) " I said, compared our king the generosity of Sultan Mahinud is as a drop
'
how much the less " how much the more must Englishmen,"
"
:
(2)
fear
God "
(3)
mi-tarsi
'*
If
fear
|J^*
your Mulla
*V^ j**
**$-
like this,
c
how much
f
3^
<g~'j*v
^^
tariq-i
awlq
azKhuda
bi-tarsi.
then how
much
me who am
seated in
chief seat of
(4)
^ tf yo CAX<. j*x^> ^ ,-f<u~~ "If coffee intoxicates you how much the more must opium do
"
^^
&*.
so"
'
..
**f
or)
A[^>C
^JL^j
^J
^^^^ >^yf
how much
{i
(5)
If
letter 'ayn,
less
(
can
' '
oj^j
' *
(6)
If
opium
will
&& ^
^!^L^
will coffee
o^!<i Ookj-iu^
-r^k A^
mast na-kunad (or nami-kunad) qahwa bi-tariq-i aula mast naml-kunad. " It has been said that there is no reliance on the friendship of (1)
friends,
how much
o^*A^
"
^*}^
<x>t
AX?^
J*;
&*>
(ji^
tf
^>-^
'
^'*iffl
c;^^^
(Sa'di).
(8)
kill
kill
the father
how much
the
1
\j
*'
^-j
**$
^^J
;
'jj** o-^Siyi
^i^^i
;
in Paradise
!
the
first for
the vUfif
second for
the
f-
j>^
for the
^rsJL*.
Or bi-chand
Fa~kayj
a
is
(also called pad-zahr j&) ^J, from pad ^ U a stone found in the stomach of certain rumipoison "), protection" and za&r " discriminator " between health nants. Tiryaq-i faruq is the best kind of antidote, or " is " In Mod. Pers. and disease. opium generally <*^jJ> and antidote <5^y*
Tiryaq-i Faral
'*
^3
**
Awlq J^jf Jj
the
fern, of
**
) ^)
-,
^>
Jy.
181
(9)
ported to
(Afghan).
was unable to move it even how much the less could it be trans* the sea" <xia>c aoaJU,^ Uj<x &' ^f ^U. AA. (jtXxiUi*. ^ &t ^wily^
I
;
In Mod. Pers.
(
af ^^
?
*<$
f*>&
cu^
j+i~jtyo lyf
r^
na-tavanistam
an
(10)
S jj
1
L^V
_j
^^'J^ ^^
&$&*
(Iq.
&
c)T
^*^
*^
7^^
jj>j
,
oj^
j^^ ^^./o
x.; *x
t\xiul5 *juiXl
Nama-yi
is
As Soc.
*
JBeng., p. rpr).
(11) In
Indian
and Afghan
how much
is
the less."
less drink.''
u\y
^ &M ^ e)^
;
(Indian).
Urdu &
a kind
is
a word to be avoided
it
signifies
ot'
poaturing in
CHAPTER
THE NUMERALS
(a)
V!.
<
Ism-i
adad
~*\
).
The numerals,
or
numbers
(:*-
or
anc ordinal
^
numbers
'
called ^o*x>
of
''numbered/'
oU>T
aMc
"
;
)"
(
units
>
'ashardt
<
mi*at
ott*
" hundreds
^?7/
o^t
thousands."'
47.
Cardinal Numbers
a dad).
o br.
pi.
as/a/.
'j
^
<*
yak du
si
ckahar
4 also
5
;l
AJ
panj
shash
6 classically
sliasli,
vulg.
haft
hasltt
7 vulg.
7ia/.
/^ff.^,
,,
nuh
dah
or)
u^jlj
10
ft
|
11
12 13
>
chahdrdah
pdnzda/i
shdnzdah
'S'*'//'
in Arabic
I,
is
not a numeral as
it
The article is added to yak (yak-l " a certain one ") but to " fi.kran, " hazar is a noun. In cardinals. yak-hazarl In the Shahnama dah u du occurs for twelve.'
obsolete.
'
generally
an unlucky number amongst Muslims and Zardushtis, as amongst The Muslims believe that the twelfth Imam is Christians, though for a different reason. Hence the Persians alive, but concealed, and that the thirteenth will be a false one. " A hich or avoid slzdah: instead
*
Thirteen
is
saving
they say
gr
nothing,"
8^3
ziyada
" more."
unlucky.
fifth,
thirteenth
and seventeenth
of every
month
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
hafdah (or
haft-
183
llihavdahor hivdah\
*
<3
or
hashdah
(or
hasht dah)
or;
nuzdah
(or nu-
Pers.
nuzdah,
vanzdah),
r
vulg. nunzdah.
20 sometimes
21
incorrect-
-$
u yak
r\
30 40 sometimes contracted
into chil u^..
. .
panjah
50 colloquially pinjah.
60 Sometimes
correctly
c^being
letter.
shast, ^j
not
Persian
hajtdd
70
80
hashtad
navad
90
100, in dictionaries,
also
correctly ^~
or
300
400
500, in m.c. usually punsad.
chahdr-sad
pan- sad
shish-sad
haft-sad
has/it
sad
hazar
1,000
du hazar
si
r-
2,000
hazar
hazar
f
r-
3,000
10,000
Also
*^*
hizhdah
(old).
s/ is
" three
" and " care must bo taken in the "* thirty ^^ si " three hundred "; an si-s&dis Though si is "thirty"
:
cannot be used in Persian. expression like thirty hundred is met with, but this form is not used in modern Persian.
s
' '
Classically
JM^UO si-sad
To be
word sadd
prohibiting, checking."
184
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
sad hazar
cJ
is
also
used.
.
kurur
. .
ten millions.
oj*k or c>t^
)
milyun
(or
milyun)
1,000,000
Remark
1
I.
***fj,
olii
fijtf,
4-uy,
afiu,
WU$,
*-J,
j2L.*
From
3 to 9 inclusive
Arabic numerals (masculine) are used in Persian as adjectives to " the four elements " qualify a plural noun, as: 'anasir-iarba'ah A*j;f j*>lu=
these
;
wvqat-i khamsa
&+^
"
;
&-^
crly^
"the
otfy "the five times of prayer"; havass-i khamsn five senses"; kawakib-i sab' ah <***% v^!^ "the seven
<f the eight Paradises stationary planets jannat-i samaniya *xil*i oti^ ^--3 *J$j tis'ah "the nine heavens" aftak-i r^ 'uqul-i 'ashara
;
"
44
"
;
mavaUd-i salasa
;
*X
"
oJi^x
i4
J^
the three
tiie
" kingdoms (animal, vegetable and mineral) ** " the six Gospels" ayyam-i sitta &** fty days
;
anajit-i arba'h
in
four
world."
The Arabic
writers,
ordinals
up to 20 have been employed by some Persian these ordinals beyond 10 is by some considered
inadmissible.
Remark //.The word for 100 is written &*c instead of o* to avoid any common Arabic word sadd li boundary." it and the 60 is written for ^~~^ which means " thumb fish^ftOtfk," Similarly,
confusion between
^^
In grammar, this
or obscurity."
is
called
^-^
daf'-i iltibas
Remark
**
one"
vulgar say yeg, and more " six " shish and shisht for ; haf hash for
}
///.The
commonly
'
'
seven and
To express one
and so on.
lak, vide (b)
thousand
1
they say
si
kurur ^^ A*
(obsolete)
Also
^UjJ tum&n
tafcfa (in
and c^J
and
(c).
Persian lak) and karor (in Persian kurtfr) are of Sanskrit origin, and have been borrowed by the Persians from the Indian system of calculation. They
2
The words
In Persian lak
lakuk)
&
i.e.,
is
correctly a
hundred thousand.
numerals assume the feminine form
for the
From
i.e.
masculine,
and
vice versa.
&
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
While
in India.
in Persia,
I8t
ten millions.
a kurur equals only half a million, in India it equal This must be remembered when reading Persian works writtei
lak
by Persians. In India it signifies hundred thousand, but according to Dr. Rosen it signifies only ten thousan in Persia. The Zardushtis and merchants trading with Bombay give th word its Indian value. 1
is
The word
J^
rarely used
(c) Tuman &(*y, T., signifies a myriad (10,000), or a sum of money equal t 10,000 Arabic silver dirham hence, also a district supposed to furnish 10,00
;
fightingmen.*
The
In
chief of a
j*Jl*>
Baluch tribe is
still
called a
Tuman-dar, corruption
tuman-dar
y.
Persia,
the word
tuman e>4P is only used for a gold coin, or it Ck commander c or = the word c^y j**' Amir tuman
greatest
From twenty upwards the numbers are arranged by having th number expressed first, and the lesser added by the conjunction
:
[Though deviations from this rule may occur, they should not be copied " is hazar sad B u nava k< eleven hundred and ninety-nine (1199) u Example " ar Ci * * *A<> u nuh 3 hundred Such as eleven n j )*yt> ij. expressions
<*-
never used.
The
is
obligatory.
Remark.
occurs:
^T^
u
hazar u
<xUyo
Jlajl/o
C^PA
^^
)\yt
^>
A> ^J,3
*^-ib
x^^
chaJiar sad
pn.nzdal* tola ki
:
ba-wazn bar
tola ki
amad
si
yak hazar $i u hafi u misqal rm-badiu in Modern Persian this would be ch,ahar sad u panzda
u
mm
haft misqal
mm* j
^~
its noun (without the izafat) and th hazar mard il one thousand men", bu noun is in the singular, as: jyj_va> e< ten individuals." An hazar mard *' th ^cUx^i^iJ % dah nafar ashkhas
(e)
cardinal
number precedes
thousand men."
^<***>
^*xc
in this case
tii
amad
former has usually the indefinite ya, as *>^T j ^.y ^^^U- sal-i du bar <l about two years, a two years or so, elapsed." (Sa dl)
f
in bo
2
8
izafat) is
is
a Persian
title.
jj
}{*-'
but ordinarily
tli
numeral yak
*
Notice the position of nlm in the second instance and the insertion of j hetvvee
al.
hazar and
186
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
In poetry the cardinal sometimes follows for poetical license, as
M
(T
:
and
The ma dud
1
is
broken plural
cL-Ud+c
si
In Modern Persian at any rate, an Arabic plural, or Persian imitation <c is sometimes em ployed, as: *A*i to dah'fa'ala ten workmen"
!
&
null
C
qal'ajat
or
"artificers";
ci>la**i*
&~
o^&*
In the rare instances where the numeral stands as a predicate to a " noun is in the plural, as: " the men were two thousand
(j^j-*
"
;
Jiazaran
t)j1
orhazarha UyjA thousands," as !;^ (e>^^ or better) <j*^ p* UyjA 8 *xijb'.:x hazarha bettor Iwm-jins-i* (or ham-jins-Jia-yi ) Wiud ra khivahand
<;
<4
award
(m.c.)
they
will bring
fil-ha)
;
thousands of their own people hazaran (or Jiazarha) fit (or fil-ha).
**
sadha
fi,l*
The
plural
" thousands
(/)
'j
is probably incorrect, for, as, already stated, sadha is rarely used in m.c., haza.rha or hazaran being substituted hazaran kurur (m.c.). thousands of krorzs" hazaran hazar (m.c.), or hazar hazar (m.c.) many
:
(lit.
" thousands of
<c
of the
of
"I
of partridges
to-day" *:>y ;^
*-***"
6
man
si
ra
firistad
imruz panj dana kabk* shikar *' he sent (m.c.) ^U^j t^JU ^^ yk
t(
<V
(def.). ^Uy> I sent all three or by the preposition [The dative, however, can be expressed either by as j>Ai j^ ^o o e/f a-^ man/ ra bigu, or ^J ^^ ^b 6a an rfw mard( bigu
I;
:
ra firistadam (&&*;>
"
\)
'!
here
;
as singular
2
z
a tendency in m.c. to treat some of the commoner Arabic broken plurals s^U^J asbab, for instance, is sometimes treated as a singular vide also 29 (c)
is
:
Remark and
footnote
I).
also
it
ham-jinsha-yi Mtud.
*
6
The word hazaran or hazarha is used in m.c. and sadha rarely. Or kabg m.c. Or har du-yi man raj or har du ta man ra, or ma har du ta ra.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
*
187
'
tell tliose
j&
f;
'
'
tell
those ten
u+> O^f
*'*'^ v*
man duzdidid pas nami dihid (m.c.) jt tf f; " won't you return me the 100 tumans that you stole
may be
considered as pronouns.
from
me
' '
Remark.
(q)
si, etc.,
various objects
cattle,"
'
The Persians have several qualifying or determining words for when used with numerals, like the English " twelve head of
etc.
is
in the
imfat' (vide
;
117), as:
duwst*
' '
bab khana,, 200 houses \(*j~j& ^~y bist nafar sarbaz" twenty rank and du farsakh rah " two farsakh's distance. "
file
common
nafar
in writing.
The following
are those
employed
Persons
*_&
I
>
\ji
du nafar
uwf;
*~*
far rash.
Horses
Mules
ras
y-t
si
ra*$
asp,
Donkeys
Mules
kamand
mahar
camels
a
11
Camels
mahar
Men
or
1
nafar
li
Mu
o s
qitar
qitar
line, string," is
camels.
string
of
camels
(of
under
usually
one
leader
seven camels).
Klephants
zawjir
mirbat
zanjir
1
'
*'
cliain
'
'
;
mirbat
'
Mso
'
* ;
six pair,'
'ten
'
sail
a thousand horse
'
or
foot.' etc.
2
Colloquially
v
o-"J^
didst.
Derived from
*-^~-*Jrf
(k)to dah
(ta) blsl
&\A. o.v-,. c^J yak dast khana moans one house with a complete set might consist of only one room.
.V,
of
rooms
yak
feliana
Far rash (j&j* lit. carpet spreader ": a servant whose functions are to pitch tents, sweep out the room, walk before his master, carry messages, apply the bastinado, and anything from a housemaid to bring tea. This functionary has been aptly described as
a
*
* 4
an executioner."
*
188
-
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
Sheep, goats
l~
shakh
dart a
'adad; ra^
shakh " a
number"
Fowls
dana
61
ras-s
'*
a head."
Dogs
qilada
I;
a collar."
bahla
1
Hawks
bahla
AwJ = "hand";
4<
(classical)
falconer'?
glove."
Falconer
bazu
l
(classical);
bazu
"arm."
Guns (cannon)
Sails
arrada
"a
' *
farvand
Money
dana
^-ky &
m>am
rn an
<;
$ ***
sad dana
tu-
Jewels, fruit
dana
sanb
Clothes
yak saub
sardarl (also less correctly
Guns,
etc.
,
lula,qabza.
yak dtrna sardari). mJi " a bodkin for applyan obeing collyrium
;
etc."; lula
barrel/'
*'a pipe;
Swords
daggers.
and
qabza
..
of
a sword;
Books
Shawls or piecegoods.
jild
volume."
stani
word
;
than.
Carpets Felt
or
fard
takhta
"a
*
For mablagh
139
*
sum
(of
wV
(A).
qir5ngs panj gold five nine qirans). * Carpets in Persia are woven and sold by the pair, each pair being identical in pattern. Persian taste requires everything in a room to be in pairs the same pictures even (coloured prints of European women of ample charms only partially concealed), repeat themselves on both sides of a doorway or arch. Fard also means " an account "
bit
**
In m.c. dast-kash J^S o-^^ s use d for a falconer s or any other glove, this word signifies " an assistant falconer," " one who strokes " the hawk. i.e., -. " a Panj hazar ;!> 4five hu t fiazarl
'2
fn
India
(value
now
or
"a
list."
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
I.
A
si
"ura
phrase like, "I struck him three blows with a sword" is shamshir zadam fo)^*&* *<* f^f, or si zakhm-i (or zarb-i)
1
shams Kir zadam p*)j^+ vj** or) ^j A~ (m.c.). Remark II. In ordinary conversation,^ nafar
(
is
13
ta or
A>'^
dana
for things.
a score
t(i*i,
"
^3(3
t^j*
<->
number, as ^Iwxj yak btstd^(m.c.) " a dozen " yak davazda tafi (m.c.) ^13 te ,_> yak
of
:
dah
etc.
of unity
dozen"
duv-i (class.)
yak-i is a
will
Remark ///.It
Juft
cufiA.
or
jj
zauj
is
a pair;
t^U) cu-,>
'
u>-'
' '
;
J&^ j ^
c^^^
^ yak
dost
" t4 a set of plates and six cups yak dast finjan n'alnakl ^^^ ^**** o~*^ uXj six cups and six saucers"; muqamir ra si shash mi-bay ad va llkin si yak mi-dyad (Sa'cli) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
;
kdrd u changal 'one set consist! ag of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or one place at table ') yak dast zarf ojfe ^ * wX " one set consisting of six
;
coming up."
(i)
man yaka va tanha signities The emphatic phrase l^xi j unaided." quite by myself; (j) The phrase &* ;^ Jk> du char shudan signifies to encounter unexpectwe met each other" Ex. +*(> ba ham du char shudim edly." ^*xu )^j& " I met him." du chdr-i u shudam, or urn du char shudam (m.c. only) " hundreds of: (k) 8adha* U^^; hazaran &\y\*>, hazdrhd U)|;A signify 4 thousands of." Ex. o^; ^U laJL^ cu^t JU UiX^ sadha salast inja manda ast
" I single and alone
;
*
&
<4
(m.c.)
it
(Afghan)
In India
,/M/^
si shatushlr
;
zadam
^? chitb
zadam,
etc.
nami-fchwaham linga ml-Mtwaham ^*^^a.^ single (odd) carpet, not a pair." 3 The plural -an of this word not used.
i
^JJ
f^lr*-^
^^
:
*'
want a
in colloquial idiom
no dah nah
it
kos
is
an Indian measure
districts
however, varies in
of distance supposed to be about two miles and may be anything from H to 4 miles.
190
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
agar
chunm
amal mi-kardam
hazarhd daf'ah bihtar mi-sJmd (m.c.) "had I done so, it would have been thousands of times better for me" (better hazar chandan, "a thou-
OA? j* jj$ ^J y ;Uju &*> sad bimar az lab-i gur sand-fold"): " a hundred sick have bar gasht (many a sick person has) returned from the
brink of death (recovered
of
sick."
The Afghans sometimes (incorrectly) say sadha-yi marduman&\*>:j*^*** instead of sadha mard d/ ^<x*>. :( we two, both," etc., vide 39 (/) (3), ma du tin far (1) For the expression
j&
t/o
?
or
ma
liar
du
?&
j*
I*
,
or bar du-yi
man
d*>
^^
**>.
(m)
The
48 (*)J
This
life is
<^'f,or
in
&>
"
:
haft
qalam
^
'
c^Urf>
this
world and
styles
writing
t]io
haft iqllm
*-^
^&*>
oJik
tk
seven seas
"
;
haftjahannam
*>
+t^ oA*
name)"
eight.
;
haft blhisht
o-y oJi*
.
Muslim ilell (each of which has a separate the seven Paradises of Islam (exclusive of the Kursiy
According to tlie vulgar there are
.
or Falak^l-Buruj,
or Falak**1-Aflak)."
.
Haftad u du j*
^U&A
for
haftadudu
:
millat
^~U j- j
Jang-i ha/tad u
f
<hi
millat liama ra
uzr bi-nih
Haftad u
is
si firqa &*j*
A-
} ^Uft^ ig
Islam.
Muhammad
reported to have said that there were 71 sects of the Jows, 72 of the Christians, but There are five more. that there would be 73 of Muslims There are ninety-nine attributes of God called al as naP'l-hiinna or " the excellent names," but commonly Persians talk of the thousand and one names of God. Alia hi*
and with the ninety-nine attributes, completes the one hundred names recited by means of the rosary in tho exercise or The IsmP'l-A'zarn,, or tl Uroatname of God," is supposed to be known only to zikr.
*
essential
name
of
God
'
'AH is supposed to have one less, i.e. 1,000 names. There are supposed to be 1,24,000 Prophets. The world it is supposed is 8,000 years old, and will reach the age of 50,00(1 years
saintly persons.
:
Farda
ki az in dayr-i
kuhn darguzarlm
Ba
haft hazar-salagan
ham
safar-im.
" To-morrow we
' '
years.
(0.
K. 312 Whin.)
THE ORDINALS.
48.
191
The Ordinals.
(a)
The Persian
This
cardinals.
termination
turned
to the
siiati
) They are treated as ( ^l&o (>*) or mlm-i Wyln4 to,' dad ( &\**> (^**> adjectives and as such can precede or follow their substantives
p*
1st
J>!
+&
'
-or o~--so
2nd
3rd
4th 5th
^
***
or
^^
***
duvvum
or duyum.
+r* or
+**>
f;^
.
f?^J
.
panjum.
.
6th
7th
^^
f
XR&
^.i^A
ffj
haj turn
has/itum.
8th
9th
l()th
nuhum.
dahum.
si-urn.
^A,V
.
.
30th
(b)
fl '^w
2
.
When
there
:
more than one number, the formative affix is added to " f;^ ^-W ^^ ? ac^ w chihal u chaharum the hundred and
is
->
->
forty-fourth (144th)."
(c)
The Persian
w&,
sometimes
Ex,
^ij;
duyyumin,
etc.
Remark.
an ordinal,
(^)
as:
**
c>'
^3 f/ 3^
The
ordinals
t $*[>-*
x>
may
^s^.
be
1
followed by the ra
of
Question:
Inn, as
^ f
time.
9
the accusative,
as:
kudam
yakl-ra
mi-khwaht
**
"which one
who have
pro-
Haft-hazar salagan,
all
the dead
" ceded us
May
kh.ur ki
z dil
And
K. 194 Whin.}
Yakum
is
yakum
is In India and Afghanistan p&> used instead of avval for month. the the 1st of Nufehust o^iu generally
much
less
and nuts&ustln ^>^*u are classical, and only used in writing nukhmt zad <( ** 2 Note the distinction in 3rd and 30th " in Persian. writing between
S
first
born."
Here avval
'
&~j
In avvalin
afyfairin
c^/^ 2
&~J
**
"
192
' '
THE ORDINALS.
'
do you want ? Answer t; fo > cu-jj Ust u yakum rd " the twenty- first ?<xi ^;t^. chahdrumi rd bidih (m.c.) "give me the fourth."
:
l
'
:
t;
(e)
The Arabic
a certain
of
extent used up to
the agent
<J.cU
"the tenth."
.
(masc.),
and
isb'
(fern.),
excepted.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
saniya.*
| \
sdlisa.
rdbi'a.
khdmisa.
sddisa.
sabi'a.
i
sdmina
i
tdsi'a.
'ashira.
Remark
I.
up
to 90,
100 and 1000 are the same for both cardinal and ordinal.
Remark
II.
:
An
(^^
Arabic ordinal
substantive, as
be employed even with a Persian " the eighth heaven." ;* charkh-i samin
may
(/)
name
are distinguished
' *
ordinals, as
(who
lost
li
For chaharumln ra
In speaking up to
4<
2
s
the third
..A l>
"
only.
*
6
* *
a second of time.
first
'
'
\)j**\&
'ashura
is
the miracle play is performed by Shi 'as. calculation the night precedes the day.
It
that
in
Muslim
THE ORDINALS.
193
generally used in dates,
(g)
The Arabic
ordinal
first"
is
as
^Ua.^;
Jy
avval-i
j^jf
mah-i Ramazan
is
''the
first
of
Ramazan."
The feminine
Arabic months
;
is
less
used than
Jjll!
^Wit
Avval Jy
substantive.
is
an adjective and
it
is
follows
its
When however
precedes a substantive
generally to be
is
Kirman."
is J'y a va til signify ing "the beginning; of ten every month," as opposed to y^fy d-iys part; the " the plural of /^f akhira ( and akhir y^T ends, latter parts; the oJJiiEx. each month." of ) JJty ^ dar ava*il-i saltanat-i u days
The
plural of Jj avval
first
the
first
avakhir
last ten
"
(J**>)
first
^3
" the
Jy
" the
beginning
(J^J
f^;^
^^
c5;^^ \^
Janvarl
the end
li-
<jjhayat-i
Remark.
fern, of avval
is
^f
waU
^
^^
first of the month is also called g&urra, Ar., which properly " blaze on a horse's or a "star too large to be covered by forehead," signifiesa
The
new moon/2
its
etc.,
etc."
The
last of the
months
is
also
original
meanings "to
skin,
flay;
to
shed
Not an uncom(
mon
phrase
in
writings
is
&*<*)
^l~j
^
t^
jl
^
lit.
*U mah-i
" the
umr-i u az
of his life-
" his gjmrra bi-salkh rasld day.s drew to a close," time travelled from its ghurra to its salkh."
month
U^*
The
and the
(i)
first of
the
month
akhir-i
is
also called
Jy
avval-i mah^ or
sar-i
mah,
last
aU^Lf
mah.
ordinals are used in computing the year of the reign of a but the cardinals are used in expressing the date of an era. sovereign, (j) The ordinals are sometimes vulgarly formed by adding digar to a
cardinal, without
The
an
izafat y as:
Ufy ^ to* j
jS.>$
tawana
J
(Tr.
man
moon
is
hildl
is
in speaking
mah-i ahab-i
chafiardah to
)^^
"
full
moon.*'
13
194
FRACTIONS.
Fractions kusur
pi.
of kasr\
(a)
after the
numerator, as:.^
^A
haft
du
C{
two-sevenths
"
(
).
In
mixed
:
Examples
To(H
Remark
/.For
;
jj,
etc.,
tlie
5/A
sumn,
etc.,
must be used
-s
hasht yak or
7^a^
would he wron.
Remark II.
The fractions
are followed
by the
izafat, as
:
*<x>
me a
c
fifth of
this"
-=*~*t
c^^
man
;
ast (m.c.)
by right to me."
is
The Persian
fraction \ si yak is not used, and and measures for weights give me a fourth and not the Persian would be used: similarly
'
chahar yah
'
of this
'
half
\t
of this'
uun
nfof-i
In,
but
t4
c^t^
"
:
+**
*J*>
yak gaz
u nim ma hut.
kiisur-i a'shariyyah
:
"decimal fractions."
]s
Nlm
<Ux>
+*?
is
in
in
prefeireci.
Nlwa
(m.c.)
nirna alone
used in
*J
^i^
ki'abat riima~yi
is
dMar
= ol3'i
i.e.
c-ft/o.
Ar.,
**
writing (a letter)
away with
FRACTIONS.
(6)
195
in speaking.
The Arabic
"a
third")
and
2
,^'
in the plural
-
JUf.
**&&>
Examples
l
m's/
Used
in speaking
instead
of
nim.
9
i
1
"a
.
*j
>j
rub' or ruha
si rub* (or
A-
ruba
.
-^
suls
PL
asla* (rare)
also
the
three- thirds).
sulsayn
language);
du
suls in Persian.
khums
PI.
u*^
^U-'
^^^t
akhmas
(not used).
PI- <j*t*~
.
PI.
PL PL
asman (not
'
used).
PL ;^^
and
;t^
The duals
Remark.
*
by Mullas in writing
tjuarter to'
is
ilia rub'
perhaps incorrect.
c)
In
m c.
c^/^'jj v^*ai
c<
tiisf-i
ziyad-tar- ax k^ or better
/ii,s/
zii/a(f-t(tr-ash signifies
(d)
In
Modern
Persian,
mV
v^^aJ
is
"half" while
^ radius
asleep."
as
mm
^
(lit.
is
jlaj
^A-^
tusj-i qut/r
of a circle
but
v^
/*V
nim-khwab "half
is
"
midnight/* as well
nim-rTiz (class.)
midday.'
"
:
Bil-muna#afa
A^UJb
S>
>
iri
halves,
o '
equally
but\vooii
two
dar
lutf-i
iarlq
'
half way.'*
'9
';
'2
ami
>J;
is
used.
t
In speaking
du
#idft
du
l),
-\
*
fi
In Persian, the
pi.
;>^
T\jtli.
*'
so
many
parts out of so
many
196
(e)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.
Such expressions as "
^9
fl
5%"
daft
to>
are
.Ja
<i*o
sad pan].
Yak
bar
*u
(in
**>
sad panj, or
'
betting)/'
(/)
g*\
Juj
Decimal fractions are rendered by a paraphrase, thus *75"= j ^'&* ^^ J&* haftad o.*-J <w j' o*-J> sad 2 haftdd u panj-i inch, or g\
^j
u panj qismat
(g)
Fractions
may
also be expressed
j
as
follows
*&
jl
^C
?/afc-
as daA
ja dw as
51
"two
out of three,
Adverbial Numerals
uJfi
^^
(a)
The
;lf
Ex.
ty v^J.
^ dj&
^^
<*&f
^.
^.i ^ v^
2/a^-t
tufang u barudugulula yak bar bar man bud, "firstly, there of the sun; and, secondly, the rifle with powder and bullets was the heat was " in this sentence avval could be substituted for yak-l. quite a load for me
duyyum anki
(b)
The Arabic
:
as adverbs
;?--<
Jly
anval- on
firstly, in
the
first
place."
Uils
*
'
saniy-
an
,
n
,
(c)
The Persian
ordinals,
8 <e
added to
first time, martaba, A*^ daf'ah, or ;L> bar time," etc., etc., signify second time," etc., as Afyo Jy or J^f V|/ X> avval martaba or martaba-yi avval
:
"the
first
time,"
etc.,
<U?\>
daf'a-yi
duvvum
Remark.
etc.
Bar-ha
U; l
(pi.
oi bar)
means
' c
oft-times."
For du-chandan,
"twice as much,"
(d)
trc'dfe
Multiplicative Numerals.
to
The
etc.
cardinals
prefixed
twice,"
Ex.
;b &** si bar
"seldom."
Ex.
^yj^
*^ ^jj;
the same substantives signify "once, " thrice" kam-bar (classical only) ** ;L> " he used to ruz-i si\bar khwurdl
;
(Sa'dl)
The expressions found in old Persian fl dah bis' 200 are not used in modern Persian.
1
and
/*
2
*
Sad
">,
i.e.
per 100.
[As -75"
is
singular,
it
is
wrong to say
The Arabic
In modern Persian )b p
kam-bar
is
light
weight or
load."
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS.
(e)
<k
197
'
4*^
^ yak
jL>
daf'a-yi dlyar, or
)\^
bi-takrar
by repetition "), or
(/)
)j&* mukarrar, or
33
du bam.
etc. are
rendered as
follows
2 x 2
ast
du martaba du chahar
ast*z+~\
td
;l^
c^f
jly*.
5-1-5
dah
to &
Jj.
5-f-5
^^ ^ ^u ^ yak u& ^ ^
to
y^
^
j -*J, or panj ta
u panj
ta
;^
51.
(a)
Multiplicative Numerals.
:
The
"
"
Single
^xj mufrad,
ubUax;
^
yagana.
"Double"
"Treble''
muza'af, &x
du chand,
^*^
5i
3*
du chandan,
^\^
5*
musallas;
; J!
U A^
8
5^*
^a;
<>Aa.
A^
chand ;
^'^
*-
^t
chandan
<*Jlf
A-
^ana
AV,
54 /a.
A*J;|
arba'a az'af,
^i^;^
a,
chahar
"Twenty-fold"
6i?^
c>f<>^ ^-*^
6^9^
^^
chandan,
o^x
Ms/,
Jblix;
c:
jj
muqabil,
'*
&L^
:
o^-y
muqabala.
hundred-fold
cu^;
"
c;i<^^ <^
s^ chandan,
t^
J
il'tflx i)^,
U xo, etc.
as that
Examples
^f
^ ^^
l
v^
'*
'*
this is twice as
much water
"
:
i?
^i twenty times the amount of wheat v^^l;i parisham-yi ma chahar chandan izafa shud
this is
:
' '
(m.c.)
increased four-fold": in
si
barabar-i
an
ast
o^'
ft &
*^ cHl e;Tj^7
\
much
as that
"
;
(m.c.)
(>*>
+^
y.\y.
&*jk
>=* f.f. ^vijfj^ or) man bi-u si barabar-i hakim (or duwazda barabar-i f hakim) dada am (me.) "I have given him three times (or twelve times) as much " as the Haklrn gave Jbla/c A^ si muqabil ziyad-tar oy ai^iyk *5of 3; f&\tji
;
gave him more than three times what Ai^tyx Aaeuf Jblax ^^ ^/o man si muqdbil-i anchi khwasta f>to' ^ bud bi-u dada am (m.c.) " I have given him three times what he asked."
ki
khwasta bud
((
(rn.c.)
^^
Arabic multiplicatives are seldom used. In ordinary use are the compounds of 0' ta, 31 la, &*>*. chand, e;!*^ chandan and
(6)
Of
the
above, the
muqdbila.
Or bar
;L>
or martaba
is
i ^
"
altercation, dispute."
198
52.
RECURRINU NUMEKALS.
Distributive Numerals.
:
The
v5^
also
-X>^;
*
yakdyak, or <-*
**>
yak yak, or
'
'
^
ta,
J
.
&& &&
3
:
jj-*j
huva bi-huva
(rn.c.)
^^
one by one yagdnyagdn (obsolete) du badu, or *>> ^ du du, or Ujj> l^^ c?w
si se
;
"
/a
du
or dugan
"by twos"; *~ A^
"
''three
by
<k
:
three, by threes
";
i&dahdali
by tens";
yagdn u dugan
^ixiix'C
(old)
Examples
jj>
;&
*^f bi-nawbat jihai-i shikar ^.;o.xf (j^^ AsuU^ ^xi5jjj/o du du ddam me-raftem chundnchi du me-dmadem wa du-yi dlgor me-raflem " we* used to (Afghan) go out shooting by turns, two of us at a time, viz. when two of us returned two others from amongst us started in their place." ^ The Afghan idiom -^ If&Jb ;^ ^b^^^^ L^^^J er manriimnlmsir,
AJfjj^j v
v
^^
yd
bar ad, dar tujangha kardam (Afghan) s< I (oaded the guns with " would half a seer or a seer each in m.c. be expressed sir yd yak sir yak
sir sir
mm
sir
(m.c.).
as
-H*^ takhmin
:
" about."
Inst sal
etc.
express approximation, as
takhmm
fln
slmda ki
JU
*'
o/*oj
1x^4.3X3
"o^b* ** o^y ^J
mi-bdshad
^c
AAJ^
five
*^'^
ki
mmcnzi-yi
x^
pdnzdah ruplya
(m.c.)
tuman which
"
Uufy^
j'su
o^aj
or
^^
"there w^re
English
And *>j (connected witli ^oJ andak and ^^ eland), corresponds to si tuman ca and (class.) "thirty odd "odd," as: <^'j oUy
tumans."
53,
^
'*
Recurring Numerals.
:
" come every Examples: ^ ^Ij^a j; ->: ynk ruz dar jniydn biyd other day 6 "; "cut down every third tree" du biguzdr siyumin rd bi-bur
'
^ JD
alternately" e;^;^ ^0 yak dar miydn\ 8^ j& liar dah ruz yak martaba, etc.
Also moana
siuldouh.'
\*y&* ^)^-.
he termination an appears to be
sevens
"by
"
(obs.)
;
e^t^ *&*[>
bum-
dadan "
8
"in
the morning''
(Sa'di)
the
for
the
adrerb
straight.'*
Means "
in detail
or exactly.
1
"
y
hfi ba-hfi.
In modern Persian
c
J
.
t^- f^ j*'
j&
J^.
j&
fo" *^t^
***';
**
^f'Oj&j^ bi-nawbat jihat-i shikar du bi-du (or du nafar p^j& j*t&j&J*Jp nafar) ml raftlm ya'nl du nafar ml amadlm va du nafar-i dlgar ml-raftim (m.c.).
t
i
*M
bi <tu
*
'
ghibb
an
, '
**
alternate days
visits of
a friend.
at intervals, occasionally,** is also sometimes used in writing for from a saying of the Prophet who was somewhat bored by the daily The Prophet suggested to his friend that he should visit him y]ihibb- a ".
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
*^ J* or du dar miydn yak-1 rd bi-bur " take one dose every three hours."
54.
(a)
;
199
j}**>>
Approximate Numbers.
:
or
15
4u
** Approximate numbers are expressed as follows " " or two or three j& du si td (m.c.) jl &> chahdr panj,
;
ji
13
du
si,
chahdr panj td (m.c.) " four or five " six or seven," cJU <_ s/*as/& fca/J, Ex: o^> chahdr panj angusht, "four or five fingers' etc., etc.
f * ;
^t^
Vi
^ y^
breadth"; du si musht-i bar kalla-yi u zadam f <4 I boxed his ears once or twice for him."
Remark.
(^
is
jt $\$
^!L*
&*jt> (m.c.)
In du
si bar-i
^t
*~>j*
or so." the
td
*t>
owSu C^A,
'
some seven or
invariably omitted.
For *\^
e/?and,
}
a few," vide
an
about 20 persons,"
or taqrib
or
39
(gr)
^^y gart&-i
6^ na/ar,
55.
Numeral Adjectives.
: :
aJU (a) Many numeral adjectives are formed by means of the silent h " ** <^> u of six years old &)(* *^**> j shash-sala, panjdh sdla, pir-i sad ** an old man of 150 years " *&; oAfc hajtranga, " seven coloured (the rain" bow) *^ y t^ v^w ^a7i7-i chahar-ruya, " a square a stone." In *Vj* ^-^ 5
^A
tufang-i du-lula,
lt
is
<4
of every
month."
8j^j^
du-bdra
&;k
*^
wde
50
(b)
(d).
A^^O ma rika~gir, or J& naqqdl)* " often express ^everybody old and young by the phrases eJU 31 (j^ a+& 13 AlL. ^UiA U aJu hama kas az AJI* haft-sdla td haftdd-sdla, or *JU liij 31
Professional
(
story-tellers
(^
aa:
panj-sdla td panjah-sala,
or ^^U
os^
^u
aJl*
ji-i
j|
sola.
(obsolete)
:
Jahdngm
(the
of the
Emperor Jahangir)
larger than the
^jj^j
tj
they are
e;ly
somewhat
AAU^J
6iw>y ^)^ ^A^jb ^^-^ e^b^3l common wild pigeon " 3^ &*> 3 A ^- J*
1
^^Us ^tu
means "
^lU"
jj^U
''they
(i.e.
pair
of
adv.,
at an estimate."
><
The Arabic
adjective
g*^
is
murabba'
"square"
is
also
used, particularly in
mathematics.
3
200
ARABIAN MONTHS.
newly-hatched sarus cranes) are somewhat larger than the a goose, or about the same size as pea-chicks a month old
these idioms arose from the everyday
young
1
of
':
possibly
Urdu idiom
(lit.
"the
21).
difference
between them
is
very slight
(c)
J>&
;
trilateral,
triangular, "treble
J '
a quatrain:
"quadruple" and
so
on.
CHAPTER
56.
(a)
VII.
Arabian Months.
'
30 and 29
days (usually alternately), so the whole year consists of 354 days (and 9 hours). In a period of thirty years an intercalary day is added eleven times, i.e. the last month is eleven times in thirty years made to consist of 30 days instead of 29. (Hence the Naw Ruz would fall every year about 1 1 days earlier than the previous year and not, as it does, on 21st March.) As with the Jews, the civil day commences at sunset, and the month
commences on that evening when the new moon * is visible. [Hence the early Arab writers reckon not by the day but by the night ] The ordinal numbers are used to express the day of the month. (b) The following are the names of the months, which do not in any way
correspond with the English months
:
ARABIAN MONTHS.
*>
*.
or
?&>*>
Muharram
Safar
Rabi'u
#jj
'l-Awwal.
-r^Si C*;
supposed to have consisted of 12 lunar months as was introduced, one month being intercalated into every three years. It is, however, related that the Prophet on a certain occasion said, " A year is twelve months only as at the time of the creation," and by There also existed amongst the this saying reintroduced the old lunar year. Arabs a system of commutation by which Muharram, the last of the three continuous
1
is
system
of intercalation
sacred months, became secular and war lawful in " 2 Hilal J4U is the new moon" and badr
it,
8 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians.
Or
'ayn-i-yak cJ
ARABIAN MONTHS.
.. .
201
Jumadq'l-Ulq
Jumadq'l-Akhir
Rajab
6
7
y^Jff ^<iU.A.
^fe*4^l
a
c)
9
10
u()Ujf
Shcfban
Ramazan
Shavval.
.
V^^t J >~>
f8**ftJf,i
or
J -^
1
Zu'l-qa'da
or
or
Z* qa'dah
Zu'l-hijjah or
Zi-hajjah
Remark.
called
^)lU( j^;,
5
and the
lj^f
fifth
8
and sixth
ungrammatically
J^Vl
and
^^U^
jamad
's-
sam or^^t ^^l*^ jamadl u 'l-akhir. o (( month" is^^ (c) The Arabic word for
o^
is
)^
Zu
9
o^
shuhur or^-if ashhur. (d) Four of the above months are held sacred, Muharram, Rajab,
Qa'da, and Zu'l-Hijfa.
(e)
is
(I)
Muharram
it
fj**'* is
the
first
month
of
and
in the time of
Muhammad
The
first
was unlawful
Husayn,
5
ten days
of
( f\j* Jiaram) to go to war during this month. of this month are observed in commemoration of the
and the tenth day is called I;>1* 'ashura; some this on Sunnis fast day. very " to be a (2) Safarj&<6 is said to be derived from safar empty," either because the Arabs left their homes empty by going to war, or because they
martyrdom
strict
left
those
whom
Another derivation
leaves
is
from
first
sufar,
autumn
got
its
name.
1
Or jlm-i-yak
&
*%*>
and jlm-i-du
^ ^j^.
^,J( ^ujj j
Jjjf|
^J j and
2 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians. 3 In Persian the forms with <^i are usually used. Jamadi incorrect for Jamada.
* Not month is a] so
city."
for
mah, which
is
also signifies
"moon."
Mah-i-qamari,
"a
'
solar
month."
The descendants
of All
by wives other
202
It
ARABIAN MONTHS.
was in
this
month that Adam was turned out of Eden, and it was during this month that the Prophet was taken ill it is the most inauspicious month in the calendar. Hence the month is superstitiously called ^*Jf j&*
:
or the lucky
(3
month.
Jjill jyo>
>
a,ndRabi uni 'lalchir jMf' second spring months were so named when the calendar was The Prophet died on the 12th day of Rabi tu 'l-avval.
tuni 'l-avval 4) ltabi
&
the
first
and
first
formed.
(5
&
6)
Jamdda
'l-ulq
^y\
a^
and Jamadq 'lakhira *>^JIl c5-aUa> are M or <c "a dry and on jamad, dry year or season
<^j>U^
'
Eajdb v^j, the honoured month the root-meaning signifying veneration with fear.' Good Muslims spend the first Friday night (the English
,
Sha'ban," but the Persians ci>i^? v** Shab-i Barat "the Night of Registration," for Allah on this night records the actions of men to be performed
during the coming year, and those
who
are to be born
and to
die.
Strict
Muslims pray
(9)
all
night.
of the annual fast, is said to be derived " from a root-meaning to be very hot." During this month the gates
are opened and the gates of Hell shut. In Persia, night is more or less turned into day and a great portion of the day is spent in sleep the bazars are barely stirring before noon. The
of
:
Heaven
most
irreligious
break the
fast,
being detected by the smell. Some Persians who secretly cover their lips with dust when they go abroad, to give them
of this
lit.
" a tail."
9
***
is
on the
first*
*ft*Jf
ji the
month
of
of truce
to
(12) Zu'l-Hijjah JsuaJtji is the month of the Hajj or Pilgrimage Makkah, which is made in the 8th to 10th of this month. The <^*Kl *& W'l-qzhq (vulgarly zuha) " the feast of sacrifice," called
l
of drinking
Gdbr times.
2
" minor
festival
"
;
fitr signifies
"
203
1
is
Muslims
up Isma'lL
The Muslim era dates from the morning after the >?"> hijrah or 'flight''' of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which occurred according to most on the
earlior
/V.D. (>22. tfaeh succeeding year begins than the preceding, and an anniversary, occurring one year in the
16th
July'
hot weather,
will,
sixteen
years later,
fall in
the cold.
Thirty-two English
The 1st May AJ>. 1900 corresponds to A.K. 1318. solar years that have elapsed (1) The number of
since
any given
Muslim date
der
(current year
of
answer.
For example, to
Hijra year
is
3%
of the remain-
number
of years that
have elapsed
The current
= 1912 A.D.]. Thus according to the - 3% of (1330 - 800) - answer or 530 - 15 = answer, since 800 A.H. or 1912 - 515, i.e. 1397 A.D. = 800
1330
[
To
+
find
the
equivalent
A.H.
year
of
an
021-54)
of A.H.
is
A.H. or (A.D.
621-54)
A.D.
example, 1330
621*54)
-f-
According to the formula it will be ~ 621-54, which is '970225, i.e. 1912 970225
13.
To
57
Sanawat-i TurTci.
This consists of twelve solar years each named after some animal in The following old Turkish terms are the names of these a fixed order.
(a)
years
v '
Jj?
cM^*~
..
. .
sichqdn-il
ud-il
The mouse
year.
' '
.
Jb> *y
..
"The cow
' '
year."
J*
<
^t
^Uy
bars -il
4
This
feast,
Jbt
..
tavishqan-U
..
known by various other names, in India it is generally called *c *,& Baqara, Id the cow '^7," and in Persia ^j* *** >ld-iqurban. In 1902 the is called **? <id-i naw nlz fell on the same Friday, whirh day <ld-i qurban and the
1
is
'&
cxTaxx^x^
id-
<Us
is
or
^^ ^
is
"The
Day
of
4<
Victims":
^^Sl
being a
collective
Another date
a sacrificial animal." of unity is Uu*l 20th June, vide Hughe's Dictionary of Islam.
204
5
(Jjf
JL?i
THE ZODIAC.
^p
e^U oJ#
..
..
. .
lui-il
6
7
ilan-ll
$
..
"
<Jj
until
..
.
8 9
Jji <_jj
<A?'
qm-il
bicht-tl
^H^
^jj Uu
..
.
.
10
11
ckf
takkdqui'll
?^-S
..
.
.
The sheep year." " The monkey year." " The fowl year."
" The dog year.
1
'
12
(b)
..
tanguz-il
..
In Shaw's
"Grammar
:
of the
Language
(4)
of
the
names
(1)
are as follows
(2)
Sachqan,
(6)
Ui,
(3)
Bars,
Tausqan,
1
(5)
Fish or
Dragon),
Ape"],
(c)
(10)
At
Horse
muchal
'],
(8)
Qoi, (9)
Maimun ["The
by the Persians
first
Tun&uz.
Each
sal-i
called a
Uigljur, but
davazda
(d)
TurH.
in the Spring,
enters
Aries.
When
(e)
A.D. 18t51
the cycle of twelve years is completed, = A.H. 1267-8 " the Hog year."
<Jj
commences
again.
The Bars-U
21st, 1902.
^-;^
Persian
jj;
y naw
ruz of March
58.
The Zodiac.
(or
r,
a)
Jj^*
^
is
a'AkLc
).
"The
Celestial
ecliptic.
pi.
A
1
single sign
is
called
^
..
,.
bur)
Ar.
^f
'<
buruj)
tower or bastion."
"Ham"
"Bull"
..
.
2 3
4
;>J
..
..
..
Sawr
Jauza*
Sarafan
*')y
..
..
oll^
o^f
<xJUi~
"Twins" "Crab"
"Lion"
<
Gemini.
..
Cancer
{*>j?
(1st
of
or e)UUoG Summer)^
..
.
Asad
Sumbula
..
,.
Leo.
.
6
7
Virgo.
e^lH^
Mlzan
'Agrdb
.
..
'"Scales"
..
v^
^r^'
.
..
.
.
Qaws
Jady
..
.
.
Saggitarius (1st of
Winter).
10
^5^
1
..
..
"He-goat"
..
Capricornis.
is
2 3
Bars cu<*
is
Jy
etf^*
J_jf
all
THE SEASONS.
11
205
.
12
>^ ei^
(c)
Dalv
..
..
" Bucket"
Aquarius.
Pisces.
..Hut
to
"Fish"
Arabic
..
In addition
the
:
make
use
of
V
jV
barra
2
3
gdv
du-paykar
.
j**&
"The
two-faced
"
or
'
'
4
5
6
7 8
-
^'^
&&;&
two-figured."
khar-chang
..
.
4r
khusha
tarazu
'
..
.
"The
lion."
jjty
The scales."
" The scorpion." "The bow."
pS^
e^U*'
^
gazh-dum*
..
.,
kaman
Zmz-t'
..
10
11
c^y JJ
kuhl
.
^ **T
l
J^jb
dfU-i-asiyab
f<
12
^U
(d)
..
mahl
is
..
-The
fish."
The Zodiac
named
divided into twelve equal parts called signs and and the first point of Aries begins at the vernal the Persian Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day, about 21st
month
in each of the
above
mansions.'
It
is
59
(a)
The Seasons.
(
The seasons
or
'
'
are
t%
Spring"
'
jj;^>
Naw-Ruz
e; *^L
New
Year's
th< j
;
Day
'
;
"
Summer"
' *
U^f)
commencing when
khazdn or khizan) ^
(6)
sun enters 'Cancer'; il Autumn" ( u'U pd^iz or * and " Winter (^jU^^j zamistan or (*y sarmd*).
is
**
Ghilld
Ala.
*JU*
or li^
of
forty days.'
The
vj^.y
chilld-yi
forty days
chilla-yi kuchak.
is
the
The
ehilla-yi
also
^
&
=" a
bunch
'
of grapes
'
'
Or
kaj-dum
season
is
f*^
. '
which
in Porsia occurs
*
In writing
and ^*+
seyf for
vjc^*and
Adj. are applied to the Winter and Summer crops. uaed in speaking they are often used in poetry.
;
The words
*-*-^
and
^jB**
are not
'*
cold.
206
tdbistdn
is the forty days of greatest heat in summer, and commences when the sun enters Saratan.
(c)
Yilaq,
T. JjlUj
"summer quarters"
ing tribes, Turkish
( or jU'b ), and qishldq, T. ^4*3 (or J^-^ ), are and " winter quarters, " especially of the wander1
and others.
of obligatory prayer * are
.
..
f* Dawn. Noon
[less
common
ntm-riiz* or
.
nima-yi
'Asr
j>&*
<-i*x
*\2*
ruz
or nimaz-i
dicjar*
Afghan].
4
5
Maghrib*
'Jsha*
..
.
"Sunset": namaz-i .tha HI." '* About one-and-a-half hours after sunset
(narn az- i khuftan }
.
'':
of
.
tjy*' jUJ
When
i.e.
about
The
Shi'as,
however,
tlie
j%&
ZuJir
and
<
j^^c-
Asr
prayer
5
together at either of
Similarly
,
witli
tJie
two times, and name them namaz-i Zubrayn, c^'^t^ ;^* which they name isfia^ ^j*>* magjirib and >l&c
9
^jj^Avcjl^ namaz-i
five.
nt-ag&hribai/n.
and not
60.
(a)
months,
and,, as
>ll>j
moans
**
Arabic
is
J^^
of
is
salat,
Persian. }*+>
namaz.
repeated
Namaz-i
panjc/ana
or
wimu~-i
panjto
vaqtl
sort
ide^t
liturgical service
in Arabic.
IVayer
In
according
to
th^
daily
Christian
best rendered
by tho word
^J>
du'a.
addition
tlie
prayers thore are special services for Hpecial occasions. Shi'as usually pray only three times a dav but perform the same amount of prayer; they can combine tho noon and evening prayer which is then performed any time between noon and .sunset, and in the
mayhrib they
include the
"
laha
p'-vyer
which
I'M
time
hotueen
roz.
'lifjur
This
is,
6 6
7
May!) rib
8al-i
is {
hour after
yjiarnb.
shamsl
^*+&
Jl*>
it
was
bi-sextile
'
and
fall.
Panja-yi duzdlda
*&*.&\&
^^
now
also called
/fcha
n^sa-yi
mustanqa *J*w>
207
The new year commenced with us, a leap year occurred every four years. when the Sun entered Aries i.e. about 21st March. The jj; y **? *id-i naiv;
ruz, or
is still the great day in Persia, though the been has above solar year superseded the Persians changed their calendar and their written character, with their religion.
"New
Year's festival,"
Some It is supposed to have commenced with the mission of Zoroaster. Avesta Scholars maintain that Zoroaster flourished 12,000 years before Christ
others 8000 years, and others later
still.
less
than
Some modern
was
originally
&J3)jj*
Farvardm
the
month, but
all
Nawruz.
(6)
The following
name
1
of
are the Persian solar months, each month being the an angel, who presides over the month
:
&>&)}**
Farmrdin
March and
this
is
April.
The
1st of
month
May.
(21st
March)
cui^x^M-
Ardi-lnhislit
or Urdl
April and
bihishl
3
4
^^))^
j*i
jsij^A.
Khur-dad
.
May and
June.
Tlr
5
6
7 8
Murdad
Mihr
1
.
.
tyj^
jrf
WjaJtrivflr
cM
Abati
The
in.
leap-yoar six
;if
Azar
^j>
c**t'
Day Bahman
Isfandarmuz or
12
i*o;|ii~
(colloquially) Is/and.
(c)
The
names
:
of the
-
of Persia
^y
A?
fJrmizd or ffurmuz
2
3 4
tir*f
Bahman
,.
also llth
also the
month.
cuA^;f
;
Irdibihisht
..
.
2nd month.
month.
^j^
fthahnvar
Kablsa *
A'MCtrdad
"
^ty\
Vide note
0, p, 206.
208
o
iX-o
month,
month,
month,
6
7
Khurdad
Amurddd
8 9
Day
Adar
month,
also 9th
month,
month.
10
11
Abdn
KJnr or Khurshid
also 8th
12
13
Mdh
Tir or Tishtar
also the
4th month.
month,
month.
14
15
Gush
Day
Mihr
Rurush
also 10 th
16
17
18
Eashn
Farvardin
also the 1st
19
month.
20
21
r>'
Bahram
or
Virahrdm
Ram
Bad
22
23
Day
Din
or
*
also 10th
month.
24
25
26 27 28
c
^
Ird or Arashvdng
Ashtad
Asmdn
Zdmydd
Mdntarasfind
29 30
Urmuz
of
or
Hurmuz,
etc., the
Andrdm name
month,
all
is
preside over the days named after them. It will be noticed that three days in the month are called Day, distinguished
who
as Day-ba-ddar, Day-ba-mihr
and Day-ba-din.
Christians of the Eastern church use the
call their
SYRIAN MONTHS.
European
their
ecclesiastical
modern months by Syrian names. Their year still begins, as formerly, on the 1st October. The names of
: .
months are
Kanun*-8-.Ranl
Shubdt
<y$' j>K
J=U
jU'i
January.
February. March.
April.
Azdr
..
.
..
Naysdn or Nlsdn
cA"*^
*
f
Ay yor
Hazlrdn
;t^
May.
June.
cjjj^
YAZD-GARDi YEAR.
209
.
Tamuz Ab
Aylul
Tishrin u -l-Awwal
Tishrin^-s-Rani
j^w
July.
vf
JjJbf
August.
September,
October.
Jj$\
.
^.^
tir.^^
^li
J^ilf
Kanun*-l-Awwal
'
c^y^
November. December.
J^), also called Malaki and Malak Shahi, is (d) The Jalall yeai reckoned from Jalal-ud-din Malik Shah, son of Alp Arslan-i Saljuqi, and begins A.D. 1079. The year begins with the Vernal Equinox, i.e. with the
(^^
Persian Naw-ruz, and consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min,, 15 seconds, and a fraction. The names of the months are the same as in the ancient Persian solar year, but the intercalary days are added after tho end of the 1 2th month. The Jalali year is entered in Indian, Persian, and Turkish
almanacs.
61.
Yazd-Gardi year.
and the Parsis
the
b
$J>
(a)
The
'
Zarduslitis of Persia
of India
their
calendar: they
l
reckon
(^
by
Yazd-Gardi
year
Yazdajircl
or Yazdagird
^^ *j*
^^
$>>
J^
).
of several kings of
the
name
specially
applied to the
of Persia.
Nawshlrwan (the Just) the last of the Kayani kings grandson The era commences from his doath at the hands of a Khurasan!
was treacherously
killed while asleep)
miller
he
but, the
leap-year
The names
of their
months are
same
as the ancient
Persian year,' but their year commences five months later than the Naw-ruz. 4 The year consists of 3(35 days only. Tho last five days ot the year are not
included in any
' *
month but
distinguished by a special name. The following are " stolen days (/y/w *> <-**>) fchamsa-yi mustariqa, or
&.j>)^
^u
panja-yi
duzdida
(1)
(P.)
j^
ahnawad,
(4)
(2)
safantamad
(or
safdnlaman),
ji^*>j wuhukh-shatr
(5)
One Khayyam.
l
-2
of
the astronomers
who
was
Uuiar-i
3 They, however, call the second month Iridibihisht; the fifth Amurdad the ninth the twelfth Isjand. Azar means fire and is supposed to have been A&ar or Adar the name of the father of Abraham. The Parsis consider it to be the name of an angel. * The Persians, both Muslim and Zardushtis, however, keep the festival of Naw-ruz at tho Vernal Equinox, but not so the Indian Parsis: their festival lasts 20 days, commencing 5 days before the fehamsa-yi mustariqa.
;
;
i.e.,
14
210
Saturday
. .
1st
day
of the
We
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
..
.
.
Si-Shamba Chahar-Shamba
..
.
.
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
. .
Panj-Shamba
Jum'a
or
-*
or
..
(*Vf
(b)
Adina
: 1
As already stated, the day begins at sunset the night precedes " in day. Thus, if an Englishman wishes to say " Sunday night Persian, must say " Monday night " instead. *
(c)
is &&* hafta, from haft "seven": in Arabic *?>-? usb and <*A*>, sab* and sab' ah " seven." nahar (pi. (d) Ruz jy in Persian and nuhur) in Arabic me " as " shab* P. and cU^ layl " night time." day opposed to night
A week
from
*-
^^
is
Yawm
for
its
plural f tf
ayyam
"
days,
<;
tin
for day consisting of 24 hours ** 6 hours' rail ruz rah would be shabana ast.^ du ) eight journey (by (c) The longest night is called f*xl w_^i shab-i yalda, and the longest d
(/)
civil
i.e.,
the day
is
In Kirman, the shortest day is called ^5>* AM^I }j) ruz-i ishkamba-shi is so short that while one is washing a sheep's tripe (shikamb(
gone.
last six or ten
the day
(d )
The
JJL>>*
Naw-ruz are
call
in the
almanacs
6
}y**l\&j>
sarmd-yi pir-zal,
J The Zardushtis generally use *^oT Adlna (old Pers.) in preference to ***-=> Jtlm the Muslim name. 2 Though the Muslims of India reckon in the same manner, many of them have a
p. 225.
adopted the English idiom for speaking to English people vide Phillott's Hind. Ma This sometimes causes confusion. The Muslim world was dark before it ^ The Zardushtis, however, say the woi light; therefore the night precedes the day. " With them the "with God was from all time and has no beginning. day precec
:
the night.
3
Used
It
is
in writing.
*
6
Plural shab-ha
and ahdban
*AJ Ar.
'
a night
'
has for
its pi.
c5^
remark that there are no railways nor even roads hardly The toy railway at Tehran, about 4 miles in length, can scarcely be counted. Persia. 6 The Persian Almanac of 1902 gives the period of the bard* 'l-'ajvz from llth
necessary to
17th March.
211
the phrases
shamba
are used.
*AJU*> u> jam a, >^>J& shab-i yak a Superstitious people do not commence journey on these
v*
shab-i
and
three days.
any one
of the
Should a guest sleep at the house of a friend on the night of above days (English computation), he ought for luck's sake
This superstition has nearly died out.
CHAPTER
63.
(a)
VIII.
Money.
The following are the moneys now current in Persia. Dinar j'i^ an imaginary and infinitesimal coin, used in accounts: there are 1000 in &*qirani
or qiran.
1
i^*\<$>
,,
Shahi
,,
50 dinar.
20 10
=1 qiran
1
oy
(or
<y^
),
or ;D*
^ yakhazar.
^^
tuman &l*y. ij\j$ Qirdnl The tuman is a gold coin (rarely met with). The qiran, and half qiran ^ dah-shdhi), and the ^;[>* ^ d% Jiazarl or " two ^araw bit," are
2
silver.
(&)
PftZ-i safid
&*&* JjJ
<f
white
*^
<J^
" black
money
"
is
is
silver
8 money, and
pul-i siyah
have
taken
its place.
Sannnr, a corruption of
)&&
(formerly copper).
(c) The following terms are occasionally now represented by actual coins
:
jU
Crhaz
Miihammadi
'Abbasi
(or
= = =
5 dinar.
100 r/^war
2 shuhi.
,,
200
,,
^4
a
cc^*^) panahbad*
abbdsl
23
tuman
20
(10 qiran).
^Uc
*%?.
jl^ chahar
depreciated
^im?i
=16
instead
of
JUj n'?/^
1: |
(!>
qiran
originally the
name
of the
Spanish dollar.
qurush or gh.urush, the Turkish piaster, value about 2d. of (j4r* or <Jk)j* English money or 17 1 shdMs: the term is used in certain places though the
coin
may
1
not be current. 7
called j3*~*
majar and
Also called
O^
5 5
The gold
f/w
hazari
now worth
4.1
qirans.
This term was.also applied to the nickel coins (introduced by Muxaffar-ud-din Shah). * Yafc ghaz bi-*hunia naml-diham " T will give you not a farthing," the speaker probably not knowing the real signification of the word yhaz. 6 Properly panah-bad but pronounced and sometimes is incorrectly written with or
without
panahbadl
7
is
is five
ahahis,
Probably an Ar.
The term
is
used in
seen.
current in Beluchistan.
MEASURES OP LENUTH.
l
213
^i^lj bajuytkl'i, are worth a little more or a little less than the tuman: they are rarely met with. are the English C5 ~jj&l SjjJ Kra-yi Inglisi, and ^l*U'^ x^ lira-yi-'UsmanK, and Turkish pound: the former (in 1901) = 51 to 53 qlrdn. 2 fluctuates from 3} to 3| giran. ***)) rupiya, "the rupee/'
(d)
d.'fjj
also
any cheque.
of exchange.
Jl-^.VA;f
" = five oli* Manat, " a rouble qiran, The above terms are not all current in every
(e)
Impiriyal,
no postal money-order system in Persia. Money can be sent 3 by post, insured, in a sealed bag for 10%. Registered articles by post
There
i>s
A
:
parcel
<xx
is
" to insure"
Insured articles are sent only within Persian called oJU| amanat or basta: &&j(+#bima kardan
9
"a
'
receipt.*
^ or)
*^>'
^,yak
,
-sot/
blma kardam, I sent 100 tumdns by insured post.'' For the system of keeping accounts by <3^ w vide Woll. Eng.-Per. Diet, and also 14.
(/)
64.
(a\
5
Measures
of Length,
3 *
^^
<J>>
yak
fiq,
"the
^ j^
-
y^ ^+*
of a camel's hair."
o^l&l angusht
*;{-'
"a
1
.
finger's breadth.
thumb (about
o^ M
%
v_0
joint."
(jirah
yi
(of
about 40 inches)
16 girah-l zar
6
.
vajab,
a span."
&iyal ml-kunl hi yak bajitglili bi-man dadl (m.c.) v^*^ t^*^ " " do you think you have given mo a vast sum for this ? The revenue of Beluchistan is paid to Kirman in rupees at the rate of 2J qirans a rupee, the merchant exchange being 3J in 1902.
1
^^b
2-
J^x ^a^w 'z-zamana. only used in Persia for insuring within Persian limits to a foreign (t tl I'll insure country ^AtXyo &l/ojj Jja^ fj &L~.j ^jf tn 6as^a /a haqq z-zamana ml-diham*
3
The insurance
This terra
is
thin."
6
This term is much used by the black-tent folk yak jlq-l rah ast. " nail,'* Also colloquially yak band nakhun: by the vulgar the word nakhun,
:
is
used
for
k *
' '
finger.
214
araj
WEIGHTS.
or <Jiy arash
a cubit, from point of the elbow to the tip of the middle ringer.
or
p&*
the space between the tips of the fingers of both hands the arms are extended to form a cross with the body.'
l}
when
*K
graz
kallah),
the ordinary
stature
JU*^ farsang
miles.
or
j-**^
/aM
6,000
12,000 qadam
3^ English
v_~*jf ^fjXx/o a vague distance, about half a mile. maydan-i asp In addition, there is the Turkish ell, &*)l arshin, much the same as the Persian yard.
Remark.
of sandals
In Baluchistan, distance
made
:
estimated by the numbers of pairs of the dwarf palm (phis) that will wear out in traversing
is
the distance
(b)
etc.
Tasuj**
is
a word
much used by
of to about the joint of a According to the dictionary it is a weight ringer. 2 or of 4 barleycorns; or the or measure, of any weight twenty-fourth part
vide
65 (d). [Ar. ^~-k J of a danaq, the latter being J of a dirham and havthe ing weight of a habbah.] Arz (j^jc and " tul J^t are the two words commonly used for (c)
(
^
*
'arz an (adv.)
^7
tul an
"by
length."
Ji>
' '
(d)
^ J>
(not
J^A "measuring
square
yards)
each
way
(square)
six
yards
square
six
six
but shash
gaz, murabba'
&j*jf <J^
square yards."
65.
Weights,
(a)
is
sold
about 3 go to
nukhud'6 weight r
Care must be taken to distinguish the difference in pronunciation between these is not sounded, and the the is pointed by fatha. This measure is ^)^, roughly taken to bo the distance from *the tip of the fingers of the left hand when
1
two:
in
<^>
the
arm
2
is extended to the tip of the nose when the head is turned to the right. In the Anjuman-ara-yi Nasiri, a dictionary of old Persian (Fur*-i qadim), tasu
is
sa'at.
In India, grains of
rice are
sometimes used
for
which in appearance resembles a small scarlet bean with a black spot on the end it is used by goldsmiths, and weighs about 2 grains. In Persian works written in India the
rail is called
WEIGHTS.
^acu nukhud,
-j4 T of
a,
216
an ounce
sir
*
= misqal =
=
24 nukhud.
16 misqal.
^
-
J-
*^ or waqiyyah) = 90
.
misqal (about
14 oz. avoirdupois).
cS'Jirt^
u"
wwm-i
'
Tabrizi
lb. av.).
= $"vaqqa"
720
misqal (about 7J to 7J
^&U
co 15"lb.).
"
Royal
of
maund"
Rai
' '
^^U ^ man-i
is
^ ^* man-i Ray
is
or
" maund
maunds (about 30
lb.)
;
lb.).
liashimi
16 Tabriz
this weight
only used in the South. " " )hj^ kharvar or donkey load
lb.).
^J;^ charak
Royal maund.
The carat, -fc^x? qlrat (br. pi. ^jty qarartt) originally Ja\jS qtrrat, is an of a misqal : it is used for Arab weight and equals about 4 grains or the word qirdt to the T of sometimes The Arabs apply weighing jewels. anything and colloquially they apply it to a measure of about an inch.
In Kerrnan
Nisj-i haft dirham
.
**>)*
oi*ui<w =
..
. .
^;^ oi&
-&**
10 J- misqal in weight. 21 ,,
, ,
^>>b
..
.
^^ ^^^
^;U
u^;U
c\.^
=42 =84
=
,,
Charak
Nim-man
tii-charak
..&*{&
.
=2
3
Si-sang ^**
^j^.
Charak
Yak-man
(Tabrizi)
(c^Jt^
u^^
is
= =
little
Charak
Charak
J[>U.
;t t^.
In Yezd, ^;^ <x^ 50^ dirham = In Yezd, the word JjU. charak charak.
^^^
J&>
eX
nim-man
(Tabrizi)
used, ^A;^
t^xj
panjah
dir-
ham
(etc.)
(6)
Water
i.e.
by a quantity
sufficient to
is
turn a mill.
One sang
water
^^
^.
^ *
supposed to be
sufficient for
one hundred
v^>
and a cMraA;
a fourth part
of this quantity.
(c)
Water
or
iascha
1
cjC*>lb
aai
c *
little
cup
"
) ;
i.e.
Persian for
Ibs.
mann
Ar.
Is
2
is
man
of India
to
SO
Kerman
fashta, forty of
which go to 12 hours
also in
Kerraan 30 jurra go
12 hours,
216
WEIGHTS.
is
bottom
measure.
floated on water
it
takes to sink
is
the unit of
For instance, if a cultivator borrows six tasak channel, the whole of the water in the channel is turned into
that
the
tasak takes
to
of
his
certain
for
ground
is
the time
The
tasak
not
Another vague term is ^-&fj> dang, which may be said to be the sixth Property of all kinds is divided into six imaginary parts, a dany. An owner of J share of land, a room, called is of each which or a horse would be described possessing two dang " an owner of the
(d)
part of anything.
'
' '
whole would say, "all six dang are mine": dang khana mal-i 'man ast.
0^1^ JU
lands.
&(L.
^Jj>\^
^J^ shish
CHAPTER
66.
IX.
(
The Verb
:
Fi'l
j^
).
The verb "to be" (vide also 68) (a) The simplest form is the affixed substantive
!
verb:
2
2
ft
am
1
(I)
i
am
(He)
im (We) ^\
AJ.
are.
^sl (*or)
v^**
(Thou) art
is
(You)
are.'
&>\ and (They) are. be (b) (!) may joined to a pronoun, adjective, participle, or substantive, and sometimes to an adverb and the same rules that apply to the written forms of the affixed 31 (6), (c), (d)\ apply in the pronouns [
[-adj as
These
affixes
main
here.
;
a Sultan "
o**f sxxjy
,
ow*t
j\
u sultanast " he
(for
*A***\
^UxL*
j\ )
"\\e
is
ast, or (with
the
^
is
of unity)
eu~j| MAJ
or (old)
o.j
but
jjAij
M banda
dana^lm
:
tst
a slave
"
y [or
"
am learned":
we
are
pM
^Lo
&
dana-yam
XAXJ^J /^ banda-i
^JU
"
;
" art thou a slave 8 ? " man-am dana-l ^^h " thou art learned "
;
f
fi'l-b
"we
^x=
or
" I
^y "or
am
;
u dana'st o^Oi^j*
ishan
dana-yand
M?16 rw'^ o^o^ w>^ 5 or khub-rii ast cu^t ^ but ishan khub-ru-yand (not khubru-yast which is poetical only),
aijLi^ vyl^j
>
v^>
Maflmnihada nar bi-farman-i sharab Jan karda fida-yi lab-i khandan-i shardb. " 'Tis we who to wine*s yoke our necks incline, And risk our lives to gain the smiles of wine." (0. K. 21 Whin.)
(2)
The
'
alif
<-flJi
-=**'
is
frequently elided
ra*st ui**!^ AJlx*^^
in contractions, as:
o^b;^
(for .SA^
bj^
dushmanan-am
(for
o^o
ij
^U^i^
).
After w and
k(ir~i'st
i,
o~^&
nikusl;
oij
a claimant."
(3)
for
euphony, as
j^.
f!
!<>^
x^,
or /*J!A^ x^w
^-t *Ufci,
or
^vjUfci
txi
;
*i^.*e^ or
6i;faBu
This
i?6^
in
i fi'l
<^*' olf>f
^.
J/^'
majhid
'2
In
classical
ed.
Persian (and
India and
sounds em,
s
The
*>\
full
)
form
is
Muluk
and
^j
(Sa'di)
"
"
;
^irf^lf;
ra^aya-yand
might
also be used in
modern Persian.
218
THE VERB.
before ast ow*f, as: c^ (4) Alif-i maqsura sometimes becomes u Musi'st, but better o*t ^**>^ y ?i Musa ast " he is Moses.'' (5) After a vowel, the <^ of the second person is preceded by a * over a " where art thou ? " In other words, two syllables ending and C5"> as
l
^^
beginning with a vowel are coupled by a hamza acting as a hyphen. (6) The final * of Arabic words is, in Persian, sometimes written and
sometimes not. If, however, an Arabic word ending in precedes the first person am ^', the & must be struck out to preserve the distinction between the singular and plural of the verb. Thus the plural of jf& sha'ir a poet h *\* shu'ara*, but man ash'ar-i sh'uara-yam " I am the most j*&\ fi\j*
f-
poetical
of
though
it
may
be neglected in writing.
Remark
or
fit
riist
o^i
is
"is
not"
"copula."
In the proposition
is joins
Religion indispensable to happiness," the subject religion to its predicate, the remainder of the
"
Any
into
tc
thus
lives,"
is"
"living"
(the predicate).
(c)
inserted
In the third person singular and plural, the euphonic need not be " khub-rust or (she) is CL~*^J V^A khub-ruyast (poet.) o*~^; v
:
fair-faced
"
o*~jl>fa
;
dana-nd
cu-U
dana-st : i^Uf^ dana-yast or cu^Uf^ o.-l^ shuma-st (for ma-st (for o^t U )
;
danayand or
Remark.
e) is
used as Tchub-e
"it
is
"
(d) Tu ast o^l^j is contracted into eu~i fust (or o**^ ) and is so pronounced even if written tu ast o^of^j. Klst ^~*>? and chist c^-^a. are 37 (g) ] and chi ast /os^t AA. regular contractions for kl a^o^f ^* [vide
:
i^ cMyim
1
' '
what are we
* '
chiyam
of
' (
what
'*
:
am
(
"
Kujdfl
t^'^R^
is
?
an adjective
'*
what place
j&'~>&
^^pf j*
"
of
what
place are
which
^
^
is
"
or colloquially
^^^
Tcuja^l-l ?
^4*^,
modern
'
colloquial, to the
question
is
(^^^
kuja*-%
" where
are
you?
"
is
the
en/a
answer
>:
{*!
f^N>'
in/a
am: (Inja-yam
considered vulgar).
The
"
correct reply
astam
*
' :
p*~**>
-V
Or nii-basham
<5^.
p\*.
_}*<*)
''who''
^,
signifies
who ?":
&*-.
similarly,
^a.
form
of chiz
is
another form of
In modern Persian
Better
219
rule, either
but in either case the contraction exists in pronunciation. * of other words sometimes disappears before
etc.,
&Vjj
c*j
zisht-ruyand
I
"they
slave
"
ugly":
^y
"thou art":
*i,m
^jyoy
am " U ma
am
thy
l
"Who
'
:
are they
i^L^Jf,
or ki
and
&>
&> ',
or kistand
ishan kiyan-and <xL>Ufr ^l-iof (m.c.). the The of the second (e) person is called the ya-yi tchitabl ^^L. of is a as address" it written final and silent or final with a a y *, ^, " 2 t( ki i who art thou ? superscribed hamza, as: ^^ or <Jtyl*jf kirmam-i " 'art thou a Kirmani (an inhabitant of Kirman) ?
' "
&
(/) The above suffixes form the six pe" ,ons of every tense of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, when ast becomes ad. ((/} The negative form of the simple affixed verb is nearly obsolete, or else occurs only in poetry.
***
<s
^ or ^
sjJ
..
. .
n'ist
" he
is
" not
"we
"you
(or
. .
<^> nai/and
oJi
w na and)
f *
they
are not."
Angar ki dar khalc na*i bar khak-i. " But now you are above earth, not below (O. K. 457 Whin.) A villager sometimes says: UpJut b ^UaJu^ y tu lnja-1 yd mja na-% "are you there (here) or not ? " Villagers also use nayam p&. The third
(i
!
person nist
(h)
cu^jjj is in
regular use.
<yTtf), aste
(mf
*~*\ is
found for
67.
(a)
From an
>
obsolete infinitive
(^^
.
to
hastam "
aS
hast
"
.
.
" he
is, etc.'
" J^^A Aa,?^ you are, etc;' *&~& hastand "they are, etc.'
'
^X-Jk hastim
"we
are, etc."
'
Or bandog an
:
$$
is
(J*
should
mean
^p.
220
substituted for
am ^ whenever euphony
requ
it,
matt
"Am
Here hastam
p*~-
hastam
am?"
(O.
K. 334
:
is
the
Also
ddnam u
cc
He knows
as well as I,
my
sorry case."
(O.
315 W7/m.)
O~A
***<> fa*
is
used for asf cuw when euphony requires the former, davdm mi-kunad &*> ti o~* &&x*- *J^
JU
if
the
&
ki of A^li^. be omitted,
chunan
hast
ast ki *$
must be
written.
OV-SA also
/wzs^
Z^a^
means
OM-* ^j|
''exists/' as:
Khudd
A lAi.
"there
is
God":
/aocZ
''there
AiWifi
is
a God/'
TchalalVst
ffeisJ
o^
f;
also
' '
rr
" something wrong with the ship (a simple statement) reply would be, kishtt ra khalal-l hast C~~A ^l^. ^ ^-^^
there
is I tell
yo
The above
(6)
is
now
in existence.
is
of this tense
.
lt
fi-fci
am not "
"
not
>;
**i-^> riistim
we
are not."
<*jJU^ >u5/K/
<yxx~xi
"
'*
he
msland
(c)
*'
^li.
Probably, there was an ancient infinitve ?r7?^ c^>f or " i'rom to be which one or more of the above tenses are deri
ha zagh-i bar dlwar-i bagJi-i khirdman hami-raftami (8a'dl) y dignity to be (I ought to be) strutting on the wall
d*iq-i qc
ma
-asti ki
i
wer
gar^
7v> jtin g
g^
in
company with
^jla.
(j^^j i^~**
a fellow magpie." ^.^j <Jkj^ J^ O*ASX^ suhbat-i gul khush budt gar n
}
tj
no
hastam
^^A
**>\$>
Similarly, Sa'dl uses +>**** skunidastam for shut J have heard." Other instances occur in the
^-~A> (instead
poets of this
Perfect tense.
is
of
am
p!)
with
common
The chou<
called *^*?3-
Here
asti
221
bi-taqlid-asti
Har
Gar
tst-l
bi-zadi
na in
hi-hftda t&kdid-asti.
"
If this life
all
"
X. Rub. 434 Whin.)
^
"
I
&*
OH
Gar
'
*HO\
*S&
f^^
C^^)
^^
M?
^x:
J.
man
I
guniih-i ru-yi
zamln kardastam
Afa-i tu
Though
umid ast Id girad dast-am. had sinned the aim of all mankind,
to
mercy he inclined." (0. K. 333 Whin.) J *+& O~AJ ^jfjf y j^ j-tiww Man nlst shudain dar Tu, az an- am harna Tu "And I am Thine, since I am lost in Thee."
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 400
Whin.)
fck
existence," and
non-existence
It ast
"
^^
nisll
Chandan
^ The more
Id zi-thud ms-tar
I die to
sell',
am
has-tar-am.
I live
the more."
(0.
68.
(muta'addi
^^*Vx>
and Intransitive
).
,-351,
(a)
The
}
Persian verb
is
There
is bufc
present no
difficulty
;0>*A/c
-tan,
and the
shortened Infinitive
or third
tenses
zaman
%
(
e)Uj
formed by cutting off the termination -an are formed quite regularly from the root or
:
the
2
3
Zaman
In India, laziml t^jJJ intransitive. <k Tense or time " mazdar eA-*}
;
Infinitive or source."
The shortened
infinitive is
Preterite.
222
persons are formed by the affixed substantive verb. Every verb has t two stems. As in most languages, the Imperative is the shortest form of
verb.
It
must be borne
' '
Infinitive a verb.
"How
"when
it
has
tense or time
(6)
1
(1)
&>
(or
(~>)
and ^o mi
(or
The first is prefixed to the Aorist or Present Subjunctive (one t tense), to the Imperative, to the> Preterite, and to the old I
is
^
it
to
The second
it
is
prefixed
the Present
(or
Present-Future)
distinguish Preterite.
In
from
the following
:
example
(poetical),
AJ
is
added
to
the
shortei
Infinitive
Bi'bazuvan-i tavana va quvvat-i sar-i dast Khata-st panja-yi miskin-i natavan bi-shikast
(Sa'dl).
"
By
strength of
of hand,
and helpless."
i.e.,
the hand.]
Dar ku-yi kharabat magar bi-t(a)van yaft An *umr ki dar sawma^aha gum kardlm?
(O.
Bar anchi mi guzarad dil ma-nih ki Dajla bas-i Pas az Khalifa bi-khwctfiad guzasht dar Baghdad.
<
Set not thy heart on that which passeth away for the Tigris Will flow on by Baghdad long after the E^iallfas."
;
(Oul.
Book
8,
Maxim,
105.)
is
bi-
^j*> except and haml (.$+& b< There is no difference in ^signification between ml these can be joined are probably contracted forms of or connected with, hamfoha In poetry this prefix is sometimes, by poeti their verbs or written separately.
;
' 4
also in
^
;
223
y
^2/
d^ hama
"
Vdngdh bar an sabza shab-i chun shabnam Binshasta l u bdmddd bar-khdsta gir (0. K.)
Oh
soul
lay
up
all
Thy mead with pleasure's flowerets spangle o'er And know 'tis all as dew that decks the flowers
For one short night, and then
(2)
)
is
seen no more!
"
hami
mi <^
in
:
(in
gives
a continuative sense.
It
is,
Gar
rahat-i javiddn
fam mi-dari
rd.
K. Bub. 15 Whin.)
In yak
(3)
Tlie prefix
*->
is
:
particle
and a verb,
as
(0. K. Rub. Whin.) omitted in verbs compounded of an indeclinable " " >{Ay bar Ichiz get up from ^^s^j bar-khdstan :
4<
if
return/' from bar-gashtan ^ItJ^. Before the prefix is in modern Persian often written
I
separately and not joined to the verb. The verb o^y budan does not take the prefix e>4X& s/mdan.
(4)
AJ,
Very rarely do both prefixes occur together, as ^U> <^ mi-bi-bdyad. " to be " is (c) The auxiliary verb* ^^ budan slightly irregular, in that '* the Imperative is c/H bdsh^ be thou." The shortened infinitive is bud.
j
(j*\
Bash*
'
'
<j8b
be thou
of
' '
-bdshU
persons of
th'
I; <$}*>
understood.
^ Fi'l-i
mu'avin
(Dj^** <J**
"
)
auxiliary verb.*'
It is of the Trnperative. >> was another form of the second person singular " found is perhaps," said to exist still in out-of-the-way districts bu j> or bit ki **J
Bu
in
mod. Persian,
in poetry.
224
Remark
haml.
It
I.
is
formed by prefixing ml or
it
is
but
Qa'anl uses
negatively
also.
or hami-bash
u^
^+*
(obs.)
"continue to be or
Remark
noun
of
11.
The Present
1
Participle (c>ll>
agency bashanda
// (A).
*<xil>
"
The Aorisf
(I.
2
or Present Subjunctive
l(
j*l>
basham
hashl
may be
[or let
me be "
].
Singular
J 2.
^b
,*j^l>
"
thou mayest be
it
"
^3.
may
let
be (or
let
him,
1.
bfjshlm*
"we mav
ye
be (or
us be)."
'
Plural
^
!
2. 3.
^^iU bnsJild
'Ax^b
"
may
be (or Imperative,
bo ye')."
baihaud "they
may
be (or
let
them be)."
In old Persian
In modern Persian this tense does not take the prefix <.
it
does.
// (B).
The following
>'
is
an
old
form
of this tense
1.
fj
pj>
buwam
biiwi
" I
mav
be.'"
2.
'
-"
5
^j ^
s
(or '^t
bddaor
&\j*
^>-'
2.
buv^m
A^J 6 M ?rd
tXy
bit
Bashanda
$-X*U
(plural
is
bashandagun ^'f^i-wb
in
is
commoner
jl
modern
<
colloquial,
*>ii**rt>
^1*^" e^Jf.
in
BasJmnda
n India
is
bafihinda,
IB
in Persia
writing, only
when
the author
2
i
avoiding Arabic words. his mlm as a sign of the first person of the verb is called inlm-i mutakallim. Bad or bada or buvad or buvadund buva the Precativeor Optative are still in use
not used as an Optative, &c. ^ Classically (and in Afghanistan and India still) these terminations of the second plural are em, ed majhiil sounds.
(in m.c.
is
;
Bavhad
first
and
like
The Afghans
v.
use
this
6orf
tense
in speaking.
Note that
is
pronunced both
and a
6
In m.c.
To be
distinguished from the third person singular of the Preterite &j* bud.
225
J^
L
2.
^
*&\j
^n Modern Persian also a Future). " <* mi-baslwm I am (or will be)."
e/^j
)
Singular
-]
^^ ^
f** ^
9
(I.
Plural
.
J 2.
V,3.
etc., is."
are."
are."
are."
The
prefixes
m?
or
modern as well
as in old Persian.
Remark.
Me-buwam j**
is
an old form of
this tense.
The
Preterite
^ibc
Singular
2.
(3.
C 1.
^^ &
L
budi
li
thou wast."
etc.,
bud "he,
was."
^Jj^
budim
"we
were."
Plural
J 2.
(3.
F,
(*^j <^<*
U3 L
Singular
^ 2.
(.3.
^^ ^y
^y
pjty
>.^>
T
Plural
.
1.
or used to be."
<
2.
(^3.
^o^J
This tense
is
had
in
Future Conditional."
is
The
Preterite,
budam,
however,
generally
used,
especially
<X)
bud
te&irad-mand-l guft
May
*
mi-bayad
(0.
K. Rub. 61 Whin.)
Ml
c/
or
haml ^^>
haml
is
Except
in the
68
(6), foot-note,
tw
is
not prefixed to
this tense in
modern
15
226
VI.
or used to be."
,,
,,
2.
c5^
bud* thou
,,
bude he,
etc.
,,
,,
,, ,,
budeme we
Plural
..-{2. e*>ty budede ye budande they
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
.Remark.
This tense
is
obsolete in
modern
colloquial, but
is
still
used
even in speaking by the Afghans and Indians. In old Persian, the prefix me or hame is also added. It will be noticed that the majhul sounds of the tense have been retained in transliteration. A modern Persian, however,
would give the vowels the o^*<* ma'ruf sounds. The second person singular and first person plural are very rarely used, and the second person plural
is,
VII.
d^L-*
).
The verb
t^L Jchwah.
^.y^t^k Wiwastan
its
Imperative
khipdham. consequence The Definite Future of all verbs is formed by conjugating the Aorisl of khivastan with the shortened infinitive.
f 1.
J>y
Its Aorist is in
^^
"I
Singular
..12.
(^3.
^ cs*!*^
&y*
*&\JA>
,,
I.
ty
p**^
Jchwahlm bud
we
,,
,,
Plural
. .
-j
2.
(^3.
^ ^ XXAI^
is
TchimJiand
,,
,,
,,
Remark.
This tense
all
seldom used in modern colloquial, the Present occasions it appears to bo dying out. It is,
:
used by the Afghans and Indians, who seldom use the Present tense for the Future. By Persians it is used in correct writing. The people
however,
still
of
Kashan are
VIII.
said to use
it
freely in speech.
*
The Past Participle ( <Jj**> ^\ ) is formed by adding shortened Infinitive: *^ buda " been" or " having been."
to
the
IX.
The following
The
/
^^ ^U
"he,
etc*,
).
1.
^
i&
Singular
.
<;
2.
3.
has been."
is silent.
227
1. 2.
Plural
<
^
&\
p>\
3.
%& *& *j
In poetry the final 3 of this tense is sometimes omitted, and the verb contracted into one word, thus; o^^j budast.
Remark
Pish az
man u
iu layl
u nahar-i
bud-ast.
"Days changed
Remark
II.
to nights, ere
full
vide
66
(a)
and
(6).
of the second
person singular;
.
66
(e).
<v*j
u
"
bo
not in use.
(Buda budam
XI. The Future Perfect
1.
{
f^
jj^j, etc.)
agar Perfect Subjunctive^. " " or will have been shall ^ib tty buda basham I
(
)
^& ^^U
"
(with
"
Singular
..\
2.
^t> ^j 6^^
fea^M thou
1^3.
/
^b
^j
fcitcZa
bashad he,
etc.
1.
^^b
we
you
Plural
2.
\
^b
<xxU
to
j^ 6i*&
65ftid!
*3.
By adding
the
^,
called
by grammarians the
i
:>
ya-yiliyaqatoT
"^
of fitness,"
^j
budam
Bar lawh nishan-i budam-ha buda ast. " 'Twas writ at J> first, whatever was to be.
l
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 35 Whin.)
Bad
^b,
and
in poetry fab
6ada
is
as
ab 3};^
o^p ^mm^
darazbad "
may thy
j>b 65d The phrase (modern colloquial and classical) har chi bada bad " signifies happen what will, let happen what may."
another form of
tat
A^A
tions of
Lawh the tablet upon which, according to Mohammadan mankind have been written by God, from all eternity.
belief,
the transac-
228
mabdd) "let it not be; by no means; away; be treated as a conjunction. (Note that, contrary to custom, the prohibitive * ma is retained with the third person Precative). In modern colloquial, the phrase t^U/c '^ ^\^ bardy-i ruz-i mabddd " for a rainy day, for a day God forbid that it should come.' signifies is not and was (/) Nist u nd-bud kardan &&^ j^li ^ cu~J (lit. to make
t^>*>
Mabddd
(or
God
forbid;
lest"
may
'
'
'
'
not
'
* '
signifies
to destroy utterly.
' '
(g) It will be
of the
Present tense
in
of the
no difference
their
signification; thus, "I am always here" nould be rendered equally modern Persian by man hamlsha mjd mi-bdsham, or haslam, or am, &o4&
in
^
"
;
Chi bude
(biidi)
fj
(class)
e/f
c^^f (spS *
^LJfdj
l
e^p
<^-j^>
X*
e{
^ means ^ chi
&**
l(
Oh
bude
ki
man an
tree
dirakht
rd biddnistame
Oh
that I
was to be
found."
(i)
/*^^^ l?uf cxsj e/f )& jt\ Imperfect and the Past Conditional; thus o^U. mi-budam dardn mard >^U4.> ^fj agar waqt dnjd hdjat-i qabr name-bud (Afghan) " had I been present then, I would have had no need of a grave (for I would have been buried in the ruins) " in modern Persian, budam and bud (without
;
the prefix mi) would ordinarily be used here. modern colloquial, the Imperative (j) In
<j*l'
bash
is
is
stand
here,
' *
still,"
or
:
"wait." Mi-bash
(J(*^*
(m.c.)
"stay
Compare
imruz kdmrdn
Vinl,
Khdk mayhz-i sar-i khaydl-andish. One to-day you ma} sec successful,
7
(Sa^di).
Another broken-spirited from striving Wait a short time till the grave Swallows up their fancy-weaving brains."
;
Majhul sounds. In m.c. tj u# **> chi mi-shavad ; chi-mi-vhavad kiln lear ra bi-kunam, "I wish I could," chi *** danistam ^^4 ^! *^
l
khiib
pi~^*
\)
jf)
v^
(jO
ft
**
gh
for
Jjif
final * in the
former
is
aspirated.
ruzak-l
dimin.).
ACTIVE VOICE.
229
bar-ar.
(Sa'di).
The Afghans
live."
still
Some verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, as '.arwkhtan'1 e^iu^f "to mix, be mixed"; rlkhtan ^iiu; "to pour away, be poured "to sew"; angikhtan* ^iu&t " to stir up, away, etc."; dukhtan* " to rouse"; amukhtan e^^f "to learn, teach" sukhtan burn";
(y)
1
^^
avikhtan*
" to break"
e>^T
;
4<
to
hang"; gusliadan
ct
payvastan e>**>*J
c<
to join
&^ "
;
^^
4<
afrukMan
tired, etc."
v&^
;
<(
to
to
kindle,
fc
congeal"; afzudan
\s>*jy\,
inflame";
^^\
mandan
?;{(Ze
u*xiLo*
cc
remain"
(in
Afghan Persian
also transitive
"to place,"
81).
69.
Active Voice
6
<*-*)<*
The following
(a)
of
the regular
transitive
verb
&<&
Infinitive( j<*z*>
^\
7 )
^^kandan
noun)
negative Infinitive,
o*yitfi
Ci
twi-kandan or
(b)
(
Imperative
&*& na-kandan.
bi-kari).
lean
Past Participle
J^ixs
p)
(active
and passive
x^
kanda"
"dug"
or
"having dug."
Present
Participle (AAJU.
^t
iylir
frawSft
"digging"
(indeclinable).
Noun
2
3
Mushtarik) i.e. "shared, common." In modern colloquial, Transitive only. In modern colloquial, afsurda (with shudan) only used. In modern colloquial, Intransitive only.
of
6 i.e.,
6
is
" known.'*
tofr$/
S*ar/
Oj^
"conjugation,"
kardan &&jf
vJtJjWfti
or gardaiidan
eA>!^
to
" In India, gardan (*>\^j is used f or a conjugate." conjugation." T For the Infinitive as a verbal noun, vide $ 115 (ft), and (r) Remark.
j>>
3igha-yi
it
tinguish
ZJ^AJ*] amr-i mniarrad to disfrom t $*'**y amr-i mudami "the Continuous Imperative." The second
also called
f
*let
v.Ajljc^x{
In such sentences as
is
o-*j
(
*^j^,
which equals
^-^*^
8^
*
;l^
n>.-!f,
this
Parti-
ciple
called
mazi-yi
ma'f.Ufi,
(
^*^k*xs ^-alx)),
the final
*&
J^
7;a ^.
230
of
ACTIVE VOICE.
l agency (cUl* ^\ ) **& kananda "a digger'' (declinable). Noun of " that is to be dug up, fit to Possibility or Future Participle <^*if kandani " be to are that kandamha be dug up" plural dug up, or are things
;
^^
fit
to be
dug up/'
/.
muzari
dig
)L*c
(or
).
prt
or
*&
or
kanam
or
U P")>
J^
c^
kani or bi-kani
may
up"
etc.
"let
me
dig
termination ^ of the 1st person of the tenses of transitive or intransitive verbs is styled by grammarians mim-i mutakallim
Remark
/.The
^
fi'l
,*WLc
).
The
(
suffix
am
as in
['vide'
66 (a)]
;
is
termed
mim-i
isbat-i
J*
e>Ui|
p**
),
shadman-am ^
U^U
am
rejoiced."
Remark
end
II.
allf is
of the third
).
pti**
up)."
Remark.
///
-4.
Imperative
siy_ha-yi
amr j*\
f<
e/
or
*&
The
Remark.
If
zamma
:
the vowel of the prefix may also be changed to zamma, as bu-guzar or Such contractions as bugzar occur in poetry and in modern colbi-guzar.
loquial, vide
72
(a).
III. B.
^AAJ mi-kan (clas.), or t^wfc Jwmi-kan (class.), or O^A hami " continue to on In modern (class.) dig up keep digging." colloquial
;
bi-tcan
^^
hay bi-kan
is
used.
or
&*
^*>f
guished from Adjectives and Compound Adjectives that have the Bonse
Participle.
2
&
_r*
is
It
is,
O&
the Imperative of
shaw the Imperative of e><^ , and always before c^>j, and often before kun "do."
ACTIVE VOICE.
231
"Oh that he may dig" is The Precative kanad and confined to the third person singular. In old poetry, however, other persons are found. [Mabada t^U* is both classical and modern
Remark.
classical,
^
'
colloquial.]
///. C.
Prohibitive Imperative
'
vide
^ j^
**&*
ma-kamd
t(
dig not
'
up
(ye.)' the
Negative Aorist.)
Remark.
For an example, in
Past Subjunctive
125
(j) (6).
IV.
The
c '
Preterite (mazi-yi
2
' '
mutlaq
f.^ kandam
for eupliony only.
dug up.
A>
,
^7^-'^^).
I
used
(This tense
and future
conditions.)
VI.
^jj+*^ \j^ M V
kandame
(class.),
or rarely
68 VI.
Remark.
is
<?y.
singular
rarely used, and the second person plural perhaps, does not
is
The first
68
person plural
VI, Remark.
vide
Remark,
&S fAi^
The
tense.
vide also
prefix
&
is
^>^
khwaham
in this
;
In poetry, the
80.
In
modern
classical
colloquial
k>
is
alif-f
8
is
formed by adding
gufta,
which
mazi-yi
is
is
also m.c.
When When
called
c5^r^ C5^
to
shartj,.
preceded by o2(
leash
^/^K
called
<J&3
mazi-t/i
The
be applied to
232
VIII.
(*(
ACTIVE VOICE.
The
<%
Perfect
(mazi-yi qarib
*xtf
kanda
am
have dug."
is
%^
for
Remark.
(for Itxxf
An
is
^X-a^
kandasti
kanda-l) and a contracted form of the third person singular is **+& kandast [vide 66 (d)} the other persons occur, but if perhaps
;
In a rarer form
still,
a c5
is
IX.
Remark.
Optative a verb, the
Preterite,
is
form
and
clauses, is:
kanda budami, i.e., to the Past Participle of Past Conditional or Habitual of budan, instead of its added. Example: '^ Jjf j' e/^ ^-^J j ay kadi az
^*zy t^
^^
^**y
awal Khuda ra
X.
paristida budami.
*
(mazi.yi shakkt
^ ^*
).
^ib*^
will
is
The following
(1) Continuative Perfect o~~f> ;>JAX mi-kanda ast (m.c.) "he has been " tho ; digging up Imperfect is ordinarily used for this tense, vide 125 (t)
(2)
f^M*
xi<
(J\)
is
(old) "(if) I bad dug'* used instead of this tense, which is of generally not used by Persians.
(agar)
is
kanda me-budam
is
written X<^
>
and
^\
t4
also called
/0
^Ui^.!
waznwn, and
1
L5^^c maziryi mashkuk (or tashkik) from haml lt thinking, suspecting" and fthalek doubting."
8
-^^
imputing," zann
rare in old
in
Persian)
me-kanda budam
is
another form
" One night a Qazi was going alone towards a garden. When he saw a thief (pass him) like smoke."
ACTIVE VOICE.
233
Remark.
&i>L*
^ ix^y
the Past Participle of the intransitive verb nothing would have been found is considered an adjective and not part of the verb; both verbs are, therefore,
correctly in the ordinary Imperfect to express a supposition.
According to Forbes, "Let him continue digging." unable to find any examples of such a tense. Such an expression " % in modern Persian would be taken to mean "it is kanda (engraving),
(3)
ixU*x>
aaif.
am
just as X&UA>O
(4)
dug."
nuqra mi-bashad signifies "it is silver." ty <tofj:k *&, a Future Perfect, "ho will have dug, he must have This tense is used by the Afghans and sometimes by the Persians.
*jftj
It is of doubtful accuracy.
(5)
pl
toy
JJcxi*'
For example, vide 125 (;') (3). " I must have kanda buda am dug." This
is
tense,
which
vide
is
For example,
125
(/)
The
may
be made Optative or
,?
ay bitvad
becomes
may
"
^ "
:
buvad or
Oh
that he
*^j$
dig
They say
(g)
'
Guy and mar a hi Izad-at tauba dihad J*z *y <^^f ** " (0. K. 172, Whin.) may Allah aid thee to repent
!
ciples, Persian or Arabic, and Verbal Adjectives, to the verb "to be," as: "> khwahan-i an bud Id &f &\A\*&> (m.c.) "he was desirous of
^^
--
liastam
(m.c.)
"I am
about to go";
ow*t a^yc
miirda
ast (m.c.)
<c
it is
dead"
(also
"he
has died");
^~t JU ^iLt j\ u
:
asl
(or
seeks after knowledge"; cW f^*^ malum ast" it To be about to do a thing, can be expressed as follows khayal-i) rajtan budam (*ay ^&j (J^ or) a<>-oja, or darsharaf-i raftanbudam " also in modern " I was 011 the eve
"he
(h)
point,
of,
by,
mi-khwahad bi-ravad
ki
"he
is
departure on the
point
X$
of
c^T
going
when
*$
ast (m.c.)
u heis
dying";
f^y
^^
;
f)<& )^^> j\j (*;!^ eAjt^f v lu^ "I was on the point of approaching her and jumping over the wall when " (Trans, of Haji Baba, Chap. XXII 1) (dar kar also means to be actually engaged in) y &****> ^skf* ; lj f^J
:
tf
"
)^
was about to leap over the wall." (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXIII). && y c**o ;l^ (i) The Imperative can also be expressed as follows: zinhar dast-i tu takan na-khwumd "don't let your hand shake",
*$
y&i* ma-guzar
"
ki bi-yuftad
' ' ;
biyayad
;!^
bu-guzar
'
' *
let it alone.'
This
tamanna.
234
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(
bi-guzdr.
(conjunction)
"
although."
Remark
The
Preterite Potential
^ ,JLJy
o^
(
(vide
77)
is
called the
*>
ma
'l-qudrat
^^
)
^^,
or
e^^l
cr^-*
Remark II. Sarf-i sagh/ir ( ^-^^ o/^ is an Indian term applied to running through the moods and tenses of a verb, giving the Infinitive, the third person singular of the Preterite, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Aorist, and Present, the second person singular of the Imperative and the Negative
Imperative, and the Present and the Past Participles.
Sarf-i kabir
(
jtf
o^
and Tenses,
in both voices.
its
Persons,
Moods
70.
Verbal Adjectives.
(a) From the Imperative stem of some verbs a Verbal Adjective (or Substantive) with the termination a is formed, which differs little in signification from a Present Participle, thus: e*>^ dldan "to see," Imperative
<^x>
verbal adjective ti# bind " seeing, clear-sighted " or " a blind man <c blind "; &#\* nd-bind (plural <^&w bindydn (classical) ) lvw bind shudan " to sjet sight, recover sight."
bin
;
"
oSj^
fy
)/
Dar kargatiri kuza~gar-i raftam dush, Dldam du hazdr kuza guyd u khamush.
" Once in a potter's shop, a company Of cups in converse, did I chance to
(0.
see.
K. 283 Whin.)
43
(r).
" holding fast; Similarly, from ^^-^ ddshtan andy<i ddr, comes \j^ddrd " or a possessor, a lord, rich and from j*> ju c^^ justan juy. comes (m.c.)
:
comes, IJ^A. juya seeking"; from c;^J** sazldan [saz] "to be worthy !>* sazd : and from ^fi? guftan and guyd gu or ^$ guy, comes tl For an example of Lify tavdnd and cJfyG nd-tavdn^ vide' speaking, etc." 77 (e) and Remark.
**
"
Some
of these
Verbal Adjectives are not declinable, and are equivalent to Participles. from <^ pahn (b) A few nouns have a similar termination; thus "broad" comes U^ pahnd "breadth"; from &*)) rawshan " clear,
Poetical for
NEGATIVE VERBS.
1
235
also "Roxana" the Greek bright" rawshana (*$ (old) "brightness," form of the name of the wife of Alexander the Great, who was a daughter of the
king of Persia:
U>
tarsa a
f<
Christian."
71.
(a)
Negative Verbs.
Fi'l-i
Fi'l-i nafi
nahi
^
<**
J** prohibitive
The Negative prefixes are: (1) 4u or or 3 & na; and /ma*; (2) * The prefix f' is always omitted when the verb is negative, as: (3) b na. " let me see " bi-binam na-Unam, f*& "let me not see." fHtf
verb.
<*'
;
used with the second person singular and plural only of the Imperative, and with the Negative Precative, as: u^* ma-purs "don't ask"; **&*> ma-kunid "don't do" and (with the Precative Aorist) d*&*
(6)
I/a
is
ma-binad
tl
may
he not see."
It is
always joined to
its
verb in writing,
compound verbs immediately precedes the verb itself, as: CL>^ o**a (last ma-zan &yo o^- ''don't touch"; *nde also Remark to (0). The benedictive forms ma-manad ^liU* ma-kunad *M*> etc., are sometimes used
,
and
in
in
m.c.
in the conjunction mabad or mabada (the Optative of e^y); as also in the adverb mayar "but, perhaps," which is
Remark.
The ma occurs
compounded
(c)
of
ma and
agar.
In
modern
AJ is
colloquial,
however,
it is less
ma
&*
is
and
na
AJ is
(d)
Na
imperative and therefore civil. the tenses with the exceptions of the
second person singular and plural of the Imperative [vide (b) ], and in modern It is also prefixed to the Past colloquial it is even prefixed to these also. Participle, and to the Shortened Infinitive as well as to its full form, as:
,^&AA:
cX> n^jXj [^ cbJjiO i; )\4 ^\ In bar ra na-kunid Khuda na-karda bad tm-shavad (m.c.) "don't do this (God forbid it), it may not turn out well." It can, in writing, be joined to the verb or be written separately.
(ej
na-yuft
If,
^^
Example
a *A
"
do not say."
is
hami na-guyam.
are pahna'l
^^tv
rawshana'i
colloquial panha*i
used
for pahnu-l.
roslmi ''brightness."
Called ^fc* ft* mlm i nafy. Nun i nafy A * &)* but with the Imperative mln-i nahy. For this nun is Interrogation, vide 73.
*
8
it
is,
&}*
In
y^#
<^+> the
negative
is
called
*> it is
adjective takes
na & only.
236
Similarly, in
NEGATIVE VERBS.
compound
verbs, the
to the verb itself, as: ^|j> ^j remove your hand ? " or " won't
85
^ o^
" you cease doing ? f*j&j*\ agar bar naik I did not speak," harf na-zadam
:
follows the prefix, being joined o,*o dast bar nami-dari "won't you
*i
(c).
Remark.
standstill"
(/)
The same
rule holds
good for
**, as
o^U
(j
va ma-ist "don't
This rule
:
is
in
speaking, as
Chun
riist
zi-]chirad
"Small gains
to learning
on
They pluck
life's fruitage,
learning
(0.
who eschew."
(g)
(local
Nati occurs only in compounds, as: ^^na-dlda (adj.) "unseen"; blind"; o*vot ^Uj^k U wJJao ^\ y j\ u az in matlab na-khwa/tan a>st and incorrect) :c he does not want to do it."
Infinitive
The
being considered a
noun, the
&djtykj OV^M
riist
is
probably considered
only
is
correct, vide
In Persian, two negatives arc sometimes used where in English one 123 (6) (5) and (e) also for the negative verb with
;
hilch, vide
39
(d)
(1),
(2),
(3)
arid
Remark.
For the
negative
122
(n).
With the
^x&
tf
auxiliaries
to the auxiliary
bayad <\>k, etc., the negative is sometimes added and sometimes to the principal verb, as bayad ki na:
kunad
^l, or na-bayad bi-kunad && ^U); na-bayad raft^*)&>^] chira bayad bi-hukm-i shar' rdzi na-shavand? (Tr. &*j& ^1) ^ j*Ca=u *& " there is a H. B., Chap. VI) why shouldn't the dispute be legally settled (as " Mulla present) ?
(j)
Kam ft
:
and andak
^^
Negative, as
Not e^~Jt
Ax.
237
justand kamtar yaftand (Gul.) "in spite of their diligent search they couldn't find him," or "the mo re they searched, the less they
found him."
Vide also
121
(b).
72.
differs in
the Imperative of a verb ends in j, this letter sometimes pronunciation in the Imperative and in the other tenses. If the ^ of " bethe Imperative is pronounced w it becomes a v before #, as _>& shaw
(a)
1
When
come, go"
"go"
If
of shudan),
pj)
ravam, Aorist;
run" (Imperative
the^
of the Imperative
pronounced u, a
is
" as: u*5& guftan "to say," Imperative^ bigu say," Aorist +>* bi-guyam. The latter rule also holds good when the Imperative ends in a, as c^+j u to show," Present /*jl*> ^* mi-namayam. Such verbs ncumudaUy U^ nama
:
have two forms of the Imperative, one with and one without the <^, as: M~OW justan "to seek," Imperative ju or juy\ guftan "to namudan speak," Imperative ^ gu or <^ ^?l?y (classically go or #o,e)
^
&
^^
c^>^> nama
(b)
U>"z or
nanmy ^+>
in
As stated
G8
(6) (3),
the prefix
is
ed of an indeclinable particle and a verb. (c) If the verb begins with alif without madda, this letter is generally after the prefixes &>, <*J, or*^, for the sake of euphony, as changed into
o;k!t>J|
andakht
"he
threw./'
)
:
^i^'txx^
*'
nayandakht,
he
did not
throw,"
;KJ| anj;ar
(also written
o.|yiUi
^I>j
uftam
" I
may
afo'/
fall,"
fiiw bi-yujtam:
f
marked by a madda
(
'
the
a/*'/
madda of course being rejected: trf arad "he may bring "; " do not bring." ^U> biyarad let him bring" ;U* mayar *J often unites with the In the verb, as: <xU namad (for (e) poetry, " he came not." This license is often taken nayamad) by *Umar-i Khayyam. The contraction occurs in modern colloquial also. (/) The accent of the verb falls on the last syllable of either stem, except
remains, the
;
<t>,
AJ,
or
&*>
less
shaw and
is
they intrude
it
after every
alif or ya.
s
In
o~jU
tj
45- is
always omitted.
238
INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
1
a preposition or an adverb;
in the
latter cases,
the accent
(6), (1)
falls
on the
21
(a)
and
to
(4).
73.
is
Interrogative Verbs.
2 It is usually expressed by the tone of the voice.' " " whether? or j*> also expressed by prefixing to the question Ijf dyd " " or " ^ Examples by suffixing the words & U yd na or not ? magar but ?
(a)
Interrogation
has he left the place or u**)^ yd na? nami-ddmd " what, don't you know Persian ? ": eu-*>j *jyc yix " is he dead that tiJj ^+J vJ^x <tf magar murda ast ki liarf nami-zanad " " are he doesn't speak ? &t^ j*> magar dlvdna-i ? you mad? ", or I fancy you must be mad." In modern colloquial, bf aya is seldom used,^^ magar usually taking its place. Interrogation magar is both positive and negative, and is used
<*j
(j
ow
Ai*j
rafta ast
lt
" not ?
tk
idiomatically at
the
beginning
9
and
end
of
short
?
<:
Examples
^^jj** vir*
lit.
*'
^"
"
'\
drinking,"
"
_>^
<f
^'j
magar
'I
you
7H
A^"
followed by
ya na
3
' '
&^, also
signifies
aJ
(
cxvof
js^/c is
whether he
Remark /. Interrogation is of course also expressed by the interrogau how much ? " or tive pronouns or adjectives, as: chand *>J^ by the inter,
rogative adverbs, as
kujf
or kujd
>7
?
lJ
*'
where
"
^ji
v*^
*'
for
Remark
answer
is
called
^U^l^t
istifhdm-i istikhbari.
If
cates negation, as in, ki mt-guyad ki khaydl-i safar daradl JU^ li who says he is thinking of going on a journey?", *}\*^&*
istifhdm-i inkdri.
is
&
&.**
**
it is
called
it
If the question
called
p^t
ovWf
'*
Am
not youc
Lord?"
Examples:
eA^^
gashtan.
* 4
In negative interrogation as
nami-ravl
w'ste
won't you go
J>
?
the
3).
nun
is
styled
nnri
istifham-i nafy
(^
c^*),
:
71 (a) foot-notes (2
and
This
*a vJ^I?
+A jjjl
AJ
jt}
ciie^ ^^(f
is
^i^
^4.>
(Gul.)
aj/a,
which, however,
incorrect.
239
74.
(a)
The number
the
Infinitive
(
As already stated, of simple verbs in Persian is small. ends in dan or tan. Such Infinitives are called masdar-i
)
munsarif
<Jyaxx> ^*a/o
e>:>
Infinitives in
fatha, or else
85. as opposed to the Compound Infinitives, vide dan are preceded by the lon^ vowels a, I and u, or by by the consonants r and n.
<J* tan are preceded by kh> s, $b or /. In the so-called irregular verbs the irregularity consists, only in the :( to Imperative differing from the root of the Infinitive. Thus &**& dtdan
Infinitives in
(b)
see
' '
has an Imperative
bin
' ' ;
&&jf /cardan
' '
to do
"
^/ kun
cjab
^ dih, etc.
The following
together with lists of the exceptions. Verbs marked by an asterisk are obsolete in m.c., while those marked with a dagger are regular:
(I)
Infinitives
in
^nfinitives in tan
preceded by
,s,
reject these letters to form the root; in the reject this termination,
Infinitive.
i.e.,
same way,
infinitives in
adan
firist
cu^y
purs
z*
<^3
tavan
dzh jf
EXGErTIONS. s
Infinitive.
Root or Stem.
to bring forth
zddan
m.c. zd*ida
young
to
zd
Ij
or zd,y ^(j
(trans.
be born.
B
and
.
intr.)
m.c. dfridan
m.vC.
f to create to
dfrin &Jjtf
dmadan
6
come
ay
^f
or
m.c. guzidan
$ to choose
guzin
L5*^4^
"
;
{,<F\&
*
3
j&
' *
i^+*>
" traditiona
irregular.
The greater part of the simple Persian verbs end Verbs marked f are regular.
used in m.c.
m.c. (regular) " to bite, sting."
in Idan.
* Infin.
6
In m.c. afaridan.
But gazldan
240
m.c. (vulg.) gddan
copulate (of
only)
.
men
gd tforgdy^tf
dih
o^lf j
8<3
shanudan
m.c. shinuftan
&ty
to hear
shunaw
or shinaw
^&
c^U^
)
\
m.c. gushadan
m.c. kushddan
m.c. kushudan'f
^(M
c^y^
to lo 8e
kushd
or kushdy
m.c. didan
(j*xa to see
bin
^
c>j
zan
bakhya
(m.c.).
kun
in
different
*
Infinitive.
signifies
subs.
" a
connection
mark
of
a join":
payvasta
(Participle)
always, continually."
241
m.c. jastan
>
to
^jJkMM^.
jump
jah
fa*
m.c. justan
<^-^
e)-^
L
*
to search
(in
m.c.
also
/#
^a.
or
jtty
=
m.c. chldan
to find).
.
.
to pluck, cull
c^m
^
>^j
and
intrans.
e^t^
up
barkhlz
khiuah *i^
^^;
rah
trans,
m.c. ru^idan^
m.c. r us tan
*rlsian
o<H$^)*| 9 >to
grow
(intrans.
vl. adjective).
*ristan
to spin
thread).
(nsman
m.c. n^a/i
>
to gtool
_ A
in m.c.
m.c.
m.c. sUkastan
to break (trans,
trans.).
and
in-
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
to lessen
kah ^
tr.
and
intr.
m.c. kastan
*qirislan
6
,
to
weep
m.c.).
m.c.
m.c. gusistan
to break off, to
snap
gusil
J~>
;
trans,
arid
*gusustan
m.c. gusikhtan
l
tr.
and
intr.
intrs.
in m.c. trans.
Note that
*Ruahtan
e^l^
4<
and e^^f>*
grow
;
^oa.'j; r u* Idan to
(old),
&*?.j)
rawldan or ravldan
though spelt differently are pronounced the same. " to travel, walk/'
(old)
go,
to colour, dye."
(to
In modern Persian
or value:
&
16
&bf j~$
^*AJ
)f
kasr kardan
is
preferred for
tr.
AA^t^ ^JUJ
down.
' '
Niganst
na-girist
242
*manistan
m.c.
l
intr.
mdnd
vl-
adjective.
mandan
to remain,
fluous;
be superto be fa-
<.
The
is
' *
participle
J>
mdnda
used as an
fatigued
,
tigued; to resemble.
adjective,
especially
by the
Af-
ghans.
In India it also
nishln'1
*nigaristan
~\
m.c. nigaristan
*m"0rartefcmf
at,
view
nigar j&
rare).
(nigaridan very
*yaristan*
e^;b }to
^
be able;
other
(in
dictionary
also
yar ){->.
meanings
*yarastan
m.c. bastan
^-^
to bind
band *w
[6a^a
shudan
pass. m.c.].
*nishastan
to place
rn.c.
nishdn
^Jfo
[nishdsta
nishdndan'f
in m.c.
*
= starch].
;
shu*idan
m.c. shustan m.c. shuridan* c
'
to
wash
5/ii//
^^-^ or sAur
is
;^-
(shur
in
use
m.c.,
but
Remark.
of the
:
and one in a vowel without as a f or Imperative stem, one ending in In both forms are but used in is modern ^/f ay. writing, colloquial the " " as nearly always discarded, bi-gu (not bi-guy <^* ). say
;
:
^
<4
Manand
**&*> adv.
(misl)
alike, resembling."
also as a transitive,
2
these verbs
Nishasta aat
Present tense:
both Perfect Tense and Past Participle with aat for the English " he is an/a niahctata aat sitting (seated) there," but " that is where he always sits." l;*uf gnyg me-nMmod ** -he looked " or else no-giriat '* he did not weep." nigrar^ o*Jjx>
*-^~*{
*i-*^> Mp-M
this
word
in writing, *^\)<i
^^
^^
\)
of
to
243
reject
of
ay, as
m.c. situdan
m.c.
namudan
to praise to do, to
sita
Uu
or siidy
11
^Uuo.
show
nama
U> or
namay ^Ui,
intrans.
trans,
and
Exceptions.
m.c. budan
to be
>
6w
j>
or (jwU 6a5^.
m.c. shudan
, '
shudan
to become, to go
}
5^a^
to twist,
j.
*tanudan
*tanidan-f
to
draw tight,
be twisted.
tan
ti>5.
shanudan
m.c.
shamdan
iii^
fto hear
j
shanaw
zinaw
j*S.
m.c. shanujtan
*zinudan
to neigh
^
))&.
(shayha kashicollo-
dan in modern
quial).
*darudan
m.c. darawdan^
to reap
daraw
the
(In
mod. Pers.
daraw
infinitive
is
kardan
m.c.
to slumber, doze
.
preferred).
ghunaw
ghunavidan^
Remark.
to
The
;
prove"
(tr.)
m.c. azmudan cJ^^jT '* to try, following are regular " to rest, be satisfied, be at ease" (intr.) asudan e^>~>f
:
cf to increase" (tr. and intr.): m.c. fuzudan cJj^ aludan c;^f "to stain, pollute; to be polluted" (tr. and intr.); (in m.c. intransitive is aluda shudan c;* *pT ) m.c. andudan 8 e)^*ii " to plaster,
or
smear,
twist": m.c. paludan* &&jik ll to strain, filter; become pure" (tr. and intr.) m.c. bakhsJmdan eJ^Aiu (also m.c. bakhshldan ^jxlsiu " to " m.c. rubudan " give, bestow, forgive e^^; or *rubudan &wj) to rob, carry off; withdraw oneself from sight" (trans.): m.c. zadudan &wj
gild, to
:
)
:
"to
polish, .scour;
sdbtdan
^*>^
wipe sadness from the mind": *sudan eJ^ (also m.c. and m.c. sa^idan &*$l> ) " to rub, wear, anoint" (tr.) 6
:
is
also in use.
* 3
Fide
72
(a).
is
preferred.
v^
paluda-yi
S^b
.n&
'
sharbat of minced
The Afghans use this verb and c>-H^ palldan for "to apple, rose-water and sugar.' search.*' Paluda in m.c. is also a sweetmeat made of starch and sugar. In m.c. this
verb
is tr.
6
;
is
paluda shudan.
Intransitive eJ<^
44
iraudan ^byj* "to rub, wear; to be worn, old (tr.) " kushudan &&j*f (also kushadan \&j*j* "to order
:
"
*
:
m.o. farmudan :*
)
c^^
i.e.
gushudan oj^^
(3) Infinitives in
or gushadan e*>Uf.
tan preceded
by kh
reject tan
.
and change
into J
anddz
*akhtan
*akhtan
3
to
draw a sword
geld.
to
dkh
m.c. shinakhtan
ni .c gusikhtan
.
to recognize
shinas
m.c. gusastan
^to break
I
off,
snap
gusil
d~S
tr.
and
intr.
*gu8ustan
*sukhtan
m.c. sanytdanj
.. ,
.
to weigh G
,
.
sanj ^i-. }
*pikhtan
na.c.
to twist, to coil
pich -r^,
'
tr.
and
intr.
plchldan f
Remark.
frdshtdn
*'
The following
are regular:
Q.C.)
*
on high; to exalt" (tr.) afrukhtan ey^j/f m.c. amukhtan ^.^^of 4 "to lear'nf (tr.)
:
and intr.): m.c. amlkhtan ^.litxof ** to mix, mingle; be intermixed" (tr. and intr.): rn.c. anglkhtan ^^^J! (also angidan JJ\ ) "to excite, rouse": m.c. avikhtan ^Iscu^f "to hang, suspend" " to m.c. bakhtan r.) play, to lose at play" (tr.): m.c. pardakhb n (^^&jJ "to finish; bring to perfection; to be busily engaged" " r. and intr.) m.c. parhikhtan u*k*H^ 6 (^) ** to educate (but parhizidan)
teach"
^^
Imper.
jjjA^j,
2 3
Usually the participle t&f>j* with an auxiliary verb is used. Also in compound verbs used as a substitute for kardan, to indicate respect. But akhta kardan &&j$ <^^' " to geld " only.
or
amuzanidan cJ'H^j^'
'
(me.
to teach.'*
5
Man
bi-ln kar
an in
fear
&* ^^'^ j* \) ft " nam&z his prayers he finished parda&ht (m.c.) j( ^abstinence" and kardan pahrlz ^tAj* &<^JrtPj
ra pardab&tam
"
az
"=
farigh ahud.
only,
are
common
in
odern Persian.
245
"to sift" (in diet, also " to enslave; become weak") (tr.): takhtan "to hasten; to assault: to make to gallop " (tr. and intr.) tojchtan u-^y (old "to pay a debt; to wish, to want"; m.c. dukhtan eH&ja "to sew"(tr. and
:
intr.): rikhtan
^^ "
disperse*"
(tr.
" to (tr.) *supukhtan &,****> ' ' thrust one thing with force into another : m.c. sukhtan prick, pierce <ji^ " to burn, to be inflamed, to set on fire" (tr. and intr.) ; m.c. gudaTchtan
and
intr.): m.c.
;
sakhtan
(^\^
flee
"to melt,
:
to be
melted"
(tr.
away"
m.c. navakhtan*
^i^y
and intr.) m.c. gurlkhtan ^iu/ "to " to soothe caress etc.' to play upon
: ,
,
by
sh, reject
^ tan
dar
and change c4 sh
into
r, as
m.c. dashtan
to have
Exceptions.
..
)\*.
m.c. gashtan
m.c. gardidan*]
gard
*ag]iusliidan-\
embrace
_
.
ayiush
m.c. kushtan
m.c. hisfitan
m.c. hiKdan-f
^&f
to kill
*\
kush
> to
let
down
to quiet,
hil
JA
"
or hish <Ju*.
'
m.c. sirishtan*
*sarisliidan
^
)
7
to
mix;
to mix.
to create;
..
sirish
m.c. kdshtan^
to
^
plough;
sow;
till
m.c. kishtan
Takht u
taz
kardan
cJ.i^'j
vi*i>t
<4
to
*A.lj
attack":
tak&t avardan
"
plundering."
Bar
(^^)
^^ fj>.
"
"
to fall
;
upon
"
:
firil
rikhtan
"
:
az
ham
rikhtan (m.c.)
to go to pieces
&
4
*
In compound verbs, can take place of kardan, etc. In modern colloquial, only to sing or play an instrument or chastise.
Dar aghfoh
Sirisht
girt ffan
*
<^y
<jw j.cf
^
9
in m.c.
sirishta
c**j*
Ax^*>
'
**
tar rishta
7
"a knowledge
A-w^ton
uJ&r
to
sow," but
(&&
246
only in m.c.
]
m.c. navishtan
m.c.
to write
..
rams
kun
a&ashtan
*
to
m.c. aghishtan
agiushtan
pf J
defile.
Remark.
or
The
following
anbashtan ^^l^t
(tr.)
"to
fill,
angarldan
to
*angardan
are m.c. ambashtan ^^U^f and regular etc."; m.c angashtan ^^>\ (or m.c. e^;&! "to think, imagine": *awbashtan (intr.)
:
pindashtan ^^iifolj (or *pindaridan be proud" (intr.); m.c. ddshtan v&*^ "to
<f
have,
(tr.)
:
hold,
keep"
guzashtan
(tr.)
leave"
m.c.
v*tf
to pass, pass
8
by"
(intr.
m.c. gumdshtan
m.c. nigashtan ^.y^^i (or " to (Dtytyi paint, portray; embroider, to write."
:
^(3
"to appoint
for a purpose
"
m c. nigandan
dan ^^, as:
(5)
Infinitives in
r,
or
&
n, reject
m.c. avardan
to bring
avar f ;jf or ar ;f
m.c. shumurdan
m.c. burdan
shumar
bar j*.
;^.
.
m.c. kardan
m.c.
do
kun
murdan
to die
to
/
I
wr ^y.
resign,
m.c. sipurdan
commit,
deposit, travel.
^
;fjl
,
*supardan
m.c. azurdan
*azardan f
m.c. afshurdan
__
to offend, to injure
azar
<
jfjf (m.c.).
to squeeze
to
to express
afshar ;lAt.
*farkandan
dig a
canal,
bring
fields.
bufc
(jJ^y naviahtan,
etc.
1
* 4
to write."
to pass by (a person, etc.)." m.c. c^y ^^ ^wsar kardan In India the past participle, *>U? gumashta, is a common term missary, or agent, especially in the Commissariat Department,
Also
for a
com-
247
Infinitives in tan
^ preceded by
/:
^ and, by a law
<->b.
of
many
m.c. ydftan eP^^ to get, obtain m.c. baf tan c^^ to weave
Exceptions.
m.c. paziruftan u*ty*j to accept, approve m.c. suftan &.'&*> to bore, pierce
l
yab
..
baf ob.
pazlr j.*J.
sumb
v^
:
"
sufta
kun <uiu
(^
(D
sufta
kardan
in m.c.
6fw/to
^^
(in m.o.
^*
/0
4<
thick, coarse,
from an obsolete
*
Infinitive.
Guftan
e^J
^Toft^am bi-namaz
Ouf tarn ki muradri kulH-yam Tiasil shud. *To prayer and fasting when my heart inclined,
All
my
desire I surely
hoped to
find:
"
(O.
180 Whin.)
248
m.c. khuftan
&&
]
(-khuft
f
(m.c.)
m.c. khwabidan
-\
c>H*!^
*o sleep, crouch,
etc.
khwab
(m.c.)
m.c. khusbldan^
m.c. khuspidan f
*taftan-f
e)Hf~^
1
(
c>^>^^
>
Wimp
(m.c.)
*taftan
&&
The
to twist
tab wl
m.c.
Remark.
root shtiab
following
is
regular:
m.c.
shitaftan
^*Xw
to
hurry,
v^"75.
Hybrid Verbs.
In addition to the pure Persian verbs, a certain number of hybrids are formed by affixing the termination Idan cA> to an Arabic root. Example
m.c. e^+t* fahmidan "to understand"; &**&*) raqsidan (m.c.) (and raqs <{ and a few to dance"; c****^ talabidan "to summon" (m.c.) kardan)
;
others.
Ghaltldan
^^Mi
(m.c.)
" to
roll,
to wallow
"
was
originally Persian
and then given an Arabic form by the Persians. Challdan &**b (m.c.) is derived from the Urdu chalna
This hybrid Infinitive Persian Infinitive.
is
IxU.
" to go."
a true
called
^^^^ax,
as opposed to
tx^ax: ) ^^JL^f ;
76.
^U*
jUil
).
Shudnu o>^
(a)
to
become "
root shaw
j&
The verb
&<*
shudan "to become, to go " is conjugated regularly. shaw: in the other tenses, j before a vowel becomes v.
is
shavam
The
Aorist
s
The Imperative
is
The
also
used impersonally, especially in modem colloquial; ml>shavad &**> and namishavad *j&*& " is it possible ?" and "is it not possible?" mi-shud <xlx*;*
nami-shud *&*+>
(c)
"was
&**>
is
it
possible;
was
it
vide
77
(d).
Shudan
grammatical passive
to
cj^
is
fi
<
to lull to sleep;
mak
(a
camel)
*
8
lie
down
raised on high).
literally
Shavanda
**>y** is fS,
from Arabic.
Gum
show j~
gum
bi-shaw
^. f
be
off
in m.c.
*
bi-tu tarsu *t
\)
andal&hfi ?
even
if
*&{
^ jiii^c ^y >M^f
in that to
ass
cast
TAVANISTAN.
voice.
249
its place can be taken by either of its synonyms, gashtan ey&? or gardldan e>*JJ>/, Imperative gard ^. (d) Note the following idioms
3
:
In other cases
(1)
far as I
f&9)
\&xx>
^i*; *
;
;^3 cyf
an qadr
Jci
"
went as
an qadr
ki karda mi-shud
kardam
" I did as
(2)
ft>jf
*>Ax*
*j>y
&f
e/f
much
as I could."
"it
will
"
;
shud &
^h^
*A^=EU ^x*. (Afghan and m.c.) khurdk jihat-i just u ju kardan na-khwdhad " it will not be ^t*- (Afghan) necessary
kitf *>
Guftam
said
kum
?
(m.c.)
"I
why
"
:
^
j(
<c
\)
$6
&j.\ j>\
*?** *^
^^
u
^^
A=W
^^^i^^ ^^
''he said,
would
it
he had delayed having connection with her one night what have mattered."
if
(4)
a*x=faj
^aA3 ''n.c.)
laugh/' vide
(e)
79
(c).
65-^x5
<c
" we
shall see
";
also
want" (used in the Future tenses of verbs); hastan ^-^A " to be, exist" (used in Perfect ** to be" (used in the Pluperfect tenses); tavdnistan tenses); budan &^>
The
(used in the
) t
^^ <jr^,
^.jcjfU.
etc.)
to be
"
^C^
^^Ix*
defective verb
is
called ^-a^u^f
Some
also defective.
jUi are shud ^, bud ^, gardld X}^? and gasht^J^ etc., and sometimes dmad **>f and bar-dmad ^f y They are called ndqis o^.^U because though in appearance intransitive verbs, they yield no sense with a subject
AAAsfli
1
The
alone, thus
Ahmad bud
of
^ ^*^t
by
itself is really
meaningless.
:
fi'l-i ndqis are Examples " it turned out (was) very useless" *xf^j ~jj
:
dmadan eA^T as a
77.
(a)
Ta van f stan
is
^x-Jry^
This verb
the
Imperative, noun of agency, are not used. an (1) In classical Persian, this verb is usually either preceded by
An qadr
ki
250
Infinitive or followed
TAVANISTAN.
:
tanha by the shortened Infinitive, as ^viy ^+> &z>j$ kardan nami-tavdnam (Afghan and Indian coll.) "alone I am not able to do
;
(
it"
I;
j!
c*i
y i*^
sa&afc
c^ty
*&|ysu az
^*jyL
f;
^o
/f tf
avm/
^ ^
f;
J|
*.****
urfljl
khivdham did az shafaqat* u ra kushtan na-khwdham tavdnist (Afghan) leas na-tavdnad girift ddman-i dawlat bi-zur (Sa'dl) )& cJj^ <j.*t,i o**/ *Jty3
This construction
is still
full
**
v^r
l
&*j* e.^*^
<yt^ *^ oJ^*4.jyt
f
c^ty^ l^ jf j+z &$& ^b^JbU. oo*4A. agar bi-ma' unat-i shuma umr jihat-l mu'ayyan gar dad ki mujih-i jam iyyat-i khdtir bashad baqiyya-yi az 'uhda-yi shukr-i an na-tavdnam birun dmadan (Sa'dl) "if, through your influence, some means be settled that would release me from this burden,
I will be grateful to
<j^J c^> ji ^\j* you for the whole of my life va *-flkV-A) AS' .ify ^Iwl? ^Ui' ^fjv^l^ o,3\-?j guftam bardy-i nuzkat-i ndzirdn ^j^ <( I replied (Sa'dl) fusha<t-i hdzirdn kitdb-i Oulistdn tavdnam tasnif kardan ki
;
' '
the Gulistan as
to its readers
so that
is
."
(2)
Or the auxiliary
is
verbal prefixes
is
the apocopated, i.e. the stem with or without verb followed by the shortened Infinitive in this case the
:
a present impersonal. This construction is modern as well as Afghan and o-*.*j Indian: U^bU ^ja*3 JuU> ufojbj ^.yjU. ^jj CA**J b;^J ^=^ 7 bi-hukm-i dn-ki parvdrda-yi ni'mat-i In khdnddn-am va ^fyj
^ j>y
^T
^'^^J
<fc
kard ki
because I have been nurtured by the bounty of this House, be faithless cannot one and merely on account of a slight change in the regard
(Sa'dl)
of one's
' ' ;
Dam
(
' l
Rustam-i gurd?
'
Dushman na-tavdn haqir u bichdra shumurd Knowest thou what said Zal to the hero Rustam ?
One ought not
to
(Sa'dl).
'
"
&
usual.
Also pronounced shafqat. instead of the Infinitive Colloquially, the Afghans often use the Past Participle
;
dlda nami-fawBnam
^ty
in
m.
4
41 am
6
f^
^ *^
i*
<
fo r
d * dan naml-tawanam
&*?.*
able to
* '
Lit.
will
amplitude.
andakhtv The book being called the " Rose Garden," there even if tto* spectator."
6
upon
word j&&
i5&2/r
j&
"
j&
"
anger."
TAVANISTAN.
251
Imruz bi-kush
ki mi-tavan kusht
K'atash chu buland shud jahan sukht (Sa'di). " Kill to-day while it is possible to kill, For a small fire, if it becomes great, burns
l
*t ^ ^^ ^-j;^- maldmat-ash kardand ki chunin sayd z dar dam-at uftad va na-tavanisti nigah dashtan? Guft " ay baradaran chi tavan kard? (Sa'dl) They upbraided him saying, 'such a
c>'y
'
in
the
following
*>
^^ ? c^*'^ cjf;*y ^
to thy lot
8
&*J
jfcjUiU
fine fish
fell
it
'?
He
"
said,
my
Remark
1
I.
is
:
is
J
used
3
!
<J)j)j& <*&T
<j?[/
guft az bara-yi
if
an
ki liar ruz-ash
dar zamistan ki
(Sa'dl)
see
him
every day,
except in winter,
when--."
Remark
form
II.
The apocopated
:
auxiliary
is
rarely
followed by the
full
of the Infinitive
^**J C*S
^43 3
<^t*^
u*
^^3
^s\*^
(
v'^3' e^^;
*^y
)***.
azab-i
Khuday
rast
mardum
(Sadi).
"
the atonement of repentance one can escape the wrath of God, But escape from the tongue of men one can never."
By
In this example rastan &>*) is used for rast <^~>j in the in the second line for nami-tavan ofy ml-na-tavan o|y3
first line
is
also
a poetical
license only.
(3)
A
:
third construction
is
liary, as
Otherwise
fitting
His Glory,
None
is
able to perform
what
is
worthy
of it."
(This construction
is
Note the
and
chun
is
:
mouse to an elephant the Persian (and Indian) equivalent is shikar & Dam ff*> 'snare" is applied to any kind of net, snare, or
figuratively.
trap, literally
and
By
trappers
it is
252
TAVANISTAN.
Remark.
ejj^J is
Tavan
&&
<*J
^
.
(bi-tavan
.
<j^
*>r|U
SJiayad
*&
synonyms
(1)
but
in
&
is
generally omitted, as: p.^ <*>W (j+* I will not be able to come" for namlf '
:
nami-
** [iL
u^*** )*
rnl-tavanid
up
in the hotel
(2)
"
:
Rozen's grammar) "if you like, colloquial; ki *t is understood after mlrtavamd *#\
^.
The shortened
used
this by the Afghans and Indians, but in the modern colloquial of Persia in third it is used when construction is not common person generally
:
singular, as
*ity
kard (m.c.)
(3) *
ct
!;
^ ^ u***
is
^1
this
man
^(
ijjykc
^>^
"
:
*j*
$jS
c< J^ chignna rni-tavan In kar ra kard? (m.c.) liow is one to do this ? bavar kard (m.c.) "one jjO fc;fjw or) e)iy u+* naml-tavan (or na-tavan)
L)
c*~jry
^
The
(me.)
'*
Remark.
Perfect of tavanistan
e^ujy
aLJiy
is
subject to the
125: vaqt-idar
and anja bi-ravand &jj* l?uf the shows speaker was not present.
(4)
t>Jf
^^
m*>y
^ J&)
tlie
Perfect
as
OMJJ^
The auxiliary need not be repeated before the second of two verbs, shuma mi-tavamd anja bi-yayld va asp-davarii kuriid? *tt& t^6f (Hifyu^c i+ ^'^ WMI j (m.c.) "can you come there and (can you) gallop your
Occasionally, a transitive verb
is
horse"?"
is
considered transitive, as: ammd kas-i ki kucha va bazar-i Isfahan ra mk bi-danad va dar shab rahnuma*i bi-tavanad, gh&yr az man na bud **>jZ &*~t Uf
itself
^M
j*i ^f^j ^5Uo l; v^ j> ^ <M*J *-^ b ^l^fl^f ;fjlj j (Tr. H. B. V), "but there was none but me who knew the streets of Isfahan, and
jf
5
act as guide
in
them."
Guftam
'
na-danad idara-yi mamlakat ra chiguna tavdnad ? \) o^U " I said, Aif^j AJ^ ; osJl*x> Sjf^f j>jf jj (Tr. H. B. Chap. VII)
f
how can
a
?
man
'
who does
not even
Lr
know how
to
v*
^^
"
:
^t
^
U
(Tr.
(Tr.
H.
Man
or
---- ^Lr**^^
f&
<jt+"
)*
it is
impossible to do
this.*
TAVANISTAN.
(c)
An
is
U 6a Mwd guftam ty osuly <jy**> j &tf) JJ o^Ua. *ac^~.x> u j| JAI JLx A+J j*Ia? va In hdl ahl-i bi-hama ma'drif tavdnad bud masjid jamd'at-i buzurgdn " I said to myself perhaps the people of this mosque are a congre(classical)
example
If j^j *x*tyL
^/o
would mean
Shdyad bdshand ^iAk ^\> could also be used. 76 (6), the third person singular of the (d) As already mentioned in Present and Preterite of shudan ox is used impersonally. It is followed either
by the Subjunctive or by the shortened
i
Infinitive, as
<x
f^
^^
&uf^
p#) \S>j> j**> jjj eA* bi-vdsita-yi badi-yi rah nami-shud hamdn ruz td bi-sar-i kutal bi-rasim (m.c. Roz. Gr.) c< on account of the badness of the road it was
t
" &$ * !j o^su^J ^\ impossible to reach the top of the pass that day ^.4,; 1 " was it not oJ\j nami-shud ki In rd naslhai bizanat bi-kuni ^^iC(m.c.)
:
you to give this piece of advice to your wife (and not to me) ? " '* *> na <HC y fj*^ *} khayr naml-shavad (m.c.) ao, it is impossible (j+*j*^ cc az 'id* we can't nami-shavad the before :>>* ^) pish raft (m.c.) go
possible for
:
:
"
Id
"
j^x^j
(^
^>^A3(
^j
nami-shavad
td
(m.c.)
*&$ J> \agar ^U> qasd* cu^f^^j ^ >J&* ^^xx^Js <ju^. na-bashad chi tawr mi-shud sang.rd barddsht anddkht (m.c.) ^were there no
by to-night?
"
Infinitives
bow was it possible (how did it happen) to have picked up a stone and thrown it ? " 5 ^(e) To be able, can also be expressed by the Passive, as: <**~ ^5Uj ;^b A^
intention,
o^ ^3 AJ^t^ U
o-^^'j
nd-tavan gashtim va qadamhd-yi* md bar-ddshta nami-shavad (m.c.) how can we come? we are worn out by fatigue, and cannot even lift our feet (our feet
p^
(j[p^
^^
shuda
"
cannot be lifted)."
Ddnista nami-shavad bi-mi'ydr-i uqul Sanjida nami-shavad bi-miqyds-i qiyds.
l
"
No man
of science ever
Nor made
with scales, " assay with touch-stone, no, not one! (0. K. 279 Whin.)
weighed
(it)
Generally pronounced kutal. chi mi-shud agar in nasihat ra bi-zanat ml-kardl (m.c.). Colloquially and vulused for confused idea that the the is a from often Present, Imperfect apparently garly the Imperfect is a Subjunctive or Conditional, An English writer sometimes says>
1
Or
* *
What
3
* '
Vulgar
*
&'
is classical
as well as
modern
colloquial.
collective noun.
254
GIRIFTAN.
iary
and verb, the auxih often 'can,' colloquial, immediately precedes the verbal member of the compound, as dvdza mi-tavdnl bi-khwdrii (^[y&* ^iy
Remark.
Before a
compound
:
of substantive, etc.
in
modern
(m.c.)
jtyf
J>lr*u (m.c.)
(/)
Tawana Ufy
is
is
U (old).
Tavan-gar ^fiiy is an adjective, signifying "powerful, rich." Tavdn ^y is a substantive " strength."
(g)
Jdrastan
<&*~*)k
or
ydristan
stretch
out the
hand," and
drastan
be able; to be able; to
adorn
' '
Yard
(h)
occur frequently in poetry for tavanistan ^-Jfy " boldness; power." l;U (subs.) Ddnistan <j~jf^ "to know" is in classical and modern
is
Persian
the
same
as with
tavanistan
Pa<s
2i
maldmat u shun
Turd
<4
What
(Sa'dl).
is
the
?
[
How
'
"
lines.)
U
how ?
(i)
ml-ddnad bi-kunad
l
*&* ^ot^'
^f
know
' '
To be
able
da$t-at
bi-ydyad <^Uj
(
Id
&g
^ ^o
or )
j>
can also be paraphrased by such expressions, as agar az az ru-yi man nami-dyad (or nami-xliavad) ^S\ " ic 2 ^jf
:
'
cuw^ jf
^ ^x ^^
^^
I;
:
jf
am ashamed to
^^o ^^
J<*>\
(i.e.,
I can't
qddir budanbar
&ty
budan, &&y
1$$ )*:
cLlf
or cLUI
tavdnd nlstain ki
(^1 *'
^^^
na-ddram
(d)
j!
^l ^Ufy
<(
iwfca?i
ddshtan
^\t
Vide also
76
and
77
(e)
for
to be able."
78.
Giriftan
(a)
Girijtan
^J*,
root gir
^ "to
seize,
sitive.
always bi-gw
jg
j*
There
is,
of course, a double
a poetical
(m.c.) you're very shameless <^~A )) j* ru az pish bardasht (m.c.) (t he hid himself."
^^
"
"
:
GIRIFTAN.
255
In
seize,"
this
verb, preceded
<+9jS (jJ&?
<jii?
y u
guftan girift
by an " he began
lei
Infinitive,
means
;
to speak
"
f
Ua
|;
&
va saqat
guftan (Sadl)
"he began
and use bad language in his ^* &$ is)b* &ty (Sa'di) " she
nearly obsolete in
used colloquially by the Afghans and Indians, but is modern Persian. In a few cases only, in modern Persian, does giriftan && mean " to begin"; dil-am tapidan girift oui/ &*\L barf girift oj^ o^, bdrdn girift cu*/ e>l)k (m.c.) "my heart began to beat" " it (m.c.) began to snow; it began to rain." For "to begin'' in modern
is still
This idiom
Persian, vide
(6)
79.
Giriftan
(^^
is
also
means
<c
to suppose,
admit."
Im:
perative glr j
5
Examples
c^~v f&
&*$
#>
Uo
pi
cu^>>
o^e
&t
pjj&
giram ki yj^amat
nist gjiam-i
ma ham
nist?
(Sa'di)
let
me
(c)
5
(or
1
mi-girtm (or
gmm}
u^Jte
(m.c.)
"we
^j&j* ^acuA
is
(vulg.) Jiamchi
let
Colloquially
and vulgarJy
giriftan
(^^
(d)
dallak girift khwdbld (m.c.) "the barber fell asleep"; bi-khwab (m.c ) " go to sleep." Note the following intransitive or reflexive uses of this verb
bi-gir
:
Ta chand kunam arza-yi nd-ddni-yi khmsh, Bi-girift dil-i man az parisharii-yi Jchwlsh ?
(
*'
(0. K. 281 Whin.) " I saw ** nafas-am dar narm-girad bj^** (Sa*'dl) p~& that my speech (breath) did not sink in made no impression" o^^;^ vf oJs? db dar gulu-yash girift ^ the water stuck in his throat; he choked"
Didam
ki
p^
li
c<
bi-glrad
"
(m.c.)
lit.
may your
breath
be caught, may you choke"; *^j> ^*)\ f*^ tukhm az garml dar girift ** the the sun" <^y ^A^j zaban-ash ml-glrad seeds were scorched (m.c.) by
:
(m.c.)
"he stammers" (lit. his tongue sticks) od^f^y^ "he suddenly struck his head against
:
<jj*
j u
sar-ash
:
the wall"
s
nab$-
am
tstada ast,
girift,
dh-ah-hay
raftim (m.c.)
Hamchu
"
j-*1
is
* i.e.,
may you
'
die
n you."
is
Do
generally
8
^^ ^
Jif .
266
"
my pulse
my
my
am gone"
gulu-yash
(e)
girift (m.c.)
^^ ^ ^
is
ah! I
girya dar
1
o^t *&
wli*f
(m.c.)
"the sun
"
eclipsed.
j>jfju
In sarud) glraniagi na-ddrad ( &)^** e*^ ^ ) o;^ ^f " this picture (or this song) has no attractiveness in it." ^^jd (m.c.) (g) U tamdm-i shab az harf zadan vd-gw nami-kard (or dram nami-girift)
surat
(or
In
cJ^
^
all
ff,>T
^*J j$
\)
c^j
~
' '
o^
jt
v* f +*
l
jt
(m.c.)
chatter
o**>f AX^&^XA ^)j* &* (m.c.) (h) Ghilla-yi buzurg hanuz na-girifta ast " the have nob yet commenced." heat of (or greatest cold) greatest forty days sitdndan &&(* (vulg. istdndan (i) In modern colloquial giriftan e^*/ &nd
!
(t
to
buy."
79.
(a)
etc/'
of giriftan
78
(a).
(6)
The verbs 'Ho begin" are ij^lij 8 bind kardan ; 4 c>^r^J^T *IAXJ| ibtidd* kardan dgj&z namudan; (of a <^^ shuru,' kardan; UU+i? f*j* & ^ work). They are followed by the Infinitive, as follows " 1 5 began to look l^>^ va bind hardam bi-tamdshd kardan-i dukdnhd (m.c.)
(1)
^^
^^
^y
at
the shops";
/*iuif^
:
"
^^ ^
^lu
guzdshtam (m.c.)
began to walk"
^ c^^
:
p)*> f*s*
&! bind
kardam bi-davam
(vulg.)
"I began
to
to cry
4 '
"
^^ &j&
f>^
<f he began to ?j?* shuru' bi-ktiwurdan namud (m.c.) " she *&*'** shuru' ml-kunadbi-girya kardan (m.c.) begins r^* !&! ibtida* mi-kunam bi-ndm-i Khudd* (mod. writing)
" " to Dast bi-kdr shudan &*& j& ^-^> also means (of a work begin ** iX>b o^^ bi-kdr shud we dasl must (m.c.) begin only) tXo*^> |^ fardd bdyad the business to-morrow."
(2)
:
1 begin in the
name
of
God.
' '
1 Kusuf Oy*^* and khueuf o^-^- may signify an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon, but the former is specially used for the sun and the latter for the moon. These words are only used in talking by the learned.
" yi shab
Va hama shab n&-yaramid az aufehanha-yipariahanguftan " and hama shab *' every night." all the night
'*
(Sa*di)
Mod.
Pers.
hama-
8 Biria* signifies is
building
bar
" and
biria*
"
;
^ banna
*+>
** *
jAv "because
is
of*';
'*
" therefore
the
*
6
c^J^T
arifk*
obsolete.
is also
dakakm
is
In
this
sometimes
KHWASTAN, ETC.
(c)
257
:
The following
are
Afghan idioms
< e
j^ ^JU&^y
(J&
kishti
:
nishastan
tjS
namud (Afghan
i^kl*
:
the ship began to sink ji ^ju " sang az kuh yhaltidan kard the rock began to roll down the hillcolloquial)
"
faro
j# er^J ^j ^ <for waqt-i peshin roz tayyar ^^ Uj t;jx* &*j+> namudan-i mez ra bina kardami 1 (Afghan colloquial) "at midday I began to make the table " p&J g^ &*\f r> A*^ ^a$ 'aqah-i khema ra kandan shuru kardam (Af. col.) " I began to dig (the ground) behind the tent "
1
side"
^^^ ^
vazldan
bi-kJ^nda
lchawf-nak~i
yinft m.c.]
e<
aaiiu
shud (Afghan, and modern colloquial) " the merchant began to laugh (went
off into
(d)
(e)
^13
tajir
a laugh)." Man bi-khanda uftadam ^Us'i jitxiiu (1^c (m.c.) There are in Persian no continuative verbs.
prefix
(<
began to laugh."
in
The continuative
ml <y
or Tiami ^+&
is
classical Persian, or in
poetry only.
In modern Persian, however, there is a curious continuative particle or which can be prefixed to several tenses to form particle of excess, hay continuatives. This usage is at present considered vulgar, though used by Qa'am, Hay shikar ml-kardim ^J^A/O ^K ^A "we kept on shooting";
keep on with connected hamisha this eating, Possibly ^^>, particle is probthe from derived of the camel- men, ably immediately cry hay! hay! hay!
bi-Jchur jj*u
-
)^.
(to
a greedy boy)
"
do."
used to keep a string of slowly-moving camels in motion it is to camels, what a swung lantern is to a shunting train. That this particle is connected with hami <^+*> and consequently with hamisha &.$+&, seems probable from the fact that haml ^^ is sometimes substituted, as ^ ^ J^ &jk i^**
:
jj>
j*l*jj
j j>
won
other
who bore
**
"
(Haji Baba, Chap. XXIX) by this means he persons the one who received the present and the
; :
^t
*'
mi-khurad
(i.e.
(m.c. or local)
tj}^*
^5**
f*?.
\)
$\
a great deal).
80.
(a)
j^]^
As already shown in the paradigm of the verb, the Aorist by the apocopated Infinitive is used in forming both in classical Persian and in modern colloquial. Future,
of the
the
Nimaz-i peshin ert**^ )^ is an Afghan and Indian *' " is a common word in *' Urdu." ready j^Jo ^ The Shah as a mark of favour sent special portions of his meal to his host, and had to the servants who brought the tid-bits. to certain courtiers they tip heavily Every one was pleased, including the Shah, who could thus pay his servants out of other
preceding the verbs "to begin." expression for the midday prayer
:
people's pockets.
In the original
^L*A,|
Jg
slip for^j?
17
258
(6)
KHWASTAN.
In the Gulistan the unapocopated Infinitive frequently follows the
:
y f**
ki
J
**5f j*
^ ^^ *^A
to
^^
<J*ap.*j
c/f
ejox*^7#
e)*^
tXAi^sL
"har
chi ddnl
tu
to
khwahad shudan
bi-pursidan-i an
'
" be not in haste (Sa'dl) ta'jil makun you know will of a surety become revealed
tf
jj^*
oju
i^JtJ
t/
Yar-i dirm-i
Ki mara tawba
''Tell
my
I'll
For
ancient friend to proffer me no advice, ne'er repent even at the point of the sword."
&-
Tahammul kard u guft ay nik-farjam Batar-z-anam ki khwahi guftan an-i Ki danam ayb-i man, chun man na-dant.
' e
'
A bad-tempered person abused some one. With resignation he replied, Oh thou, maycst thou be blessed Worse am I than anything thou wilt say I am For thou dost not know my faults as I know them myself.' "
'
And
To
see 2 your ashes moulded into bricks, build another's house and turrets high."
(0.
K. 162 Whin.)
signifies
is
:
^;
C
^Afyx Usuf ^lalxi Jii, ^ va tifl ba-nadani and the boy tJhrough ignorance wished to ^o
x-p 35;
2
S
of har chi
is
<*<^
* *
whatever.
* '
(understood)
'*
it is
la-yi tajahul.
&HWASTAN.
259
Ay
" Oh thou who display est abroad thy virtues, But hidest away thy vices from sight,
Shame^! what wishes t thou to purchase, deluded being, With thy base coin on the day of distress (the day of judgment)
"
?
Remark
as
:
I,
Ki khalq bar sar-i ma bar zamm bi-khivahad raft Chunan ki dast bi-dast dmadast mulk bi-ma (Sa'di). Bi-dastha-yi digar hamchunm bi-lchwdhad raft
The verb following the auxiliary is in classical Persian also put in the Subjunctive [vide end of (c) and Remark to (c)]. Ex. f; jt e^ ^> A man n rd nami-khwaham ki bmam (Sa*di) he said, ^ix ^Afj.a. ^A guft
II.
:
'
Remark
"
The Afghans in speaking sometimes use a similar construction, but the Infinitive before the auxiliary place )& )jk* t&te^ c^ ^*>^ e>*/ man Gluz-e ba-tawr-i nazr pesfi 3 kardan khiyastam (Afghan coll.) ** I wished
:
^^
?)
to
give
mi-khwdham
deputy."
ki kishtl rd
^I^SRJU* o^
(Afghan
coll.)
"
my
They, however,
as
:
also
ly^i?
f^
bi-girad
^J&S'
&>
^^sxx*
is
Remark.
usually omitted, as
."
Khivdstan
^.w^
(2)
for or to
summon,"
a transitive verb signifying: (I) " to send "to desire (a thing)" and (3) to love, to be
is
also
<
fond of."
All
ta-yi tajahul.
?i
tj**$
(ra.c.)
superior (used politely). 4 Note that ra is omitted after khud (the second of two substantives in apposition in the accusative case).
260
(1)
KHWASTAN.
(m.c.)
"
J*M^
it
f;
e>*+
A
,
c*$j
bi-jihat-i
was
" *jS* ty |; y 0*0 I; Uib you ra nazd-i khud khwastam (m.c. and Afghan colloquial)
me by
2
a signal with
my
hand.
J '
(2) o>^ c^l* *-*" *-^/ 7^ agrcw mart; mi-khivahl bi-raw Oilan (proverb) "if you desire death go to Gllan 1 "; xlxj mi-khwastam bi-yayad ^JLof^ivx/o " I wish he would come." for Present tense) (m.c.) (vulgar, Imperfect
(3) ^&fysxyo^U~j f;j! ^x> man ura bisyar mi-khwaham (m.c.) "I am very fond of him, love him very much/' (e) In modern colloquial, and in Kabuli Persian too, this verb also signi" as: fies "to intend," or "to be on the point of doing, c^+j cx^iu/o 2 "he was about to die (not wished to die)"; mi-lchwast bi-mtrad (m.c.)
*^
AAf^iu-o
Uf agka mi-Jchwahad
threatens the
cook with his whip (Roz. Gr.) Uf *r tjjj *>A!j.2cuuc mi-khwahad bi-ravad lei ag&a (m.c.) "he is about to go his t when master ": *j j5l^ o^^ij* e^^ oi3\x>^.l*J3 tamam-i mihnat-i man ml-khipast ki za*i' sliavad (Afghan coll.) " the whole of my labour was
bi-zanad (m.c.)
;
"the master
"
4 nearly being wasted. " re(/) This verb is also colloquially used in an impersonal sense meaning b &>t^ in khana ta'mlr mi-khivahad (m.c.) "this : tx&t^iuAO ^x*-*^ quires, "as
:
' '
"
:i
6
:
j.Atj.2cu/o
cu^jjtj^j UjAa.
*af>^
" the rug is too light in colour rang ast qadr-i bishtar rang mi-khwahad (m.c.) To the remark " I have forgotten to bring it wants a little more colour."
;
^ -&;_y&w
such
requisite to
^s)*$
o^f
^;
^ *^U>
qaltcha
kam
any money," or
might be matter."
1
*&\j^
^w
nami-khwaliad (m.c.)
not necessary,
it
doesn't
j^/
'
o^!^^ ^^
"it was
^jJJ
c^tJ )^
)\*
\j*
mara bar
to
go out frequently"
m.c.
^y
&y ^
(Af.)
necessary
\*.
for
me
A*i^
chand daf'a
Gilan
is
said to be the
Persia.
&j& &#
+J**&
shavad (or bi-hadar ravad) * Compare the m.c. use of raftan in 82 (h).
Nazdlk
"bud za*i'
&j) )&^*
^^ fSU^j^J
*Jj.t>y (m.c.).
In India
o*|
u^iJa
cu^o
>
.
marammat-talab
ast
in
modern Persian
in
writing
Modern
Or lazim
Majhul vowels.
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
Idzim shud
birun bi-ravam):
261
man u
(g)
tu liar
both of us
(Af.)
"food
is
necessary for
is
"should,"
(^)^
t>
L5
^b iu^
mi-khwdsti az avval
hamm
yak-i rd bi-ydvari (m.c.) "you should have brought this one at first": iWf jjjjxf ^Af j cxU> Jjja cL/-*.fj.=sx.yo mi-khwdst diruz bi-ydyad va likin imruz dmad " he (m.c.) ought to have come yesterday and not to-day" [for Jj>^
c*^
(yQj*A&
],
vide
84
(o)
mi-khwdstam
p>\*j
bi-ddnam (m.c) " I should like to know mi-khwdham bi-ddnam " I want to know."
;
"
less
peremptory than
p*\j^'
81.
Guzashtau,
Imper.dih;
.^!js>
JDTidau
^\^
^ Mdndan
u
to Permit, Allow."
(a)
Ouzdshtan
^^}^
Imperative
)\*%
guzdr ^
signifies
to
quit,
As an auxiliary followed by the relinquish; to place; to perform, etc." Aorist or Subjunctive, with a conjunction expressed or understood, it
signifies
"to permit,
j&
"
let
bi-guzdr
would mean, na-guzdsht utaq-i u harf bi-zamm " to talk in her room
time)
:
o-^t<>^>
(m.c.)
<J!>&
fy^ ^j^W*
ham hasti
^^
:
jiilj ^Af^sxA/o
khwdhi bi-guzdr
kill
" wicked yourself and a trollope what's more; do if you don't, then let it alone." why yourself
;
Intransitive
(^^^ guzashtati
:
signifies
t
javdrii guzasht, nawbat-i pin rasid >^; <^^ passed and old age came" az palilu-yi u guzasht
" " to vaql-i (of time) pass o^^^? ooy *^ "youth c^'-^
(or guzar w-JJa/o in matlab az him" "lie bi-guzar ^f j\ )'^) passed by " let this matter alone." (m.c.) " in the sense use the verb dadan '* to give (c) The Afghans and Indians of "to permit," 7 as: ^A^ ^Ikf I; *j* &\ an mardum rd gashtan diked
1
c^3l ^\
kard
^*i
;^
(for
a time)"
*jf
<^ l;j!
o rd bi-dih
In modern colloquial
bi-jihat
o^J
mi-khwahad.
1
s
Majhul vowels.
Bayad, or bayisi
;
amada bashad
*
6
Quzar )\*$
is
}\&
6 1
But
of
a place Mriar, as *^
)\
*
to give
*'
262
ki bi-ravad 1
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
(Afghan), or
eA
ftan bi-dih
(Afghan)* "let
dddan
(1) **j> (^ &j o^ ^AJ ;a tj y ura dar pish-i khud rah namt-dihad " he does not allow him to come into his presence."
(rn.c.)
" be bound
(3)
(or
c^L khud ra bi-bastan dad (m.c.) "he allowed himself to &> t;j>y* ). khud-ra bi-bastan tasltm kard $ f>^~* ^JUj
f;
The Imperative
*^
dih
is
or annoyance, in modern colloquial, as: I^A^J* <e well then! go, you're dismissed." (m.c.)
(4)
x>Jj<X'
a dih bi-raw
murakhkhas-i
v ^>)
)2
\S))
&
^^
made
(
in
Rasht"
(ta)
v>i>
I^A^
$)
you must get a blue gold-embroidered must (lit. you give it that they may sew it) bi-dihad bi-kushand (m.c.) " (so that) he may get him
*>
(or
killed."
(5)
The Imperative
more commonly
^V
is
a substantive;
^V*
Shah.
*^j or ^^^^
^&>
signifies the
the
(e)
ijazn dwlati
&&* *)^
izn darfan
cJiiU &'^,
murakhkhas (budan)
l<
ki
&&?
u^v^
<fc
permitted to
"
;
ram
dashtan
v*h
*j)
to
Mamlan
e;^>^, intr.
is
:
in
Afghan Persian
also
transitive,
(1)
(2)
"to place." Note the following idioms Az kar baz manda *,xiU> jl ;{ j (m.c.) " unable
to work,"
Manda *xU
<:
remained,
left
behind/' hence in
and
in
(3)
Du mah
hir'Id
manda
a<xH-
*>AHJ
U^
(m.c.)
"two months
nearly died."
(Gulistan,
the 'Id."
(4) (5)
Kam mand
bi-mtram fj**
&> <x!U
*g (m.c.)
"I
II, St.
^j^ &&* y
of perishing."
Book
him
(the beggar)
2
'<>
In modern colloquial n ra bidih bi-ravad " something to go, to make hirn #o.
bi-gitzar
(Art)
^^
(
8^
\)
(m.o.)
would mean
**
give
Ura
Also
bi-raad
3)j>
^jl^j
f^^f
ra .c.).
Yog vulgar
for yak.
commonly but
incorrectly
ki
&>
-j*
$^tc +f
',
DASHTAN, ETC.
82.
263
raw.
(a)
The Afghans
:
" to continue," as
az In ba'is bi-asani
an auxiliary signifying e^"3 zamin regl bud j p&j** kanda mi-raftam (Afghan colloquial), the soil was sandy,
colloquially use raftan
^)
as
it
a^
jljb
\j
(&}$<**
&!\ jjjt&
(^
dar bazar dida mi-raftam (Afghan coll.] P&J&* " bi-kan bi-raw C( I continued at these things as I went yesterday looking " keep on digging." }j* e^ (Afghan) also m.c.
:
man
dlruz in chiz-Tia ra
(b)
Raft
amad
^
4<
o*;, or
amad u
raft
^)j
**T
is
traffic."
oJj o^^?
Raftar ^**j
it is
(d)
is
done, past; let us say no more about it" (m.c.). a verbal substantive signifying tc gait, manner of walk-
ing;
conduct" and
l>
in
jt^A
"
;U*)
(an inelegant
(adj.), bad-raftan
(e)
(/)
^^)
ai(j
some Indian MSS. "ambling": raftar-i na-liamvar " bad-raftar ^^ ** way of walking), bad conduct ^ (subs.) "badly conducted, bad conduct."
;
Rajla rafta
(m.c.) signifies "to start, commence (a business raw karda am f\ *^f $ ^-*b ^ti l (vulg.) "I have commenced carpet- weaving " raw kun raw kun <^f j), &? % vulg. interjec" tion, "go on, go on
Raw
kardan &*j
:
or matter)," as
qall bajl
(g) In modern Persian, "let me go with f/ow!" isbi-guzar ki hamra/t-i U U*A A> y&i) but " let me go with him" is bi-guzar minima bi-y'iyam ki hamrdh-t u bi-ravam fjjjj *\j^ *S " (h) In modern Persian, raj tan is also used in the sense of being on the
^^
y&
rajtani
an ra bi-giram
cA)^ ?*t*
o^.f
I
4
" saw that a snake was lying on it raftam 1 went forward or progressed towards.
;
^IL' ^J^-^;
do" [compare 80 (e) khwastan (^wr^ ], dldam mar-i ruijash uftada ast *t pj& j^>f ^A-> Ci I was just going to take hold of it, when (m.c.)
ki
p*>j
mean
that,
83.
(a)
I)7tsltt(ut
)J&&
f; ^
1
etc.;
Imperative y*
dar.
The
verb
simple
(daram
)
signifies
" to 8 keep." (ml-daram ^;^* signifies In modern Persian, therefore, to distinguish the Subjunctive from the Indicative Mood, the Perfect Subjunctive is as a rule used instead of
^
1
fluftan i^*)
" to sweep."
J>[
* 3
Vulg. for
JPfK
daram
have rnonoy
'*
:
pill
ra
ml-daram
**
f)l&*f
*)
(J>^
keep
rgo of the
money,"
for nigah
mi-daram
264
DASHTAN, ETC.
the Present Subjunctive, as,: *xb <xi^|^ tLej^jj*** ^^JU^. &>(* bayad khayll sabr va hawsala daslita bdshtd (m.c,) "it is necessary to have the greatest
"
:
**&*/
<-!
*
fi^ y>
*A*
ty or)
*k
13 553
aJJL^^fi
jlb
a^rar gusfand ddh td bdshad (or bud) bayad liar Jcuddm yak gusfand dashaia bashand (m.c.) "were the sheep ten in number, then all (everyone) " **&?<> **> j y^> ^r^ ought to have one sheep apiece U>A b^j
al(^
^b
^
* k
" you have, you must be possessed of many camels and flocks (rama specially for sheep and goats). This has led to a modern form of the Imperative dashta bash utj *^L\
;
(m.c.)
with
all this
dashta bashld
*v^ (m.c.) in the simple (not in the kdr-t bi-tn na-dashta bash <J(j A^!XJ ^cjtf (m.c.) "don't
ab
^U
do with this."
this."
Dar ;fa
is
"keep
this,
hold
In ra nigah biddr
=
see
Al^>i^
*'
Story-tellers say
for the present (while
(b)
^M
for
them
In classical
:
what was happening to )." is both the Present Indicative and daram Persian, pit, etc.,
we
the Subjunctive
kafaf-i
0'
&>y& &***>
td
)\
o ^ **^
1
u mu'ayyan ddrand
(Sa'di)
means
and
of subsistence
to be fixed for
ki khizana rd classical
mahfuz bi-darand oJ>t<y &j&^* ij ait;^ & modern in modern Persian daslita bashand
;
^^ ^\
*xU
jsL&^'j
is
tuted here
,^b
^+&
^^
j*.
ty
J^ ^'
c5^-'
ytfni
pay hami-
ddrad (Sa'di)
sufficient to sustain
amount
d&>
(of food) is
nicjah
^;l*>*-
could be substitu-
modem, as well as in classical, Persian the Pres. Subj. of dashtan <^^b is, in compound verbs, of the form of the Aorist, as: " he ordered u mard farmud td m ra bar-ddram fj*j* b u^ ^ ^j* \j* $ (m.c.) " me to remove this ^^ A*ASX^ ^/olj^ bi-gu bd man suhbat bi-darad (m.c.)
Remark
I.
In
him to talk with me." But u toner ddrad A;|A ^*i> y az u khwdhish daram *>IA ^^f^xjf jf iltimas az shumd ddram fjb U^3 u*^^ '^^? daram ^it are Present Indicative. u*j* ffdab ddram
"tell
;
!
Ta hamchu
*'
tu dust-i bi-daram.
(classical).
As long as I have a friend like yon, no fear have I that he will crucify me." Note singular, baahad *>-& for irrational animals also the plural dashta bashand
;
4&ta
8
after liar
is
kudam
\*& j*.
**
Vajh *^j
sum, money
"
:
^;b i$$"*&\)
*+)&\j*.
fa^* j
(m.c.)
written on bills
DASHTAN, ETC.
265
II. Frequently in compound verbs, and whenever the verb " to keep," the Present ml-daram *)I<HX> is used, as har ruz bd u " " I converse with him l> suhbat mi-ddram daily ^l*** oa^ejl jj;y> (m.c.) urd dust ddram or mi-ddram (f^***) p;t^ o**^ f;y (m.c.) "I like him (or it)
signifies
:
(
Remark
very
much"
but
man hanuz
;
bd u suhbat ddram
pj&
oaaa^y ^3^A
:
cr* (m.c.)
"the matter is still under discussion, it is not yet finally settled": nigah " dast bi-ddr " " cease from " bi-ddr ;fw *& bar mi-ddrand ;t<v o*.j> keep " are removing, carrying away." they ^t^-*^ Remark III. In modern colloquial, the Aorist form is also used for the In bardy-i shumd samar-i nd- ddrad &)\& c5>+-> {*** c^ltf vi^f n ^ Future, as
:
nami-ddrad j^l**^
),
or
(m.c.)
no benefit to you." Such forms as sdkhta bash ^b ai^Lo (local ? ) c< be ready " and drdsta bash (J&. <*J^>f;f <c be dressed," must not be confused with the form ddshta bash <J& *i-b in the two first, the participles are adjectives, whereas
Remark IV.
is
a transitive verb.
Vide
125
(j)
(6).
The Afghans and Indians say mi-ddram fj*^ for f;f^ ct I have." (d) The Imperfect of the simple verb ddshtan ^y^b, except in conditional entences, is rare in modern Persian the Preterite, as is the case with the
1
verb budan c>^, usually taking its place; thus if, in the sentence jt> **&} A> the verb ^^^A/O JUi. j*^j vaqt-l ki dar jahdz budam khayal mi-kardam ki were substituted for kardan &s^, tho verb would be Khayal ddshtan
,
j^
i^b
ddshtam (&\t> J i^ and not khaydl mi-ddshtam ^\^^c JUi.. In compounds, however, the Imperfect is used, as bd u suhbat mi-ddshtam b (m.c.) "I used to talk with him." jJU^A* o,Asuo^f
l
(e)
<jJUifj>is
as
ty\& )j**>
hanuz ddrad
mi-dyad "he
etc.
:
^
it
similarly ddrad ml-ravad <^/ *;b, " xvx^f^ (m.c.) they were coming along."
is
i.e.,
&MJ$ I) i^o ^yf rd girifta ddram (local) " I consider that bird as good as caught
:
consider' (for mi-ddnam ftf*^) pjte " I consider this table as bought (m.c.)
8-V^
' '
J*
&i\ in miz rd
f)\&
"
(g)
The following
chiz-1
is
man
dar bazar
an Afghan colloquialism (*;|^ ^3-^ )ty. )* er kharidan ddram <{ I have to buy something in the
:
^^
=fi &*J
bazar."
(h)
is
is,
^^
The Imperfect
compound) verb
is
used freely in
^conditional sentences.
2
am;
266
t(
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
thereis
zararna-darad(m.c.)
no harm in
<~**f &*.
it;
why not;
"
(m.c.)
"
it
doesn't
matter; there is no harm in it, i.e., why not do so; yes": &)]&> fyU. char a " na-ddrad (m.c.) "there is no remedy o*f^ UU3 ^^x khaytt tamdshd ddsht
:
<*JU* ;bU JUk^; JU* J? sight" az Shirdz ru ba-shimdl chdpdr khdna ddrad (m.c.) "from Shiraz northwards " here the there are post-houses subject to ddrad is apparently the distance,
(m.c.) "it
was a curious
(or wonderful)
or the road
understood
,
^ ^ v^k
<;
khub yd bad ? or bad? There are both good and bad "; here the like, post-horses good be the to subject appears chdpdr system.
yi chdpdri chi-taur-and
&)j^ &*. is)ty? o ltf asphdkhub ddrad va bad (m.c.) " what are the
'
&t
^^
In the
'
last
example from
Sa*'d! in
84
(c)
ddrad
a;fa
may
be translated
there is," the subject being the whole of the previous clause.
() In modern colloquial, Idzim ddshtan &''h fj$ signifies "to need, require, etc."; f;fj> ;Uo !; ^U. sd'at-am rd bisydr Idzim ddram (m.c.)
" I want
my
watch badly."
84.
Impersonal Verbs.
Sa&ldan*
(a)
etc.,
etc."
erJu.j(-j j
shdyistan
^J^jti,
and sazidan
^^^
are
all
impersonal
and
defective:
the Infinitive,
and Preterite
In ty
^lioij.^
to
)t>
&+
JAJ (Tr.
person of bdyistan
&*&
is
rare
and
ungrammatical.
'
an
offer of
2
**
don't mind
if 1
do,"
in reply to
&^ can
also be
is
there
in
it ?
"
and j$*-, and properly the horse for a messenger or post, spelt jt( " * travel post." pronounced either way chaparl rajtan &**) C5^^}^ Shayistan er^?^ and sazidan &&>j>** are the same.
Chapar, T.
,
indifferently
*
5
Ajb
^fc ml-bayad
)
is
occasionally used,
l+
bay ad ;
ft ^i]
4^1
^x?
shuma mi~l>ayad
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
267
Dar alam~i jan bi-hush mi-bayad bud Dar kar-i jahan khamush mi-bayad bud
l
" Be very wary in the Soul's domain, And on the world's affairs your lip refrain."
(0.
K. 167 Whin.)
Remark
for
I.
Bayad
77
synonyms
lawn
^ly, vide
II.
Remark.
c:
Remark
(mod.)
jb
(obs.)
the (b) In classical Persian, the Past Conditional bayisti, as well as Aorist with the prefix (bi-bayad) occur occasionally for examples, vide (/). (c) In classical Persian, these auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive*
^i^
:
the shortened Infinitive, or the Subjunctive, the logical subject of the sentence being generally in the dative. oJrf -*&*& <j.2R.* Examples:
1
t;
cA&Uob
&*l,k
|;
^kL
guftan
<*+&
^^
ra
&jlj
JJJKJOJU-J
&j*> j
^ft? xiU
grw/^
sukhan
bi-andivha
khalq
ra,
bayad
khassa
va
Jiarakat-i
pasandida
bayad
kardan
hama
padishahan
(Sa'dl),
"he
speak
and act decently, but especially kings"; & .xjb )&^j) u lAl^^U ^_^o j O^A. jt az hiddat va saivlat-i padisha-han bar liazar * bayad bud &/-(Sa'di) " one must be on one's guard against the & A& fj hasty and despotic nature of kings" p^w ^Ix^U y d*^lft~j
forethought
with
^^
'
^^)^ &rt-jfr*jf &*.* ^sfi** quietly pass over the folly of an ignorant man bi-bar juz sukhtan ra cx.t-liguftar-i bl kirdar chun darakht-i f; ^J^M* JA. jL'
; ' *
'alim-i ra na-shayad ki bi-safahat-i az 'ammwbi-hilm ajli (^^3 I; o^fcj^^A *r <c a wise man must not bi-guzarad ki har du taraf ra ziyan-l darad (Sadl) "
6
^^
na-shmjad
for
6
(
(classical)
is like
fit
^&^
1
kar* bi-kunam c^L^* nothing except burning ": mara nami-sazad kiln ** ^>- (m.c.) .'it is not suitable for me to do this (i.e. I am fit
(sazidan
(
for better);
is
bashador
ast
o.^f or)
There are
^U
^
^
%
I;
)\$
(Classical)
and
(m.c.)
for
ffi~*>
**">& )^
C5^ 3'
bara-yi
liazjar
budan
is
Note the
4
6
man
riist
hi
268
IMPERSONAL VEEBS.
Remark.
The shortened
is
Infinitive
is
of the sentence
pronoun "one."
can be expressed by the indefinitive understood, If, however, the subject (in the dative) be expressed the
or
shortened Infinitive
(d)
may
still
be used,
is
vide, first
example in
(/).
it is
^ ur*3^
bdyad
^
id
^ *^U
bi-hadd-i
o~^
st
*Jty
ki
bar
dushmandn khashm na-rdnad ki dustdn rd i'timdd na-mdnad (Sa'dl) "a king must not drive his resentment against his enemies to such an extent
that his friends even lose confidence."
This construction
(e)
is
the most
common
in the
modem
:
language.
in speaking,
but the Infinitive generally precedes the <x> auxiliary, as tu-rd bi-khdna-e khud or ra/tan bdyad (Afghan coll.), bdyad ki tu bi-khdna-e khud bi-ravi 1 (Af. colL) "you must go home'
budam
**
ki dldan bdyad iardd ba-kudam qism marg bi-mwam (Afghan coll.) was immersed in the thought of what sort of death I should have to die on the morrow" in modern colloquial bdyad ctid *y>^ *A* would be substituI
;
ted for dldan bdyad <MJ &**&. (/) As stated in (6), the forms ty-ob and >.>'# are obsolete in colloquial Persian. The following are examples of these forms in the Gulistan )\
:
an miydn bi-tariq-i ^jja. p& \j> ^jjii' c;U^ ^f imbisdt guft turd ham cliiz-i bi-bdyad gu/t (Sa di) "one from amongst them said by way of a joke you also must say something " [vide Remark
^s.1 J=UA>J
<&
jLj
yak-l az
c
'
'
to
(c)]
B
^^j
c_o!3
U
f
^I^
"he
^^(j
^j
v^i? guft
pathm
bdyistl kdsJitan id
it
talaf
na-shudi
riot
(Sa di)
might
have been destroyed" Ja* ^JUJ JU^so ^^^jf <-Af ay malik ! az daricha-yi cliasm-i Majtiun bi-jamdl-i Lttyla* nazar
^^^ f^
I The latter is also the visual construction in modern colloquial, except that the pronoun would ordinarily be placed first, as: tu bayad ki-kkana-yi kkud-at bi-ravl (rn.c.)
$ ^jbj.J.
This construction
is also classical:
Tu
**
Na-shayad
(Sadi).
Thou who
It
is
not
fit
In this example, tu
Clauses.
*
3
is
Kelative
Bayistl is occasionally used in modern writings in Persia. This form is still used in India and Afghanistan, but in modern Persian the 1m-
would be used.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
bayistl
269
kardan (Sa'di) "he said, Oh king, it was necessary (you ought to have) to look at Laila's beauty from the window of Majnun's eyes." (g) Bayad <xjb, without a second verb, signifies "to be requisite,
needful, to lack
Ai'f
"
as
l>
<^lj
Jc
'
\j
jjU^b
padishah ra 'adl bayad ta baru gird ayand (Sa'dl) "a king needs justice (justice is requisite for a king) so that they (the peasantry) may rally ' ' ura raham bayad o^lj round him ananra ^^ \j _y (m.c.) he lacks pity
'
J ' (
:
karam bayad diram * riist o**i wish to give alms have no money."
ki
(h)
^ ^
Ajl
*t
|j
* '
those who
meaning between bayad oob and shayad * following example it is clearly indicated ** *jl j^JU*> ^Auxi c$>^ c5<xU^a. fjU g uft jmr afiua ma-ra khiradmand-i kafi bayad ki tadbir-i mamlakat-ra shayad (Sa'dl) "he (the king) said, certainly we need a competent wise person who is fitted for the
distinction in
The
;
often fine
f;
in the
'
The
distinction
is
in
the example in
(j),
which better
meaning.
or spoken, the constructions 'are the same, with the exception of the construction with the Infinitive.
() In
Preterite ml-bayad
for present times,
**(* bayad c\b, and <^c, and the Imperfect mi bay 1st
in the
*'
;
;0^ J^ (m.c.)
bazar" dar bazar bayad cliiz-i must we (one) go by sea or land "
?
class,
c>jUxxj
joU
^^.^cu
fyj
^
t5^
this
(m.c.).
(2)
"You
guzashta
^h^^*^!;^! o^jb^xjUA
shuma mi.u^^ JU
:
or)
(m.c.);
:
f)j*.
&JJ* (m.c.)
but dlshab mi-bayist birun bi-ravam vali^>~>j() "I ought to have gone 5 out last night, but' '
I
^ ^^
" when
was finished
had
five
but I had no
kar-i digar
leisure to
do them" chun
in kar ra
ml-bayistbi-kunamvalifursat na-kardam(m.c.)
is
common
saying.
Diram /p for dirham (**>J^* 3 In modern colloquial the past tense of all verbs is Hence perhaps the reason why in m.c. the past tense present.
*
(mi-
bayist
4
0"~jb
^o
and
bayist
^^
are also used for bayad *tM or ml-bayad *}M <y* of the Past (Aorist) can bo, and usually is, used instead
1
could be substituted. Subjunctive hero karda bashid <x^ " I had to be out last 5 Dishab lazim shud birun bi-ravam night.'*
270
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Remark
Remark
bayad
<>\*
/.
Perfect Subjunctive
II.
may
be used.
vr*~jU is
:
(butmi-bayist
^~?M
tr* is
always past), as
^^
cu~ ^
f;
;l
^ j^*
this
to-day."
miyan btrun hash wa-agar-na tura bayad sJiirkat bi-itmam rasani (m.c.) "you must withdraw from this business or else you must be a " the king lacks justice" gar partner to the end": *& Jo^ ^ *(^> (m.c.)
Jchud ra az
;
skaraf bayad-at
himmat buland dar j\t **b o+a> O*AJ o^A have noble aspirations." want honour, you
Remark.
(saying) V
if
The
following
is
an example of
Ij
all
these verbs
*->^(*>
<*an.if
rti, mi-bay ad " that which a man ought nam%-shayad va zanra naml sazad to have,* is ^unfitting for a child, and unsuitable to a woman"; here all three verbs practically have the same signification.
<JM^)
bachcha ra
Bayad
basham
^*^b
(or
bayist)
bi-navisam p~4j**
-*
**(>
(in c.)
and
bayisti
mi-navishtam
p^j*
or
C5
)
'^^
l>
(old)
~
<>>U
mi-bay ist
:
bi-navisam
(or navishta
aiy
/*-**i^V
vj^^jL
&iea*
^/o (m.c.)
vail
%& y mi-guzashtim ^j^^t^ ^A^ " but we should be 232) obliged to pass ten 'difficult points*'; this " should be *?M guft bayad qabl az navishtan-i kaghaz ijaza ml-khivastld
p.
fi)*&>
^^ *& (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim, p. 224) jjj(a.t " he said have taken permission before writing the letter" you ought to this ought to be <*$^ <*juj^ ^j^t o**l> agar mi-Jchwastam sharh-i az har az anha bi-diham baray-i ghiza^l tafsil-l bayad mi-navishtam baray-i
j,jJuf^jjx)
AP(^ e>*"*P j
^^
c^UJ 3 (* A<^ VT C5trf 3 <jr=^ (J^b*** vs.--^U here Monte Christo) ml-bayist bi-navlsam be preferred ml-navishtam is perhaps Afghan.
LS*****
^**j*
;
(Transla
^^
would
(j)
Bayad
is
less civil
than slwytid
are
o^jli
:o-^ ^Ui
(k)
lapjjf inja na-shayad (ni.c.) you, you had better not, sit here." " is " let it be also used as an adver.b "perhaps, proper Shayad*AJ>
here"; but
fitting for
possibly."
(1)
The past
and rarely
adjectives:
^^
^Vf
**
<-^~*>
l/0
&^
"
<x3LulA
[shayista-yi sha^n-i
ma
nist ki
sit
mja
1
nishlriim
(mod. and
classical)
it is
Harf-i
2^-*9 but it is better to ornit the Or Sahib-i risk <JH) izafat. *' don't T O^ na-ahayist ma-zan &J"* o^l^i li (rn.c.)
use
unseemly
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
271
here";
zan-i
shayista
AwjU ^}
(m.c.)
"a
well-behaved
wife";
sipas-i
&L..)b bi-qiyas bayista-yi Hazrat-i Yazdanist cu^xif^ 0^*0*. ^Uftjj <jU (modern writing) praise must be given (by us) to the God-head." Bayista The substantive bdyist o*~.b is obsolete. is not used in speaking.
* (
**>& can be paraphrased by the adjectives Shayista sazavar, or (J'JI Ids-iq, or zibanda ****!j y or by the substantive <^UJ liyaqat,
Remark,
as:
^j|w
:
;t<
^Jt
oJU)
nHt <>$
to
ma
liyaqat-i In kar rd
kar nistim
us'*
p~<*>^
JJl* )
)
(m.c.)
(or
ma
lawq-i in
this, it is
beyond
o**oi
'
( (j^jjf
mst
(m.c.)
you
sazavar-i (or latiq-i) should not say this, ought not to say this."
;'jj>*
/fear/
or
-^
iw
shumd
^^
shayistagi-yi In kar ra
na-daram
^^S-jlw (m.c.) "this work is beyond me"; dar In Jiangdm f)\& ki shayan-i bahjat va shayigan-i masarratast &&(> j CU^L^J ^IL^ tf &J&A
;(
ciMf
^^
o^c(
" at
this
time when
it
is
fitting that
we
at
should lejoice."
Shay an &(^
all.
not used in modern colloquial. Rayan &M* not used Shayitfani ^i^jU and bdyistanl L5 **~jl-> are both old. (n) Bayad bdshad kl> ^b signifies "must be" and mi-bay ist bdshad
is
<c
>^b ojlj
^i^j
^ *$ U
^^
^\
(m.c.)
we
tXijj
^^AJtxi
>jlj
^ e><H^;
c^t/
much
previously
(o)
made some plan for transporting it (to the water)." In modern colloquial bayad sometimes means " should," as:
<>b
"
y>b ^j\
^b
why
'
should
\j^ jj^ ^t In chiz chird bi-ln girarii bdyad ^bdshad this be so dear?"; (simpler "why is this so dear ?
(m.c.)
?>
chird
&\^
;^ftvi t^a.
).
Vide
80
(g)
^^^
^^
^
should.'
(p)
Bdyad
f U>
cNjb
is it
(
ture Perfect,
when
<x~>j cu>J^
e^t
^b
^
1
f^jlis'
(bdyad)
kitdbash
rd
by the time
this letter
"
in this
example
bdyad vU could
(q)
is
as
&>
or)
'
bdyist
dast ba-kar
(m.c.)
ihvbayad ^b would ordinarily be inserted. iX>b ( m .c.) " we must help each a Or bayad dast andar kar shud >A;K ;*i| o*.^ /mma bci-tshan dast andar karbuda U (m.c.) ^ U other" *!f ;tf ;^l ^^^ v^^t
l
In
modern
colloquial
"
272
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
set to
" we must
p-jW
nearly died
"
(m.c.)
;
work "; hama bdyad (or bdyist) bi-mmm ( cu~jb I we must all die" [mi-bdyist bi-mwad ^+J c^^b (m.c.) "he ought to have died."]
;
The affixed pronouns can be added to the impersonal verb bayad " /^*.^x> mi-bayist-am it was necessary for me": mi-baylst-i- shdn "it was necessary for them."
Remark.
<x>b,
as:
(r)
for the
verb bdyistan
<^^b
in the following
examples
(1)
&&\)=*.
jly*
j&
alaxijy
jjf^A
hamrdh-i u
fifty
ty+A
(
v*b (m.c.)]
l
" this enclosure must panjah dast Jchivahad bud (Afghan) (or m.c. bayad bashad) z *J<XXA> be about fifty cubits in length and breadth" ^* ^~ ^.^ e/f;o?l 3 AAAS ^ia. a^ar dar an waqt kas-e o^if xiL> cu-oL for tf jjli? (^^x^ ) .sy JAI^. ;lf (
; |4
jy i3A|^
m ihdtd bi-tul va
arz
bi-qadr-i
mara me-did chunin me-danist ki shakhs-i gunah-gar khwhdd bud (Afg. col.) " had any one seen me then, he would have thought that I was (must be) some guilty person."
(2)
(m.c. o^
or)
^ ^&}^
^ii;
e;^ vf
J
e^;jf cu^^xj
^CJ
/eAw
berun raftan hhwahad shud (Afghan coll.) (or m.c. raftan Idzim khwdhad shud) "but it will be necessary to go out to fetch
ba-jihat-i awardan-i db
water."
(3)
^ t^J
Mr
c^/ C-A^
"
coll.)
C^xsu-c
^j^
du
c/iww
jlf JJ5 ^cl^j Jojv,; ^l^olj ;K C^f C>a. kdr-i digar milinal o koshish kardan
when
this business
was finished
had to
toil
and
jU^
^,1^
^^j
l^uf
e;3o^
o,^
jihat-i
didan-i asphd
berun
coll.)
"I had
to continually go out to
have
(5)
d>i*\
<j* ^ij;
^ e^^/ ^*^
giriftan ba-koh raftan me-uftdd (Afghan coll.) neither was powder expended (by this plan) nor had I to go to the high instead of ground to catch chukor;" [in m.c. Idzim mi-gasht cu^
4 '
me-shud wa na
^^
^b
*i
?ia
bdrud kharch
bard-e kabk
^^
mi-uftad].
)
c?^
*^ v^ ^f
(Afghan
)*
*-^-t
coll.)
c^^ A Jf y^ hdld dnchi kardan ast dar an "now how much have you done of what you
*
s
va 'arz an (*>j* j il^Jb (m.c.). c^.^ a cubit from the elbow to the Dast,
m.c. mi-pindasht
Or
tul an
gunah-kar
cu^fo-ij^ WO uld be
preferred to mi-danfot
0-0)^^0:
also
UffOP
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
had
to do
?
273
"
;
[in
dmada khwdhad bud ^Af^ &*x>f (Afghan coll.) "certainly some human being must have come here" [in modern colloquial bi l -shakk Injd insdn-i dmada bdshad
(7)
JJXOJ
^^U*Of U?VXjf
y^^^j
(8)
j
Ldzim
ast ki bi-ravam
or
(
rajtan-i
)
man
&X
^*\
>j5f,
or raftan
vdjibdt)
am
lazim ast
az zaruriyydt
(or
ast
oUaJj or
Remark.
A
<v
it is
Arabic expressions as
ciiiiJf
w^^fj etc.
mustahim pXw/o
(5?)
Further
modem
colloquial
*
examples
the
with the
are:
subject understood
after
manner
^^-^ &jif -^t^ on account of magas bi-mardum va malJia khayll bad guzasht (ni.c. Roz. Gr.) " here the large number of horse-flies, man and beast had a bad time of it " 6 " the day the subject is apparently "the time" or h^-j* J\ ^Xsx^yi
j*^>4.j
'
o^-<>?
^^
l^us
of ddrad &y&
83
(h)]
bi-jihat-i kasrat-ikhar
*
3.jUJ
1
ic if numai/ad va gah-l munjar it a which does severe sometimes death." results in strangers injury
ra
bites
becomes, behoves, etc.," is a synonym of shayad " ^y^ ornament, beauty (construed with dadan *-**) (subs.) Ziba Ujj is an adjective; chi zlbd wii-khwdnad c>-U and shikastan (^Ju*<^). " how ^UJKU^ (**\ to*, he reads."
(/)
Zlbad
JAJJ
*'it suits,
and sazad
zib
' '
(m.c.)
nicely
is
(u)
said,
it is
by the
the transitive verb (vide 88 Passive) as: ^\ JbjyT dvarda (Did it is related (they, the ancients or the wise or the relators) have " jJf ** related and it is said/' ; MA?^ vagufta and
(f)
Some
verbs,
tive of
cognate meaning:
impersonal in English, take in Persian a nominabdrdn ml-bdrad (m.c.) "it rains"; &\
^^
Amada *>^T
is
compound
to
become."
J^-^l
or ydhtamil
cU^u>
could be used
in tho s^nso of
'*>
"
jjrobably/*
/0
*
6
a collective noun always used as a plural except by the vulgar. Ithar-magas ^j&*-j=*- used collectively.
(*<^
Mardum
^ ^ O"^ V^*
**
**
we passed
The bug
called
malla
^l*3 or
gana,
or
^harib-gaz
of strangers."
^
7
For munjarr
18
274
*j*
COMPOUND VEKBS.
^
(w)
**)
tundad;
x^ ^
&
thunders" or
<\=^
<3> barq
mi-jihad (m.c.).
An
is
follows:
(m.c.)
^^ ^J
"
^yf
<^
"it
is
*=-y*
" no one
likes this," or
it is
not approved"
^&
}fc Ja*
>aql
bdvar
na-kunad.(S'a,'di)
(x)
impossible to credit
:
"
(m.c.
nami-kunad
(1)
(2)
vide
77
(a) (2)
and
(b) (3).
Shudan
c^ vide
77
(d).
(3)
Khwastan
^^^ vide
80
(/).
(4] Gu.zashtan ^x^o.? vide (5) supra. S3 (/^). (5) Dashtan e.^fa vide
85.
Compound Verbs
of simple
(a)
is
The number
of
verbs in Persian
is
made up
compound
exceedingly numerous.
The compound verbs present no grammatical difficulty. be classed as adverbial verbs, and nominal 2 verbs.
(b) (1)
They may
Adverbial verbs are simple verbs, transitive or intransitive, with an indeclinable particle (ad verb or preposition) prefixed, as ^.yJif jl> l^z yuftan
:
"
e)^T
"; ^'A? jU bdz gashtan "to turn back, repent": dar amadati " to come in"; e^^~4! b va tstddan 3 "to stand still,
"
;
stop, halt
dashtan "to
also to twist
he came in ; j^j! az dar dar dmad (Sa'di) y bar to raise up; sutler, endure"; bar tdftan &**$ j* "to shine forth,
*>*f ;^
4<
"
^^^
u zabar kardan ^^f f)^f') " to make topsy turvy " vd guftan &M\I (m.c.) "to repeat what one has heard, say again"; "to wash again." vd shustan <^j^i f^
J>
up
zir
'
-
(2)
Faru ^i,
to
firu j>y
or furu j y * (before
signifies
a vowel
jarud
etc.)
is
prefixed
dmad
oJ;
<>^f
j^
"he
U->
<p9
(rn.c.)
is
down";
"back, again,
Vulgar pat/a mi-tfnirr ad. bj*** &^. Nominate are those formed by prefixing a noun or an mljectivo to a verb. Va ^ in composition with verbs stands for 602; j^ " back ", again, open, etc., as: va dad ob fj he gave back," va guft cJiJfj 'he spoke again "; \^ tjl; ;^ rfr
1
fc '
t>5
fcun
*
vsturla JS-iU-^jf
= simply
guft,
**
halted."
COMPOUND VERBS,
over, opposite, etc., etc."
275
It is often redundant, being prefixed merely to avoid a cacophony. Vide the rule applying to the auxiliary Jchwastan &\+t^ when used to form the Definite Future, as khayma ra far a khipahand girift <*i*fj^ \j* f; *+#* " " cuy they will surround the tent (Class.).
:
(4)
Faraz
"
jf^i
above,
amadam
pillow."
p^
jij*
j'^i
U&VI*
o^
before," as: chun bi-balin-ash faraz " when I came up to his (Gul., Chap. VI. St. 1)
up,
,
Faraz
(5)
sometimes strengthens a verb but often it is redundant. Pish <j^, blrun &itf, andar ;^f (or dar ;j>), are also common
in
the preposition has by use become incorporated with the verb and the verb has ceased to be regarded as a compound in such verbs the preposition is prefixed to the verb itself, as tup khwahand
;
:
dar hard
khast'1
&j>
;j>
:sx&iy2>.
^y
c^^^;^ t\xa>|>^
khwdhnad
bar-
Remark.-
amadan
cJ^-^T
<e
amadan
;^7t^3'
come out
of the
The
mi
3 and the negative^ na &* &ndma *>* as JsxxC^ ^ uj>y tup dar <yo mi-kunand (rn.c.) " the gun is being fired" (lit. they are emptying the <c take it out of your cannon)"; az fcisa dar bi-yur ;Lj j^ * *' jt (m.c.)
and
bi *j,
pocket."
(d) Some verbs that in admit it when compounded
4i
<*-'
do not
a proposition as
,
^^(^ y
bar (chastan
to
rise
;
up"
(bar
khiz
etc.);
bar-yashtan
^&$j "to
return"
rdbi-dary^* \) ^' ''keep this", but in ra bar dar )\ty I; " amikktan " 61 take tiiis away (^^4f (tr.) (Impr. j**^. bi-yamiz) to mix ar-amiz j**tf ;*>. dar dmikhtan )* (intr.) Imp.
;
^ "
;
^^^T
Remark.
fc-^^e
\
compound
(e)
vt
>s
Faraz u nisUlb
-r^^ J^j 9
Icard
"
"P * anc^
1
^wns "
\
or
Dar khwuhanA
^
^
:
^i*(yxjj>
dar\
khwahand guzasht
vicaily: tup ra
^, and
bar
khwahand khast
*
o^l^
u&ed
geii
gun.
*
(Fut.).
}j> (not
tubi-raw),
}J
go inside."
270
COMPOUND VERBS.
Usage alone
will
determine which
auxiliary
verb or
verbs
can
be
Many
5 '
:
auxiliaries used in
modern
colloquial
Examples:
&*f
0*-;^
durust kardan
"to
^ixx> vju*^
cUL ^fy
Uajf
^ zan-i
qassdb baray-i bulbul kirm durusl mi-kunad (vulg.) "the butcher's wife ma'zul kardan breeds maggots (as food for) bulbuls j>*' (past " to dismiss from be shudan ma'zul eP^ office"; Jt>**> "to participle)
}
^^
2 dismissed"; &$ *iU~;t istdda kardan (classical^ (Persian past participle) " to set up." These nominal prefixes may be considered either as part of the
compound verb
they admit of
(TP V^S*
itself,
';
ra.
or as the object of the simple verb; but in no case do Examples: ftj wj^ l;y u-rd chub zadam (m.c.), or
chub zddam (m.c-) "I beat him (with a stick)"; in the first instance chub <~j*. may be considered an integral portion of the verb zadam foj; in the second it may be taken as its object, but it would
bi-u
u ~ ra bd chub zadam be wrong to say bi-u chub rd zadam fj>j f; v>^ means'* I beat him with the stick"]: "talk Persian" ft>\ Vj^ ;jt
'>
\_
I.-
Far si harf
time
"
s
,;
intizdr kashida
harj-i Farsi bizan eJj- ^^^ uv,^ khayll " I have ^A' ^Uai.t ^^U^ expected (waited for) you a long f> " " o>a^ J^ Jt**9 tliree years passed si sal t/ul kashid (here sal is
bi
zan
&j>
o^
^j^-y or
am
tul kaxhidan which should be regarded as one word). The ism ^*t etc. is often separated fiom the verb that follows it 4 c^;!^ & bind yuzdrdan is "to begin"; bd man bind- yi namak bi~liar ami
(juzdrda
a^t
o*^
jf^i^f
^y
^ 3^
*-^-*.>
^ti'
t)\'^
^d
(m.c.)
5
-=
bind
c/uzdrd bi-na-
^L^
*^+^
^ (m.c.).
From
&**tf
qir
(jlr
j*f
is
formed
()ir
dmadan
j3
(m.c.)
(for
dvardan ej^T
naydmad ^^l^>
Remark
in
j4
to bring
.
chiz-i (fir-am
;
\SjX5- ^f (m-c
' '
"
of the'
j,
pound
is
transitive.
Maggots are bred and sold in Persia as */ In m,c. bar pa kardan &3J> ^>,ora|
^-tjicie
$(tin
(^A^f^, O r ra ilashtan
(^^\>
1^,
or
v^^'
Or
lh.ayll muntazir-i
it
*
5
In poetry
pak-i Hazrat-i
sainted soul of
Axb ^UxLa <*3LJf e^^aa. (J'U ^jj p*$ 13 ta qasam bi-ruh-i Sulayman ('alayh* 's-aalan' na-khwurl " until thou swearest by the Solomon (on whom be peac< ," the wordqasam (which is a component
'<}
' k
to swear
Olr
amadan
(D^\ j$
chance than
glr
avardan
COMPOUND VERBS.
Remark
as:
ba
II.
277
of
two constructions,
jJ^x>
o*aevo
^U^L
(in
which
mahabbat 0*3*.* appears to be the direct object of the verb), and marduman
ra mahabbat mi-kunad JAX/C o^**.^
\)
^U^x;
commoner
(/)
in
modern Persian.
(c)
As stated in
rule
is
^* and
bl
&
are intercalated
The same
*J,
as
observed with regard to the negative particles &* and 71 (c) and (/). dast bar narni-ddrl J. ^~t> vide
(g)
Usage alone
will
^ ^^ determine
"
is
used in forming
a compound.
The
hamla avardan, (m.c.) "to attack, charge." *c uzr khwastan, (m.c.) " to apologise, ask pardon."
uzr dvardan, (m.c.)
,
to make preparation." tadaruk dldan " to suffer sitam didan, (m.c.) opposition." OL^x> maslahat dldan **to consider advisable."
L
a.
J/
gham khurdan,
<c
(m.c.)
<{
to suffer grief.
"
khurdan, (m.c.)
to be deceived."
an oath." }) " be to wounded. 2aMm khurdan, (m.c.) y bi-zamin khurdan, (m.c.) "to fall on the ground; strike
qasam khurdan,
the ground."
&)j &\&
takan khurdan, (m.c.) "to be shaken, to shake, tremble." " to be caught." fjirijtar amadan, to overcome the 6ar dushman yjialib amadan, u-*^^y
t
enemy."
Jr
amadanaz,
(m.c.)
" to be
**
'
sir
" to be satisfied, full from eating." shudan, (m.c.) " to be counted." ^/ar shumar amadan (class.),
1
**
,
;<>
^ 3 az pa dar amadan
1
,
-^
r
;js
Ujf
r/s
pa dar ufiadan
dfar
-t,-j
to be helpless,
come
to * grief."
to be) falsely
*fy>'f
s Jan.AO ; w
mahall-i
iftirat-ast,
" he
;<
is (or is likely
accused/'
(^j*.* j
ast,
he
is
in danger."
il
^5^1^
e.***/ \j*
(
to act bravely."
faragriftan, (m.c.)
&**>>)* (*>>*
j*
)\
<k
)
to stare at."
&&)&&
vytij
In bi-dard-am naml-khurad
(m.o.)
this
is
no use
to
me."
278
<ol~j
(of
COMPOUND VERBS.
j*
" " to aqd bastan (zan-i ra), perform the service of marriage
c)^t; f&,
the Mulla).
e>^ ^yt/^or
ously
;
kdm randan
or ham-rani kardan.
ct
to live luxuri-
enjoy oneself."
v_/..c
**t
^AAJ
'aqab nisJiastan,
" to retire
(of
;
enemy)."
j>>
tavallud ydjtan
"to be born"
"
,
&*&
*)ji.
o
^
jf
js
as das dddan
to give
up."
c;^3
^
j
f
up hope
begun)
of one's life."
cj&Xu*'
;
o-a^
c>!^
up."
\\
a2
^-^
ffosJ
kashldan,
(a thing
to give
\(}
^U^f
begun)."
^jt*.
"to
from
(a
thing not
e^j
Bj> 7 x)
&
;
eL~kU* ))
\j
tjs*
ki
murda
ast,
" he feigned to
be dead."
" to play a trick, wile harf zadan, "to talk."
rang rikhlan,
(in
a bad sense)."
eJ^A'
}
e;^
d)t>j
^^ faryad zadan
" to collect."
or kardan or kashidan,
"to cry
out."
e;y,
^a.
(j^^-i <^+fi
tuhmat has/an
(or
" to
accuse falsely."
crH/ jlr-*
^*j>
(
^^
)
giriftan,
C5
to wrestle."
'*
tr^/
or
^ of ^
w.s^
o^
grw5/i
ddddn
(or giriftan),
(
to listen to."
;f
kashidan, vulg.
j*^ c3>^>
to eaves-drop."
ditto.
e;Ux)
jt
az
r/ s
'
^y
^^
^^
to be
used."
carry off."
^^l
t^?
J^a.
^'faw uftadan,
cuiiA^
oA*
ftj^SJ
|
surpass,
anticipate.""
or) ^o-kj
" to be JUi^l ihtimal raftan (or dashtan), probable." tashrif ddsJitan (polite), "to be at home, in the house."
^Joj
nazar andakhtan, " to cast a glance at." u bi'taMiir a.ndakhtan "to postpone." l^ bi-taMlr uftadan (intr.) "to be postponed.
" and
also
*'
to
add
up.
man
sabqat just
COMPOUND VERBS.
279
_
*k Ja/fc/A ushmn-i ruzgar (or ayyam) chashidan <( to experience the ups and downs of life." c^j^ jf^jj) fj 9 ^j** sard u (/arm-i ruzgar didan (m.c.) the same as above. ism-bur dan " to mention." guman burdan (m.c.) "to think, doubt."
.
...
fijf
or
jlfjji)
c^ir^ J
class.
warzidan)
" to catch
fire."
zadan
'
'
sliumdan
and
m.c.)
" to smell"
;
(tr.).
zahmat
kashidan " to take pains suffer hardships." salam ra shikashtan " to break up the audience."
1
<J.aj
nuql-i
majlis
shudan
(rn.c.)
"to be
in
everybody's
to
mouth, be famous
&$j>
is
jA->
(lit.
to be the
sweetmeat
of the assembly).
(lit.
make,
be noticed that a change of the verb in the compound may make a verb transitive or intransitive in meaning, thus laghylr kardan " to " to change." change," but tayjiylr dadan ^t\t j**-> (tr.) e^y^-j^ (intr.)
.
Remark I
It will
Remark
II.
It
must
be
recollected
that
in
modern
^+"*
colloquial,
In, na-bdyad ki
**
s
shumd
-'^ mk-naim-yi khud biyufild ^.^ ^^ ^y ^^ j*^* (m.c.) " the ought you not to be careful of your reputation ? preposition AJ bi that is wanting, has only to be inserted before fikr ji to make the sentence
<c
,
modern
uftadan &?&*}
(h)
&
colloquial the
is hi- fikr
compound verb
&*(**\
jlqr
is
used,
its
uftadan
in
j&.'
There
are
certain
compounds
colloquial
use,
which
should not be imitated, as: (I) nanrachigunapukhtakuiiant, AAXO t; eA> " *' bread? the 1 how shall can cook ; (for bi-pazam I) (Afghan) (or +y$> f& " " xhikaxta kardan danista nammlan ^^^ &j^Jfo (Afghan) to teach, inform &&jf &$*&' (Afghan) "to break"; mkhta kardan &*/ &-^j<~ (vulg. in.c.)
)
;
^^
* 4
to
burn"
afrukhla kardan
^^ &^^i\
(class,), etc.
These compounds have come into existence owing to the frequent adjectival use of the past participle of the simple verb, which is both
transitive
(2)
and
intransitive.
like
verb
Islada
is
set
up," may
be
^^
o^
*^IW
is
^
6
Kven
in speaking,
bi-fikr
uftadan
(m.c.)
&&(*9' j^&s.
I*\***H
)^ 0'}'^
280
(Afghan
"you bound me
and should
stated,
first,
before
all
^^
is regarded as a noun; hence such barbarous compounds as jastan namud *j+> &***> (m.c.) "he made " or a jump jast namud ^i o~-^ (Afghan coll.).
(')
As already
the Infinitive
consist of a phrase,
(tr.) and az pa dar amadan " to cause to b (intr.) pas pa kardan &&jf retreat, j " zadan &&\ fa cu^j> to commence "; az dast dadan &&\t> ^~z\\
az pa dar-avardan
;
e^/f^
\\
"
86.
(a)
Certain
in
Compounds.
or
One of the verbs most used in compounds is kardan &&j* (S to do" "to make." Namudan &*?+*, sakhtan ^y^U., gardanidan o^ ^, and
1
in deferential language
in
farmudan &&ycji can be substituted for kardan latter. These are all used in modern
'
^^
colloquial.
/
(b)
^f and
bi-kun
^j
kardan
\*)&jf
Remark.
The past
Afghans with
redundant,
it
participle of kardan &$j? is colloquially used by the comparatives, in the sense of "compared with"; being
4^^ pJk* y
can be omitted in any sentence where it occurs, examples: 2 az avval karda htt* J^,Utf f^ 2 *.>y Jj jt *aw^ chunanchi
>
accordingly the density jum-i ash jar ziya da-tar ma'lum gar did (Afghan coll.) " of the foliage appeared more than it did before (compared with previously)
**
azawwal karda
o^
^^
*j>/ J*
y (Afghan
coll.)
"he
is
UJ, is
sitive,
"to show
(tr.
and
intr.), to
^ az " it appears."
%^
namuda
euphony
jf^*J
in
tlie
:
or variety
jb
\)
u*
^~>$ AJ^J^AX
jfj^^
JAJ
tej)
^U. j*
jy*+*
Timur
ra dar
dast basta
dunya bdshad suragh karda payda namuda mi-yirtd mi-avarid inja (m.c.) *' having traced out Taimur in whatever
liar ja-yi
Any shade
For
of
meaning that may have formerly existed between kardan in compound verbs no longer exists.
Jy
In modern colloquial often nimudan ((Tsfahani). Modem colloquial bi-numa Ux> only.
281
will seize
may
him; you
(d)
will bring
(1)
Sdkhtan*
^.kU "to
^j
^l^.
fashion;
manage with;
is
suit,"
is
both
3^>).
transitive
and intransitive:
3
the Imperative
jU
saz (m.c.
bi-sdz
Example:
mi-kunand
jot
ixijUj^
^ixS^/o
o*^
(m.c.)
sdkhta
;
"they make brass pots in Kirman"; ^U^ Id (m.c.) " you have joined together, conspired
' '
(for
(Sa'di)
jl~u
^U?
s^ ^<
bi-sdz
^Lox ^j
me."
torpid belly, be content with a single loaf"; I*ULI ^j& ^ v f db u havd-yi m-jd bi*man mi-sazad (m.c.) " the air of this place suits
td shifa*i
ydbi
To
put up with pain, Chafe not at woe, and healing thou wilt gain."
find a remedy,
(0.
K. 451 Whin.)
" there
\\
^U
In sdkhiayi karda-id
t\
*$j*
^li^l^ ^..^ U^
in
(m.c.)
"you have
dandun-saz
Si
adulterated
this."
(3)
<f
'
SfJz
;
J-*
is
frequent
compounds,
tl
as
\\~*
&t*
:
a dentist"
(dandan sdzi
<^^ &*'*2
dentistry ").
i$ht j-i
mahbub
bi-svz va bi-sdz
\(~>j\}~*
v^ :sw* <3^ ^
"in Ham-sdz j^+* or Mm-dvaz y<X the beloved burn and be patient." \(~*c In confidant." man a mlva sdz-gdr nlst tune"; dam-sdz bardy-i
'
this fruit will disagree with me." ^}ji ^AXJ ^jf (m.c.) " and " Saz ){*, a substantive, means " a musical instrument necessary "he kard sdz-i as: taddruk began to furniture," safar tj> j&* jl (m.c.)
o~oo
j!fjUo
"
<
Garddnldan &*&\&J Imperative garddn &\t>J is the transitive form of and signifies "to change, avert, turn (or gashtan ((^SJ^ gardidan &**&
(e)
,
9
}
Basta
* 2
is
mi-avarld.
up,, false
this is
made
"
;
ba
man
sakktagl ma-kun
Qali baftan
'*
to
qali sakhian,
which
is
unidiomatic; rud
vulgar for
&Wj)
rtl*?r?
282
Farmudan &byJ*^ Imperative farmd Uy, is transitive, "to order or command." In compound verbs it is deferentially substituted for kardan c^y. sakhtan ^^L*, or namudan ^w, both in classical and in modern
(1)
l
farmuda budid' (m.c.) '' &*. a Chi would be eminence what did your say?" guftid very familiar or very rude wa}7 of expressing the same thing, and would generally be used to inferiors only. Padishah bar takht juliis far mud <^>^ c^iuy &U><>b
Persian:
-^>-> tej^j*
<*>*-
^^
wli^ janab-i
'all
chi
'*
^^
ti
$yoj
(2)
In modern colloquial bi-farmd^id -vyUyij almost corresponds to the " To a visitor it signifies " please take a chair" if please." English word two persons are about to enter a door together it means "after you": if
:
food
is
on the
(3)
" "kindly help yourself," or begin." Far/nan &(*j* a substantive is a royal mandate. Farman-farma
table,
it
(*j*
a place,
^cj9 "the issuer of mandates" is a title prefixed and signifies " Governor or Viceroy of ."
Farman-bardar ;l^j eJ^V " order- bearing, obedient."
'
to the
name
of
Remark.
in the
:
complimentary sense.
va qaid-i hukama* ra kar na-farmud says duz alat-i khud ra kar mi-farmayad (vuli?.)
^^ ^ h
['
cl -*-^
J^^
also kafsh-
"the shoe-maker
is
using his
things."
(g)
^^ or gardtdan c?-^^/
^< or
*fe-*ulb
vide
'
(e)]
can always be
verb.
compound
JA
87-
Causal Verbs
j**)i
-^>ju-c
and Reflexive
Verbs
(n)
(1)
The
il
\-, or
andan ^)tf
causal verbs are formed by adding the terminations anidan to the Imperative stem of the primitive verb, thus:
,
\
jastan*
^*~^
;
daw j^
damdan ^^^ to cause to leap jahandan c?>U^ davandan ^^^ or dacanidan &**? y& "to make to run, to gallop ) tazandan (*)nr& (rn.c.) " to gallop a horse." (a horse), etc., etc., etc."
*'
:
"
(2)
regularly,
that
is
by discarding the
infinitive terminations,
&*-
or
^~-
Farmana
In
bl*j?
classical
Persian,
used in precisely the sam inanner in Urdu. or by Indians and Afghans in speaking, the third person
plural
would be used
^UjUa,
is
janab-i
'all.
In
modern Persian
in
also preferred.
transitive of itself
O^^^
in
283
is
Remark.
amdan &**$
sometimes short-
(b)
86 (c). This casual form will be transitive if formed from an intransitive, and doubly transitive or causative if formed from a transitive verb. " to cause to sit; (c) (1) Nishdndan ^jolfci (nishdnistan ^jJ-olfci obsolete) to plant, etc.," the causal form of nishastan aJ~&, is irregularly formed. (not used in Persia) is the causal of shunudan (2) Shinawdmdan &*&)*
e^y^, and
(3)
signifies
tell,
read aloud."
<^J>j
Randan
cA- f;
"to drive"
is
"to go."
(d)
(1)
The verb
guzashta,n
u*^
or
guzandan cPt>
(old)
die,
etc."
^^^
Quzashtan
l
^\'^
(tr.
"to
\\+*
quit,
to
discharge,
perform":
namdz guzdrdan (not guzdshtan) &*jtf &&* "to throw," causal afkdmdan uj^Wf (obsolete). (3) Afkandan have two roots admit of two forms of the causal, as: Verbs that (e) " to bore " xuftan ^aiu. suftdmdan ^^AJU'i^ (obs.), and sumbamdan &^\**~
;
(obs.)
"
rustan
^^;
or
ru^dan
^^^
" to
grow"
' c
(rt.
ru
^
to
or nnj
^^
ruydimlan ^^.*)
(m.c.), or
ruvdnidan
&^j)
(obs.)
to cause
grow."
il\
X'erbs in
letter into
^,
as;
i-'^
whioh the fmperativo stem terminates in eJ> change tliis ^>U "to comb," causal slmndau (obs.) &**l& (for
(obs.)
f<
;
sJtaydnldan
(obs.};
&*
ddnistan
to
^^^
''to
^know,"
>
ddydmdan*
c)>*itf^
chidan
^*s-
pluck, collect,"
cJnndidan &$&*%*
(obs.)
or
colloquial the shortened form of the causal verb is preferred ; thus iarsdndan co.jl~y is preferred to tarsdnidan e>-HJ ^:A ancl khwdhum
Ln
modern
tarsnnd
(f/)
<-
Some
' J
;
farsdmd ^joU^3 ^**^. ->^Ly ^AI^, to kjiwfiham verbs do not admit of a causal form. Examples: did#n
gaftan
&
&**&
to se
(A)
^^
of
" to say
'
*
;
dzmudan
*'
e>-r*3^
to ^ r y P rove
5>
(1)
Only a few
modern
for
colloquial.
When
make
uses
an elaborate use
the causal
verbs.
An
instance,
2 3
as a causal of didan
is
doubtful.
284
to feed
**>
" occurs
in writing, but
it
not in speaking: khurdk bi-khurd-i u bi-dih food to eat, i.e. feed it."
Instead of ravdmdan
is
^^
&*& j)
]
&&^
<Mj;
used.
(2)
The following
:
commoner
"
causal verbs in
modern
colloquial use
Tarsdndan
Davdndan &^\j* or davdmdan o^j* " to put into a gallop." Rasdndan ^^U) or rasdnidan viP*JUj t( to cause to arrive." Nishdndan eP^<k> or nishdnldan o-^LSJ " to plant, place, make to sit."
&*&j
or tarsdnldan
&*#lj
to frighten."
' '
c^Uf
or
Amuzidan eP^j^T
Jdhdnldan
Pardnldan
Remark.
(obs. in Persia) or
dmukhtan ^jj^xf
l
<c
to teach."
e>^^
(D^yljj or
pardndan &**ty
of
<c
ditto
'
The passive
are,
the causal
fc-^l^v
'
verb
formed
in
the regular
kundmda shud
jj^wUr (Afghan).
&&f
^ *xi> AAJ
^a
///,
bi-dnki
iztuHr-i
tild
yak bayt-ash bi-yak mixqdl Baba, Cliapter VIII) "without appearing to show any particular partiality to him, I succeeded in being appointed to keep watch over him, under the plea that I would compel him " to make verses ura muxtalzam sdkhtam ki bi-rat/sad |*^>ll-/o \^\ (H.B.)
bi-yarzad pdsbdn-i
u gardldam
(Tr. Haji
1 obliged
him
' '
:
to
dance
"
&$
p&\
mard bar
oblige
m
to
y
do
I
' '
\) 9 \
ditto
+& j^ &***
man
u^
l '
'
**
;t-
v -<
t(
me
"
:
bi-u zur
dvardam
ki
bd
:
bi-ydyad
^?^
to
"
(m.c.)
made
Mm accompany me "
ki bi-chinad.
<<fco
don't
;;j
asp rd tdkht
o^3
f;
wt
f^ ^
"he put
to cause
<:
Qabuldmdan cpJoU^J
;
cause to confess (by torture, etc.)" is a " make him or in a joking sense = agree."
sitives
by the simple tranu pd-yi urd bast c. t^f ^^ ^ o-.^ jjl^j^b (m.c.) "the king "bound him (had him bound) hand and foot"; or else some such
of the causal verbs is usually taken either
f
The place
:
as
pddishdh dast
is
also
**
to learn."
285
etc., is
Reflexive verbs
A-oJta
:
^^I*
'
J**
are formed
transitive verb
killed
and the
khud rd kusht cu>o I; ^^ reflexive pronouns, as he committed suicide khud-kushl kard t>j=* ^>'
himself"
khud rd
'
jdn-i
mi-sJmst e*JU*3
\)
&js
e;U
cc
88.
Passive Voice
is
(J*-* &a*
less
;
(a)
much
rule
is
not to use
can be avoided
used
only for some special signification, or if the subject is unknown, or if known it is desired to avoid mentioning it. This rule should be observed even
There are several ways of expressing the passive. (6) The grammatical passive is formed by adding the tenses of the verb shudan ^)^ 3 "to become " to the past participle of a transitive (or causal)
verb. The use of this construction is comparatively infrequent and very seldom occurs in modern colloquial, for in addition to the simple intransitive verbs the language contains a large store of compounds with a passive sense,
such as
thikast ydftan zakhm khurdan * to be wounded " zd*i' shudan " to defeated &* jSUa c< to be destroyed " to be deceived "; bl-duzcti rajtan, (^'&) ^j^-> f/ul khurdau ^;y^ J^ (m.c.) ''to be stolen"; an jam giriftan ^>\ "to be finished"; jarmdyish dad an ^i'Uy "to order (goods)" (tr.) [but jarmdyish* raftan
:
e^;^
^b
o~~ Cc
^ be
' '
' '
&h
^^
(intr.), as, o-^l AX ; ^jlxy 2$jU tu3 J^^?~> cffy baray-i sawguliyash nlm-tana-yi tdza jarmdyish rafta astl (m.c.) "what! an order has been given for a new jacket for his favourite wife, has it ? "] bi-sar burdan
(^) cr-'^y
Passive Voice," i.e., of which tho agont is 8lyha~yi maf/nd J^^-* C\A^ unknown. 5 The use of the Passive is antagonistic to the genius of both Persian, and Urdu, Tho se of tho passive i^ largely increasing in Trdu, doubtless owing to the articles in
1
>
vernacular newspapers translated from English. of India and in a less degree that of Afghanistan.
"
and gardldan iP^jr are occasionally substituted for shudan c)* The passive meaning of most verbs signifying 4< to beat, to knock, cast/' can be expressed by a compound with &&)J^ khurdan, as: takan k&urdan (D)j^ &r& (m.c. " zamln kliurdan kk &)**> eHi^ " to fali on to be pushed, to receive a push or shake
Oashtan
.
^^
This example
(
is
Va/.ir of
Lankuran.'
would be rendered
**\* *fi
&* f&
^ <j^;^ Jktf
(or
^J
baray-i
sawfjuliyash sifariah-i
dada and}.
286
(tr.)
"to
(intr.)
"to
be
passed." The admits of the Passive. (c) In modern Persian not every verb <<ne was beaten" is quite unintelligible :>j ^ expression u> zada shud* " he was even to Persians with some education, whereas kushta shud && &-&>
killed
"
is
a passive in
common
h"*-
use.
:
(d)
The
js-i
(!)
AAAf ^i-l' p
^ f^T
hastily
j*.
C5^
jl
amadam
ki chiragb-am bi-astm
I rose
from
my
c5<i>^ chundu kushta shud (Sa di) place that the lamp was
l
-^'
of the extinguished by my sleeve." AJ&T would signify " i purposely extinguished." passive is of riot infrequent use in the Shah's Diary (2) The grammatical passive
* jx^
ax^ j^t urVv <~^ c^ 3*-^ )* -^~f "v ;" cr*^l *' Ic';3 a^> c^< (Shah's <4 others have and of we seen a called 'rape' crop species to-day Diary) *.$ cJ^JUJf ^&xj> l^cuut ^j in the Prussian territory" (S.D.) ^>x^ 44 Haklm ^ I- Mamalik ki channd-i bud mja bud dlda shud (S.D.) ''the Hakim 'l-Mamalik who had been here some time was interviewed":^
1
^^
tk
t^xb du palang-i siyah Jiam dida shud (Shah's black panthers were seen by us."
t^j
^A
ljj*
Diary)
6
" two
(3)
The
transitive Infinitive
is
(^^j
^ &+&
zyCjS
o;U| hama-ra
all
b i- kushtan isharat
them
to bo killed";
^AJJ
^^
farmud
ki
(Sa*d!)
" he may hand you over to be killed." (ni.c.) is also sometimes used to express possibility or (4) The passive imposAJ^I^I c^>j & &4* ;^' Ji cs^jjlif ^| kitab'i-'st an sibility %< bi-dast andakhta nami-shavad this is ki book a so (m.c.) heavy, qadar sangln, " that it cannot be thrown by hand y ^c ^\ AA^I^J
:
^^
^^
^ ^U
Mr
:
In mlz az ja-yi khud bar dashta mi-xhavcid (m.c.) "this table can be moved, 1 a ki bi^bd' is-i it is not very heavy"; la du $i ruz anja tavaqquf uftad
" agar u Inja bi-yayud o^J;^J ^J\ (m.c.) ''the water boiled over if ho rn bi-$ar conios here I'll go to him u l-ravam davidan) (vulg.) (also man bi-sar jilav-i " feet ot on instead .* eJ^j^ j^i c^^j' ^ my on my head (from delight) 8;^
l
Ah
bi-sar taft
* 6
" to bo finished." bi-*ar amadan j~> i In modern colloquial u rd zadand ^3J means "
&^
;t
&*1
f;jf.
Bi-ikhtiyur
;^^>
;
"
;
involuntarily
bar
amadan
>J^
is
to get
up
"
not coming
voice.
5
<>
Or Ishara *;^t.
In modern colloquiaH^i/a^
i
and
az ba'u tZ+zi*
j\
would be
substituted.
287
U t>^ ^UJf^t ,^>U-< &$ t^a. (\>\ uajy Usuf \^ " we had to it as there was two three or impossible days, stay (Afghan) " ba'd az to see the sun (to steer by) on account of the clouds g&altidan an
;
^^
rd jumbdnldan
js-io**
na-tawfinistam chi
ja*e
an
ki
ba-darya
jt
rasdnlda im-skud
^*j
it;
^U*
"
^
to
+i~*\j*>
,j.>uJUva.
jyf ^xjJs.U
to
(Afghan
coll.)
move
chi
how much
an
ki
the
less
could
it
be
moved
the sea!";
in.c.
jd-yi
bi-daryd
;
rasdnam-asli ^^U^U) A&J ^U. ^^ (or bi-rasdiiam, not be would used here in m.c. as the agent is passive ty" C5^ ba against
(5)
(
L^
^^y
without ash)
:
the
known
&>>VA. jj^& ^
^AjkX)
" in m.c. Fate o.^ b ^>/JL^ ^^ The modern colloquial phrase ba'dazan, dida khwahad shiid cjf jj^j^or) -Z >^|^A ^>j^, or more commonly d/ida nu-shavad ^^>
;
\\
SAJ
$-^3
fc
(m.c.), signifies
we'll see."
01
/*? 5
:
(e) The passive can also be formed by an Arabic Past Participle, a Persian adjective with a Passive sense, combined with the verbs am hastam /*-WA etc., and sliudan c>^, budan e;^y, or f/ashtan ^v^. Examples
y
^WA J^^^)
x>
j*V*r
marsul-am
(or
marsul hastam),
51
<c
(in writing)
am
sent
"
J
*x^ J^ii^o
(m.c.)
maqtul shud (m.c.) "he was killed "; ** tf^j*^ khabar-dur slmd " " he was " lie was 6 j>> ^5*^3 zakhml bud' (Afghan) apprised, warned <UA hauia chiz dmdda bud (m.c,) "everything wounded"; ^j *jiUf j
;
was prepared (previous to our coming) " prepared after our coming "].
(/)
\\mtamdda shud
cx
^Uf =
J<
was
by using the third person plural do such and such a thing." This construction they
examples
:
also be expressed
both classical and modern colloquial. From the following will be seen that this construction corresponds to a real passive
&'
j^ vJ^Lfl^
j^y
^OAA
a&|t*Ad.
|;
e;^
(^r^y
t
farm'dd
lei
So-and-so, whatever
it
may
(hero
himself
who
&>
<^lo
tiajt
v_^i^fji
c5j**^
'J
c5^j>
*^'3^(*^
rt
^^
umr-l jam chany 5 drand na-shdya-d lei bi-yak-dam friend whom it has taken a lifetime to make
in
a single instant";
(here there
is
only
e^Jtf*
^ j-\^^.
" ho bad a wound." was an allowance: bushad
i
s
Or
<H~*.}
4-Uaj
f*^*3
" whatever
5
knew
that thero
may
be."
Fara chang ^i^f^> is to bo considered aa one word. Fara frequently precedes verbs, and in many cases is merely used for the sake of euphony.
<>
tiqsir-i or
Note this use of shay ad *{&. Before yak-dam f*& some such word is understood.
&i-awM^5 c^***"
or
bi-
288
one friend and presumably one person who has made him a
j>jy af jvif
*$
an rd
lei
gusJi-i irddat
girdn
va an rd
ki na-ravad
(Sa'di)
has been created deaf to the divine inclination, how can he 2 to and he who is forcibly drawn into the ]asso of happiness hear manage " how can he help travelling (the way it drags him) ? (here the grammatical
? ;
"he who
understood, as the Deity in Persian is singular and addressed in the singular; to use the respectful plural to the Deity is contrary to the idiom of the language 8 the verb is therefore a passive the author has presumably avoided the active
subject
to
dfrida
and
*>!
be
"God"
whom God
lias
created deficient in
."
would be,
or
4
works
of,
the
especially
common
in
modern
colloquial.
To
<^t
is
the
horse?"
;
away
"
the answer might be burda and this answer would signify that one of the
grooms or servants
taken
it
:
the precise individual unknown to the speaker of the subject, the name would be mentioned.
had
Remark.
(m.c.)
s -
"A
te\z ^5^-?
present was given to him" in'atn-i hi-vay ddda shud i^**!, or better in'dm-l bi-u dddand ^>|j>^l? ^^^\ (in.c.).
In a few instances, the passive can both in classical and in modern colloquial be formed by dmadan c^xf instead of by ahudati
(g)
in
shumurda mi-dyad
is
is
(rn.c.)
s^-cj
;
A-f
^^ o^-w
*li-A^--^
''this
man
"it
dyad ^f
>xT
e;.x*T
seen" In qdli pasandida dmad ^U> ^f (class.) ^'3i-j (m.c.) "this carpet was approved." Compare matkhuz dmadan i^ * {* (class.), and giriftar dmadan ^>x>f yjji^? (class.).
;
1
^
it
dlda mi-
as well as "heavy.** impossible for him to hoar, as it is decreed he is not to hear. * The use of the plural might lay the speaker open to the imputation of being a " * to the Deity), muflhrik or '* polythoist it may be (one who imputes partnership
1
(not cheap)
"
2 i.e.,
'
that Sa'di being a Muslim and an Arabic scholar ban adopted the Arabic idiom here and elsewhere; tbe plural is used in the Qur'an when Allah himself speaks.
*
is
is
* the subject. Though the Persians attribute misfortune to the revolution of the heavens or to the sky, no Muslim would attribute good to any but Allah: the Fates could therefore hardly be the subject of kashlda and.
CHAPTER
89.
(a)
X.
by adjectives or
aition, or
There are few adverbs properly so called their place is filled participles, or by substantives with and without a prepo-
by pronouns,
or
by phrases,
for
of
etc.
Many
There
no regular term
adverb
it is
"
specifica.
negation" or Jj
:
"
vessel," according to
:
OyJo
ff
ism-i zarf is a particle used as an adverb Harf-i %arf J^fc a noun that can be used as an adverb zarf-i muhham o^Je
o^
^o
is
an adverb
" " before a limit of time or space, as fKx* "time/' (place or time) " as J^ "day," **(** ;t is opposed to c^Jo "limited adverb (noun, etc.)
(or
noun,
etc.)
that does
not express
.
u^
^^^
zarf-i
makdn
is
ism-i zarf
^ (j&
(m.c.)
of visitors are
" removed
s
;
e/
A/0
(i
n Turkish Bath):
(V^>
(6)
*^
u^r^'
:
etc., etc.
Examples
ty *xi^
(2)
Adjectives:
AJU*
*
J^
<j}ti
vy^ J
(Sa'df)
(m.c.)
"he
speaks
Persian
well"
^\}
^ j*i&
"a
certain one
had
fallen into
drunken sleep by the roadside"; ^i^x> <*J!b"U y "he acts wisely": " I used to say (my prayers) in a perfunctory ^Iiix>o^UJ AJfjAl^ pb j^kj (Afghan) " manner m.c. bi-tawr-i umuml zahirana namaz mi-1cardam). (in
<c**
" See
Arise
dawn breaks and rends night's canopy and drain a morning draught with me Away with gloom full many a dawn will break
!
the
!
Looking
we not
here to see
' '
!
is
295.)
Adjectives ending in *tf or ;f> vide 43 (aa) 9 may be considered " AJLt^a. verbs rather as ad than adjectives AJblJuj " in a restless manner
Remark.
^~
^faU**!
5*JU,,>
:
Participles
xi^
f[yu*t
U^j
^^ ^y
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
"he
is
%*jr* (m.c.)
"
suddenly
"
:
obliged
A^UUJ
running
etfjd
c^>
"he came
290
all
the
way
* '
:
*Jk &ali~o|
(m .c .)
did
' '
he remained standing
"
:
&^ ) &
\)
ptfy*
(m.o.)
' '
!&~&i
(Afghan)
"I
' '
:
all
"by
pretence":
*:>jy*
^
* *
my
other business at
home":
Aii^
*t>^
*>^
(m.c.)
"a little":
' '
vi*jxii.
(Sa'di)
&;#
v f~4
"by
always.
:
f^ *oJU> ^bUj j*
wilderness"
m.c.)
:
JSj &f
or
a
[
' '
(Sa'cK)
^^
"
once, ever
"
:
"
flj
by name
"
) v**> (class,
31
:
and
times
"
"by night":
:
\j
*u
<^*>*/ &>*>3
l^
as:
(Sa'di)
in m.c. usually
l-*
^"oft-
Remark.
of
quantity or time,
^^
U*x^c
^/
^io
(m.c.)
presents
(4)
(or often
took vows)."
vi^suj
(m.c.)
"needless, without
cause":
"here"; o/>j
b
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
doubt":
c*yo
or
f^^*^
and
c<
ministers are like physicians ^A^i^|^ v-irf^ ^ a physician never gives medicine except to the sick"; f^o *'each
*Ubf
JlJ^ ^j
*tj,)j
oif
moment.'
'
f^f
o^i;
we came comfortably."
understood.
(5)
Before^^f (=
Ar.yoi(t 7 A.f
the preposition^
is
Substantive with Pronoun, Adjective, Substantive, Adverb &*A and m.c.) "everywhere": cJj *+* (class, and m.c.) and a*A 4 v (vulg.) "always"; (Afghan coll.) "well, in a good manner ': " on all sides " or o^^t (m.c.) " this side of the o^bjt^, cj>t ; t^y> " 5 whither ? Ur " where ?" ^jj jj; in broad day city e^Jb ^^ ^^ 4^ (m.c.) or^*j|vfujj (m.c.) "the remainder of my life"
:
(class,
^ ^
^^ "
^ ^j
'
' '
'
' '
(m.c.)
"always."
Phrases
:
(6)
e>f
3'
' '
>^-Vt^y
movement and approach a little nearer " cJo^ ^*^y db j fj& " ^^ ^ (ni.c.) "with my turban round my neck they " me before the and the *su
^^ ^y^*
l
o^
carried
farrashes,
:
make a
fresh
Qazi
*a;^*
(Sa'di)
" of
In m.c.
|^ Lfcj
Nam
3
|*G
"byname"
is
apposition, as:
*U JJ)P
tjfisvw
"a
person, his
name
The Afghans
"
and Indians
J^ub
In
gall
xs Jb
'
c->*^. i*J^3
<y}
(m.c.)
*
good design."
?
Ku y
where
is
he
"
291
^1*0;^]
7ra/ (iar
^ ma-riz*
p*
" *n spite of his youth" tjj*o at; j^/o j ;fj> rah mi-ravad (m.c.) " he keeps a middle course."
ctfl>>
:
^y
Ham
bi-ravlm
"together,
likewise,
(
with,
all,
either; also,
in the
ti
same manner"
Uj
Biya tabi-ham
:
^J ^U "
:
or)
go together
^^^^T
:
+tf
^ bi-ham
(m.c.)
let us "come, let us all go," or " commixture" darham barham arnlkhtagi
(
"
= tu-yi ham rilchta Alu; misl-i <^y f *y fAja "topsy-turvy, mixed" " " " *& ctax> ham ham sar-i alike pusht^i sar-i p&^*> "contiguous, joining c< ham p& j* cu^,j one behind the other, continuously." " &$ ^b " it Verbs: be
(7)
(8)
that, perhaps may "'perhaps." Arabic phrases, and Arabic nouns in the accusative: A)UP J/ (m.c.)
:
^U
" at least
ever
to
(lit.
there
"
:
^&
,
jx>
no remedy) e*U^Jf ^^U " as long as life lasts, for " " with /**Jf ^^^ "agreeably that, notwithstanding (m.c.)
is
;
;
"
orders":
bi-l-marra
^Jb khabar
O'
O
(m.c.)
^
),
Uii5 or Ul+3
man
az in
of
Icar
am
completely
ignorant
this
matter'
fern.
):
(^^^"circumstantially":
:
^
.
^Uj
^^
>
"that
*
to say,
namely
(lit.
it
fittingly
(lit.
like that
which
is
proper) ":
i^ftJ
"
:
}|U>
7^tt (for
J|U.
same
}
signification as Jl^
and
In
^AJ
an Arabic accusative ifor J'-sJ al-hala ) but is not used in Arabic. u ^9 Ar., the Arabic pronoun *J^^ " that " is understood.
as
:
Such adverbs
called
<**a&f
AJU^f
^^
etc.,
that
close
a speech, are
^bt^/cb (or
c^ A ^'
fK^iS.
vbi
(Sa'di)
v^i^f.
(9)
.vf^vxib)
cJi-
"suddenly
even
in
speaking, as:
for
"everyday/' but
in (m.c,.)
now
'
'
:
^ '* till with a preposition, as r " there " " from now, henceforth J)^j az hala (ni.c.) taxif^ dar anja
:
e^
Jn classical Persian
*
Jy
jt-
s ^-^
Jrfj*
)^
*
k<
zy c>^ (*^ J&JQ ^v* )& t$ ^^ LS+& Thou say'st, Look not,' I might as well es^ay To slant my goblet, and not spill my wine."
'
(0.
'2
Iri
colloquial
is
dropped
f
not in
nn always maxl
but
^^
always hala.
292
r^ u
o^
;
Tr
H B
*
*>
Adverbs
of negation
AJJJJO^
"
(
or
and &>*&
as AJ
"not,"
(1) AJ
A^
J
<jj
o^.
jfj-A
"never."
^(f
or^.
}
aj
* t p,
6
or
A3^
c<
or
^^
A>
*i
neither
^ ^
6
*J
^^^i^-
grj*
.
AJ
^y.r
g>&
"no person"
(pron.).
^
A
wb
XA
" on no account."
*\
^t
j)
"not
at
all,
in
no shape.
"more than
;^3>
or )^&
4i
this."
} p!,
^
never," vide Interjections of Warninc:. " and " or 121 (6). "less," vide ff not
"
tf
ULx
God
forbid, never."
%
(2)
*jflL
cf
not at all."
(m.c.)
"
?
went nowhere.
Hargizjj& with an
affirmative verb
*'
over."
adverb of time, but inserted here for convenience of reference. ** na tanhu mara A 8 fuhah dadriiz or)J^ ^t^> Jk*^' |/ ajtr* ( mara zad (m.c ) **he not only abused me, but be.it mo.' * Class, and m.c. nay nay (m.c.) " no, no."
^
An
(or balkf}
'
AJ j ^J^ ***"/ AJ j U3 hopes have I above, no joys below." (0. K. Whin. Hub. 60.) Conjunction, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
O^J
*'
No
6 7
^^
(m.c.)
" to deny."
293
" his pocket was not picked at all." " he never does so."
aJ
Uuf
C5+J
A3n.j a)
^j aJfyo
man
woman,
^
l
r>Je^
i
^
^
** l*uf (m.c.)
j.U3
"
(Afghan)
"I
all
skab)."
e>f* J
(
^ lx>a c/
"
?
Sa'di)
"how
can
the
latter
former
ojt^i^ *&
"this
man
is
'Scarcely,'
etc. is
JjusiS
*^f ^5U) pa as
left
when ." j>Uii u& <tf jj^l^j 6*^w na-nihada ki saqf pdym dmad i*i[ag the room when the roof fell."
:
^^j
<3
Jbf
ji
(m.c,)
"he had
4 Interrogation often expresses negation j\*y " how can the sleeping awake the sleeping 5 ? (Sa'dl) ^b *J * (l I said I kowv&n go when my feet are unable to (Sa'di)
;
>
move ? "
u^^^-cr-'^
*Jtej (Afghan)
2
alone;
what
* j& Lr does any one else know? (nothing) ': &*. Jt&j o^U JU jf ^ " " then tell ? there of life what was *j* *l*1 (Afghan) me, hope " never!" is in (/) (1) Emphatic denial speaking and writing amongst " the educated &U^ i^*J we take refuge with God' " or AJL/|^A*i^f <4 1 ask
pardon of God." often expressed by the (2) In in.c., emphatic denial or contempt is " he does not reach his dust even " 8 *~j following phrases (m.c.)
7
:
^ o^
v^
Uf
p*y
1
ij+>
l^
In m.c., tamam-i
or
**
when
" and
'*
how
"
*
6
'
Vara means
4 <
behind
"
;
but
in
'
o^t^&>
'
(^^ eHl
c^U^
it
= V$
6
f
'
^"
el^^(
+
the accused."
Qur'ari.
o-:
7
aJf
vyf j
is
>^rf
^""tr^^
c
.".
aJJfyuxv*?.
The idea
man galloping
after a
wild ass.
* i.e.
much
as this.
294
'
(m.c.)
" whose dog is he )W tj*j = j^ oJblj (m.c.) )i& u*jl*Mtf (m.c.) " " throw him " I don't count him a (m.c.) away jof cK'a f;f p>\$ human being," or ah dakhil-i adam ftf d**(j> T (m.c.) (ditto) muhal az ^~=* Ja*3 J^ 30^ (ni.c.) " impossible! " yum, ask kun (m.c.) *& <j^ 'aql ast " han him! '; ahv *'I don't believe lie can do it, or send him off": " all the difference CXM.I cA^f 15 az zamm fa asman ast
:
:
'I
v**\
\\
^3
jarq
(m.c.)
in the world.''
(g)
(1)
Na
to
for
ki
"no"
is
>x
^
;
or ^i.
*> is
no."
:
as
or
^^
A^ ilU
or^>^
A^ ^-j^J
(j.
or^A
*> jyu*,,
(2)
polite m.c.
is A.jto
with you."
evasive reply that may mean "yes," or " no," or " I piefer not " what ' " to reply," is petition shall I make, what shall I say ^j^ ** the phrase: ^r/^ *^ *J^^ O**AJ uio.ia. (m.c.) l had such a (7^) Note
(3)
An
lot of trouble."
(/)
Adverbs
of
affirmation
J^i>
o^ or ^^ J^
J
)
>
and
<>f
assurance
ar?
^L
>*
J
(m.c.) bale or
7
(contr. of *
a^ m
(
(?
-)
^^>
1U (m.c.) bil
J 5 (m.c
f-
without doubt.
J!
(class.
j
'
It
t\vo
persons
vvt-n,su\
bowing
room
2
"
first,
one might
*$ fjj*j^*- \&*
Jlx
niuhal-i 'atjta^tkt
man jHaw
bi-racam
\lso oiyJ
^^
(J*"+f
*
oil, let
hun go
to the devil."
i< not 110 Kltuyr j%** for '* or ** welJ." except as yes
* v
"
dsist-irai,
nor
i ^
1
it
us<-<i
by
Indian-^
and Afghans,
is
A.-*
albatla *-vV'
5
k<
cfrtaiuly
'*
tlii.s
very
"
:
also called
*
u^H1^ O;^.
Teheran
a/'e
In
Konnorlv
/6/^-
wtte used
for
"yes/'
Ky
295
"^
> certainly.
<^aj or
i^a.
li**-'
(m.c.)
J
why
'?
,'**
ceremony,
without
reserve,
without
jokinu.
cusjjixJi
^j
]
&*y la-bud
*f*. $ la-jar
(
am
>of necessity.
(class.)
.'
IJU (class.)
certainly, surely,
L
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
u^'
labbayk
(class.)
j J
^
(2)
^,
here I
am
for
labbay (obsolete p
/.
commands ?
*>"
Remark
be omitted.
Mann UU
is
always followed by
A^,
can
.7/v, arc. is
bale,
or 6a^.
4t
As a strong affinnativo, the phrase v^ 5 uCi Axl^ (.*>) admixture of doubt and uncertainty," is used in writing.
(-4)
.^j
without the
if God pleases," is, with regard to future events, frequently used by Muslims for " yes." No Muslim asked, if it " \es " or tl is ^oiiiti; to rain, \\ill reply no/' as this would be deciding for the
The phrase
*J^t *U^>',
or
*JU|
ft
U^
*'
Almighty.'
The answer
to-morrow
"
^-:f
7
}^T
^1J(
A^'y
Cv
(m.c.}
l).V.
will
come
freqiiontlj
slightest
The
*s)~
following
common
&?
(^
n
t
<s^
^4->
(^
''I'm not lying to you"; p*~& " * **$ ^^i^ * e^x *" l' in uo ^ talking rot
;
^* ^s^^
<^'
*& ^3*
"
f'
ni
joking,"
((>)
etc., etc.
<l
*!
Strong affirmation is also ex]>ressed in m.c. by swear by your \eneraled head that"; f**$ b)b
'
^--
'*-
^j**
j~*>
"by
mv
father's
*
"
Hainana
kl
^ bU^(
*
class.) also
same
tinu- that.
i
'
The 1'rophet was onct a.^ked lio\v mam log* hi-, hor.st had. He dismounted, Had lie stated four oil hand. Allah might have changed the counted, and said four number and so convicted him of error. ^ C5>*y ^^^^ " are you in earnest or joke * lt~ift /><7-;7?T//7 ya ijhwlr (m.c.) )**
'
"
(cheating)
*>
huk}il ml-ktinl
of
r?7/<
</a
jiddl ml-giiyi
^5^^
w?*^
(rn.e.)
c5
IT-
-^ L5^J^-
Arwuh rlj;fpl.
^j^.
^)>J
^f*jf
" for
296
soul"
:
by our Prophet's tomb " "by the martyrdom of Husayn <>su "by the rights of 'Ail": *$ v^*f cu*f^ ^f &1*. by the life of my children I swear this p~.$ ftojj* " " is true thou die may'st c&L? (i.e. don't be alarmed)" ^j&*j*
p~S U^k+AAj^Aaj
]
"
' '
A**
"may
I see
(i.e.
if
,"
Adverbs of Interrogation
f^. (m.c.)
( /> l^Ai
(1)
why?
j
vide (4).
(m.c.)
*>
>
tor
(m.c.)
31
(m.c.)
&~*\5
(vulg.) wliy?
(m.c.) in what-
manner
A*, (m.c.)
j|
(m.C.)
(m.c.)
how ?
(m.c.)
a.
aa.
<*A.
what hour
c^z gar/r
(m.cj
quantity
(m.c.)
how many
(m.c.
and old poet. ; where, whither viWe (m.c.) what place, where ?
:
vide (2).
(3).
(m.c.)
which place
*^ (m.c.)
(class.)
what direction
:
*.
how?
?
vtete (5).
:
ato but
(9).
vwfe (8).
whether?: vide
^*J (me.) what do you mean ? vide a. wWe (6). (m.c.) why not
:
(7).
4t
'Urnar,
'
rsman,
'All)."
Kay
^4 2
^ "when
^^ajT
A';a
jt
^
long
"
:
7iar A*w/S
F^
= c*^
ta
kuja lvy G
"how
etc.
"
:
297
is
Ku
is
m.c.
and
he
"
vulgar m.c.
Examples
44
The dove
hill,
'Those
whom
whither, whither?
'
"
'*
of
Tus?
,
'
!
Before
him
Kay Kawiis
And
Thy
Alas poor king " drums are hushed, thy 'larums have rung truce/ thus he
his
made
moan,
(0.
K. Whin.)
~ *'
'*
A-Sj.f^^
4A jljf
to
Heaven
his pillars
threw,
kings the forehead on his threshold drew I saw the solitary ringdove there, And 'coo, coo, coo,' she cried, and ooo, coo, coo.' "
*
And
(O.
K.\
Fitzgerald.)
sometimes an interjection, as: ^^ (m.c.) = "oh I wish it " were morning! (3) Note the following idiomatic meanings of UR/: &^tf *> ^jj^ o-y^^U^.
Ku
is
(m.c.j
^x*f
j*u;
**
or &** ej'j^v
or
<ine struck
no athlete
o->>a. c;l^tv
chlst
!
:
A ****
{**
&\ j
l^
Afghan colloquial ^**j* cA*chunan zarbat ba-ii hawdla namud ki pafdawan ^^ there is no comparison between the two": (^| (m.c.)
;
"
in
* 4
UaJ
v tr^> ^Uk Uo
(i.e.
**j JJjA
where
wine?
(m.c.)
"
is piety,
;
^^
U^(
:
^(^
tu va
m karha kuja
kuja
= "you
deeds"
tyj^^*
\**
^;AJ bi-dard-i
this
more
folly will
id
kujd (m.c.)
s
'is
it
An example
a dove
*
S
" and
ku "whither, whither
"
The play
is
of course
on
The
lines
do not scan.
Jams
is
caravans.
1
Kus
is
a large camel- bell and perhaps the noise of departing and arriving a large and very noisy drum. In i'ersia drums are beaten from about
Aj This is an Ijfo naqqarakhana ml-zanand}. (*i)fc* ustom, and, as formerly drums were also beaten at sunrise, the custom may
in fire-worship.
298
man kuja va Khalifa dar Baghdad* ^ \^> by a deceived person to one that has gone back on his
:
^
!
word).
In m.c. the plural is also used, as " places in the world do you come
:
^5f ^* UUtf
UlsxS'
\\
^^
U (m.c.)
what places
shall
we
"'
visit
'
Remark 1. ku,jd*i i^ an adjective " "of what are (m.c. only) place you a native ? Remark II. Kuja Uo is used in indirect as
'
^^
ll
of
what place"
^
1
(4)
Ottira
\j*
"why?",
for
iu
m.c.
also
'
means
"
certainly, of
course":
possibly
it is elliptical
why
not
>
'
It is
also
up to?
(5)
"
an expression
vidf
of
astonishment,
Chun c>^
*^
?
note 4,
' '
p.
296)
is
sometimes
the
g^jcy v^-k
*$
' '
fjjrJ
c^(m.c.)
moned me
Hi-chun u cliiyim &j&* j o,>^ is an epithet of the Deity. Bi~c/iiin u rhira ("without why or wherefore") *j*. )
kl
^^ ^
cXili
signifies
implicitly."
(0)
Old hns/iwt ki
-^
(ctlass.)
if,
why
not?"
Intro. Chap. 1, Si. 3) /., "why not [the cat saysj perform due to courtesy and fraternity, and this time, when thou ^oest, take "
'.
what
is
me
with thee
-East. Tr.
"
is
Ar.
^^, it may be that," is also used vide (k.) *' " what does it (7) Ya'ni chi &*> ^U- (m.c.) signify, what do you mean common m.c. expression. Ya'ni ^** is the 3rd pers. sing. masc. of the A or. The 1st pers. a'ani ^^ " 1 mean" as well as ^*: " it means"
:
1
Baskad ki
&*
are
is
to say, viz."
:
J/of/ar j&*
'
is
iiyjs^Xx)
are
"
In a sentence such
U
:
&t
*>\
LT
f7//*7
:
na-bayad ki $hunia
vide
J
t
commoner
^bj^ ^*-^
in m.c.
Jt
73
(6).
f
riii
*<*>
and
%5Uf
c>!^ e;
^ v^ x ^ A u
J
<xl
(8ri*di)
ayd
friends whether this young man may could be substituted for cki Aa., and
ya na
3U
could be
wlint I like,
2
fcliere is
Like
fcafta/i
in
ir Baghdad &\&*u )$ AJLxbL j (^xjjt\ ^^ moans 'i can do no one near to punish me.' Urdu, vide Phillott's tlindu8taM Manual, p. '24.
4
'
299
Short phrases in
is
common
^*j ^x
doubt
(
LSJ*+*
'*
^'ww''
to
^^
v~*
or (tS=*j,
^5^
Ls^L) "joking or in
Adverbs
'
f
of
&& j
-VaO
'
(1)
i
<x;
vide. (3).
(class.)
perad venture.
<uJa,c
^
Ijf
(m.c.) probably, as
whether?
perhaps
(class.)
?
^
possible ").
(iriterr.),
vide
(I).
(intorr.); r/7*0
but":
vzrfe
(^')
(S).
^X*.;
singular
masc.
Aor.
lit.
"it
is
\z+*
(ftdj.)
(m.c.) possibly.
(m.c.)
"^AX:
^
L
if
vide (7).
(2)
Balki
j ^t>
f
*^Jb
'*
^o^t
his
45
c^-voo
*^ vi
,-^IXA:
jjl^j
ji^J
it
Ci
sfi
Wall
11
j^^I''i>ak.^Ji>,xJ
!
Axi- tXixJ
1
^^J (^l**
*'
'J
^*-*
viJl^ Cl^U^
*
^jt^
c?^
*^Ufi>
*?*j*
{*}*
J ; *^-*
** i^-'f^
*3* (JSa'dT)
lie
said,
my
it
butes
no fault to
you
in
this:
nay
rather
God Must
<>-'Uj *.<lj
should happen to your slave come." perhaps may Though balki *& is enhansi ve and not exceptive yet in such a sentence as
Hiirh that something unpleasant
" b
"
(11 i.e.)
Jie
vt
I will
first
Persian as in English,
/
when
210
stage but at the second," ^^, etc., are used ir &L' would be obligatory in Urdu vide Phillott's
:
Manual,
p.
(e).
These aie
vorlis.
\Vords signifying
'*
perhaps
" are
ualled
advorhs oi
possibility
an<i doubt.'
'"'
In iviniian,
vuly.-irly brilkiun
and balkam.
t;.finna~yi
gandum
chi-ant
''
c^o*x^.
,*0>jJ
tXxisx:
wk
1
J^yc
what
wheat to-day
V
:
Note the dramatic present the L'ast would be wrong. Note :ird pers. after 8->-*J and also the old particle
1st pors.
c.
the
usually follows
<>^
300
(3) Shayad "perhaps" is always followed by the Aorist or by a doubtful past tense: ^AJ ^L^ ^U^ff (class.) "if perchance the men of the boat should come. from "also meaning "to be Shayad <^**?l. " xU +J ** = u~jl U^ o-~*> (m.c.) (m.c.)
^U
^U^
fitting
fy
^^
is
J6
:
tell
lie.
Guya
Lj^J
"perhaps,
though"
j
^T
(m.c.)
Muhammad is an acquaint-
^^ cu^3^.j ^^
"
i^
j|
(m.c.)
asleep on a bedstead with a sheet over his face like one dead."
c)^
^jt (m.c.)
(5)
speaking" from
jti&
he
will
(6)
^'x^c
jt**> (m.c.)
Gah
ast
c^f
&
O^LJ
?
o^f
lf *>jf
j\
^!>X^c a^Xa.
U^
(m.c.)
"how
can you say he won't come (7) Chi rm-shavad ki " what would
(I)
perhaps he may."
'*
c^jt^f
&*
^^ (Sj^
**
-J^x
*$ (m.c.)
?
happen if, why should you not have compassion on me Adverbs of comparison
:
"
(i)
0-3
^>^j,
vide (2)
o*^
o, t?We (3)
-more.
or
'^U-*j
much more
vide (4).
less
vWe
(5).
at least.
) >
small.
least.
c^^
(ni.c.)
equal to.
sums
of
money, weights,
etc.).
c^
*
f*
,,
20 ^ ^Ijj
ti
neither
more nor
less.
Imam
a
title of
made
pilgrimage to the
tomb
of
For ziyad-tar
y^> (not
used).
301
lower
(of place,
x
rank, price).
only, vide
(8).
jr-as,
like, equally.
alike.
like.
Remark.
<xuU
and the
suffixes
arc called
"particles of resem-
blance."
In
txxjf
oU*j^^
v
ii>ja.
^--),
Rustam
is
called &v*c,
and
.sMr AJ
x>^; and
this order
chun, the
is
^^o^,
:
In poetry, however,
<^^
5
neglected
&))***
&* v!^
(2)
)<*
3*
f^?"
V^
40
O^ j*"^*
(i)
Vt?^"
-i^)*
A)^ V^
^^
"***
^tt*
(Ghashm-i tu
is
As stated
^U)
:
is
a positive.
But the
positive is
little
%&* ^U)
^aJ
is
(m.e.)
^give me a
Ziyada
following
a,s
:
te t)
{
is
it,
]
to
which
(one
or
y,
x*.)f
jj^Oj
compound word)
compounds, as
"
:
>?i*>
J^
^f
^tj)
(m.c.)
don't
tolj, subs.,
(for) the greater part (3) Bishtar JJ&AJ the greater part of which was of glass." or an adverb, according to the reading.
<{
"
:
&jj
AkJjf j y^vj AT
Here Ulsh-tar
may
be a noun,
(4) (5)
Bisyar-tar
y ^U~j
kam-tar
is
not
-
much
,
used.
are often used in a negaj
Kam ^,
:
ff
and andak
tive sense, as
oJjji
cXJf
Not ziyad
In m.c.
302
(Sa'dl)
is
remedy
not to worry
"
:
much"
&*
interfere
&
>
($
c
AJ
^ &^& ^
->
~&
***J*
cA^
<jyt*J &j*-
(Sa'dl)
'
Since you have not sharp-tearing claws Better not engage in strife with wild beasts
' '
:
*&f
cA^ e^
( '
(Sa'dl)
is
he that
Vide also
71
(;').
Ham
A
(ir*
;
when
fj&**
it
/*
very" (emphatic), etc., and riiz _>*> "also." Ham means "also" seldom commences a clause, whereas nlz does:
p* "also,
(m.c.)
= man
riiz
" said so
" both he and I mi-guyam : $ p* p&$ &*> p*> " also he said this " here ham could not be
;
Ham
clause
:
that very
himself
p*>
is
also
"they say
(Sa'di)
\^\
:
"
l^ujf
very place
vide (8).
"
:
&(*>)
^^
^
c
p*>
(m.c.)
"in " at
this very
place"
^f
l
For ^ +* and
Vide
in
90
A
' '
(a) (6).
c
Ham p*
citizen
compounds means
^
fellow," as
"
^^ f* or
^^
:
" fellow
j*~*>
bed-fellow, wife."
b "together": Note the following compounds: j! "apart": p*> " Ali " OI^ on t ie ^ Another and sometimes P C5.^ ; colloquially f* L$J) t( on an average" pAj** " contiguous (of lands) level " ^l f* C5Jt? p*j**
^
fc
:
"one behind
the other":
^*A
:
cuJ;
1
1
"
^Ay
|yc Jla.
^A
^ c^ ^ ^ v#
y (^U^
v^U*
^> J^ ^l
(m.c.)
jf
(m.c.)
me": c^w
^b,j
^Ap
*+A
"ali your
cu^f^ fj^-^>
"he had
only
^i^.
^ j^A.
and sleeping
is
Hamin
J
ki ACix*.*
enough for us, we want nothing else." means " as soon as " ftvof ^^ cxij^i
:
(^M.*.
(m) Adverbs
(1)
l^sxkjt
of place
( <*>&<>
o^
j^, or
l^-
(m.c.) here.
lax-f j^,
j** &\\
(m.c.)
^
^
^f
Any
(m.c.) v 7
-this
,,
way.
^f (m.c.)
j
(m.c.)
of the simple
propositions can
ride
(I) (7).
f^e
;'
whence
m/a
c^^ A (emphatic),
3Q3
that way.
V within.
oj^
**
.
Without. J
>
^j/
l^ <UA
U.
^J,A
*j
everywhere. somewhere.
g*A
U*
nowhere.
rj
level
(lit*
breast to breast).
u*,
CLAJ
behind.
or
CLA**^)
cuvo^
or
*-**>
^*o on
hand,
outside.
>
inside.
all
the way.
opposite.
here
now
vide
(5).
In m.c., andarun
^3>3t.
is
it
in the sing.
" the inside, the stomach." tndpl., as a subs., for " 2 Nuzd nizd " near is not used as an adverb
only as a preposition.
J(
3 *
6
Plshri
man ^o
of place, <j**J
but pish az
man
^yc
(Jl*-u
of time.
Barabar
^^
*aqib,
also
For AT.
and vulg.
304
vide also
(I) (7).
vide (6).
:
vide (3).
J,
below, down.
yj
]j~
head foremost
upside
down
steep
^wherever.
j*
e^f
or
o~t ^T there
>
it is.
*^
,
somewhere
else.
j
^iii/
tu or
inside.
apart, aside.
higgledy piggledy.
upside down.
different, changed.
headlong.
except, besides:
_vi3
v^e
(7).
below
(of place, in
(
.,
an assembly).
,, ).
JU above
Remark.
(2)
Idar
Faru is used in compounds, as: cui?^? "he spoke low" he under,' got (the fire) )j Before a vowel j^y is sometimes used (class, and m.c.). 8 (3) Fara iy is sometimes merely a euphonious as:
<
'
'*
here, behold,"
is
obsolete.
:
particle,
o^^t;
:
" " I went Man bi-lcuh sar-a~bala raftam up the hillside ^AS; Jflj |^M ^5o ^A3 (m.c.) imruz u U-man mra-bala kard (slang) " he overcharged me ": jj)^ W> tr c5 tV^ -? w 1iarf-h&-yi sara bala ml-zanad (slang) = "he's opening his mouth very wide (slang)."
1
l
t/z?r dast-i
man
nishasta ast
adj.,
o^*(
*L*j
below me":
3
^.^ o,^*^^)
^t
zlr-dast
o-o ^>),
jJJ.
fy .^o. ^A,
305
" the >* (Mem. of Jahangfr) Rajputs f^<> ^ came in armed bodies and surrounded the entrance to the Sultan's tent" :
cui^J
\jZ \j
&JUL
(4)
Du
T (m.c.)
-
j*\j*.
" the flood came and swamped the house.'* " twice as thrice as much.'* *~,
etc.,
much,
e(
(5) Inalc
<^x>
^2J
y
coming": inak
from Baft."
uJJLjf
J
(class.)
"here
is
the boat
'
(m.c.)
Farazyj* has many meanings in classical Persian. It is common in compounds: e*H*> jij*' "to occur": ^oxf jfy "to come close"; cuiJjfji cu~& " (the king) sat on the throne " jy* 9 <-?*& " descent and ascent."
(6)
:
Wara-yi In matlab-l digar daram ^\^> "besides this, beyond this, I have another object."
(7)
t^*x>
^t ^]^
(m.o.)
(n)
" Oh content enrich me, For except thee there is naught else." Adverbs of Quantity
! :
(1)
UM
little.
little:
:
vide (2).
;U~
JUa.
much
vide (2).
(m.c.)
much, greatly:
vide (2).
j)
^X
*'
o*^ enough
0^3^
-
ai1
u^ 3
very much
fwWe(3).
)
&***>
[**
even
c^-h^
this,
(class,
and
],
jxft. x x-
(class,
and
a
m.c.) a little.
^"^ ^*^
(class.
little
,,
,,
(m.c.)
(class.)
>vide
(9).
^
i
as
much
as.
J
to the best of one's ability.
4j
<kay& as
much
l
as possible.
20
106
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^
>
excessively
vide (4).
A j
,
(m.c.)
**.
^
.
(m.c.)
5
(m.c.)
(m.c.) little
by
little.
little.
(m.c.)
&
(m.c.) in
of one finger-nail, a
little.
(m.o.) in armies.
(m.c.) in flocks.
(m.c.) altogether; afeo in
one place.
(m.c.) 7
them.
(m.c.) as
much
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^
s
about, at an estimate
vide (1).
and mod.) however much, in spite of: vide (8). bisyar buvad ty ;U-^ c-U^ ^&\ (class, and m.c.) (2) Andak-i l A '^f (Sa dl) "it is related ^ ^^!>t <j?)b~> j *f *a*^3jl ^^;^> tf^t bhat he made an increase in their allowance, but a decrease in regard " * JU ^jU-o AJ JUa ^AJ! andak-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mdl (Sa'dl) a little
(class,
dalil-i
:
'
'
j,i
beauty
is
better than
much wealth."
Vide p. 126
(6).
;
(mod.) has the same signification as bisyar /*-*j but for 43 (c). a slight difference in the usage of the two as adjectives, vide bas az bas-i and basa Bas vide -y y, ^**> (3) p. 123 (m)
Khayll
^^
^,
and
m.c.)
"he was
exceedingly clever."
<c
In speaking, *$ LrO i 8 commoner, as: I got weary from waiting such a long time.
Bas-t sulchan-i duahvar-l
*st
** &~-^
^JUAi
* c
c*~^fj,3 (^su
4^^* (m.c.)
itis very
much
(m.c.)
infra.
The "a
of unity, as
bisyar-l az
mardum mi-guyand
."
ki~~ *$ *>i^A/c
is
+^4 y
^jU-wo
'
many
Bisyarl
c/J~^
also a substantive,
vide
'
* Bisyarl (j\*r*t here might be either a substantive, or else an adjective with the ^s of unity. For the sake of balance it is here a substantive.
307
till
"
:
^wj U
matter" Ajl^Jaivc ^*o (Sa'cK) "a long time one must wait ba u suhbat kardam, bi-dard-i ja-yi ma na-khurd o***u0 y U ^i " I talked a long time with him, but it was ^U, t>)*) f&jf (m.c.)
bas-i
useless."
" Ah! wealth takes wings and leaves our hands all bare, And death's rough hands delight our hearts to tear."
(0.
K. Whin. Rub.
<u~Jf*Jj cM i*j#
*
102).
Basa ashkhas
M\ (m.c,).
of ;U~>
Jci
<j0l| Uo
In classical Persian,
place
usually followed by a singular noun bisyar. and the other two by a plural. Instances of bas-i with a singular noun are few. These words are not quite out of use even in m.c. Bas-i mardum
is
^ Bas ^
lf>j
bas,
tuf
~*
6a5-t,
and
^J
4<
^^
(m.c.):
basa
bashad
ki *
Basa U; in m.c.
(4)
also
"
exceedingly thirsty UA (m.c.), or man ^;td
:
^ nihayat mahabbat ra ba-shuma daram ^ (JOA^XJ^^.;^ bi-nihayat (or bl-nihayat) ba shuma mahabbat daram
oj^:
^^A
*LiJ
-^^ &*
(m.c.)
"I'm
oskac^o l^i
fj\t>
ojl^i
^j
or)
J^^j ^^ ^\
(m.c.)
"I have an
x
excessive affec-
tion for
you ":
I
^iax**
^^l
**
-^f*^!
e>Ui>o(
i
c^-*
(m.c.)
": pf>
oj^;^
-
^t u^ cu^a^o ^t
^xj
(m.c.)
(5)
am beyond
M,
measure grateful."
a*k.
**
l
Kullan
Kulliyyat
Kulliyyat
or)
&$S =- Ji^and
*'
signifies
" com-
*(
^^
^K
^.
(ra.c.)
have nothing to
<c
means without exception: cxi^ they were all, without exception, drunk."
(6)
Kullan $
CL^X> nr
^XLXJ ^j|j^
O^*AX> ^f
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
L5JU)^ J**
^^ ^ ^
A^^^
my
(7)
tamam
...
Qarib v^V? taqrib U^M: xA o^j j*Uij w^jl^U&f ashya* qarib babar bad shud (Afghan) '* the things were nearly all destroyed " =
%
j*i cAlii
UW ^^j'^U^i
ashya* taqrlb
....
>
nn<l
talaf
vJJLJ
hama
^^ 3
talaf shud.
(8)
Chanddn
*'a thief
ki
^ t^j^
^ v^
*^ isMA^-
t^^
(Sa'di)
entered
spite of
much
Or
cujlfXff
j$c
j^l.
Also timaman
308
<^y,
"a
little
neglect";
(m.c.)
^ "a
(Sa
<K)
jf
>^
(Sa'dZ)
"a
:
little of
Ms
life":
JLc
jf
:
few
"
)
^f^ o~oU
;
*T
kuj
s<
(m.c.)
" perhaps they up a portion of our property " he " (Sa'di) pondered a little time on this one must consider this a little." Vide p. 126.
will give
Lakhi-l
(0)
(1)
wA
m.c.
r,^U m.c.
>good, well.
)
manner that:
vide
(2).
(m.c.) in this
^jf
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
o
on
my
)
>
= w iHing ly.
or
by
force.
.) ) (class.)
or
(14).
(class.)
(class.)
nolens volens.
(m,c.)
)
(adj.; helplessly;
ti
nolens volens.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
-# (m.c.)
>
suddenly.
(m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
(m.c.)
3
(m.c.)
purposely.
(m.c.)
mounted.
on
foot.
(m.c.)
lii
an
adj. or adv.,
but in
JJdihi,
Behar,
etc.
an adv. only.
SavZr
Jf,
subs.,
'
a mounted
man":
aavara
jtj-
subs,
on
horse-back.*-*
309
(4).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) (m.c.)
Uecretly.
|
(m.c.)
(m.c.) openly.
(m.c.) inwardly, secretly,
\
(m.c.)
i
P en ly>
,.
clearly.
)
v
...
gratis, gratuitously,
(m.c.) )
comfortably.
)
(m.c.)
vide
(I)
(7).
and
(I)
(7).
(i
(m
c.) losing
}!
(m.c.)
by deception,
m.c.) falsely.
cJ? (m.c.)
X
on the peg.
(m.c.)
>**&>
\
>
(m.c.)
in detail.
Fash
bi-gu
j&
(J*\>*
(m.c.)
"
tell
me
without reserve."
*
>
In Mod. Pers. ashgar fe\ and ashgara IjK^t. So bewildered that one doesn't know one's hand from one's foot: pacha in
m..
is
jffr
tsj&
}*'*&
tf+.'
vulg.
"hang
(the
nail,"
&* d&
310
at
an estimate.
ditto.
)
.
(m.c.)
,
cj> (mod.)
,
(m.c. only)
u*j*li
t )
on an average ^
up, in short.
;
or &*NcLto
sum
&)j&
(j**?.
as
disguised as
vide (10).
at ease. ftyf (m.c.) slowly, u~Af (m.c.) slowly; in a low voice; aside.
X)
e>>&7~ (m,c.)
f* prone.
(m.c.) excessively
(m.c.)
'
:
vide (12).
ditto.
(class.) as before,
in
lj
a manner,
like.
(2)
<c
Miyana
tawr-% ki *&>^i>
^lav <^
:
you act moderately you will not be upset" " " why did you not do as I told you ? *j^ (m.c.)
if
(3)
Minnat m%-damm
the
?)\***
^i<:
To
for
me?"
answer
might be:
^
^^^
will
with
pleasure."
<e
another has spoilt your business, and you are angry with
(4)
me ? "
etc.
,
sar-i asp,
' '
1
etc.,
amadam
rail , etc.
,
f **f
jj
; jjj '
^Or**
^r* * T' * r* ^ or
1
cam e on
horse-back,on foot by
etc."
(5)
A5ouf 'Ayn u** "essence; eye, etc." (followed by the izafat " what I am is U^> the. course to telling you, ^^ /^>;^ (m.c.)
:
OU-M cuasJLA^
take
>ju**f
"'
(6) for
o^f UL^xc ;^^ c^W^ (m.c.) " the streets are cleanliness itself" u what w^.*> ^^ >^^^? (^j *.if (m.c.) you said is accuracy itself." " " Mahz unadulterated
:
(ja*^>
:
"pure,
U^yk^-o"^
9
(m.c,)
merely
your sake"
U^
sight
of
you":
J*. (Shah
Diary)
"
something
311
When
is
it
precedes.
an adjective.
(7)
Fardham
what
"
ptiji
1
s
:
he
is
collecting sticks'
collecting
c^T (m.c.)
^yf
p*tji
(
v^
.)
(m.c.)
you are
p*\
^.lj ^xiif
Aacu.f
this."
(8)
:**
t^
p* j
"
(m.c.)
they separated."
" Until thou knowest that speech is absolutely proper, Thou shouldst not open thy mouth " (Sa'ctt).
:
j.s ^i kagr/iaz ra az hamjuda na-kun (m.c.) ^Ajf \j " don't Vide (I) (7). separate these two papers." (9) Bardbar ; *^j* cfj l O^' d *-#. jfj*. (Afghan) "they continued playwith eacli In m.c.. however, this would mean they were playing other." ing
\*s*
In
du
'
" a dervish
"
in
J>t
o;^^
''
(m.c.)
as
:
it
was before."
l*t
*> Note the meanings of **>*jr* )i *$)?* )& :>yi &+> (^ do you allege this against J^J^A: (m.(j.) "since I have done no wrong, why " me ? " ^J ^b *^. ^yo xf b/ jf ^^^> j^ (m.c.) in the event of his not " coming to-morrow what am I to do? " " v Ai~Ci lit. he in
:
J^
^
*
(11) Shikasta,
brokenly
^3^ ^f^
j (me.)
jerks
his
speech (as children do, accentuating every syllable)." *-*& ooU (Sa'dl) '*it will be the greatest kindness." (12) <jhfiyat-i: azTui c^jf <4 in that manner'*; and aydun &}* or Andtin oj^f (13)
^U
/'
and
Mmi
^^
"in
this
manner"
and
also
*For
five
months, now,
tl
Now
mind
Abu Bakr
(14)
Khwah ma-khiydh
t^. u!j +&j>
*^,
f
or khwahi na-khwahi
4<
^\
f^^c
would
go";
^^
y (m.c.) I told him &* mc ojw c^^3^33 >.* w>^ v^ " its. own accord of ^T ground **cy
(^*)
312
(p)
(1)
Time
cA*)'^
Time
9
present, etc.:
kunun
(m.c.)
y(^-
hald (m.c.)
J-now.
JUJ| alhdl
(m.o.)
al-an (m.c.)
(m.c.) yet, as yet.
')
tiHt
j^ (m.c.)
)
i
cH)^ (m.c.)
nowadays.
jf
^a
(m.c.)
;
at present
(m.c.) (m.c.)
adv. in cash).
(m.c.)
this instant.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
*
I
(m.c.) to-day.
(m.c.) to-night.
(rare in m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
r
break of day.
before the false dawn.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>
(m.c.)
(class.)
true dawn.
j-
(class.)
early
in
the
ete.
morning,
or
to-morrow
* subh-i
zud (m.c.)
(early ),
sun
rises.
(class,
and
m.c.)
dawn, before
ditto.
sunrise.
(m.c.)
For
Now
or never
"
kunun, ya hlch-gah
&
*:**>
()&
dar
in vaqt ya hargiz j
S
ace.
Im
for
in.
313
indication of light.
^U*
(*a.c.)
false
.
dawn.
t^f &>>>
(m.c.)).
>
>m
^t
le
**j-k (m.c.)
(m.c.)
midday.
(m.c.) evening.
>*
-a*ftJ
iJuaJ half-a-day.
fjj (class.)
'f
..
midday.
) >
)
.
. .
Jjl
(m.c.)
when
the sun
is first rising.
y[^-* (m.c.)
f
(m.c.)
by day.
(2)
Time past:
1^131
c*t
jt
(m.c.)
JA> (m.c.)
(m.c.)
|
3
^0^ this
1
^previously.
(m.c.)
j^
(m.c.)
53
}
1
(m.c.)
|>
or
^oj
anciently.
xs
(class.)
(m.c.) formerly.
(m.c.)
1
(m.c.)
'
^
^
,
> yesternight. e J
(m.c.)
[
i
or
oj^
' 11
(class.)
In Arabic zanab
s-sirhan
Nim-shab
v^ |*V
*4^-
>
^-^
&*
c5^5 (m.o.)
In m.o.,
" when
had passed"
a brick.
&\"&*)
<X4Jo
* 4
nima
(m.c.)
&
^ 2C4** (m.o.) rise earlier 4^3^-jjy " " did you not tell me sooner ? why
'*
Jiji)
in the
mornings"
Dina
4 *
yesterday/
(rn.c.),
Also shab-gu&uhta
*v*w *^^
without an
izajat.
U4
(class.)
},
yesterday.
(class.)
cV3x>
(m.c.)
JU u^(~*
(m.c.)
i rf
(m.c.)
^
I
JU. (m.c.)
/
l^last J year.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^b^
(obs.) yesterday.
(obs.) last night.
(3)
2
Time
t^T*
to
come
(rn.c.)
(m.c.) to-morrow.
| )
thene xtday.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) the
(m.c.) the
day
after to-morrow.
or
ly
^y LT^
1
**
(m.c.) 7
>
next year.
,
J*. (m.c.)
U> (m.c.)
U
.
>next month.
snext week.
,
,,
(rn.c.)
J
)
,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) in future.
l
(m.c.) (m.c.)
31
->*J
(m.c.)
M n future,
|
after this.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
1
a
3
Vulg. pllar sal JL, ; iUj . In poetry often used for the
Judgment Day.
Ya&
Aa/ta
t/i
&A*
cJ^ (m.c.)
I'll
give
it
in
a week* a
time"
an W*&\ * Halnn va now and for the future" ) HU i8tiqbal has the nunation vide (p) (1) note (1), page 312.
4
'
in this case
315
*
x5
(m.c.)
(class.)
)
{
henceforth.
(m
'
'
presently.
m.c.)
3 2
)
^^
(4)
(m
is
'
c ')
presently, quickly.
follows:
^j (m.c.)
Time
also expressed as
"
^U
1
l^uf
U>
l^
**
(m.c.)
<wU-
&^
j*y***^*
->T
ty
v*"
**
C*j*
J^ o**^
"
:
(m.c.)
home
in the
morning
*>*) ^tx^j
**
well,
C5f^^3y *^^ *^^ I; T*** **&*> (Shah's Diary) at night, several bands took stand below the building and played a
0)1**
great deal."
(5)
now "
(a village
is
coming
into use.
In Kirman jakht is a substantive meaning " endeavour" and is supposed to be corrupted for the Arabic <*^ it is, however, probably from or cj^^^ "to strive, endeavour quarrel." the Persian ^^.A>
:
(6)
Time
j^Alf
indefinite
and miscellaneous
J'^>> (m.c.)
1
^immediately.
^
* Jb
j
(m.c.)
f;y (m.c.)
.c.)
J
)
(m.C.)
(m.c.)
[without delay.
.^
, ,
(m.C.)
r te
mpo r a r
ly
and hot.
(m.c.) especially.
j
(m.c.)
,,
more than
all.
**Jf
Ar.
and Mod.
Pers., especially.
^o
(m.c.)
' :
y
"
:
>xj
UCi WA^,!
ji
"
it is
certain
and hot": 2 (m.o.) "bring in the bread hot ;^ otf fj " cool between whiles)." (don't get (m.o.) "work continuously
3
my
)j*
go.'*
)^ ff
\*
Pronounced vungahi.
316
(m.c.)
many
times, oft.
65r-t (m.c.)
once: vide
(7).
(8).
^j
p$
*
(m.c.) at
;
one time
at another time
vide (8).
(m.c.) often
(also
much),
(m.c.) often.
(obs.)
seldom.
Uf,
lf
^(f
(f
(m.c.)
sometimes
sometimes.
<j*# (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
x
quickly.
(class.)
b ^3 sooner or
later
vide (10)
-\
;^ (class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
f
^rarely.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
h
seldom,
less.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
always.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
J
(m.c.)
Ar.
Jb
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
^continually.
(m.c.)
Sometimes,
l(
also, classically
and
**
317
} > )
continuously.
^.
(m.c.)
(m.c.) repeatedly.
(m.c.)
,*j
(m.c.)
continuously. do.
jxj (m.c.),
and
**ij
j^A?;
f
**<>:>
(m.c.)
day by day,
-\
daily.
ijtti* (m.o.)
AiAAjA (m.c.)
1
weekly.
(m.c.)
vide (11).
:
Cf every moment,
^-j
moment by moment
vw?6 (11).
(m.c.)
(class.)
little.
(7).
b (m.c.) vide
^
!
^^ \ c^ (m.c.)
31 x
,
(m.c.)
I.
etc.
(m.c.)
jj>
(ra.c.) late.
(m.o.)
^
>
./
at last, finally.
for a
^b (m.c.)
^^ AJU
*aS
(m.c.) subs,
and adv.
>
day and
night, 24 hours.
4.
n > at no time, never, ^ really not. __ lUt (m.c.) } U3 (with or without izafat) (m.c.) all the day. r U (m.c,) as long as.
(class,
cU3
(m.c.)
and
m.o.) in
any
case.
c^A-
&**> (m-o.)
get a
week?
* 8
Vulg. dwr-vaqt
*
*^+
For
^2 ori na-d^tom
t^ tUl
(m.o.)
it
at all."
318
now* at present
(m.o.);
on account. 7
(m.c.) as
soon as
merely: vide
(12).
y
(m.c.)
& (class,
>
and m.c)
,
vide (13).
a*Ut (class.)
y
jUj
(class.) therefore.
o*~J
(m.c.)
compared to formerly.
^Uj
>j*
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
every moment.
(m.c.)
oswU
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
crw ^i 3
(7)
(class., or
this.
f
Bar-l ^s)^:*)j*
cl?yij ^c; fj
*j*
j/*
kill
this slave, a*
(8)
Vaqt-i
if you want to ^( (Sa'di) do so the law.' the of (well) accordingto interpretation ^ij, vaqt-ha l^j
'
*^-^
^l^b ^
:
<^U
(Sa'di)
" he sank a
t(
ew * times ";
^
.*.
Jea,$*
(Sa'dl)
F^
times."
^M
tj*>
^)
*+* *&j
*j\~*>
*>*
J^
& *$
oJ^JU
fxJr
is
vaqt-ha signifies
" at
timevS
and
at other
in
of course, is
it is
used
*
8
Common in Indian Persian. Bahama h&l namt-falfinam (m.c.) "I haven*t in the
bi-har jihat.
UA
^^Aftx)
^9 ^w Jla.
:
a^^j
also jtf
B5r- chand
lt
(class.)
a few times."
well," chand
bhurd
'*
319
M etc.
l
>tf
^ ^
\ft
(*'f *'f
1
*
or
^lf
*(f
.
i?
(m.c.)
" he occasionally
In m.c. the
(10)
" Sooner or
an
#.
I*
^3, or
.*. aj| l>(i
tjj
*
tf^ya
*jU
*!>*, or e>t$>f
,
31
"
if
(11)
5naM
*.
-5w
Uf
^Joi-f GU:
tell
him
to call
" to-morrow
I
^j ^ eU^*j ^
(3>^ ^^ ^f (in a letter) "every moment an a-an an a ~" j (In an f then, so, and ").
,
In Arabic
(12)
t'>Ujx|
or seldom."
)
Ta & and mujarrad &j*vo:fa jLa. )\ pA$ iy U (m.c. " as soon as I " saw you I swooned away = bi-mujarrad-i didan-i shuma az hal raftam *j^+>
fa JU>
$
31
Mujarrad
also
'*
ejty
^w
ij
^t
j&
*~&>
&^J*
^=F^*J
CLM*U* (m.c.)
:
him"
ijT^U
^ cU*
Digar
*jUi
;
e>uS
**
^w^j
(m.c.)
tf ^ *^ ^^ u"^T^3^ **fjl* &f &I& j~& j that kings are for the protection of their people, and not the people merely to render obedience to kings."
(13)
(Sa'di)
c^^^Jb
^^3^
"and
again
know
(m.c.)
^)jj
"and
*
it
is
interest":
gkj'.
ft
learnt archery
in the
from me,
end he made
<*&at
me
his target."
j,
or
^\j+
bi-juz in ki, or
g&ayr az In
ki, or
(1)
Adverbs
of
Order and
Number
;U
vX
(m.c.)) ^once.
;b^
3^
(m.c.) twice.
jf-i* (m.c.)
again: vide
first.
39
(a) (I).
Colloquial for
Or guman-i
3
fi
KttWt,
is
here an adjective
the
45- is
not 45 of unity.
(i.e.
who
did not).
320
the
first
time.
1>s
UilS
(2)
>secondly.
J
again; afterwards' 9 xu >l A>t^y again'
:
Bazjb
"
1
:
such a thing
I will."
(r)
^JjJij*u
^ i^j U&
)
:
a^- )^
(m.o.)
"don't do
read
first,
(class.)
"do you
Adverbs of Exception l
(1) *T
*ttiL|
Jyx
a&fyU
(class.)
except,
till:
vide
(2).
(m.c.)
"except,
' ;
but";
and
(4), (6)
also
(5).
"yet"
(Afg.),
to
answer to
vide (3)
and
(8).
y^
but.
2
except.'
except
vide (7).
v*/f
ct?*^
)
j j
(6).
besides
more than
this, besides
\
wefe (7).
(2)
&$
^ +* O^jt
f*
^
this
move from
^^ ^*T *&* y y ^f-** <xiLx jt J/f ^^J c$^j> **" " he said had'st thou become so hard that not thou couldat up ^c)^ (Sa'di) steal from any but such a friend (or was the world so small that thou
IUdy
J/'
:
o^
>J
)
^v
sank ";
vide also
(4)
"*
^U>A
'^f^
(z)^***
Or* J
so, ye
<yjs^
*
^3cv*.A
^ux.*S(
this
of
ilf
to
answer to
Aa-^f
The idiom
incorrect in Persia.
In m.c.
'
is
"perhaps," or
(j) (8).
vide
' '
^J,
(m.c.)
etc.
but
'
" but
and
^ "again
still
' '
as
()(>or
ciA-^i.
(*^T
'
'
"although he
(3).
has
c^^
*J <^^ **f\
he
is
good
man
vide also
still
"
is
Siva-yi in
jfci.
^^
321
Bidun-i an ki *f e/f c^*-?: "without (m.o.) your ordering it I am ready to serve you" * or) A&T (m.c.) " I won't go without you.'* U* o*U &* f^*A (13 or*&f alava bar (7) Ghayr az $ j*& fy^; guzashta az)\ &&*$, etc.: also az means "besides," it cannot always Though gfrayr "except" be substituted for ^ >3U, as: o~oJ (tS w*j\^ (3^ art* )* (m.c.) "except me there is no one else in the room " here >3U could not be substituted
:
'
but ^IAJ^O
others also
>
&>
jJu*& ^li^i
(
;
who know
"
<xU~* ^^etiuif
AJ 5
^
A>
}
ts besides me there are e>x>3t^ or) er^ *j^* (m.c.) &i&! or guzashta az man ashkhas-i hastand ki )\
who
:"
oSb
*!
^3
o^
p&
^ly<>
^
it
t;
aside poetry one can't even style it prose; saddle nor palan." The use of <u^ ;v for
is
Ai i)
*.*?
rare
and
scarcely
modern.
Gbayr ^*
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as:
gkayr-ima
shuma
sive
Remark I. Although g&ayr azj\j** means " with the exception of, excluof," and alava bar j ijk* means "besides, including," both are in pracused synonymously.
II.
tice often
Remark
In the sentence
^3^0
;
**f
((+>,
is
termed
the thing from which the exception the particle of exception' Sometimes the mustasna
it is
and
is
^^^
(Tr.
jt* the ^Ul~/o the thing excepted.' different for the general term, when
<
is
made
is
called
o^
iXj
called
ki*
^iiv-*x>.
Ex,: f-xj^iu
j))***
e^j
J-^-J
(class.).
(The
man
bi-juz
H. B., Chap. VI) "the only answer $am hargiz rahat na-dldam ^ijJ (&*
"
:
"
ffAj^ay Jx^c/f>>
Even a Persian
'
(m.c.)
would not say, " in that jangal except fishes I saw no man.' (s) Adverbs of Qualification *Jb "moreover." ^t&.j (m.c.) more than all; besides; further: " Adverbs are: v-^ <^=^ very well*'; <Jji o* ^ "very (t) Intensive
:
1
#
1
^i "knowingly and wilfully"; K^J Lr^ or ^j^ *' "nolens volena"; ^i^x^ & *** " continually laughing "; e^b c/b whole " lapfuls at a time," Wj>$ ;/ quite blindly." 4< In ^jr* ;r* just like an ant; slowly," the first member of the compound is a substantive wfo also Repetition of Words.
slowly
';
&~*\* )
^
*>
Takaltu
>&>
is
the
pad
of a Baluch saddle,
is
a pack-saddle for
a camel or mule*
21
322
PREPOSITIONS.
90.
*
^
(a)
The
or __ ten.
They
indeclinable particles called simple prepositions are only nine are placed before the simple or nominative form of nouns and
:
pronouns, as
jf^
l
$ Uuu[ jf az
mjd
of.
td Shirdz
"
from here
:
to
Shiraz."
az
b 6a
company
*
with.
(3) aj
ba 8 or
(4)
on, upon.
(5)
(6)
(7)
td
up
(8)
(9)
(10)
^ orj^u,
(h).
In Persian per
it
xo
).
governs are called jarr and majrur. Native grammarians include the postposition I; rd in the term jarr. For
examples, vide
Remark
Z\ ^j Remark
8
I.
Fard
\j*
"up
to,
"
j\j*
above,
(3)
89 (m)
and
"
(6).
II.
bounds, shore, towards" Arabic prepositions properly occur only before Arabic
words.
(b)
is
In poetry 3
ze*.
In modern Persian
bi.
Ba
is
said to exist
still
locally in Persia.
(In Arabic
always
4
bi.)
In India
:
ba.
Abar poetical
and
fcb&har it signifies
"
'
step-brother/
etc.,
same
idea.
J5,
Ar.
'
Zi also stands for zi/ii or zahl * well done, etc." 9 In Steingass's Dictionary it is said to accompany the genitive case present author has failed to find an example.
also,
but the
PREPOSITIONS.
323
" You are that By whom Majnun was oppressed." " You are not more beautiful than other women." She said, " Silence; you are not Majnun."
Laill said,
*
v.)vj
QA^j c*^J *
bob
ULCJ &tfjj
^| j*$ ^
*)*
mar
in rauza-yi
ra'na
xykj
j^fe~*#Lj^J*
l>
(&s*
itfmar magar zahra-yi ddam-% ki (Sa'di) there is <-&* no remedy for this disease, but the gall of a man, who ": f&^j* x =iV c^^^ cjtfak malik dar khashm shud va marura az bandagdn jl t>jl j*)
in dard rd dava-*i nist
*
"
"the king
fell
into a rage
(a
slave
girl)
(c) (1) In old, occasionally too in modern, Persian writings, a noun is sometimes both preceded and followed by a preposition, in prose or in poetry, as 0^1 ja J^j jy ^ ^^^ hasud rd chi kunam ku zi khud
:
^^
but with the envious what can I do, for he is himself bi-ranj dar ast (Sa*d!) in pain because of himself": p^f o^^jj y az khala^iq bi-zahmat
* '
^^
andar-am
troubled because of the people." In these two the is not part of the verb (vide 2 below), but refers examples preposition 3 to the noun preceding it as is better shown in bi-daryd dar mandft' bi>shumdr
(Sa'di)
I
ast vi~*!
(2)
'*
am
jU
^ jiUxja
preposition
*
(jj&
may
dar
(class,
or m.c.)
added to a verb for emphasis, as: bi-shahr " imruz " he entered into the
city
:
(bi)
sar-i
ba-ham "together": az hamp*j\ " apart": cJj^ vt^S bi-khwab andarun 6 " under the (mod. writing) j<M ^& yjj bi-zir-i sang andar (mod. writing) *.+ &+*> hama shab 1 dida bi-ham norbasta* stone": AJUjJ f*> (Sa*dr) "I
1
" I encountered u bar khurdam b **$ j, jf J~*.MJ*\ (m.c.) him to-day at the end of the street." (d) Sometimes two simple prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb, can be joined together, as:>w bi-juz b (or j^ juz): +*>{* or *& bi-ham or
^^
closed not
my
Rawza
**
*+*})
it
is
a garden or a meadow; also the burial-place of a saint." In India day the burial places of the saints wiU become 'gardens.'
trees are close together.
Hadiqa is a walled garden gkalba fern, of ayhlab means that the The wording is apparently from the Quran.
An example
8 is
of tajnis-i &&ajCJ*i or linear pun. In prose, there would be an izafat after roana/T, but the scanning shows there
none.
*
Or
bi-u.
*->
Ba-yi zvfyid.
This
7
is
also
ba-yi za*id.
v^*
is
^^
UA
324
(e)
PREPOSITIONS.
also be substantives.
Bar
"
advantage
bar-tar
:
fruit,* profit,
j (from
burdan
;
e^P^
bosom." "
'
'
signify
higher
" level
"
^<M^y
' *
jf
to recite
lost (as
<Jj)
man
raft
&*
j*
dust az a mistress from the bosom of her lover) " I lost my friend." Dar )* as a jf ^^^ (m.c.)
;
;
"
" dar bi-dar shudan &*j*j substantive signifies a " door " kardan bi-dar to house from house"; c**/^ to turn out."
"to wander
ba'zi
bar an-and
(classical
and modern)
(g)
(Sa'di)
"The
world, my brother, abides with none, Fix thy heart on the world's Creator and nought else."
of the simple prepositions
jt
:
(h)
(1)
The following are examples of the use Azy az Kirmdn ta Shlrazy^ & ^Uy
:
"from Kirman
to Shiraz
"
;
this is
az buzurg u kuchak called zci-yi ibtida^iyya (*-^m -fj ): hamagl y ji ^*A "all, both great and small": man az firishtagan-am
12*
fj )
:
"I am
va
si
is
called
za-yi
ba'ziyya*
^
storm
sanduq &^&*>
mallahan bud
i
:
qufl-i an-hd rashikasta oj^i^ ^* ^ " and (m.c.) having broken three boxes
Jo^lvl that belonged to the sailors" ^i>fc ^t y az in ^)j* '* an dar trees were rooted up by 5 uftadand tuf darakht-ha-yi buzurg (m.c.) [great
1* I; <j^>.* ^^J| ^f^i &*y* &# Musa Paygh^mbar ( 'alayfc's-salam) darvlsh-i ra did ki az barahnagi bi-rig andar nihan shuda bud (Sa*dl) "the Prophet Moses (on whom be peace) saw a darvish that on account of his nakedness had hidden himself in
:
^-^^
this
"
)^\
*J->j
u&*j jf
**
(^-^ u*Ufy
means "near, M
:
sun."
The
izafat is
when it
near
as
bar-i
man
<
c>'-
<)*!& er^y J^
p. 328, note 2.
*
8
"
sit
me "
'
^/ > dar
bar-i manJbi-nishin
here bar
is
Vide
is
a load," the crop of a fruit-tree, etc. very common amongst the Indians and Afghans, but
is
not in
use in Persia.
*
Qnl-i az bustan
cAV^ jf
vJ^,
^1?
is
another example.
;
This
is atfi~l**~>t
or *Jf<^j
and
(3),
and Bemark
II.
PREPOSITIONS.
the
325
^fj (or za-yi sababiyya
<SUM*
sand";
this
is
called za-yi
'illat
cJLs
Sometimes azy, followed by a substantive or prtfnoun and signifying " a portion of," takes the place of the object, which is in this case understood:
^H^y
*?.*
j* c$"*/
a
jf
chahar-paydn kardl dar cKda-yi u kashid (Sa'dl) "the horse-doctor put some" thing in his eye of the medicine he was in the habit of using for animals 5
az dardhim giriftam
jl
(class.)
"I
' '
:
u*W
<^lj
" the
partitive z."
jf,
Than, in comparison,
is
expressed by
this
is
called za-yi
tafztl
Az chand
ruz
) 5;
^i^
jf
" since
how many
;
days,
az chub
"made
^jj)
:
of
wood'
az
tild
" of gold,"
called za-yi
mdddiyya
accord
' '
;
(AjjiUo
az khud
<Jj.k
^^
"
y "involuntarily,
' '
:
of its or one's
own
az du taraf
^$
:
reciprocally
(classical);
c^o^^jf
and m.c.)
' '
:
*&
*> &>(**
^f ja ^ 31
*
***
az dar dar
az
naw
jl,
or az sar-i
waw
^' j
' '
guzashtam (class.) p&>tfj & &>** ^\ j y "I gave up this story" 8 az parcha saf kardan <D^ ol^ <^;Ujf (m.c.) "to strain through cloth"; az ham dar
:
raftan
(m.c.)
"
^j ^
p&
to pass
az ham guzashtan ^.j&M p*> )\ " vide also mutual to claims each other; (o) (8). give up by
jt
(m.c.)
"to go
to pieces
"
Remark.
/T
In the idiom
&*
^
^
ji
az an-i
is
"
;
az
ani Rustam
<^t
j|" Rustam' s,
"
the preposition
*jU
(^fj ).
(2)
Ba
fjlj
L>
"with":
Bd u raftam
:
him."
"Possessed
of," as
^f
^
1
U baittila
y^i ^yUj
^ o-^f AX*^?
^\^
nan-i sir (Sa^df) " a greedy man even if possessed of a whole world is hungry, " ba shamshir while a contented man is filled by one loaf kushlan^M
;
o^
company with " well-informed'* ; adj. (m.c.) haris ba jahan-i gurisna ast va qani* 6flj
pti)
" I went in
^UU
"to kill with a sword": ba anki *^T^ "with " ba In hama A*A ^\ b " with all this, in spite of this
(m.c.)
:
although": ba In panjah-salagl ^
that,
mine."
In a similar sense az
(or
qahli
murdan &ty
**<*
'
*avj>
jt
famine
*
hunger)
"
:
&&+* JA^>
something
The word
This
This
for
"
"
e)U^*^3 ^^^^3
' '
or
a portion
is
understood.
y
^
is
called a j^
called ^"***>
is
o~^
vide (3)
Remark
TT.
326
PREPOSITIONS.
With
a)f<*i
guftan, either
I?
fj>>
e^l* J *^ ^f y*
1
guyad bi-amsal-i ma guftan rava na-darad (Sa'dl) "what he he does not think right to tell to the like of us" : bakhud with says you, " he said to himself. " v^if b (or khayal kard *>j* J eA) m.c. AJ, guft
awcAi 65
l
Sometimes
" There
'
and,' as in
*&f
j*)*
^U
^y
(Sa'dl)
has his mistress in his arms, at the door (for her entry). " looking expectantly
(class.)
who
Bi
to
Tihran
(m.c.)
raft
(mod.) and ba
"to,
to
(dy&
"I
said to
him "
(m.c.)
:
"he went
" Teheran
^^
(
at"
or)
bi-
bi-u
guftam*
a^if
w**jj*
ground";
for
"affection of a child
mother":
farukht
bi-javab
^^/ p*^
s
o'^P
^^
4
:
(class.)
"I
will
Ja.^^3
guftam /*&? v ^su (m.c.) " he entered the " (m.c.) city
"I
^T
>* j&>
(m.c.) "it
comes insight"
b*-Lfi'l
J*^b "in
pa
"
it
fact."
pa
istada)
shud B
*t>&~j\
&>**$>.
d&\
5UUj|
b *^j
or)
(Afghan
(the animal)
fell,
on three legs":
bi-dan sabab
*-*** ^l^*
o^
I^IAJ)
(m.c.)
\^\
"on
fbj
(
that account
": ura
bi-tufang
jb>
(or
^Js&
t>\j+&
or)
"I
sher
ba^-ghurridan-i bisyar
bar-khast o-.l^
y jU--j ^J^AJ^^
l;r
roaring": c^^^f J
fainting, etc.)":
(Afghan) "the lion got up toith a great 4 bi~hdl amadan (m.c.) " to come to one's senses (after
&'
man
bi-rasidan-i manzil-i
"
my home," but man dar rasidan-i reaching my home (I was anxious to)
ft
J^vo
&*) ^ ^
all
on
."
bi-har surat
Bi'tadrtj g>y&*
by degrees
at
).
"
o^o
^ " by
means
"
;
bi-har hal
J^
l<
all
events": ^11^
(4).
b*-l-akhira
"at length"
(in
m.c. V-l-akhira
1
^Hb
him "
full
" Euphonically before demonstrative pronouns, etc., bi dan, bi-din, and bi-du, to ; generally, the **, both as a preposition and a verbal prefix, is only written in the
*^ before
its
form
is
and
joined to
4<
a word beginning with a 6 ; otherwise this preposition drops the % " but " to him " &* bi-u substantive, as: ; jj* bi-raw "go fli^
bi-blnam
2
3
let
me
see
"
(also
^^
'*
birbinam).
,
;
Or ba u guftam or bi-du guftam or ura (or vayra} guftam, or bi-vay guftam Or da* javab vl*^ )* (m.c.) the preposition used varies locally.
:
all
m.c.
*
6
it
seems."
without any preposition
:
In m.c.
(m.c
si
pa
pa show biraw
pish-i
8
"
to
."
PREPOSITIONS.
387
Remark /, Bi is also a verbal prefix, vide Remark II (i) and footnote. Remark //.Grammarians give the preposition ** various names according to
(i)
its signification:
BS-yi zcfid
si***J
tf
^f)
^^ )
"superfluous 6
)t> l-i)*)
"
as in
cu^y -_>u,
or JA
:
etc.
etc.,
In
<j>^&* jl,
or
^,
is,
some
grammarians
call
preposition dar
(ii)
"bd-yi za*id"
it
however, the
Bd-yi zarfiyya
"the
adverbial 6,"
:
^ or
f,
(iv)
" stands for 6 of companionship Bd-yi musdhabat ( c*x=*Lox> ^U ) as jahdn ay barddar na-mdnad bi-kas yj^ jJUi^i^j <^t e)^ (Gul.).
bi-ruz jjjj
"
by day."
" the
and
(v) Sa-i/i
I *t|; L$ N
or Jl^>l ^lj
"the
copulative
6"
or
"the
(
Ba-yi inhisdr
^tAsuf
junction," as ^^>J cu*o dast-bi~dast. " the 6 of restriction is practically the same, )
' '
<
but
signifies
(vi)
(vii)
completeness, as :_r^ j* sar-bi-sar for^~> $j sar td sar. Bd-yi qasamiyya ( &**>~$ ^t ), as }^^ ^y God."
:
/?-/&' mubddalaty or
6a-^ taqdbul
cLla3 <^lJ or
cJ^U*
'*
^b
:
<
the 6 of
the b of substituting barter or exchange," called also bd-yi ta'viz u^'.j** C5^ or compensating," is used with verbs of buying, selling, etc., as bi-dard-i ear
nami-arzad ^\ ^^ j AJJ the game's not worth the candle." the b of measure," as: ba e d az (viii) Bd-yi miqddriyya ( &*$***> ^U
'
(f
vafdt-i
bi-sad sal
JU
&**> j\
e*Uj
}|
:
**> (Gul., Story 2); here bi AJ = bibi-ntm bayza ki sultan sitam ravd ddrad
(ix)
Bd-yi ibtidd*iyya
*d\*&\
<f
^b
)
),
as
(Bustdri)
(x)
e*yT
o^>^^
khayr.
(
(*^^
(
^ (begin) in the
name
of
."
:
^l^iif
^b
*'
is
^iJtj i^ujf^
Bd-yi izdfi
as-:
^^
^
:
o^'Uf,"
muhtdj
bi-pul nlsiam
f~# J^
(
(xii)
The 6a-?/i
isti'dnat or
^ar^a or a^a
*tf or **J;i
or o<JUJ^|
l;jt
^U
to,
"the
.
&$
aj^-k+^j
as
oy
etc.,"
^^
),
%SA.J^> jsU^lAj
where
bi
stands for
& or
pish
(j*^)
ta'diya
&**>
^b
bd-yi
),
" the
I;,
J^x>^lj
:
or " the b of the object," or the bd-yi 6 that makes transitive," is the ^ that takes the
in chlz bi-dn
(
as
mard
is
bi-dih
>J b * }
^y&
e^!'-
'alq
(xv)
The
'*
isti'ld*
:
*iULt
^t
jj^J,
upon,"
1
as
*-
bi-ru-yi
u nigdh kardam
fjj/i
The
in verbs, as
328
(xvi)
PREPOSITIONS.
or
*^xA or AjW*
JU,y
him."
tow*rf
^
as
:
^b )
j^su Ijfd^
Khuddyd
bi-hdqq-i
is
bam
Fdtima.
(xviii)
Bd-yi muvdfaqat
e/;!<
(xix)
cf
'
^ J^,
in
or
(
Bd-yi tamyiziyya
*i\*&*
:
^
(/).
is
and
expresses
(4)
Ud)
= lUJ
Bar
j* or
near ").
For
and
As already seen
of bar j>, as
:
savdr bi-asp
w^
takes the place especially in m.o,, sometimes " on horseJ ) (m.c.) (for bar asp
;^
^^
it
:
back, mounted."
Examples
bar
m\z bi-guzar
j^ jV* f.
"
sit
'
(class.)
^^^ v^^?
(m.c.)
in the
" sun'2
put
on the table
lei
"
:
farmudam
:
bar
5 ruptya u ra bi-Jkashand **$& \\ *% j ** f*rJ (Jehangir's Memoirs) " " I ordered him to be bar-a T^J (m.c.) weighed against rupees (in the scale)
In m.c. bar j* is rarely used as a preposition alone. Thus " instead of bar db j on the water," in m.c. bar ru-yi ab *Jt <^vj* or
*'
come out."
^
(
simply ru-yi db wf ^sy would be used. This preposition is .usually omitted altogether in modern Persian, as
(m.c.)
(for
er^jy
cu^u
"
put
it
on the ground"
(
vide
(ft).
Padshah bar
takht
nishast
(or
julus farmud)
cu^xi
*U^U
*ry LT.^
^
or )
would
in
modern
LA^b.
nishast
table
^**f
"
^ ^J ^^
colloquial Persian be pddishdh ru*yi takht Similarly ruy-i m\z y** ^% (m.c.) "on the
j'^
and
;
ru-yi asp
>~~*\
^^ or savdr-i asp
j* "at
the
(a servant)."
(but sar-i
mtz Jv
table ").
Bar
is
Abarji]
and poetical:
^UM,
<U+xx
^jf
&\*$
b Jb
' '
^3 ^^>jf
:
*t
I)
c^-^ V^
(5)
.47icfar )*i
"
In (m.c.) ru-yi
m
ft
(m.c.) =s in the shade juat near to the sunlight (so that a
Dam-i
a/tab *J*tf
aftab
w^
a/tab
v^T )&
:
and
binishin (m.c.)
i
"
c^y
* '
(ra.c.)
= bar-i
p.
v^*^
I
.
right
in
the sunlight
sSyarU/lab
sit in
Dam-i
A
a/tab
v^f f*
also gignifies
nxc.
8
'*
near sunset.
Vide
324 , note
In m.c.
ham
vazn-i r&plya
kunand
*>ii^
AJ^JJ> cjjj
PREPOSITIONS.
(m.o. vulg.)
(vulg.)
329
raftand
1
"put wine in the cup"; andar khana "they went into the house" 5 *U~A ( J}i*
:
manzil (or dar manzil) hastand (or dar) bar kardand *>* (
Fide also
(7)
(vulg.)
andar
libas
andar
"they put on
clothes.'*
(9)
on dar ^.
Ta
CI
"
(also conj.)
"
:
" to* inja UuLjl U up to here, hitherto" az shimal ta junub *->y^ $ J^**Jt " from the north to the south*" ta bi-aknun cJjtflj 6 " until now" ta hat
:
:
JU. "
13
(or ta bi-hal
life lasts
Jlaw
13
"
)
while
"
:
ta
kay
or ta na bas ruzgdr Jfjj) u~^ ^ (class, only) " not for long" ta yak mah-i dlgar U cX U (m.c.) "in a month's time " ta chi rasad &*. 13 j?*>& (also conj.) class, and mod.) " how much the more" 91 (6) 12. vide Ta is also a " beware! behold! for shame! never! it is particle (poetical) signifying
: :
up
to the present
" "
ta bi-zlst
ta
cu-oj?
l5
,
(class.)
&>
13,
na bas
dlr j**
o^
not
(9).
for
examples, vide
91
(6)
(o)
Bl
'
:t
if*
to
nouns
it
When prefixed
;
im
";
etc.
Bl-tu
nami-ravam
^
^
^^
^
^
(m.c.)
"I
will
^ u*
bi-basar J*A>
****# (m.c.)
"
useless, silly
bt-abr
water"; biydbdn c>^"cloudless"; bt-abi ^1 (subs.) ^uncultivated desert," (i.e., without fixed water-supply except rainfall); " rude " bl-adabi bi-ihtirami ; "disrespect" bt-adab *->$
of
"want
^x>(y^(
"rudeness
ful
"
^\ ^
bi-adabana
bi-harf
A^J^I
(adj.
disrespect-
manner":
(9)
w3^
further
(o) (6).
Dar 6 )* "in,"
;
" he looked at him ": dar 1 vay nazar kard tjf j& j* (Sa'dl) ** shubha-l ki dar dil-am bud bar taraf gardld (m.o.) AJ5/ Hr^^J f**)* " ^iu CUAA " the doubt I had was " seven divided* haft dar Jiajt dispelled
" he replied"
Dar-javab
^*
by seven":
cJiahar farsakh
:
-^f
that
?$ )* ***j*
->W "four
cT
)&
"upon
day"
dar In miyan
i ]\jjjlna
andarun
raft in
m.o. also
*'
not
common
i
8
This U
This last
*
5
*
7
Dar )& is also the Imperative of darldan e)^i *' to tear." Or bi javab. Dar is called ^*^le Jy^ as it indicates the place Or bar vay
or receptacle.
330
Vide also
(10)
(6)
PREPOSITIONS.
on andar
)M %
J.J
"
)
" " ; except God I have no refuge 6i-;2 Khudd-(yi) Ta'dlq pandh-% na-ddram *jUi *kj^> j^yy mihtar jut towla na-bdyad jd-% pd bi-guzdrad *;!*& ^ <^W " " the the stable where foot not to his (in) except any get groom ought (m.c.) " " " with the besides or except that juz az in ki *&>\ 3'^ juz az an &1 jtj^
:
:
Juz
"
except
:
f;f*i
" cent
*UjjUf
l exception of this, in addition to this. is used in Persian for per, as: (11) The Arabic /?
:
"
/I sotf
JU <y
"
**>
<y
/*
sad "per
per
annum."
-
Remark.
Sf
-^-f^,
etc.)
are called
o^
huruf-i istisnd.
of the prepositions are substantives or adjectives expressed or understood. They
(12)
The remainder
preceded by one of the simple prepositions take the izdfat:zir-i zamin c^*j^j, or bi-zir-i*
zamm
city
ziydrat
&$
3
^ ^^
(
^^cu (Sa'di)
UJ^
4
jaJidz
3^ ^j^
JS^ASL/O
"
ow
jJU
cUilw
,^c
^^j
zindagi-yi
man
bi-
has been saved by your "my tufayl~i " A*U &^ ^iU ;t^ai bi-qardr-i ddat-i ki ddshtam (m.c.) " according to means " az a habit of mine qardr-i ki ma'lum mi-shavad ^^< ^U/o A^^iyji (mod.)
ast (m.c.)
(
life
4 *
as
it
(j)
appears."
The prepositions may be used adverbially when occasion requires, 6 " he came forward " andarun as pish dmad *vof J^j raft ^) &jy*>\ (m.c.) " he went inside or he went into the women's apartments." as prepo(k) The following are a few of the commonest words used
: <
;
sitions
y\)
zabar
above,
jy
7
faraz* above.
w\ zir beneath.
%
S
Or dar
zlr-i
j*\ ;^.
cWi: used metaphorically in the sense of *-kj ** J^i from tu/ayl, the name of man of Kufa, who used to go uninvited to wedding-feasts hence an intruder, parasite.
4
;
5
fl
Classically
andar
raft
could be used.
:
With the
Zabar,
izafat c^SJ^, as
' '
bala-yi darakht
*'
on the
tree
"
:
&
c5"^**
*u-yi bagh
4 '
fathah,
8
zlr and pw/i are the Persian names of the zammah, and kasrah. Faraz u nishib (subs.) " ascent and descent."
three
Arabic vowel-points
PREPOSITIONS.
331
l
and
^
^1
down.
before.
or
KttHH, vicinity.
j
bwun, out.
4
t
andarun,
in.
( jt )
JUS
#aW
(az),
vide (8).
*V
fea'd, after.
B
o^
>
?'t7te,
towards
(old).
fc.Jlo.
janib, side.
p
for,
on account
of.
oaray
l^
()\
except.
(c?ar)
payramun, around.
above
may
cases.
(3)
iS\j* 9
L>
or bi
AJ,
(4)
No
***> c/f
Jt
cm
bi-ba'd
cv^w
ii>f 3'
azaw- si-pas.
as
&a'd-t" hafta-%
^*j ?
(6)
or 6a'^ az hafta-t
'
The
ghayr j***)
(7)
may
^^,
<J*3,
and giayr
j&
(bi-
Az pas
wards."
"
of az pas
o^jK
In
modern language
'aqab
v-^ic is
preferred to pas
tj*>J.
1
ft
fathah,
5
sir and pish are the Persian names zammah, and kasrah.
vowel-points
is
classically
6
and
in m.c.
it
also
332
(8) Plshri
PREPOSITIONS.
man
(
" before
me "
l
&<>
;
J^J
time)
man
qdbl az
man &*
but pish az man ' ' " y cU* before me (time) az qibal-i
(place),
;
JLjjfjf
az jdnib-i man.
Remark.
\*>*
&y,
etc.,
pahlH-yi
c^
8
;
In m.o. ptsh-i man Lf^ and less commonly nazdri man " I have." In signify Ispahan, instead of pish ijty or nazd a>J; a * 8 generally used with the same signification.
(9) Bi-nazdik-i
of the
wise";
this
khiradmandan ^f^ix?^ -Xj>^ (Sa'dl) "in the opinion idiom is used in speaking by the Persians, Indians and
ghaltidan or bi-nazdtk-i gkaltidan rasid <-&>>> 1^*"*
;
Afghans
kishii
is
kishtl nazdlk-i
<>*-) cjjsjJtl*
c&yju b c^jJxlp (Afghan) " the ship nearly rolled over " in m.c. nazcKk bud ki bi-gJt&lfad *U*> * ty ^.*y ^^. Nazd &$, however,
{
added to many
(adv.)
"lower"
pishtar
y^
(adv.)
be
The preposition need not be repeated before governed by the same preposition ^AJ ^j ^j& j
(m)
:
words
c^ao.^ ^ ^fc^fcl^b
bdkhatir-dari va mahabbat va dustl bi-man pish* with hospitality and kindness and friendship.
' '
amad
(m.c.)
" he treated me
" face
In m.c. the substantives which most commonly take the place of prepositions are nouns giving the idea of position or direction, as: rU ^
(n)
' ' ;
sar^
;
' '
head
' '
(on)
pusht owiu
* <
back
' '
(behind).
1
(Afghan)
''on the table"; sar-l asp y^, behind the screen." pusht-i parda >^J ^io
^)
Frequently, in mod. Pers., the preposition, or the noun that is a substitute the for preposition, is entirely omitted, as: zamin bi-guzar ji<^o ^^03 (m.c.)
(for bar-ru-yi
"
LSJ)J*)
khdna
master
is
" o^jt *z+~& (m.c.) "it is in his hand or dar or andar khana 6 ) nlst *~~> &&. Uf (m.c.) "the
"
not at home."
For pwhtar az
man c/J'y^t
is
generally
used
adverbially.
is
as,
maro aap-Vst
(old),
Qanb Vir*
me."
ia
to me,*'
treated
*
9
Or
tfcyi
iAana
nltt m.o.
andar khana
rare
and vulgar,
PREPOSITIONS.
following examples illustrate the use and so-called prepositions in m.c. l prepositions (1) "In, into":
(o)
:
333
of
The
a large number
of the
"\
andar utaq
ar utaq
,~
, /' (class,
u and obs.)
. v
r inside the
j
room,
J
") .
.
miyan-i darya
_ 6 dar miyan-i
j
.
darya
a boat.
savar-i kishti
on board. bud
}
f
>
bi-asp savar
savar-i asp
.
bud
mounted on a
back.
horse, '
on horse
*\
> he
fell
to the ground,
(me.)
^
) furud mi-ravad
1
J
.
it
UW
j!
(^N
%^ dar rikdb JJ
Shah
(m.c.)
[>in
*U v (^
rikab-i
Shah
,,
...
__.
dA> i-baghal-iu
baghal-i
1.
r
in his arms.
j\ J*j;j> rfar
Sj^jJux*
.Ji
urabi'bag&al rm-glram I will embrace him. J^l^ %a dar dakhil-i shahr inside the city. 7-, 7. T. T 7 dakhil-i shahr *
JUAJ t^t
T^aTi
}
j
,-j v
Government) pay-i u
,
tents.
)
C
-,
JU>3 dumbal-i
/.
6
u
is
Remark
as: dar
'id-t*
Dar
naw-ruz
"on Now
Year's
day":
dar anjd
^uf^
tu.
"
Remark IL
1
The
preposition in
common
" in "
is
The simple
Bayhal
*
8
c^/( J*J^
<-A^
*to
to
arm,"
but bi'bagkal or bagbal girifton L^*^ * Kfrarij-i shahr jr^ ^J^, or dar
6
t cUj
aj is
"
ZVozd
*^>>
'* outside the city," shahr jj* ^;^* )* or bi-nazd ^>f only used for persona nazd tj* or dar nazdi man iqrar
Jsharij-i
hard
bf ;tyl
(j/
^^^
**
he confessed
in
my
presence."
334
(2)
PBBPOSITIONS.
chair.
sar-i atash (for bi-sar-i) bi-guzar t
*t>
put
it
on the
fire.
e# )*
e/tf
of the
H>
bayn-i rah
)
")
o**f
<x>U>
t^J ^j J>jj
zamin na-manda
9
the
barf ru-yi
(3)
ast
ground.
" Across," y az
or *JA
*>
and
(o) (11).
+&*i
(4)
^f
in speaking like the other prepositions, as shdhr rafta ast o**f al*) ^A, etc. also vulgarly "kitab
:
man"
e^ *^ b
-ij
v^
^or kitab-ra
<&+>
I;
v^
1
'*
give
me
the book."
(
AJ )
farusham, I will
'
sell it
vjrjJk
or)
o^
*s
or)
J?
oJ;
Jlw
c>!7t^
jj
or
*^bt"^
k went to Teheran.
rtl
bi-bala,
upwards.
(^ or
riZ
k)^
^ ar
m --) ^
i8
situated on the
seashore.
tf kinar-i
,
darya-st*
on the seashore.
shore.
or
(5)
"With, by":
Irani-hd ba dost nti-l&urand, (or vulg. hamrah-i) oJ^su^o 8 the Persians eat with their fingers.
*,
r?
OM^
\&j>\
my
Radd shudan
elX&<>) (m.c.)
**
to cross, pass
"
;
Or
8
*
kinara-yi darya
%*&
Kinar
&
radd kardan
(i
to reject."
'bank, shore.*'
Dost: note idiom.
Or 65 won <j* ^
PREPOSITIONS.
335
! *^yk Aar cAi ladabad, bd Khuda-st, happen what may, the issue is with God.
alj
fab
yL jU
an
(6)
A+*
^|
lj
&a in
Aama
6az
Mar ast,
notwithstanding
all this,
he
is
ass.
"Without":
For
a&fej
(h) (8).
without information.
*jU) *AOJ
j*L j( AJ A&f eJj^ bidun-i an ki bi-u khabar bi-diham raftam, I went without informing him of my departure.
"
(7)
Except
"
**V
^5^^^
*>1
t^*L)
)^
ctff
3'
u**^
^^ Aawa
bi-istisna-yi
banda,
all
For juzy*, bi-juzj*u, ilia il, and gh&yr az JU**> all meaning vide 89 (r). " " From, out of, by, of, for (8)
:
*'
except,"
tn i 8 book belongs to
by
Sa'dl.
az raA-t ft7^>
li>
^
*
31
wft y
^^
am
MS.
(pictures),
e^-^j
*^ HA^jj3^>^
*^V 4^
>,
he can copy
but
not design.
3^
i
"To, upto":
G
^f*>
jt
fl
till
evening.
Yezd
:-
to
Barman.
(10)
Under, below
' '
v3^ v^J^j
3* r- *
under your
iU|^ ^,i, or *y iUl^ damana-yi kuh 8 or dar ddmana-yi kuh, on the skirts of the mountains.
\>*#
&
bi- (or
dar
Or har
^^
^J*
(t
}(
or ^jjt o
4t
to write
Daman
|^*to
skirt of
a dress,'
etc.
Colloquially
munar )\*.
336
jk
!
PREPOSITIONS.
pdyin-i rnindr (somewhere) below the minaret.
ft
(11)
"
Through, across":
f<>^
lAoAja
^lf
\)
jal*.
chadar-i
shumd rd az
Id-yi* darakht-hd
didam, I saw your teat through the trees. * is^ jl gulula az la-yi nayhd bi-shikar khurd, the yj>. <fci tfjJ bullet hit the game through the reeds.
^^
u*UT
<^Jf,
Forjf "
(12)
"
bi-shahr
dar nazdlki-yi shahr, in the vicinity of the city. pahlu-yi u, close by him; alongside of him.
)*
y> p> dam-i dar, near to the door, to the very threshold of the door. Jiif *t> dam-i aftab, at the edge of the sunlight (i.e. just within the
*Jjx>
f
till
(13)
" 'Outside
8
bwun-i shahr
kharij-i shahr
>
(14)
Before, in front
" of
dar-pish-i
man
C
before
me me
,
(place).
before
bi-ru-yi
A
\t
,
man
(place).
AJ
I
w^A
02 'id
-
7,
)
XC
3?
cXu ga6Z az
'id
ri
(before
JL^
cai^^
jilav-i
Consulate.
man
bi-raw, go
on ahead.
is
more common.
Yak
laryi
)b ifiJ cJi
(m.o.)
8
" he opened one fold of the door " dar-i du-dari <j? )& j& )& " folding doors." Az l&arija mi-ayad *>1 <^* a^)^ )l imported." Dar ra pish kun (J% *) )t> (m.c.) close the door,*' i.e. put it ajar. Pish-i
t
)*
^V
^
;
'
man
I
&*> (J^*J
'
In Persian
J~^
in Arabic
PREPOSITIONS.
jt
337
z jilav-i
man
(15)
"
"
my
New
way.
JJP J'
ba'd az id-i
Naw Ruz
after
}
'
Year's Day.
&*
fj
o^u
?
my
"-^
back
z
pa/-f ^ara, he went to fetch (after) butter. kashid, he retired, drew back.
Uj
((5)
'
^yo w^fl^
aqafo-i
:
man
biya,
"
^^v^x)
Opposite" (^j^ j) ru
,
bi-ru-yi
masjid
..,
muqabil-i masjid
.
mahazi-yi masjid
(18)
"Around"
>
J
;^'j^ dawr-a-dawri daryacha, all round the lake. c>Vt jt^* *-?r^jW chahar taraf~i~}
shahr biyaban-ast ; or
o-voj c;UUj atraf-'i shaft r
^^
ol^fcf ,^all
is
desert.
vi>^^J^t^
cPl^
Ijl^lf
ast,
the neighbourhood
gulha ra dawr-i hawz bi-chm, arrange the flowers round the basin of the fountain.
(19)
all
"
(
"
as;
for you.
t .*-
bahr-i fuqara*
)
>
bakhsh-i
on account
i^
of,
because
of,
the
darkness.
About the
Pushtri
Pa^/ ^
21st
March
***+
^
^
ham p&
r
tl
pay
till lit.
mc
-
**
-)
J)
:
^^ ^ b maw
I carried
it
fehayli
pa-pay ahudam
out.
' '
Babhsh,
"
lot, share."
Vulg. vasih.
22
338
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
^U.
for the lady
?
is
the tea
baray-i khatir-i
.,,-..
Khuda
7-
/ for
God's sake.
my
father's
f
many
kindnesses.
3JU
yisuc
UJi JUiia,
^
life
^jf^j
zindagl-yi
-man
bi-tufayl-i
shuma
(20)
my
i>f
*
u2pLr?
^ ^y
l
bi-ja-yi baradar-ash
of
Ms
brother.
ixb
jjU. e^*jUx>
t>xiv>
^y^j
bi-'ivaz-i
^*? *^**
^^
^"^
&
u*j*
it
'fiYi2-t
instead of
(p) It will
making
black.
U ba milirba.nl pish dmacf can frequently be interchanged " " b il kindness with if, however. he treated 3 (m.c.) J^f c^j (/ ^rt* (me) to avoid a is we bi-mihrbanl the pronoun inserted, it is better to say <j*\* #+\
thus
A?
and
repetition of the
same preposition
*x>T
^^
,
ex
tj
) *~*
^ix*
J ubi-
mihrbdni-yi bisydr Id
(q)
man
pish
amad
az
(m.c.).
Sometimes
different prepositions
may
Thus
or bar
conformably to his advice." Sometimes a preposition changeable with an izdfat, as az shumd mamnun hastam ^WA ^i^
^csb
"
y
I
interjj,
or
^ ^^
*'
am
obliged to you":
or mashg&ul-i kdr
91.
Simple Conjunctions.
for conjunction.
)
(a)
There
is
no general word
huruf-i shart
(
The
this
Jb^ o^^ temporal and concessional conjunctions. The causal and final conjunctions we called huruf-i ta'lll JUU3 o;j* ; and the conjunctives huruf-i 'atj
tions are
called
and
*
S
Mahz (jfl>
For baradar-i
*
5
*
Or
safld ast
*~^
U* *$ *
*^**^f
Rakhtrthur
"
(In Persia
clothes).
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
Jj7**
).
339
Particles signifying
(
huruf-i izrab
vj'^i OJ^A,
(
6
),
"moreover, rather, etc.'* are called and particles signifying "or" (adversative
or huruf-i 'inad
oj>y
Jj^ ),
The
huruf-i atf
JJ^
sipas ur$**,
ham
J*A,
*-&l\.
Remark.
The
between ham
+*>
*>!* ojk**>,
and niz j& is that the former and in the ma'tuf o^lw^o, as
:
(b)
(1)
are
;
'
vide (2).
*V niz (m.c.)
"also"
'
f*
)\
ham
gar
l
vide (3).
(m.c.)
ar (class.)
(class.)
^
)
if."
J\ agar
l>
)
;
ya*
tj
"or"
s
vide (4).
(j
y*
j&*>
ilt
juz
-
^"
ya
either
or,"
" but
or"
or
(after
"
;
a negative)
vide (4).
except "
(m.c.)
Ck
vide (5).
jjfa.a.
*|^ kh wah
"
(vide 4)
;
^U-^
;
^^and
(poet.).
magar
(vide 5
;
9).
ilia (m.c.)
as,
but, except,
Jb
bal
or
*>!>
2*.
"
"
6a^?*,
;
however, that" (vide 6). "but, on the contrary, rather" (in m.c. also
(vide 1).
)
>
"when, because,
since
"
;
vide (8)
and
(11).
> } u V
amma SJ llfcin
f
but"
(vide 9
and
5).
Vagar
f}
}
'*
(class.)
"and if";
;
vagarna **?j
**
(class.)
and
if
not, otherwise*';
also
gar
and ar
poetical
if."
(when
*
In English the conditional conjunctions are if, (old Eng. and prov. an), unless, so it means if only), and but (meaning unless).
that,
Provided
Or
*'
va-llkin
^f^j
(m.o.), or
va-amma
^*l^ (m.c.), or
va-ya ^j
.
(class.),
often va an-ki
*^T^:
8
as for
me'*
or
manki
^xixs
Or
bi-juz ^^P-?
is
In m.c.y**
pronounced ch& or
Chunk*
&&&
Chun
c^
also
means
*&*
(Sa'di)
oflftce ia
like
a journey by sea
340
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
pas "consequently.'
ba'd ''afterwards."
+'
ku
chi
(m.c.)
Aa.
^ ^
4b
chi
cki
(vide 11).
"
"
(vide 11).
&
[
<ua
na " neither
nor"
(vide 4).
U ta
tf ki
Conjunctions in English are chiefly of adverbial origin. for instance, is an adverb as well as a conjunction.
Remark.
Also,*
There are two principal classes of conjunctions: 'co-ordinate,' which connect clauses of equal rank, and subordinate,' which connect a subordinate or dependent clause to the clause on which it depends, as: "I
*
I said," etc.
The
" con-
junctive
_}," is
that
if it
or connects words generally coupled together, or two verbs having the same subject, or nouns co-ordinate governed by the same verb, it is pronounced u, and in speaking is joined to the word that precedes it: in other cases, it is " " sinn-uShab-u-ruz j ~+ night and day pronounced va? Examples " " 3 " loose -&> or ^^ sal JU j ^^ (too) j (too) tight age" tang-u-kushad "father and mother"; amad-u-raft vsJj ^ <vof c< he j pidar-u-madar
:
^U
bul*bul-ha va khanajat " the va nawkaran j Ifplj j \^)2 ; padishah king ^j*j*j ^**^J and his servants": mddar va pisar 4 ^~J ) )&* " mother and son "; amad va
cijlaolA. ^ lA(J>Jb
^t
**>
j &*!
*'
away."
Also after a vowel, and generally after a silent s, the j is usually j j*~* ; burida va (or u) dukhta pronounced va as sabu va 8urah% ^t u va babl banda Also ) sufi-gari aqa. &&jo ^>}*> 5 ^b, or babi-gari s^J
:
^^
va mjl-fjari
visi
^ ^y*
first
^^
^}
^jL,.
The^ may take the place of a colon or comma, etc., thus for veni; vidi; '* amadam u didam u giriftam ^*Ii/ ^ p*j* j ^<vof is used for "and" in English, when the second verb expresses Ta
.
tf
vide (12).
in order that, so that, until."
ti
* ;
It
is
also some-
times optional to give either pronunciation according to the idea in the speaker's mind. Note that j is sometimes used in Persian, when in English we say or.
*
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
is
341
)
as
Sf
va
ammd
*$\jjb
to certain conjunctions,
amma
U>t
^^
etc.
At the end of letters and tales, the formula ^ va ilia "otherwise." va's-salam signifies "and for the rest, good-bye."
f&Jj
In m.c., the conjunctions are often omitted: hence short phrases or verbs are, in speaking, often entirely unconnected. This particle sometimes indicates state or condition (&^^ jtj) as bachcha
,
:
amad
a.
va
cjul-l
j(
^*^^^
^ **>f *acu
f '
the child
'
came
with
rose in his
hand
is
^U-u
<x*> ^
^^j
this
conjunction
sicknesses.
&y^> $1
"the vav
of equality/'
the
hundred
is
equivalent to yd
lasts
I?
"or"
it is
(Sa'di)
but for
are
five or six
In,
man u
days only."
*j*
&*-
&*\ w-
"
to refuse wine?
what on earth
j\j
;
but in
is
dUM~> ..
).
This
is,
of
J^;
JT
is
o ^ ^ ^ o^^^
1
^yc
(?,
J^J
the conjunction
vdv-i
luzum
^
-?
^^
^
t
fa*
:
between dast
o~^ and
daman ey!*
&$)&*:*>
is lazini fjK
Another example
\\
^
^
-^
C^A
cuiXA^jk
^
o^^tia/o ^jtj-iJL*!
j^*Jj.
e>^**
3.)
03
T "~'*V X
^o
<^>
^^
e^--* ^"^
c>A*
r*~~
*~*jj^
<c
From
Could
(Anv. /SW?., CTap. 7, Pre/. the bone trickling flowed the sanguine tide,
its life it
'
xSY.
In terror of
4
escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mine and the old woman's cell
I
*****
**-vT
fled
and cried
V
(East. Trans.)
is
In 3lr^ J f$^
In
j
Jl*
perhaps the
o->^ r **
L^^!/
c^
jL>
^r *^
r^
;*
is
"vav
of compensation."
are
As already stated in 43 several adjectives qualifying the same noun linked to it and to each other by the imfat.
l
i.e.
the cat.
342
If,
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
however, several adjectives follow a noun, the
:
izafats are
omitted, and
f
hushyar u
intelligent,
ziring >-&>jj
j^*>* ^*
shakhs-lbud
aqil,
dana,
^^y^S* (m.c.)
wise,
clever
and active."
between
all
^ jixiXp ^y
<>*j
I saw him married, and *<Htf jXRli with a family, and the root of his joy severed, and the rose of his happiness withered."
also
'aqil
u dana, hushyar u
Compound words
to
like
amad-u
raft
^) 5
o^of
and the two portions in writing are not separated. Thus if amad *v<>f happened fall at the end of a line, the word raft ^j would be written on the top In other cases, of it, or in some corner, and not carried on to the next line.
the conjunction va j fall at the end of a line it is written, riot as the last of that line, but as the first word of the following line, the conjunction being treated as a portion of the word that follows it.
if
Remark /. The first noun, verb, or phrase preceding the <-flb* (i.e. the copulative conjunction) is called <*A!S <J^k*c, and the nouns, verbs, or. phrases following the first j are called Jjla*x>. Remark
*Uh
(3)
*'
>
o^
II.
'USh*
"
particle
used
in
swearing, as
Ham
little
p* "too,
also,
even"
"yet a
tic
nearer
it
"
time";
ham
ham andar zdman &l>o) ;^Ji ^* (class.) ham nazdlk-tar j&fy p* ()** (m.c.)
*>
merely) give
to Nisa
"
:
m ham
e<
(m.c.)
*& e/l
"and
this
89(0(7).
Remark.
Particles
signifying
harf- i ma'iyyat
o^
In English also
(4)
is
"Or,
nor,
neither,
whether."
Jax/o
yu
jj>
ow>y^h% va sim u zar dar safar mahaLl-i bi-barad> va ya khwaja bi-tafariq bi-khurad
L
(Sa'dl)
"
and
silver
off
the robber
makes
it
with
and gold on a journey are a source of danger, for 8 it at one sweep, or else the owner (or merchant
)
himself finishes
by degrees."
* 6
'
This expression, which corresponds to bi-Kjiuda f*J, is used in c. Sim p+* in m.c. 44 wire." Note pronunciation of va ya ^j und vide Formerly only merchants braved the dangers of travel.
(2).
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
343
chashm-i tang-i dunyd-ddr rd Yd qand'at pur Jcunad yd khdk-i gur (Sa'dl). " He said the wealthy, nothing can fill the covetous eye of But contentment or the dust of the grave."
dar bazm
&^
' '
f>5.
:
{ ^ [^
(class,
and mod.)
tj*
or in the council
^tiMwdhma-khwdfiKj*^
or narkhwdh
#,~
khwdhi (j*\y^
Na mva
l
Ichwdh-u ma-khwdh lj**j " nolens volens," vide Adverbs. (J*^ (class.) &* "neither this na an of & 5 nor that."
(class.), or
,
or khwdhl na-
In
poetry
sometimes nah
&
also
ne (Afghan), or nay:
Nay
tdb-i vast
ddram ne
tdqat-i judd*i
"neither have I the power to endure a greeting nor power to absent myself."
'^ (yt^U ^f ^^j (m.c.) well, whether that poor ignorant learnt or not, I learnt something": magar In ma'lum na-bud ki Ishdn dtash rd dlda dar kishti nishasta bi-taraf-i an raftand,
L,
'Urn hdsil
shud yd na,
tikin
bi-man fd'ida-tmtc<
^^J ^
x^
J^(^ JU
j/a
an ki
mardumdn-i
jahdz-i
diyar
zitr-i
bdyad az dunyd
Astin khwdh dardz khwdh kuidh
" At the
Remark.
or
last
we must go from
this world,
(
Disjunctive conjunctions
8'jA
are called
^U.c oj^. In English these are also styled "alternative" and are a subdivision of adversative conjunctions.
J c -) jt ^* 5) Az hama kas pursid magar az man *V;j cf*^ ***3* ( he asked every one except me," (or bi-juz'az man ^yo 3^33.3, or bi-gjiayr az man
i
ft
1
t4
JUi jf cLaii*
whether you
eJ(>>,
^t^iu ^ly^
AJ -
(m.o.)
Na
o^^*
tribes
who
sees
though h
trouble.
it
The
U *^)- -Va ^> saves a lot of e>^/^> as to be on the right side. so to na every question people say
**'& is The mullaa say that naml-danam **?/-* f^ ^ The lover becomes 6t-f56 v^ (^ or 65-<5goe vSAjLb
f^^
-ft-^.
when he
344
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
u^ 3* j&)- Juz * n charc^l niat-^ & *;l*> etflj^ "there is no other course &U ^ *$ \) *J*A*J* f j>/ ^p*\) t; e;UfrA but this." ^>i^*J ^^tja* cJ>a
^)
^o
hamkunan
ra razl Jcardam
bi-zaval-i
ni'mat-i
man
(Sa'dl)
p&
**-j*>
tjju
dil-i man mayil no-bud magar chi kunam er* J^ ;( &)& **$\ JLU (m.c.) "although I did not desire this to happen, still
what could
I do
?"
difference, antithesis,
Remark.
honest but foolish," but is an Adversative Conjunction and the whole proposition is called an " Adversacantrariety, etc.
tive
Proposition."
But,
yet,
however, etc.,
make an
arrest or restriction
of thought
and are
marians,
conjunctions signifying
translated
"but"
are called
may
be
"particles
of
emendation,"
nifying
"moreover, rather,
v^
^tr*-
Imruf-i
vi>^y^^*u
Jff
^jAj
wy~ix
cJ^jUL
*
*JUA. chunanki oljyiu ^^usc^^f kar dan mansub na-shavad ilia bi-khamr
*
,
khurdan (Sa'dl) " for instance, if a person go to a tavern to ]>ray, nothing " else will be attributed to him, but that he goes to drink wine ^L> ^\
:
^^ia
^o
3
:
5l
>j<xi
^J^o
^^
ilia
man
I
na-
shudam
not
y^-
"
u*?
?
have
4
but
have
hick vaqt
Jfr
ilia
In hala to;^io
)&>*
oJ>j
^^
(m.c.)
never eaten as
much
ilia
as I have just
done
^ "
:
bi-yak
adam
bud va
&#
this
xjU.
^f jxu
In
)\j^& $6 e^
(^Lr*r^^^
baruli
*<*)*
it
of one
man was
ba'zi
jj)
a
ruz
difficult
'arsa
naml-shud
ilia
aksar mi-bartd*
^"
ji^l
HI
*&*+>
(J*j^
^s*"
(J.) (Afghan coll.) "at this did not rain, still (or however) it
'
tu
mi-ayam
ilia
hari ra plsh-i
'
Kharabat
Ham-kun o^-** is obsolete. In modern Persian ham qatur jfa* f*oU \j^- a ruin, a tavern a brothel. Wine was sold generally
' '
' *
in ruins.
%Jbarabatl
Sufis.
*
**
<^^[/^
a haunter of taverns."
*^>.
*
6
Or add na-khurdam
In
ra.c.
f^xu, Or
nu-bhurdti
am
(-1
>^su.
and
substitute namirbarid
ammu
for ilia
S.
6
amma
^l.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
kas na-guyid
345
*^&
I
' '
"
coll.)
tell
^
*L
jfcj
3^1 (Afghan
to-day
come
anybody.
(7)
For
balki
k <
moreover" and
<*Jb
(*) (2).
M*
and
JUj'f
p,*/
la^p
(8)
C7m%
(or
chunki
(m.c.)
" when
saw him,
^ ^U ^^
/card
)
\^\
&&J*- or)
(
&?$
" he
u in amr rd
(
chunki
or chun)
3!
shuma ra
chird
l
o,^^
iy+
&j*. or
&&j*-
\)j*\
^\
a^cx^f (^ je^^j
+&
In matlab-i-ki bi-shuma yuftam bl-chun u U^o &> ^5^1^ ^1 (m.c.) *' you must act implicitly
(i.e.
=
(9)
is
you must not ask why and wherefore)." B% chun an epithet of the Deity. Also bi-chun u chand
bi-chun u chird
Ammd Ui,
4<
magar^j^,
likin
&d
vali
^ and
:
Hid
& "
but, still"
and bdz )b
*'
although
bdz (or
"
answer
agarchi
to
agarchi
ma
4i
ammd, magar,
(
daryd bi-nazar
^J^ b
^J
jL*
Uf
riot far
from
it, still
^^^^ "
U
:
(m.c.)
^^
1
nishasta
^! ty
& ^ ^r*
^sj**
^ ^r
although the wind had dropped, the sea did not become cairn "; o^- *^^ kardaast bdz ddam-i khub-i'st o^-^^ ^f Jb o^t agarchi khildf (m.c.) "although he has not acted rightly, still he is a good man."
(m.c.)
^U^
(10) (a)
Gu /
&&
"saythou,"
is
common
in
suppose
*"
" or although."
Or bi-chun u chand
ast ^>^>t *Xko.
>**
c^^
^.
/n qimatri
ki
bi-shuma
(juftani
bl-chun u
chand
o^ ^ ^f
amma
In modern Persian
l^j A^*^* e^Km-c.) '*! won*t take less/* ^f and 6as 3^ are preferred after agarchi *^~jrl
ta
the
Afghans use
8
i//5
ilf ,
ham
p&\>.
55 w,s/-i
5nH
aijjjt^., or
*^T5^^
^T^
all
these signify
for agarchi
*^rl
in the
example,
and answered by
*
amma
* '
1*1
and 65 s j^
etc.
4<
(it
346
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
' *
u luqma-yi daryuza gu ma-bash Khatun-i khub-surat u pakiza-ruy ra Naqsh u nigar u khatam-i firuza gu ma-bash (Sa'di). Suppose the pure-hearted and unworldly darvish
Nan-i
ribat
1
Have
neither dole of bread nor morsel begged in charity. Suppose the lady with figure and face neither adornment nor jewels,
(i.e.
Have
*
what matters
it?).
l
j*jjoa
j^L^t
tpf tf j&
'*
\)
|*aL
ki
ma
ra asir mi-burdand
Khudd
ra shukr !
those
who used
praise be to God, we saw them our captives and may we always " let him come." see them." Gu bi-yayad **Uj
:
Rlmma chira ghussa is generally used for gu /. In m.c., ku Remark /0 ^ap ^^ ml-khund ki u ml-mlrad, ku bi-mirad &?*& )\ *$ ^.)^^ j>jV <k (rare m.c.) why are you sorry that he is dying, if he does die what does
<
it
like
'
'
him)
The 2nd Person Singular of tiie Aorist *' and hence " like " say, one would say ?
:
gu*i
^^
Har
Gu*i
"Yon
turf, fringing the margin of the stream, As down upon a Cherub's lip might seem/'
(0.
K. b 2 Whin).
In
modem
Chi
&*>
(11)
Persian gufti ^u would ordinarily be used for gu*i ** chi bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khak c^io^j chi, <fc*
.
^^
^(^ i))j.
tti rone
cJ-y
(SaVll)
it (it is
all
"
:
ox^ *^ }$
**>
lt
whether
"because," both
in
classical
and
in
modern
(chi
Persian
hctrgiz
Ammd
sardar bi-ja-yi in
ki az bi-parvcffi-yi
u bar ashubad
chunan
harf-fia-yi
az chihra-ash
^UUJ u-IVt^ 3* <s*J&*** J*l ( tion Haji Baba, Ch. XL). In m.c,
by a pleonastic a^, as:
numdyan shudd**>J$j*
A^I
^clapj;!^.
Lof
*dji^
J^^^
ft
\jj>
^
is
^5^07^
(Transla-
chi A^,
because,"
sometimes followed
Anchi mi-guyam
shuma
"
after gn
i.e.,
<s
say them
'
don't
be.'
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
347
[better omit ki *f]
a
( *
<tf
&*.
**;***
&>
y^ft* **^T
act on
am
(*
"
selfish object in
*A[^L or
1
^^*
or
*?&
y* j^ v'-M
^*
^ ^/j
jK
^j|
w fcar
harchi
rdbi-kunchi
shud)
liar
shab
atibab-i sar-dard^
"do
j|
this so that it
ast chi* ki
may
bi-guyam U-khud
^^.ifXjf
marhamat-i shumd
o**i ^^x> more than
A^
is
(m.c.)
I can express.'
for
sometimes stands
^^, and
is
often incorrectly
Sometimes
occurs for
in writing, but
Man
<c
(Firdawsi).
When
There
the sun
will
to-morrow
field
be I and
my axe in the
(
with Afrasiyab."
(3
)
(12)
Ta and &ki
to,
** K
and
have
^
4<
many
significa-
tions
:*' up
:
" hitherto":
loii^i
id injd luj| up G u how the to tdbi-kay present": up <f the eye can td chashm kdr mlkunad *X*j\< pZ^ U (m.c.) as far as
until,
within,
by":
td bi-hdl Jl^u U
to here,"
nami-guzdram
lj
bi-ravi td na-gu^l
mjd
chi ml-kardi
4
^^.
j
f}&&
(m.c.)
Uu| ^5^i "I won't let you go till you say what you were ^-d/yo " td J doing here yak mdli-i dlgar bar ml-gardam ^^^^ j j*it *^(ra.o.) "I will return by (within) another month."
<u.
;
<xi
^A ^^i
;
"By
the
time"
ta
- Td
\)
&&
*r>
^iJU>c
the other by the time he had saved one, (JSa'dl) ^r $$* ruz rawshan shud an tdrik-dil mablag]i-i rah rafta bud & " blackthe was it time the N *A light, (Sa'dl) by J W cJ^li ^f
^^
hearted
mmi had
*^*S
^ ^-
td ki
(
^r>
^^ ^U
*)
fasl-i
"by
the
means
4<
trouble."
2
3
Or
ta-inki *^}t
^
is
usually omitted
and
stress should
*
**-.
1
Note na
lit.
"up
till
you do not.'
The na
*> could
be
omitted
and
hi j7?A c5*>^ substituted without altering the sense. Tarki **$ also 6 Or the hi could be omitted.
this ta
means -so
that, in order
that"
is
called
348
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
"In
order that:
that:
to": guftam
td
td
bi-
I ordered them to take it (and they farushand *i**jy*J ti&tyjjb *-> fyf U^itf " khwdst ta took it) to the bazaar in order to sell it ; sang-i bar ddrad " he wanted to also m.o.) ^^*^ (Sa'dl pick up a stone." " Let This ta tf with the negative has also the force of -not," as
;
:
Oh
my
' '
And"
AA*J
^Uy
Jo
^3
(1
yo\3
^^ \^\
ura
bi-'jlr ta
man
2
bi-diham (m.c.) "catch him and not take the place of ta &.
' '
I'll
give you a
^ could
As
soon as
"
*$
osi?
**$*
ta-rasld guft-ki
soon as he
arrived he said
."
Ta
dast-i
yirift
Sit-i
mahi
girift
"The moment
The echo
(or
hand
of
of sovereignity,
of his equity
and
justice resounded
Fish (on whose back the Earth rests)." inscription on the seal of the late Nasiru'd-Dln Shah
*>$
As a
substitute for
" than that," and &f U& <J* p,a* &*. G o^o c>-O^ ^Uij/^.* j*jj &A.J Umr-i giran-maya darln sarf shud
"
:
Ta
chi
khuram
life
sayf
chi
pusham
shitd
(Sa'di).
wear in Winter."
^>
Guftam bi-raw va bi-nigar id klst c~~A r " I said, go and see (that) who is it."
Kardan-i in bihtar
ast td
j&*) )J (**& ( vu ^-
mc
-
a ^ so
^)
an &)& o^f ^j
^ c^^
"
(m.c.)
it
is
better to
do
carried out;
ordered them
and they if the Aorist bi-barand **j* to were (as it might be) used here, it would merely indicate that the order was given: it might or might not have been
-carried out.
Or ura
(m.o.).
3
Ta
This
is
13
bi-glr ; man lura yak tuman ml-diham not used like this in Urdu.
i
8 called
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
It is not
349>
known
l ;
perhaps
In sabza
l
ki
61
Ta sabza-yi khdk-i ma tamdshd~gah-i foist. " As now these flowerets yield delight to me, So shall my dust yield flowers, God knows for whom.' Have a care " bewars* (This meaning of ta is poetical)
l
'
13
Ay
Ta
<c
ki shakhs-i
man-at haqir
namud
l
di).
Oh
rny person appeared mean Have a care that thou mistakest not coarseness for merit."
thou to
whom
Bi-bln ta
turd
na-zanam
(rn.c.)
*$
p\*&j
ta chi
(Sa'di)
now what
it
fault
have
committed that
ta ki
3
"
?
gunah karda-am ki
This
is
not the
ta-yi
tajahul, as
*'
might, at
first,
appear.
^)\* cli^ &$
'aql
As
long
as"
j>->
(m.c.
and
class.)
K'in zamdn panj panj ml-girad Ta shuda Mu*min u Musalmand (Mush u Ourba).
"
that
now
Until:
61
Since he has become a believing Muslim." Ta U with or without the negative: vide 123 (e). How much the more" *~y *a. U: A gar kardjak 4 az sardi mi-mirad
AJ
<**j
id chi
&*.
^x^
^ (^^
j\
^s\jt
how much more must the bulbuls." " that " has still more & Ki significations than td U (13) " (( Ruz-i dlgar chun qdzi hama rd talabld va chub-hd rd did ma'lum That kard ki duzd kist ^ *? *)* & *f (*j^ .* ) J *H^t b *^ cr*^* ^J^ b the summoned when them and saw the "the next Qazi all, day (m.c.) *$ this the thief first is called who he discovered was"; kdf-i bayan sticks,
magpies die of cold,
:
:
^ ^^
'
This
o
called
ta-yi
tajahul
Klat
^^^
for
ki ml-bashad
*^^
13
This
s
is
called
'.
*r!;
fj cc^, or
the Chough,
f[3
is
the
common
is
*^
^f)
is
dblaq (J^t
p^
Kaf-i iaUfham
f^^\
360
" Because"
kasrat-i iqddm-i
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
:BS
in
hama
budam
ki
great fear of excessive eagerness to shed blood" an pisar rd zadam ki mufsid bud tjj** c/f ty *~&* *>' ft) "I beat the boy, because he was a mischief-maker." This
:
u bar safk-i dimd mi-ddnistam ^3*1* ^ Ui'Uw o^Uj y y tf j*^ (class.) "in spite of all this 1 stood in ff<x?i oj' him and ever remained on my guard, because I knew his
}
.***
ki
is
called
kaf-i
'illat
^^
ol<
or kdf-i tcfRliyya
*-JUl*^
v3'<"
"the
causative ki."
x> ^i& <jtj*\j9 <^U j J^i ^f j>?yk pd> ^Lifxu shadl an va na-kunam ki plndashtam ki gandum-i faramusJi hargiz zawq " never shall I forget my delight and joy when I fancied biryan-ast (Sa'di) " in ra mi-gujt ki u dakhil shud *^ JL it was parched wheat
;
" When*
if"
cu-Jb^i
*'
'
this ki is called
ll
^^
tf
!;
^5;*^ (m.c.)
k<
this *S ki
can be translated by
if," as:
^**v
&(=. AJ &f
yyfcj^
^1^
"
that
if
we
Khan
in marriage
called
kaf-i shartiy^a
^>j^
o ^ ).
f
"What
You
" Whether":
khurd ast
*
will
you
lose if at
"
^^>\
^>
tyj+>
^
[
** **
(**/ J ^3^ ?$ " az db bi-ravam yd piydda guzaram (m c.) again I considered whether [direct " va rdy-i kam*kunan narration] I should go there in the raft or wade there
'
:
ki in jazira buzurg ya
fJ***
Jj^
*
(Afghan)
dar mashiyyaUi Allah ta'dlq ast ki savdb dyad yd khatd UL"* Lj x^f vV* ** cu** c^^ *^ (Sa'di) and it depends upon the will of God whether the opinion expressed by my companions proves right or
* 4
f
Note meaning
of ba-in
hama
&fr^l ^
*'m
spite of
"
;
dima* s^*b
pi.
(streams of
in
blood) to signify excess: kasrat-i i?dam ffA^I English by a substantive and adjective.
5
B
e^^
.
Perhaps
elliptically
^^)
falling
marg~i mufajat
*
e>U&c J^c
ya buzurg
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
351
wrong."
<
Or "
this
in
want
book
ra mi-kh walil ki an ra ly f *Z <$* !>=>* I; " this ki *t is that? or called kaf-i tardid ( ;
fc&aft
v^ o*jy
* '
1
do you
<:
,J!<)
the
"Saying that"
malik burd
(
ki,
^iiUI
^j
*^
p'^
A<J f
er *^ -^il3y
i^lr-**?
3
<e
v^'-i**
<xli>
l*
^yo
A*'
jy
(^
^
;
3'
^7t^
(Sa'dl)
a certain
and said he was a descendant of 'AH; he entered the city with the pilgrim caravan from Hijaz, and gave out that he had returned from the Mekka pilgrimage he took a poem to the king and said he had composed it himself " this ki is called kaf-i maqula ( *)yi/o ,J( the
travellei* fingered his curls
<
:
For
for
*k
"rather"
li> &i
:
In the following, ki
is
AJ
na
na tanha
iV'a
bulbul
Ki
li
Not only the bulbul on its rose is repeating His But each thorn is a tongue to praise Him."
2Va qand-i
lei
mardum
bi-surat
khurand
(Bustan).
eat,
Ki
"
arbab-i
ma'nl
bi-kay/iaz
barand
My poems
men
This ki
is
^y
'
*
8
'Afawl <jE>k, or 'Alavl, a descendant of *A1I, the son-in-law of tho Prophet. is an ode or Hijaz is Mecca and the adjacent territory, Arabia Petra. Qasida 15^^
elegy longer than a yhazal \jj*of the three *
direct
The
bulbul
cW^
or Persian nightingale
is
It sings
best
when
the roses
come
into bloom,
and
is
852
'
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
I had a great fear ;a *S ty ;U-*o y> (Afghan) na-yuftam ^Siu t^f " lest I should fall again into their power correctly in m.c. khayll tars bud and bi-ijuftam. Zan-i hajjam az bim-i an ki avaz-i u na-shinasad va bar an
:
i^
J^
"
a&f +yj\ ^lux ^3 &\& oyj JU of/ 5 (Anw. Suh., Chap. I, St. 8) "the ^f;U l terror barber's wife in lest he should recognize her voice and so become
jtyf
w^
<ioUJ
" aware of what was going on, had not courage to answer (East. Trans.)
the negatives are incorrect.
Bar zamin-i
*r>
(^fjt*- j\
bi-farsh
o-l^V
**
naml-nishlnad ki libasha-yi u chirkm bi-shavad " he does not ***& sit on &**) j> (m.c.) u2y
the bare ground lest his clothes should get dirty." Instead of *t 6, "so that" etc. Generally with a negative and the Present Subjunctive, as Snkhan-i yavana-khwaham guft ki mardum 'ayb-am
:
ua-kunand *xU&
^c
'ayb
f&j*
*>'
vi^A?
^Af^iJ
j^L
^^^
if
'ilfat
^j^ic
J(^, as:
mardum
or
)
mi-kunand
(or bi-kunand)
ft>j*
^aeu.
yxi^j
((
cxiiXiu* *-**.
of
c<
doing"
of
fjjj
*>
+*j*
JU^.
(m.c.)
thought
"And;
while
going." "
:
'atj
uik*
o^
k"
i
*
tiz-raw ki
bi-mand
(Gul.)
Ki
'
**
Oh
"
the swift steed that has lagged behind, While (or and) the broken-down ass has reached the stage's end."
!
Many
is
As; B
just as
like
"
Ohunan ml-khurad zangl-yi kham ra Ki zangi khurad mayAz-i badam ra. c^o^^x o^( Pleonastic ** ^ ^jla. *f U ^a H jan-am dar tan ast f*^*^ " as I I'm as live bi-khidmat hazir-am ready to serve you." Naml-danam long *J o^ if ki aya rafta*ast ya na ^ MJ Lf ^>^w (m.c.) or naml-ddnam aya rafta*' I don't know whether he has ast ya ki na&* *$ ^ ^~' ^*; ^1* ^'^ t5** gone or
:
1 could be substituted for &f Confusion regarding a negative Mabada verb alter verbs of doubting and fearing, is not uncommon even in English for " I doubt that he will 44 I don*t think he will come," English country people say, " come." In the example, the negative should be I doubt he won't come/ 'and i( as long as, until," in omitted. Similar confusion also exists, after the particle ta
.
\^
Persian
cf.
133.
Baray-i tashbih.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS,
not
353
"
:
this
A*',
common
in India
though occasionally inserted in speaking in Persia, and though both in writing and talking, is probably incorrect. After
:
mi-ram ^jj*>
(ki)
purAd
(ki)
nami-ddnam
he asked me where I was going : guft *>**^ (m.c.) ^+*f (m.c.) "he said he did not know": (**) fi\**+>
*$
)
:
"
"
kujd
ddram
f^yJO* o^ jf
*
fjjf
Native Grammarians
zinhdr.
It
kdf-i zinhdriyga,
and say
it is
equal to
is often used to emphasize a pronoun: man ki nami-ddnam p^**+> A^X* (m.c.) "I who don't know (but " zarar-1 ki bi-shumd na-ddrad / don't know) ^fOJ (+&> &$ ^s)j* (m.c.) "it won't do you any harm." " But" In m.c. A**, sometimes before a pronoun in a short phrase, has " in " but he's dead." the signification of *' but English jyo &? jt u ki murd " we're *$ Uo md-ki The m.c. we're
:
gone Fatah
"
phrase p&i)
off,
last
words of
In
the ki
it za*id.
is
Ditto in az kujd ki
?
.
emphatic or bardy-i tahsin-i kaldm, but some Grammarians call chumn bi-kunam?, and bi-firdq-i ydrdn chi-ha ki
in
(
na-didam
Ljfe
jf
X }bli^
)
^^
the ki
is
called
kdf-i tashbih
AJ^>
vJ(
"the k
of similarity"
(
to mid
it is
" the k
46
of equality."
(d) (3),
or kdf-i tasviya ( &>#** J^ It might almost be translated by *' but." For the use of a^ instead of y in comparisons, 1 vide
musdvdt
otjU* of
&";
&& vJK
(
" the comparative '*the negative &," since na-ki can be sub(
J*A& JK
stituted for
For
this particle
<Jj^
42.
Remark
dnki A&f
L Ki
*$
and
forming compounds, as
etc.:
magar dnki
A&Uo.
&
pas dngdh ki
*&
after that
"
In
**b
<J\tfc
*J
>i^y^
itijf (Gul.);
for
*$ either
jl
or
A^ A> can
be
substituted,
2
For various
92
(d) (13);
23
354
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
1
<*of
tj
[yd dnchi
l
mi-guyam fij^** &* *f^T * j *+*>) <* in the same manner ham-chundnchi AfuU*v+A
man
c3 t>
as, etc."
Remark IL
is
In m.c., ki
if
*$
nofc
man
in interrogative sentences
(m.c.)
" what
^
me
lyo
cu*of
?
j^a. **.
my fault
Both
it
:
"
c/^^^
(that)
(for it)
Remark
guftan
<jyu
,
III.
when
and in m.c., ki &f is often omitted after introduces the words of the speaker, and also after one or u namt-ddnist chi khwdhad-shud *> t^f^A &*. v^^Jiooj^i y (or
classically
after nami-ddnist
in, churiln
o~Jf^W
**
happen
<A**ojt
"
;
(m.c.)
but
ahmaq bud
ki naml-ddnist
dsmdn
W ^^f
cu~J'<3Jj+>
euphony's sake.
Ayd
is
tf
is it
"
is
he standing or not
}-~j ***$ <Jkj~*j
"
yd
(ki)
na? &
*$ k cu^t a:>U~ot
Ijf
^^
^^olfcf
'*
here
ast
"
^U.
*^
'*
Ijf *>
%a m/a msi?
:
o~*>o t^uuf
It
4<
is
he not
Ayd
t
^T also signifies
|
whether," as
(m.c.)
<ui;
^ or) ^f ^H^
nami-ddnam dyd
"
I
know
b
whether the
don't
know
'
whether he has
;^
^^ ^
5
f>\<**>
" I don't
cu^^ tx> ^^j ^i>oU> ^ j}LU L,f As already stated in Interrogative Verbs, usually expressed by intonation or gesture dyd kf is rare in
$& *XA^
AJta. ). ( <>riuxAfc)
interrogation
m.c.,
is
magar ji*>
generally taking
<;
its
place; vide
89
(j) (8).
as follows:
^iii;
am*
mislri
I go or don't go
"
(lit.
JJx>
^ixy
*'
(m.c.)
my
92.
Compound
Conjunctions.
:
two or more Conjunctions m.c.^ vagar, and if. m.c. *>/j vagar na, and if not, otherwise.
(a)
Compounds
of
Ya
Inlci
shuma mi-ravam
(m.c.)
4t
either drink
or
I'll
*
8
go."
is
better omitted
it is all
Note negative
infinitive
c^M/
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
m.c. ^Jj
'Gall
-\
355
m.c.
(J-&J?
in vallkin
j i
t although.
y
"1
<V
attfc kashki
I
may
ifc
happen>
God Send
'
'
uld
m.c.
^^1^
kashak-l
if,
m.c.
yj
va-law, even
<*&>
,
although.
m.c. Jj or
bal-ki * orbal,
what
89
91
is
91
and
(4) (2).
(b) (8).
however
(obsolete).
^j
(
(h) The optative word kashki, etc. Persian followed by the Past Habitual
UJ
o^ or
3
t*j>
cJ^
l
is
in classical
is
tense,
future or
(class.)
"
^^^^
^^ ^ (^fe
oh, would that I could obtain (or could have obtained) the happiness of
martyrdom." Kash c4'< or kashki ^^K, etc., can be preceded by ay, as: &**)1 L${+> 4^*^ is\ ay kash-ki ja-yi aramldan budl "Ah! would there were a place of rest from pain." (0. K. 442 Whin.) In modern Persian, however, the Imperfect is generally used for future, and the Pluperfect for past, time kashki mi-dmad *x>f <y (^&>1S (m.c.) " would that he would come" (also had come), but kfisfi-Tci anjd manda budam +ty J^JU lauf ^^tf (m.c.) "would that I had remained there (and
isty.
I :
not come here)." The Aorist can in modern Persian be also used as an Optative Future, as kash bi-ydyad *U> <j( (m.c.) <e would that he would come."
:
(c)
ni.c.
J^
bi-juz, excepting.
m.c.
or
)\
m.c. +*
Also kaj
(old).
"** " I have erred, misstated," and Occasionally Qhalat. kardam pbj* nay nay " 44 5ai J?, balki *&*. no, no supply the place of balki *^J. <y 3 This tense is formed by adding the ya-yi istimrari ^)ls**+* 4,5^} (the ya of repeated this tense may also take the prefix ml (class, me) of the action) to the Preterite
2
Imperfect
*
and kashki
^^,
the prefix
' '
is
one on the top of another Ru-yi-ham p* ^jj) pusht-i sar-i ** one behind the other, continuously " sar-i ham f* j+ contiguous ***) f* (Jf}) or colloquially ru-yi ham +*> ij), on an average.'*
;
;
ham
;
p*>
j^
ham
-^*J
ru-yi
rafta
356
m.o.
m.c.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
fA Jte
*
misl~i
ham,
alike, the
same.
p*j
^^
pusht-i sar~i
(Indian)
(d)
+*>
$ ta-ham, nevertheless.
har chand
,
) }
.
notwithstanding
.
.
all;
v
in spite of:
however
J7 har chand ki
,
much;
,,
vide (1).
,.
;
ar in
\
|
, ;
therefore
,,,.
bind bar an
accordingly
,,
in consequence
of
na%ar bar
w) zwa-ld
T
.
\
'
(this or that)
,.
^e
.,
/ftx
(2).
<
(3). y v
chwa-ly,
m.c.
o^
^
(j,jf jf
aa;
m jihat
m.c.
^31
02:
m ru
az tnsabab
1
for
this
reason; therefore;
vide
(class.)
$ ^)
zin-ru
(3).
m.c.)
m.c.
^ c^j
!<>J
^xc ^tjt
li-liaza
az
-for this; therefore; wrfe (3).
m.c. ti^
mod.
K-sa
m.c. *&f jt
m.c. &&T m.c.
js*j
^^J
^*j
jf
aw H, before that v*We (4). 6a'^ az an k^, after that; vide (4).
p*5A
^2;
;
^x5
min
ba'd, afterwards
vide (5).
m.c. 0"$*" si-pas* afterwards. m.c. *$ ^jf as; 6a5 ki, inasmuch as
since (causal)
\
>
from much
vide
(6).
m.c.
4Uaaf{
al-qissa*
m.c. <*x4U
Mw?a5a
tj
well, in short.
m.c.
m.c. m.c.
^^
bari
ba-vujud-i-ki
A^^AJ
in
8
<*&J| <3**jk
ba-vujud-i
tw-W
although
(8).
io-i/i
hama
J
\ \
although; vide
(7) andi(8).
^i^/t agarchand
&
w/, adj.,
<4
Lit.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
m.c. *S
m.c.
357
^X^A harchand-ki
**A*)(*
"|
m.c. *$ (^\
^vide
(9).
m.c. *^T
m.c. *^
lj
bd-dn-ki
stfjA
if,
w'de (10).
m.c.
m.c.
&&&j jf ^ j| az an *&
.
i
ki
[since;
)
wde
(11).
j|
az-dndam,
A' l*u|
.
(class.
and m.c.)
,
Jf
^*A hamin
hamdn
oi-manz
tawr, while;
wde
~]
(25).
m.c. U>UA
m.o.
m.c.
o^^v
x
.
.
^as soon
i
o^+J bi-mujarrad
T
[m.c. ^a]
.
J
i
m.c.
A&ixxfc.
chandanki*
as soon as
.
however much
,.
,
not-
\
<
i f
withstanding:
as long as; as
much
long
as;
m.c. r i^U
m&ddm
m.c. Auji
m.c. m.c.
c* mg
iw-fci
it
Aap^^^f
as a^a?* chundnchi,
were
>vide
(16).
A^ ^
IJ
chundnchi
m.c. A^UA. chundnki, as for example laivr-i-ki* in the manner that m.c.
**0jfe
vi^e (17).
m.c.
m.c. *$ J^. Aoi-ii w m.c.
^
,
(the
,
fact
.,
is
that;
,
whereas;
,
..,
,.
though;
j
notwithstanding;
/1QV (18).
all,
beyond that,
;
in the event of
all
(20).
In m.c. az-an
ja-l-ki
*
8
The use
of
soon as "
is classical
only.
same measure
ew, as if,
>
358
(class,) j*#\
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
o^
(Indian)
^G
ta-ham,
m.c.
UU* mabada
#G
a-^
%
aM
fci
\
m.c. tf
Uy
/arz
^f
giram
>
supposing that
w/e
78
(1)
Harchandki
t$
(or
**&j&
J^ ^^c
:
(*Ji?
UAj (m.c.)
*m
a spite of all
I said to you about nob going there, you didn't listen to my advice"; harchand (or harchi) tangtar bihtar yXu ( A^A or) >>J^^> the narrower the better" harchi (or harchand) zudtar bihtar ^vy^3 ( ^-^y* or) A^A "the quicker the better." Harchi tamamtar y-*>U A^A 'a much
as
ji
amadam
az plsh-i
^j-^JJt f^^T ctf^y^^ A*^ with a regret, exceedingly great." harthi In mi-zanad an mi-raqsad as
:
his presence
t:
Harchi
^^^ ^f
A^A "in the same manner," *j<e A^A (m.c.) the one
of
his
Bina bar yLu, or bind bi AJ Uj '* having regard to, with regard 3 for," as: Hala man bina bi-bad-raftariha-i lei dar ayyam-i iqtidar nisbat bira'iyyat vanawkar azshumdburuzkardaast na-bayad du-bara shughl-i vizarat-ra
(2)
^^)
*>)^
AJ
c^AyJ ^t^Jj}
I, j>^; with due regard to (bearing in mind) your ill deeds done 6 by you towards the peasants and subordinates, must not again entrust you with the office of
!
^*
j ^; 3j
!
^^
ji ^'-^
^^f
*^ 3^ ^
c
^\
A^x'U)U;
f
AJ U>
K^-
3 fj* J (m.c.)
"now
vazir
"
ammo, dar
1
shugtii-i vizarat
bina bi-islah-i
***
man
ment
haqq-i tavaqqu
na-khwaJiid dasht
<{
o-U j
(I)
iJU'*
^\
^i(^l*
Uu o;!3^
cl^-j^ Uf
in the state
will
Indian and perhaps Afghan. In English the conjunction in this sentence could also be rendered by "notwith' '
standing
3
or
* *
' '
although.
:
j&>
either an c/f
or
^
p**
follows, or
*
*^T
or Iriki A>.uf.
A ote
the subject
man
kunam
after
bayad &>b
6
Bnriiz kardin
u)&jf
Jtf
*'
to
come out"
blrfin
amadan
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
"
:
369
hdla maqsud-i mard ddnistid; bind bar an na-bdyad tajdvuz anything from me *& jjt?^ txjtjj lw oui-^t^ kunid JJU. (m.c.) "you have now cjy tye O^^AJ understood my object you must therefore not exceed your instructions '
'
;
l
bind bar dnki man khddim-i qadlmi-yi shumd has tan dnchi arz ml-kunam 'ayn-i maslahat ast cuscJLA* ^^ p&* u*j* *5^T *w& (+t> ^-j^' (*>^ ^^ A&T ^ "& " old o*t I am is
(m.c.)
because
your
servant,
what
I tell
you
quite right
man
tar/c-i
khidmat mi-kunam
(i.e-
j^t^j e^4^x>
U^
because)
" with regard to this A&uty^JaJ (m.tt.) on me, I will leave your service."
Remark.
Chird-ki
&$
^
I tell
"because that."
Man
&
\j*.
In
J
shukhun rd bi-shutnd
.**
f
mi-guyam chird
(+
Ui
l
ij
^**^>
^] ^o
;
"
(m.c.)
you
^A*^
this
ijr^.
*^
jami'-i
\)
jl^o &*\
f -y
oJ/
oi^jjc \)}\
rd ghayrat
yirift ki chird
mardum
(m.c.)
;
because every
is
one was
fond of this
' '
girl
after *$
direct
narration
saying that
"why
11
):
az in jihat (or az
mru
QYazin
sabab, or az baray-i
m) man
bir
shumd guftam
(
^>r j>.& y or ^ ^)\ or ^=F*M3t (*^^ '*^ e,^ &J ^j- y "for I this reason told that you this, you should not think xv^C (m.c.) told you this, so that you might give up this further on the matter;
*-'
) I
J^ ^ ^
idea.
' '
ki diqargird-iinkhayalna-gardid
^^ ^
Lihdzd
1^
; 1
li-hdzd
man ham
f
bd u mihrabdn
(m.c.)
" since he
v fl> ^ p* c^ &* ^ ^ ^jt* ^ t^ '^ p*~*> d)hjf kind to 1 too me, exceedingly (therefore) am kind to
him."
Remark.
(4)
The
^^ ^j^ or
'.
:
Pish az an ki
man
** before I tnjd Iri-yayam^ u rd didam ^*Vo t^f pd# [^^ &<> &&\ jf <j*^^ (m.c.) " 3 sarshudam az I him ba'd murakhkfais nazd-i shumd ankiaz came here saw
:
+* I
(m.c.)
after I left
you
Qhayrat CI^AP
is
a good quality
^}*f
"
religious zeal.'"
Note
mfhrban
,'
360
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
after that
'
is
before that
'
Min ba"d
**t ^*>
*x*j
the present whatup ooi^Ui;^ a^y* ever has happened has happened, but for the future do better." Az bas ki bi-u guftam khasta shudam jL> A-*? ^ (6) Az bos lei *** jf
kunid
Td C*A?
min ba'd
till
bihtar raftdr
Jfl^U (m.c.)
"
f&
*i*x (m.c.) "I told him so often that I got tired" f*& mardwndn mi-mirand, dar jahdn dil na-bdyad bast OO^A*
ft
az bas-ki hama-y
^ ^to^o
,
&& A-J
jt
inasmuch as all men die, one should not ^+~^ ^4^ J* &{&> )t (Indian) " in this sentence chunki *&>^* or az an jd-t ki cling to this world only ;
t&iUufy, or bind bar in ki *^ or az an ki A^jf
jihat-i
*&^
9
*^**~
*+^j\
etc.,
could be substituted.
i-gazam u ah mi-kasham Atash zadam chu gul bi-tan-i lakht lakht-i khwish
(Hdfiz).
^Lr^ 3
atrdf va javdnib-i vay fard girifta
l
va mihnat-i
man
V., St.
2.)
"and inasmuch
quarter and part of it, 2 and a throng of troubles have overrun there is nothing more hard for me to bear than the society of
(East Trans.). bos ki <*~o y in Indian Persian often corresponds to the English 'inasmuch as,' and differs little from because* (vide last example). In modern Persian, however, it is used in the sense of " because I did a great deal," as: ^4z bas ki muntazir-i shumd nishashtam khasta shudam
and"
Az
my
heart
'
a.~o j (m.c.)
Man
zabdn-am
muy
waited for you such a long time that dar-dvurd, az bas ki bi-m nasihat kardam
I
"
^t
&**)y
^f
j&
^jx> ^t>j
^c
(m.c.)
"hair
grew
on
my
Bd vujud-i
|;
iti
9t
&j>&j*. 9 (>
Bd
**&
r ^T cuu^
A^^^b
(m.c.)
"in
this
listen." In
2 3
''It"
= my heart."
words signifying
*
or
Lcf
Or
ba-vaaf-i ki
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
,
361
or agarchi *^/f, or harchi **^A or ba-lnki *&*f lj, or hal~an-ki a.^f JU. or har chand ki &S *^A, could be substituted without materially altering the
sense.
The
(8)
same meaning.
^>f
Agarchi *^/l
-3f
agarchi u murd
amma
ja-yvafsus nist
*j*
j\
**
vi~*i
urr
^U.
(m.c.)
"
although he died,
Ju>) U
:
it's
(9) Ba-vasf-i
Inki
*vl
Ba-vasf-i
warned you many times, yet you acted against what I told you," hal an ki *&T JU* (vide 18) instead of ba vasf-i m ki a&uf ui^ [or ]. (10) Hargahltfj* in m.c. has usually the meaning of "if": Hargah bi-shuma na-gufta budam haqq ba-shuma bud *j* U^> b &*> -^j Axi/li l+j ^j* '* if I had not told (m.c.) you, you would have been in the right.' Classically
although I
l>
(
"
c>f
o^ ^ f*j? o*)^-
m ki bi-shumd sifarish
L
*^
'
it
'
if
'
whenever
'
without substantially altering the meaning khwaham did shuma ra yad khwdham kard
&
ra
r^l*^
(**[?**
*+*>
)^^ *^*
me
:
pAj^k jb (class.)
'*
whenever
I look at
your
keep-sake,
az an
it will
remind
&f
of
you."
(11)
Az
vaqt-l-ki &***j y, az
an gah
ki *&
&f
jf,
dam
ki
ura dida-am hdl-am digar-gun-ast &^ j&>* pJ^ /**** \) j\ **ujj\ vs**t (m.c.) "since I have seen him I have been either of the quite upset" other two conjunctions, or az an zaman-i ki **J^ e/f jf, could be substituted
vaqti-ki
:
Az
f^
)l
Hamln-ki* *5ou^ (m.c.) elliptical for" at the very (12) "As soon as." " hamin-ki time when," hence " as soon as amadam, u raft ^*j ^ f-^f *^H^ " as soon as I he went."
;
(m.c.)
came,
'*
"
merely by taking
medicine, he died
(m.c.);
"
;
murd
&j*
))
>
or bi-mujarrad-i
^y^ \^
*^^*?
(m.c.)
In m.c. har-vaqt
*^+*j
for
har gah
^*, and
the
But haman
**
ki
(m.c.)
saw
just what
f*J>
haman
ki
for
time.
*
' '
Mahz-i
bhap.ir-i
ahuma
U^^-t^ o^*
(m.c.)
"merely
"
:
to please
in
you";
mahz
6i-
ft*oj-i didan-i tu 3*
is
e*&& (^SL^J
m.c.
frequently used for baray <^t^, as mahz-i mulaqat-i u anja raftam j\ orj t4 I went there to see him": dava mahz-i khurdan va ^Xij bpjf
44
this medicine is to be
362
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Td-davd khurd murd
(class,
andm.c.)."
<^=F
Mujarrad
bi-mujarrad-i
signifies
guman
properly ''stripped, bare '; also a "bachelor" " on a mere e>U? */*+> suspicion, merely on suspicion."
signifies
L
" as
(13).
gfipfib
chandanki az nazar-i darmshdn " as 'soon as he was concealed from the sight
chandanki pds-i az shab bi-guzasht a&toia. " as soon as a watch of the (Sa'df) jt night was passed." " However much " all" A&IJJU*. ," spite of &?f ;a c^ 1**;^ &l^a ^ja v: ^2:^-* dar dar amad c>*^ ; chandanki talab kard khana-yi parsa-i chiz-i na-yaft (Sa*dl) "a thief entered the house of a certain pious person; however much lie searched (in spite of all his search) he found nothing guft
o<&
^^
^b
^ v^
said,
' '
f&V f*^ v^
'
spite of all
my
search
& lj j \> v^li. A&f<>ia. chandanki khak ra buvad u " bad ra baqa (Sa'dl) as long as the Earth and the Wind exist."
' '
:
^ ^
^fyt j cu-i
o>(;t &&**jt
1^
^JlA>
^\
&* p
!y
*^l^
o^
U^JA
^l chandanki mara dar haqq-i in ta*ifa-yi khudaIn shukh-dida ra ( adavat-ast u inkdr (Sa'd!) "as
in
:
much
fellow
as I like
*
and believe
this
them "
body
of God-fearing
id bi-ddnt ki cJianddn ki
13 nafrat-ast sad cJianddn nji-ddn rd az ddnd vahsliatast &\tfcj\ \j t*f^ A^ioid.^!^ %**! cu^^j L>|^ y yi^ c^lAW *x^ cuW &j& (Sa'di) "so that you may understand that the ignorant man dreads the wise a hundred times as
much
wise
as the
man
* ' hates the ignorant that as much as the (lit. dislikes the ignorant, a hundred-fold of that the ignorant man
wise
man
man ").*
to
" So much
such a degree
' ' :
"
mardum ahudan 'ayb ntst Va Ukin na chanddn ki guyand bas There is no harm in visiting people,
Bi-diddr-i
*
'
(SadI).
But not
to sucli
this
is
enough
'."
not used
in this signification;
hangam-i
" as
ki
is
used instead.
in m.c.
inuh
however much."
8
is
and English.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
Persian.
36$
Chandanchi *Jfxka.
is
obsolete
it
az
miydn-i
maydan
kjiatti
sar bi-zadi va
mayl bi-nayza-yi
namudi
***- j*
(Anvar-i Suhaylf)
suddenly make
instructed
off
" when they conveyed him to school, he would and appear in the midst of the plain and whenever they
;
him
away
(Eastwick's Trans.).
(14)
[Madam*
f\*(* Ar.]
ma-dam
' '
:
ki
*t
ma-dam-t-ki
*
***>! ^ I*
$ " as long as
ta-
oU^cJf ^t^U
ma-dama''l-hayat "
is
as long as
"
girya
Mudam
I
*!^/c
an
<
adj.
bachcha-yi
man mudam
mi-kunad
:
(m.c.)
"
my
"he
little
is
mast-i
(m.c.)
always intoxicated*"
mud,am u-'l-
awqat ^\3$\
(15)
ft**>
Guya
^
(
(m.c
"
)
"
perpetually
(also
<Ji*>
:
dayim
-'l-awqat ^I5^ilf
^U
(m.c.).
or misl-i
a&Jt (Ji
mki
^f^axAx
kas-i
^~
or)
mi-khwanad
A^iji <JU*>
<{
(m.c.)
^ f^h^ "
I
*^
c^t^f avaz-i
shamdam guya
(or misl-i
heard a voice as
if
singing,
like singing)
"
:
misl-i
bi-kunid (m.c.)
Uij
do as
I told
:
you
do."
:
(16)
Chunan
ki <*&UA. (old)
ji^yo
ki
' v
A^Jljua. 5
as the saying is
fattls
"
:
guft chunan-
tu guftl ta*ifa-i
*
hasad burdand
said, a
^^
&~**
he replied,
as
Chunan- 1
ki ^^11^., or
have a similar
f*j*
p* ty ft)
6
number envied me.' ham chunan ki ^li^u*^, and an chunan ki AxJUaaJf ura zadam tura ham ml-zanam signification, as: chunan-i-ki ^ ^ ^JU^. (m.c.) "I'll beat you as I beat him": man
you
6
y <^JUa. ^t "
c^A? (Sa'd!)
ham-chunan
ki
bud 'arza
dashtam
*&o
*^ ^ ^SUsu^
m .c.)
((
have
'
The
final
2nd
pers. singular) is
it is
pronounced as aya-yi
ma'ruf.
2
&
Ta-dam-i tnarg
^y
& "
till
*
5
DayiipP-'*l-khamr j+&3\
*}\& (na.c.)
a drunkard."
Mudam
written
also
means
wine."
Or chunanchi ^JU^.
'Arz (jPj*
**
"an
**&fy* t
"a
one":
*'
'arz
daram
(OP
f)t*
COP
arz
ml-kunam
am
making) a
"
p(^tition
;
p^?
)
(ji*j*
I will
make
(JPj**i
but
f
in
f^r
T
or
*&'
OV*
The Afghans
however,
f*
364
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
it
"
-happened
&J>
:
guft
an chundnki shunldl
khalq-i
<*/f
gird
dmadand ****!
W*A*& y
^^
t^s*****
A&U^.
cx
"he said, as you have heard, a whole people collected round him from fellow-feeling 1 avarda-and ki kazhdum* rd vilddat-i ma' hud met chundnki 8 sd^ir-i hayvdndt rd j3\~ A&tx^ o*x> j>>t** &*fy L> fty ** *^f
(Sa'dl)
:
is
bom
in the ordinary
manner
<^0j
j*
<^)
-A.
of
ptyo
^
ham
n hama
muta^ssir
as little
mardum
them were
fc>/ (Afghan)
by wheedling." In Indian and Afghan Persian, chundnchi &^&*> at the beginning of a " clause means " accordingly Chundnchi ham-chundn kardam &&**+* *^^*" I did so
:
moved by roughness
as they were
accordingly,
exactly."
Though modern Persian chundnchi ^xuUo* may occasionally be rendered " or in English by "accordingly," its proper meaning is " so that "like," or *'for example," and, in translation into Persian, chundnchi must be employed only when its meaning will admit of one of these interpretations. Chundnchi *suU^ "like, for example": Dar yak sanduq ashyd-yi khurdki bud chundnchi (misl-i) nan va* birinj va panir va-yhayra c> ^
in
*&J
JW
J **J J
*^^ W
ufbj** </
&**" (Afghan
coll.):
va har
pddishdhri dgdh ki maddr-i kdr-i khudbar hikmdt nihdda, mavd'iz-i hukamd rd da8tur u 'l~'amal sdzad, ham mamldkat-ash dbdddn bdshad va ham ra l iyyat-ash
khush-dil va khurram, chundnchi Edy-i A'zam-i Ddbishlim-i Hindi
*b (Anvar-i Suh.,
his acts on wisdom, I, Intro.) makes the advice of sages his rule of conduct, his state will be prosperous and his people joyful and happy, like the great king of Hind, Dabishlim
Chap.
who."
*'
if
Agar chundnchi u dmad b man mi-ravam fjjt* e/ ^T^f & (rn.c.) for instance he comes, I'll go; here chundnchi A^uU^ could be expressed
\
^^^\
by
fi-l-masal
1
ft
In
rn.c.,
is
preferred.
3
Or chunanchi *3pj^
For chunanchi
Af^Ao.,
it
is
better
to
for present.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
In m.c., chundnchi
AaxiUo.
365
if
y*
him
c**j
(m.c.)
"they bastinadoed
(17)
***
Tawr-ikii
"
&J)*^ cA A
it
p&
+^
vdqi'
hud
happened exactly as I told you." ki *&f JU :~ an Hal (18) Hal an ki bi-shumd guftam na-shunidid
(m.c.)
(in
I*
&&^
of
p&>
Uu
A&f JU.
(m.c.)
"although
(19)
Dar
surat-i ki
*)j*
"
Dar
"in the
surat-l ki
f*>j*>
er*
^^
' '
:
jt
*+?)yoj$ (m.o.)
event) of his
J^^j,
etc.,
"
anyhow,
l^la.
at
any rate
(m.c.)
Bi-har
hdl
chdra-i
nist %^u^x>
Jla^^
L>
"
anyhow
there
is
no
W rV
^rT^a
6a in
hama A^^f
e<
still,
in spite of
"
:
Bd-vujud-i-ki bi-u
dusti
nami-kunam p& ^^^ ^} \** &j& ) *& )^^ " to him do this and he didn't, still (in although I told
^^
tark-i
*^*f*&
(m.c.)
spite of that) I
won't
give
up
his friendship."
v^jl^J
u nihdyat 'l~amr occurs rarely in writing for^/o^ioa^ dqjbat*'l-amr **at length, at last." is not used at all in Persia. nevertheless It is a (23) /+A U td-ham
(22) yift
"
'
^y
it is
Hindustani.
:
Mabddd
if
fdU*; shay ad
^jU
The poet
for
says,
to-morrow
Mabddd
*'
&? faUx>
^.^Jux)
y j&
(m.c.)
:
jf
viJi?
ki
"I
^y
mi-tarsam ki mabddd az injd na-ravam may " I fear I ** shall not get away from here." Uciijt y \d& (K*J**Q (m.c.) In the above examples ** alone could be substituted for mabddd t^Uo
:
"
ki shdyad (or
mabddd) sang 8 az
ki
mabada
l^'f*
*$
366
bala-yi
kuh bar man uftad <&\ &*j>. * ^s^)\ v-&* ( f^y or) <xU tS there was also some doubt that (lest) a stone might fall on me from (m.c.)
'*
the
cliff."
colloquial sentence,
I am afraid I may panja-yi dushman na-yuftam p&y er*^ ^^i j* f*j**' the fall into the hands of the enemy," negative is wrongly inserted owing
^^
"
to a confusion of thought.
In the following example from the Gulistan the same confusion seems to
*"
exist
s^
to
] andlshld ki agar bar mala* uftad fttna na-shavad M\ &*j*\ tf AA&JJJI " && (Sa'di) he thought that if the matter became known it might give
:
rise to
)
:
discord"
(i.e.,
should
it
become known
hope
it
won't give
{v
rise
modern Persians object to the negative here. *Z (25) Hamm taw ki mt-dawd uftad o>Ui[ **j*&t>
was running.'
93.
'
^X+A (m.c.)
he
fell
while he
Interjections
Interjections
consist
either
indeclinable
particles
emotion or
and Arabic, also act as interjections. 8 There is no general term for " Interjection." Interjections for regret are called huruf-i afws <jy*'f vJ^ for lamentation and grief, hurnf-i-nudba
phrases, both Persian
:
4bdJ
Oj^
*&)
(ay,
ya,
etc.)
for
admiration,
:
v^*^
<**jj*-
kalima-yita aj)vb
*-**>*>
Interjections.
:
m.c.
ur~^
afsus*
)
>
alas
)
\
m.c. m.c.
>A
\j
^)5
righa
or
va a
alas!
va hasrata
f
final
letter is
alif
the a
is
the
fcttha
of the law.
The vocative is either the same form as the nominative or else is marked in such words, as diriyha [**jb> alsoaydm^a ^j(i ^t, bv a final 3. The vocative alif *>** *^f The latter form is used in the singular only. Dirigh is called atij-irnuiba
*
.
4^*^t>
dirigh
amadan
c"^-*T
J^)^
to
be sorry, regret
8
"
dirigh nlst
^^ &)*
htizar afsua
you
Chodzko aptly compares the interjection to a species of musical note that gives a tone to the whole phrase.
* Also sad hayf
-ft^
&* and
367
class,
class,
tpity!
tj>;a
darda, oh grief!
"\
class.
vah
m.c.
class.
^Ij t,I
j #w/i
uj4J
C ah, alas.
m.c.
c5^
aft
wM
bi-man,
woe
to me.
)
C >
m.c. *f
m.c.
Uf a&a
I
* -7 -
si gh
pf
I^
avakh*
alas.
m.c. &> 5
va vayla, alas.
1^
class. li%t
vaasafa, oh
c^l^
my
sorrow, alas.
(said
(3).
3 m.c. <y ^t ay MaA; 6ar sar-am, dust on my head! occasion of death or when a false statement is made) vide
;
^
:
on
Examples
viw
<jfoeJ*
^^^
r;
^y tf
>Jt afsus
is
ki
baradaram sakht
"my
very
ill."
(Sa*di)
"
The time
(revolution) of
youth
left
me,
Ah
Har
ki shah an kunad ki u guyad Hayf bashad ki juz niku guyad (Sa*dl). " He on whose word the King (relies and) acts
A pity it
Hayf
" alas for *H e>!^ GhulamBiza, (*^ hayf-i-Qhulam Eiza javanbud^ (m.c.) he was young."
In speaking,
aM
ft is used for
"Oh!"
3
" Oh what shall I do." Or bar sar-am alone: chi bhak bar sar-am fj^jl * The Persians refer all changes of fortune to the revolution of the heavens. Dawr " also means the circulation of the wine cup. "revolution ))& 6 From afruj&tan c^jj^f to kindle : also dil afruz ))f\ J^ (generally applied for a lover).
6
7
^^ ^
r.
368
An
"
Farydd ! na-ddnam
bird of youth
fled,
me
thus forlorn."
(0.
155 K. Whin.)
:
is
addressed to himself
Fa dsajd / vd dsafd / Iran 'ajab dar khwdb-i ghaflat ast (modern) " Alas " In what a sleep of forgetfulness is Iran sunk alas ay khdk bar ear-am In alas what words are these (i.e. they are untrue)." chi haif-ist (m.c.)
!
!
:
<
Remark.
Sometimes a verb
is
equivalent to an interjection, as
When
Beware
K. 296 Whin.)
and surprise
(2)
Admiration
e>O*f J e^-* 3^
oj^
(real or
feigned),
m.c. vdh vdh Vj fy, good, good. m.c. AJ u bah bah, 1 well done also,
;
how
!
nice.
a
)
^
^
well done
^AJ
r~**\
zihl
3
hurrah
rate
!
(in
m.c.
{1
ahsanf
first
good, good", afrlnama Ax>U^j (^afrmbud " a Zend word occurring at the end of Gabr prayers, and signifies Oh God ** able to are we than what more be express. prayer
1
4<
AJ,
is
may
our
2
8
O God
#
create
:
more
for us.
Classical also
."ft'
*
Indians in speaking.
*
' '<*'
JUif
O 6* (<j~&)
or
of
Af>
"how handsome
Zaid."
1NTERJJEOTIONS
}
ETC.
369
m.c. Ua^/a marhaba, well done (not welcome). m.c. *JJt v^b barak Allah, may God bless you, good. m.c. *iff -0'x tabarak Allah, good, strange (also used to express disbelief).
class. u>xx
M
l
God
!
is
most great
will.
(for
wonder or admiration).
>lU ma
sha* Allah, as
s aa
.
God
m.c. *-*m.c.
ajab, wonderful
** ej*r*f )\j*
hazdr a firm, by
&zp &*
^JLff
all
^^
^U. Uo
ma
**r
what a nice
kard
little
child
sha** Allah chi bachcha-yi you have got ": barak Allah
\*>**>j*
cj^
*?^
&*- *J^f
^l>
"may God
:
bless it!
how
wonders"
afirin
bi-Mahmud
j>j+*uo AJ
e^yf
(m.c.J
Firdawsl, the author of the S/iah-Nama, the great epic of Persia, claims that it is written in pure Persian. He was confronted with his verses:
Firdawsl'a reply was that the Falak (not he) had said ahsan.
(3)
Lamentation, mourning:
4
")
.
ui
m.c.
m.c.
^j
1
vay
_
C
>
misery!
^j ^ v^ vayla
m.c. fj** y
(4)
^^ ^
vide, (1).
)
^^ o^
tie,
for
shame, ako
*j
pah
(for
a bad
m.c.
a/L
p.
382, foot-note
* Lit.
"As God
If
wills it,
what a nice."
The ma
sha* Allah
^ *UU
averts the
9 a stranger wero to make the remark without ma aha Allah 3vil eye. added. formula being bbo relations of the child would at onco insist on this
There
is
Fughan
24
370
m.c.
j^
dur, avaunt.
God defend me
(I
Attention or warning
m.c.
8> Uajyi
out
*Jo^
e)l*
inak, behold!
now!
!
class,
hdn
!
in truth
always followed by a
m.c.
A^y ^y
2
o*i
m.c. t^$
ni.c. ;>J
ejlU ^c\
(0*1
a#
Tw'cfor,
m.c. ^**
m.c.
!
"i
^*^+*
ay mashhadi, oh Mashhad!
karbalas.1,
m.c. ^>&!f
^\ ay
oh Karbala*!
!
m.c. j$\j ^\
ay baradar, oh brother
j
is
Zinhar
either
j(^)
or zinhar
^^j, when an
interjection of warning,
:
followed
bi-din
zmhdr
tama* digar-bar gird-i in dim na-gard ^t +k e^-^J^J ^^ ^*! & )b ** take heed, don't again through greediness approach the snare"; (Sa'dl) guft zinhar na-sitani ki bi-panjah dinar ham raz% shavand j ^3 " he said beware lest thou 1 cr*L> p*jfi'.* (on no account) take (Sa*dl)
^ ^^
?^
it, for
they will even consent to give you fifty dinars (' to go elsewhere )," Zinhar khwasian cr*"!^ A^j " to seek protection, sanctuary '* zinhari " under adj. protection" bi-zinhar amada-am c & (m.c.) "I have j(
3
:
\
^^\
*^
to you for protection." In the sentence guft mara kushta shudan qabul ast likan na-khwdham shud * c^t J^i A i^r txtj
come
^\^
^ ^J
*awm
zintidr
barahna
(m.c.)
oiT
Marfaka
A^XJ
'
(m.c.) for
mardak
Or /u/5na Ai&.
*^mw
*
or
arrmu j+*
all
(m.c.), for
in Ar.
These are
m.c. forms of addressing or calling to a stranger. the pilgrimage to Mashhad and Karbalai
Mashhadl
o^U
&&J,
respectfully addressed to
same manner*
any stranger, and do not mean that the made any pilgrimage. The Arabs use Ya ^ in the hZjj ^
371
"she
said
zinhdr y^j
may
be
considered either an interjection or an adverb of negation. In modern colloquial, zinhdr )($ is used without a negative in the sense
of
as:
j,^ (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. 40) "mind, whatever you do, that you embellish your services when relating them."
Remark.
^^ j & ) ^L
cu^jA
^
!
Ha U
is
behold
\)
"
is
a, as
shumd rd mi-zanam-d
p*}**>
U^
inyd biyd-d f
U> U*x|.
Hdn eM
(with nasal n)
similarly used.
(6)
Impatience
rn.c.
^ *&
tt>
<jj
m.c. j^j
nigdh kun, look here, conie here. dlh bi-raw, go along, do; (also dih for wonder).
1
m.c.
m.c.
rn.c.
>
^ ^
(
fXf*,
jahannam shaw, go
to hell.
m.c.
Jtf, or
^
8 3
^^'
my
bdji
or bald, or kindr),
my
m.c. j+*
jj>
jM
pusht pusht
m.o. 4^A Jo
class.).
!
jd bi-dihid,
make room
way
m.c.
(gen.
by
ni.c.
m.c,
^^J
may you
stomachache).
(7) Distress,
want
&$
K>
^T ^\*>
(for
4 *
(m.c.)
Bajl c**^>
l* fc -
sister'!
*Amuj+*
'ammu)
will
say biraw
'ammu j+*
:
jtf
do to
8
me
"
For explanation
1
JUa^ c**J
o^
&f
^^
guyand ki pusht pusht the comes here porter with his precious
372
>
az dast-i-tu,
help from
thine
hand
(of
oppression).
ni.c.
(8)
to*>)\
oU dad az
:
jafa-yi tu,
oh
Fie, for
shame
m.c.
*ar-a^ nami*ayad, feelest thou no shame ? m.c. *iX?T m.c. *U* oojj ruy-at siyah, thy face is blackened. UJ^;0 *^~NJ^ u^*- U^> ftat/a A$w& cliiz-ist dar dunya, a feeling of shame
shame
'
is
Repentance
f^j>^
ra.c.
m.c.
t>jZ
f^/ ^^ yhflfat kardam, guh khurdam, I have erred; repent humbly (lit. I have eaten human excrement). ^Ajyio jtj^ digar na-khwaham kard, I will never do so again
!
&
(10) Miscellaneous:
m.c.
class.
^ ^
^
j) y(j
yalla*
^>^
v>j>^
make way
look out!
m.c.
m.c.
khub,
all right,
go on, continue.
>j
^^-
dustan (Sa'dl),
friends never
aydz
an bi-llfih
ii^
Khuda na^kunad
i>ix
j^God forbid.
"
\
m.c. AL*Mx>
Khuda
na-khivasta "~
w jaryad
kardan &Zj' &^* 9 j
karri an <*)$j>
S^j* j
^
:
" to
call
faryad u
a^*
*'
to
" lament
bi-faryad rasidan
e)^^;
^l^
" to
assist,
c<
succour"
*
$
az
dast-i
cf^^j*
^l^ o*^ jt
(rn.c.)
am
Y a Allah *M
tj.
posh
44
*'mind your backs" or ** turn your backs (i.e., face the wall; as a The camel-men of Afghanistan and the Indian N.-W. Frontier say, great lady passes)." " for out of tho which is a of the old
po#h\ get pusht pueht o^-> t**J
I
way,"
perhaps
corruption
Another suggested derivation is that posh posh may mean a lady is coming)." Pusht pusht also means *' one behind the other
.
God defend
.
us!
lit.
"we
atoned ) "
the accursed or
Quran
373
ni.c.
<UJtyUL*t
astacjkfir-" llah,
God
forbid
(lit.
ask
pardon of
God).
ni.c.
**$
t^ Khuda
e> lat
m.c. &M\
4~
kunad,
God
God
(for
wonder, m.c.).
m.c. !*>
^
?/
ay Khuda
m .c.
kfoA Khuddyd
Oh God!
(in m.c.
m.c. *
my God
"I hope
(or
'
.")
^t*^
*JU'
Khuda danad
mi-danad),
God knows.
m.c.
m.c.
aJDi ^Lfi^t
^^
tti,^
m.c.
^r*y
azbaray-i Khuda
[
for
God's sake.
m.c.
j
~)
in
) m.c. '*^ M )* dar rah-i Khuda u m.c. *JU A^^Ji al-Jmmd li-'ilah, praise be to
God
name.
m.c.
t^y^
(
shukr-i
m .c.
m.c.
UA
Jfe^a.
ti>^
Khuda,
hafiz-i
Khuda
hafiz)
good-bye
;f
J>
<^ Khuda
;
^
r
^;td *Ki
you.
ra nigah darad
ni.c.
j^j zinhar
t
beware!
virfe (5).
ni.c.
a^a,-
goon, begin.
!
m>
t^ab.;
L|
m.c.
class.
4 ly turd bi-Khuda, for mercy's sake i^jb &ar Khudaya, O Great God!
6
*-*V labbayk
(in
%1?
;
gulula-yi shash
tnisqali,
you want a
tu-yi kun-at bashacL you quiet) the coming ^oJ qadam-i shuma bar chashm, welcome (to
or
guest)
M
m.c.
to Aaxj
bachcha-ha
Ilahl
rahmat-at
hafi^l
kam
oJU^> ^^f
(m.c.).
'
huda
kardan
t4
Corruption of Allah,
understood.
I
:
&
am
for
orders).'*
f>
A bullet of six
mitqals
/fco,
Corresponds to
7ia
72 tjandum.
374
y c**o
Jf
dast
az^\
\
girlban bardar
m.c.
)\* )j /f
'
** J
J-let
me
go.
am
m.c.
m.c.
**
vardar
,
J
!
.^
) >it
)
m.c.
ib;!i^3
m.c. ajy
^
^t
was nothing,
of
no consequence.
not
vvortli
^1*3^
bi-zahmat-ash
nami-arzad,
it's
the
trouble.
^f ay madad ay madad, help help m.c. eA^Ui-*^ ^J eiGUJUsxj ^t ay musalmanan ay musalmanan, Oh Muslims Oh Muslims
m.c. ^vo
^x!
bi~kumuk-am
j*t
bi-ras
^corne to
)
my
help,
come
to
my
bi-fary ad-am
a
bi-ras
cries
m.c.
e;U>
^U
Au
^t
3
^U ^f
^.f
a/ madar ay madar, help, help (children) ay nana-jan, O dear mother (children to mothers
!
also in
addressing women used by women when startled) cA^ kb ^.f ay baba jan, O dear father (a man's exclamation
;
!
when
startled).
m.c.
chi shud,
what have
ki
done
m.c.
*"
cU*f asman
fall.
paym
^
)
^
.
duzd duzd
,
m.c.
**>]
^ duzd amad
1
.thieves! robbers
m.c.^j^Jj^- fei^r bigir. seize him, seize him! m.c. o j va %Kt, stop
-it
f
m.c. i^^x:
m.c.
>c
\A j az jd 'ma-jumb
7 narakat ma-kun
oo^
don't move!
i
m.c. vlr*
bi-fchivab
m.c.
(J^l) jtjAs*
4
!
m.c. ))z t&\j &j* sar-at-ra nigah dar, heads m.c. AxJU cuixLx multafit bashid^ please pay attention, listen!
!
m.c. {jt (Jj$ gush kun, listen (give ear) m.c. o2b A^ixi mutaivajjih bash, pay attention
!
In m.c. yak&a
*iv.-'.
T.
*
8
A man
Nona
^^.
by mothers to their
&* *J
^ J **
is
children, or
by children
to their mothers.
375
man
me
!
for
a few minutes.
m.c.^o U IA^JO
(11)
bi-gw,
ha ha
bi-gir,
cA*# cA'j
cuj^
4u.<
t
chit,
shoo
away a
cat).
AJO
fo'^e fo't/e,
chikh? shoo
^
away
dogs).
y yy
(
Kerman).
^fr C A y^$^ Aws&, stand still (to donkeys). <j^- achlsh, stand still (horses, donkeys).
for driving sheep. f$ ft pikh pikh,
^
cries
to
Remark
There are
many
goats, sheep, asses, etc., etc., as well as for urging on beasts of burden: such
In the south of Persia, distance is represented by uttering ha several times with a peculiar intonation, as: Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a Kirman* "there yonder in the distance is Kirman." [In the Panjab a peculiar way of " there it is raising the voice (ohh pare hai yonder ") has a similar use.
) Examples Onomatopoetic nouns are called ism-isawt ( oj*> " " ku ku t( jlk jlk ~-^ *-&^" chirping of small birds cooing of doves " noise of laughter": chir chir j*. j** "fizzling of meat qah fjah tti ik* "tlie whizzing of a chakachak cooking": *J>**^ and chaqachaq <j & ll? and tran$-a-trang air": the sword, club, etc., through fash-a-fasli ^U
(6)
(1)
the whizzing of arrows through the air": qul-qul J^3 "the *Z & &+=* Qa-ani has :j<o gurgling of wine being poured out, etc., etc." Such -j az kunad mu ki mu words, chun masti-yi bisyar. ;ljr c5^^ y gurba
v^yf
<4
^Jjy
The following
L
are
o^i anc^ chikh* etc are particles the commoner dervish cries
,
:
(harf).
I,
Ya Hu
Ya
Tlaqq
Ho
/
\
Truth
(or
God)
**
come, come.*'
',
2 8
The Afghans say chibhe ^**-*- also m.c. Can this havo any connection with the
For things
far off only.
$*>-
Hu
is
is
Haqq
*'
the
Truth "
another
name
of God.
376
Yd 'All madad, O ''All help (Shi' a dervishes). Yd Mawfud* Oh Omnipresent. U lj Yd Qdziy- a 'l-hdjdt Granter of the needs of man. A0U Yd Ghaffdr*-l-2unub Forgiver of sins (of the 'All
]
Allah!
sect).
y^o
<JJ
'All is
compared to
Certain cries are peculiar to certain sects Sadd-yi yd AK * b b oxb ( or) ^J^c (or yd Husayri) buland shud * ^?\** could only be s applied to Shi* as, and sadd-yi yd Char Ydr ;b jU. ^ <^!*x* to Sunnis only.
Remarks,
^^
Yd
all
parts of Persia
Persia
is
the very home of flowery and figurative language, and striking examples of this are to be found even in the street cries. (1) Fruit or sweets:
b oyji)b
to
oy
:
your Sweetmeats
*i)t
legs.
,oL^
:
c5
**-^+*"i
~~
^;^ tol^
cj?
ay
halvd-yi
khdrak
ay
pashmnk
Figs
1 ay halvd-yi drda.
o^^' Ab
^A.jf anjir, anjir-i bulhul-i hdyji-i bihisht, tigs! tigs for the nightinealeiS of the Garden of Paradise.
JUL^-xjciJi
J
1
tit
y-
<*-
t-
i.e.
Abu Bakr,
'I'mar, 'Usmaii
and
the
'All. 4
threat,
he
Ya
the too
when seeking alms in the bazars. A dervish entering doos not salute utters one of these cries. The writer saw a Persian dervish in Baghdad crying Mawjud Zj**?* b in an unpleasant and excited voice till utterance nearly failed, and sweat streamed down his face from the exertion. The shop-keepers wore only to move him on.' willing to give him money Abu Bakr u 'Urnar, Us man u Haydar ;^.^ j c^^* J j+* 3 7* (misra).
or else
'
" ;
'
Haydar
4
is
title of
'AH.
Republished from the JL As. Soc. Beng., 1906, by the courteous permission of the
subject should compare these with the street cries of Needless to add, some of them show a fin* imagination. snack by the polite, bur guest is sometimes pressed to stay and eat a
*
'
Council.
colloquial phrase
5
yak
: f
zann payda
kii.nl
} <*>* *$ )}***
^J^
**^
V**
>4><
iv
-^*
(m.c.)
is
will
Halva-yi arda
fc^jT
^j^*
is
made
of
sesame seeds,
Hiigar,
377
figs.
ast,
Pomegranates
have
I;
pome^
\ j
^jUf atabaki
tar, Tchiyar,
Cucumbers
;
1
^^ ^
'
t^l
2/
qand-i
Plums
yf
^^ i^p ^f
:
Grapes
^y^xj
' *
^u
i
.
HJs
I,
oh buyer
Pistachio-nuts
(i^
hama
'ajil
daram
va bishkan.
bl'ddna nabdt
bi-ya lazzat
im-bari az ruh,
bi-ddna ab-i haydt; bl-ddna shakar-nabdt ; bi-dana, (mulberries) luscious without seeds,
;
sweet as sugar-candy, priceless as the water of life seedless mulbersugar; seedless mulberries come and delight thy
soul.
Black Mulberries:
l^iu>
ifj.x/o
J^
nuql-i
liila
^
(in
India
=
cJ
hil
a.st)
(2)
Tripe;
-
^Ut"**
(3)
^em^t, oh tripe!
:
^ c^;^
J
Cinnamon Tea
^,1^
^f
all
a?/ chay-i
sugar-candy
I
mixed
Atabaki
(j&\
is
"
;
Qand
is
pistachio-nuts,
Some Persians do not eat qand. A few oldsugar-candy. fashioned Muslims will not take tea, which comes from Hindus: nor loaf-sugar, which is
najis
u*?
it is
firstly,
because sugar
is
made by
because
purified
by bones.
378
(4)
Water:
ij
brance
(5)
of the
:
Martyr of Karbala.
Kerosine-oil
<Ji*>
v ^?
pfa ^iii nail-i* ddram misl-i guldb, a naptha have I like roselamps)
water.
(6) Castor-oil (for
:
jf^.
$l
f^a.
:
$U b yd shdh-i ckirdgh
4
yd shdh-i chirdgh.
&*.;b
^tjj
OHi^
vj?l
gwfcis
ddram
shlla
(8)
I,
tjjl^j
oh needles,
and
silver lace.
(9) Scissors
)*{*>
f*i>
and embroidery (hawked in villages only)* (JiU^^f (j?\j**^ ay miqrdz ay yardq-i dam-i chddar, oh
1 (or silver) lace for chddars.
:
scissors,
oh gold
(10)
For antimony 8
rfkcj**
w^i^
^y
:
^XLa
i/c^yo
^jj
Q.%
surma-'i/i sang,
o-l
surma- yi sang,
oh antimony
(11)
of stone.*
Indigo
c5^
!
10
****j cfj'
*
'
vasma
/ o-?
vavmct,
oil
indigo.
Husayn
was wounded
lie
stooped to drink
in the mouth by an arrow, when His death occurred twelve years after that of
his brother
2
s
Hasan {r~A
is
oJa,
There
^j^ ^^i
is
where
is
buried the
brother of
Imam
8tl)
Imam
(the latter
entombed at Mash-had).
Some Muslims
Tlie
salute the
fehayr
j^ v^
^o
)\j <Jfr^"> or chihil-yar )^ <J^' because each piece is folded be the Persian word " time, turn, regulation," or a corruption of the English word yard; derivation doubtful. 6 Salu Indian names of the red cotton stuff. Shlla A*A ^L* or shalu j*[*
may
is
*^.
by Jews.
These
10
The Zardushti women wear a special chadar j^la. without yaraq oLri For the eyes and eyelashes. ^ ^ For some reason the best antimony is called aurma-yi sanq <X/c^ For the eyebrows; the dried leaves are pounded arid boiled. Sa'di says
^^
kushish-i
III.
bl Ja*ida
1'
astvasma bar abru-yi kur )jf)f.\J, *+**J v=^i <<V^ (Jty>. Story 28, Book Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Oabr women.
'
Rouge:
cJf
v^r*
fctkk
(13) Patches
(lit.
red water).
^\ ay khitat, oh moles (14) Amulets: Not hawked in the streets in Persia; generally obtained as a hadiyya from a Mulla. They are, however, hawked in India. (15) Love philters
]
!
:
**'
^-*>3x/o
j j^c
live
<^sfjj>
dava~yi mihr
:
u mahabbat, medicine
for love
and affection.
oh
(16)
For
animals
J^tSJf
y^^i ^^
for goats
'Id-i
~t
oh money
for goats a
money
j^> j\j*
QurbanI
8
j*j iJi.^A
^*y
efrjl; jtrt
!
*y
^
:
1
o-l barra-yi
!
lambs
oh fatted lambs
yab-i kart
v^ LSJ
:
-*
oh ploughing bull
Cows
c
<
LS^
oh milch cow!
'alves
For poultry
-*
'kkurus-i Lari,
oh cocks
of
Lar
(i.e.
big cocks).
Kens:
^^.ivJ A^.AJ
Chickens
*^y^
o-f
ay
juja,
ay
juja, oh chickens
oh chickens!
'
Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women. Buz JfJ is the female; the he-goat is called cliapish cAj^ or narl
Tliere is a belief that those
;s
who
sacrifice
at the
Day
of
Judgment.
nor a cow.
*
B
Lar
for fear it
6
to cultivate, so\v, plough." from kaahtan y& karl famous for its large breed of poultry. No Muslim would buy dead poultry had not been slaughtered properly. Tho hens are cried as munjh.
:
e^
^^
is
baz
Modern, for the obsolete j>^ chtiza still in use in India and Afghanistan: chuzaan old woman fond of young men. In falcony chiiz, vulg. chwi, is the Indian technical term for an immature hawk or falcon (in Persia buz or buzyur, T.).
is
380
AfVfA.
ay bulbul-i khwananda, ay bulbul-i pur chahcha, oh singing bulbuls, oh bulbuls in full song.
.j
JL\JL>
*xxJt>^
J*b
45!
(17) Qur*ans:
f
for
Remark. It is impious to sell a Qur*an hence it is offered as a present, which the owner takes a present of money in return. When a vendor of
* c
jjfcfyi^**
'* Qur*ans cries his presents," the following comedy is enacted: A woman or in Quran chand hadiyya tm-khwahad oTy> would-be purchaser enquires, " '< is bi-riza?
AJJ^
<W
mand\-yi khudat ^^x>(^t "what you please." The would-be purchaser " <k then takes the book, kisses it, produces some security, and tells the giver to call again. In the meantime the Mulfa is consulted who says, for instance " giver" calls again panj tuman hadiyya darad tj* *^A ^Uy ^. The
.
o^
how many
Qur'an
The
reply
for his
**
present
" and
_-AJ
j.
if
tuman
hactii/ya
nami-diham
jUy
(18)
(e)
Old clothes:
AJMH6
*^
= )^
aix
A,
'
a^
m^mi
//o.
are some expressions in saluting, or in welcoming an<l or a visitor guest.* Some of these are properly used by inspeeding feriors only, but there is no fixed rule in the matter
The following
^j^cf c^i> khush amadid "welcome!" (lit. you have come happily; used on arrival or departure). & li musharraf \ am honoured (by your coming)."
muzayyan
adorned (by your coming)." mujtakhir farmudid "you have made me (or us) proud."'
lt
(my house
is)
x matbakh-i khud-i-tanast. or
yi
'
U fc^j^nshixiz-khnnti(l>y
your own kitchen." safa avardid "you have brought us happiness" o^j/T coming; used either on arrival or departure).
shuma
nst
"
(our house)
is
ti*>
your
^y^ fy)
of
age-bird^* before they are in bulbul is mast.
<
is
the
term
applied by
fanciers
l*
to
the
low warbling
full
song,
f'hahcha *^t^"
^lr
prin^ song
when the
<l
Hadiyya.
sp. a
present to a superior.
'
&e) buy old clothes and broken articleB: in Calcutta thi^ by Bengali Hindus (bikrl wolnha}. 4 The term for walking or riding out some distance to meet an expected guest in JUaL*! intiqbtil, while that for accompanying a departing guest some little distance to
A
Jews
(called A^.^^- or
trade
is
carried on chiefly
way
is
o**H*
or Aj^yj fadraqa.
The
latter
word
also signifies
" a
381
please enter (in the name of God)." " jjkjjju xx5U^j bi-farmasid bi-nishmid please take a seat." U Jj\* manzil-i cu*af jl^-o JU AjlA khdna mdl-i sarkdr ast,
bismillah
'*
oW
shnmd
ast
is
y*j Uijxtf
S^ij
J&P
jojfy
awldd-am g&uldm-zdda-yi
shumd va khdnum-am kamz-i shumd va khudam banda-yi shumd*yam *' my children are your house-born slaves, and my wife is your handmaid, and I
myself your
cx~3
own
c<
slave."
*r f z$j* ) UJ p karam numa va farud a ki khdna and this house belongs to be kind because alight, khdna-yi you," to an exalted or to a friend (said great person. " oj^xi^ c^4A>j t^i^ khayli zahmat kashidid you have troubled
&l^
AJU.
tust
yourself
much
(
(to
come and
see us)."
c
*o*~>
o^t;
'
'
o-*xj
pleasure
U-
JojU.
t^
or
JaJla.
Khndd
hdfiz, or
Khudd
hdfiz-i
shumd, ^good-bye
a
(God be your Protector)." " t*>^ Khudd hamrdh. '*God be with thee |J+A
traveller).
(spec, to
departing
to
f^A*,
(to
t^ahj
*'
1 entrust
you
God"
a parting traveller).
"may
U^^r*
x
wurakliktias mi-shavam,
,
leave).
?na rd
}^A?
^U
^iUk
jt
<73
kJidtir-i 'all
mard
maliv ma-jarmayld*
^yo
&
*j
exJ
lazzat
mj-barum,
**
am
(at
seeing
your
1 '
Bi-'sm-i'llah
i.e.
*XI|^~o
this
formula
is
work,
p*
for
f*aU.
Note
hand
*
tills
uso of bi/armayid
vidr
^t^j*
(m.c.) "please.*
The
right
be used in eating;
for theft.
man who
Used
This
in India,
civil
not in Persia.
*
6
phrase can, of course, be said on any suitable occasion. ^ /'/*;* cr^'k* lv>: is a subs, and adj.: &udu haftzi kardan gfcuda
'*
to say good-bye."
382
U*
"
j*}\
(a
form
awg&ur-i shuma bikhayr bashad, "may your omen be of greeting specially used by muleteers, camel- men
,
etc.).
Vide also U
for
'
(,?).
*
,
Remark.
ahl
an
welcome
'
ahl an
or
wa
marhab anl
l^*>j
is
The wife
exceptional circumstances. A respectable Muslim (not Gabr) when 1 " house,' kuch (rare)* mentioning his wife would refer to her as his khana a or 'iyal Jl-**, or ahl <J*f , or andarun &j)*>\ and for the Shah, haram (*^. A
in
'
^f
Persian
of his
v^ <j&j*
or
'
'
An Englishwoman
is liable
to have filthy
remarks passed on her by the shop-keepers or street people. (q) The Muslim greeting (in Persia accorded to Christians, Gabrs and Jews
s " the Arabic phrase fj&* f&* B salam un alay-kum peace be on ye," un is the to whiqh in Persia the reply same, viz., salam 'alay-kum j*3L
also) is
^U
^^
The Indian Sunnls and the Afghans say as-solam"-' alaykum pd* "the peace be on you," to which the reply is va alay-kum*' s-salam "and on you the peace." The Indian Shras among themselves say
'
salam nn 'alayk
's-salam f&-4
**
pd*
f^kj
f^*
ll
is
va 'alaykum *
1
and on you
peace."
The Afghans, Indian Muslims, Arabs, and Turks would not give the greeting to any but to a Muslim,* but in Persia, in many parts at any rate,
no distinction
is
made.
The Jews
him a$-sammu
'alayk*
* '
^J^
va <alayk a <-4*j
1
and on thee."
**
%
8
to welcome "; for the m.c. use of marhaba ta*/, vide (a) (2). Adarun-am fjjp^\ or fekana-um na-Mkush-aat ^^**f cAt^ ^ (*f*jl^-. In Persia the classical ruination is retained, but the modern Arabs, Indians, etc.,
TarMb
^^j*
omit
4
it.
The Jews
in
Baghdad
Englishmen in India sometimes fancy the Muslim greeting is is in when it to The author has been reality addressed to the sais behind. them, given frequently given the Muslim salutation in Persia even by mullas who objected to shaking hands with him. In India a vessel used by a Christian would be washed three
person of another faith.
times before use, but Persians will freely drink from an unwashed glass used by a
Christian.
5
hand to the head in salutabody as do Central Asians. Gentlemen incline the head in a and servants place the right hand on the heart while bowing from the waist.
neither salam, as in India, nor raise the
The Persians
38.'*
banda-manzil
"the
slave's
The dwelling," and of himself as banda **ij "the slave."* the avardan of in is "to coming guest tashrlf &?>)$ ui^iJ person To an invitation to call or honour the house, the invited bring honouring."
would reply flkavam " I
)%***
v^V^ '^
*^'*^
&
A
A
call
visit
and return
and
baz-did
&t
JL
out:
Persian does not call after dining arrivals, as in England. the host's business to call on the guest, who has honoured him by * accepting his hospitality and thus earned a return visit. A foreigner should call on fete-days, such as the Shah's birthday, and
it is
,
on new
the
Naw-Ruz
it is
^*jj Jiy^t ahval-pursi is "asking after a person's health," " enquiries on meeting. 'lyadat c^Uc is visiting a sick person."
To
give and return salutations
i.e.,
kind
is
of the Prophet.
Salam sunnat
a duty founded on the Quran, and the practice A horseman salutes a footman, and
it
is sufficient
who
are seated,
Muslim women do not and are not saluted in the street, but Zardnshti women salute men. A Persian recognizing his wife (veiled) in the street would not speak to her. The laws of Islam forbid a man saluting a woman unless she be old.
their
Salutations
left
hand, as
it is
no
iza/at.
1st person singular. Classically, and in India and the verb is in the 3rd person singular after banda. in speaking, Afghanistan * 3 In aha 9 Allah *JJ[ l&f I hope so and think "if God wills'* corresponds to
With the
verb
in the
so.'*
is it
going to rain
" a Muslim
where an Englishman says "yes"; no Muslim would dare to decide for the Almighty. A failure to grasp this idea sometimes causes Europeans much irritation: they cannot understand not getting a "straight answer."
A,Uf liof
To accept an invitation is, according to a sunnat cui**, obligatory on a Muslim. The word farda \&j* enters largely into the Persian vocabulary. During a two cannot once recollect hearing the word imruz years' residence in Kirman the author
3jj/U
4
An opium-smoker and
will let
* '
it is
estimated that
00%
of the
smokers
to-morrow
' '
is either in the morning before noon (gen. for business), or two hours before sunset (for pleasure). It is usual to send a servant a day before, or on the morning of the day, with an oral message to arrange for a visit, so that the host may be at home and prepared to receive. The seat of honour, and the chief guest are on the host's right hand. Persians have expressed
The time
for visiting
sadr,
take the top of his table at a dinner-party and surprise to the author that he should and left. It is no easy matter to arrange the his on the chief right guests place
Guests sometimes ask seats at dinner for Persian guests, without giving offence. unless to come decline and promised a higher place. beforehand where they are to sit
384
(2)
are in
common
W/-i shuma ziyad "thank you (lit. your favour is great).'* shuma ziyad " thank you (as above).' oty " thank you." ^b; U^ o+a^-o marhamai-i shuma ziyad U uftbJ ji az M/-* shuma, or U-& oU$' 31 as iltifat-i shuma " thank you
1
U&
'
ci>U&t iltifat-i
U
al$}
cufti^
j!
az
shuma " thank you (by your consideration)." (< thank you (by your indulgence)." shafaqat-i shuma
o*A3xx>
affection for
me
is
great)."
^\ U
'
O)P
(+
'izzat-i
shuma ziyad
'
;
great)
s^^SJ ($
&U
saya-yi
am much
obliged
also,
good-bye (may your shadow never grow less)." " *i& U- ow-a dast-i shuma dard na-kunad thanks (may your hand or 4 arm never pain you)": (said when receiving help used by both men
and women).
^cyi ^xj pir sham
child).
(
<(
to
you
"
"
!
Khuda shuma ra nigah darad God keep you !" &\& *$ j* y f^U^ <&U> f>^ Khuda sdya-yi shuma ra az sar-i ma /cam na" " kunad may God never remove your shade from our heads U^ LU Jjfe;^ dar zill-i panah-i shuma hasfim "we are under the ^AL*d,
IAS
!
U^
(Jlfc
l
S CAM.!
w^
&f
b
well
" shuma buiand " may your fortune be high " I *^ J ^' ahval-i shuma khub astl hope you are quite "
<5K'.f
f
^ aj;'<x>
no
"
?)
bak-i ki
solicitude?)
mistaken
This phrase lias often been used as a reproach against Persians, through a notion that ziyad means "more. " Ziyad is a positive adjective which
for the
comparative.
Iltifat
This phrase
(an old
properly used by an
properly means
also to
inferior to a superior.
Some Persians
signifies
May
you
1
man's shadow is less than that of a young man); but may your shadow on U8 always remain.' * Said especially by a woman when a dish is handed to her, etc. after a display of skill in cookery, sewing, etc.
'
any one
is it
The
force of the *
is
**
not
so?' 1
385
^*S
U-i
ou*' kayf-i
U
shuma kuk
kh-usJu
ast
(is
your condition
ell?)"
5 iXjyaJ
&f
^j**
S
na
ki
disposition."
cu~*l
<jU. l^i
fU>j>
fit ?)
"
dimagji-i
shuma chdq
I
(is
filx^j-*
sar-i
dimdyji hastid
ririts ?
*^y
lack
not coming to see me) ? The answers to the above would bo some such phrase as az dawlat-i sar~i uma U^^-M. usJj^ j| tl by your good fortune (I am well, etc.)," or az shafaqat-i umd U^> cuai^ jt etc. or jokingly, az marhamat-l ki na-dand ^;t^i &>A+AJ# j\ " in sha*Allah khidmat-i shuma mithrough the kindness you don't show
(in
, ,
:
kindness
'
sam
tram
f+*j'
\+">
^**>^
<t^Jf
^U
<
c^f
if it
please
is
"my
health
i.e.)
'he
is
proud"
^f*xi
^^
^^ &$* fulankas dimagh darad imruz dimagJi-i na-daram (m.c.) "I 3^}
"
Expressions of tenderness
*z*s*})* ^s
]
\&fo
pj(*v
o^^
&\*j*
CL^AAJ
dard-at hi-jan-am
(i
sacrifice
*ei^
^uxlLi
qurban-i sar-at
sar-at
**
may
be thy sacrifice."
Kaijf
^-ft^r
modern
for kayi*
**
how "
is
of oiio's health
also
hilaratiori
of intoxicants.
Kuk
a)^ ^j?
9
(m.c.)
to
**&
asical instruments,
(^
jtruments'*: saz-ash
no
k
' '
^^ (j^jf^
uS>^
(m.c.)
kuk-ash raftam pfc) <J\jt e$-y (slang) kardam ki bi-asman raft *^+9j eA-**f *J &$ &j>
:
tu-yi
him
": kuktill
(J^^
**
(slang)
"I
is
chaffed
him
ew him
2
well
'
'
^y^ &%s
(slanp;)
" he
:
drawn. '*
sickness"
tc$
me ans
**nose
"
:
in
dimagh darad tyt * ^U^ j& &*> " what idea has he in hia head zad (local) he shut the door in my face."
^^
(class,
and
m.c.)
"to
"
:
dar ra bi-dimayh-
* An expression used by both men and women. The woman sometimes circles ind a sick person's bed with the idea of taking on herself any danger or calamity
at is to fall
on the beloved.
The custom
is
dying out.
386
^AJ ^L. ^t ay jan-i pidar "oh life of thy father (said to a son or daughter, by the father)." " oh all * ct^U. ^i ay janan (in poetry) my lives (said to a mistress)." y nur-i chashm-am light of my eyes (said to a son)."
'
U. &(*> jan-i
^U taj-i husband)."
|
my life." my head
"
"
(a
whims
ji in ki misl-i ruli-i
l
'
thou art
like a soul to
a y aziz-i man (used to friends, children, a commonly used expression without any great force)
(k)
my
Adjurations
j
bi- sar-i
y
if
"
adjure) thee by thy father's grave.' " by my father's soul (plural for sing.
(I
c<
"
'
the father
j
is
by thy moustache." khudat " by thy dear life." " bi-marg~i sliuma by your death." " " ^ w bi-miri thou die," or mayst by thy life."
bi-aabll-at
qasam
(vulg.)
jl=?u
bi-jan-i 'azlz-i
Remark.
says,
ptfLs*
A man
say
" Swear
promises
to
come at a
certain time.
His friend
tu bi-mirl
cs^p."
By thy life
" tu bi-miri, mi-ayam >>," the reply is The host then says man bi-miram, I will come.
^^
zud bi-yaf id
A^JUj
me
^ ^^
^yo
"
''May
I die!
Come soon"
(if
you want
come
late).
is
guest who is for any reason a check on khar paida sliud *& fajjj^a^*..
Sometimes a
sar-i Ichar
announce himself by
zamm
bi-shigaft,
payda-shud ^>
(m)
(1)
The
*y j^j** o^'KSj e^^}, (or j**j* &* \*# &*& cri^J) Persians belong to the Sbl'a sect of Muslims and are followand
first
They maintain
o^
c5^
*)l*.
*
The an e>f is always used as a singular. According to some it is an extension of the vocative
for
in your head is worth swearing by, mine is not: therefore a servant, would instance, say to hi<? master bi-sar-i shuma U-w^^j. * You are so dear to me that I swear by your death in preference to mine.
*
The idea
of the
Persians,
of
daughter.
387
that 'All was the first legitimate Imam f Uf or Khalifa &&d (successor to the Prophet), and therefore consider AbuBakr^y(, 'Umar^s and 'Usman e;Ui* as usurpers. The Sunnis on the contrary maintain the claims of these three
as well as of AH.
(2)
1
The following
are
some
of the
commoner
maledictions'2
&
? (y
) cjjj~o
"
may
khak-ash bi-daJian
)j**
may
thee away."
j
bi-sar-at bi-khurad
"may
about)
fall
on your head.
(oJ^
Khuda marg-at bi-dihad " may God give thee death." ^ Khuda tamam-nl kunad " may God finish thee."
'"
gU*
ej(f3j>>
-
ruzagar-at siydh
gtf
may
tliy
^^.j (J^j
(^J)j
bachcha buzurg na-shi, '* boy may you never grow up." " cJf al-at bi-zanad, " may the Al strike thee. 4
*^.j
i
vj
J?^A hargiz bi-khdna-yi hakim piycida na-ri be so sick that you will have to be carried to the doctor.'
libas-at
may you
naw
bdshad,
"
may you
die
clothes."
(3) Eastern languages have a rich and varied vocabulary of abuse, and Persian perhaps stands foremost. The following are a few mild terms of abuse in ordinary use
:
J*$
pidar
sukhta,
D-d
blackguard
(lit.
your
father
is
burnt).
"one of the path.'* The Slu'as still possess majtahids or tiunnl, lit "enlightened doctors'*: they observe the ceremonies of Muharram, while the Sunnis
1
('
ashura
'jjy"*^)>
Adam.
i.e.
The
Shi'as also
allow temporary marriages and observe slight differences in ablutions and the forms
of prayer.
They
kitman ^)^^)
concealing one's
permitted.
Vide
Beng., 1912.
**
is
on hearing this sometimes adds khak-i kahu jw* manured by human excrement, and is reckoned the
o^
women.
&
tf
a woman.
The Al
*
is
Al
'
insists
of imagination.
pidar-sag-ha
Subs, pidar
388
nasnds, ourang outang. walad-i zina tij oJj ... , -. / offspring of adultery. ,, r c J b>/f *Jj walad" z-zma
[
) ,
.
^Jwi
T.
<JtfU> ja-kash,
ahmaq,
5
fool.
is
,j
of trickster.
lull,
blackguard.
<J&*
(4)
qallash, cheat.
The
is
It is inserted, as it is
well to understand
ti
what
is
<J)*J
i*A>3 )
' '
f<xj
beard
(mildly paraphrased).
besides
There
fuhsh-i
1
is
called
^^j^^U
jiocJ
madar u pidar, that is best omitted. The examples already given will be found more than enough to indicate the general lines of such 3 language language found in the mouths of even tiny children.
Though the Persians use the crudest expressions in their daily speech, they even the humblest and poorest of them can, when they choose,
administer a veiled and delicate reproof with exquisite
skill.
Not
often used as
also in a
it is
man
this,
who
is
not.
2
3
Used
bad
sense.
signifies
lit.
Qahba
&***-* in
Arabic
"
cough."
is
SJi
which
explained as meaning
**
he knows not
a hirr or
5
tf
cat,*
from a
birr or
fox's cub.'
"
'*
Lu$
In "Urdu a
sodomite."
A similar expression
It
is
perhaps some extenuation, that, from constant use, these words have lost
much
of their force.
SIGNS
94.
AND
SIGNALS.
1
389
are not only in constant use, but reference to and modern writings ancient in occurs both frequently
[
The
following signs
them
Silence:
Dast bar
sar-i
damagh zadan
ejj>j
e\**j"j*
e**>^.
is
The
right
held perpendithe the middle with tip of the nose; joint touching cularly (point upwards) the front of the forefinger to the left or the tip of forefinger is laid on the
hand
is
Less
commonly the
here, biya LJ
on the closed
lips as in
England.
Gome
As
a secret sign to keep silence. in India, i.e. the right arm is more or less
extended to the front, palm of the hand downwards. The signal is then made by closing the fingers towards the palm, and extending them a few times.
No
AJ
As
in India.
The open
head
is
hand, palm to the front, held agitated from side to side. Additional
right
emphasis
given by turning the head to the left, closing the eyes and smiling idiotically with the lips closed. Slightly throwing the head back and closing the eyes also indicates
is
"No,
"
as well as,
"
He
is
talking rot/'
" Don't do it." " Raising the eyebrows slightly is a secret signal No," or = " Ask him." Raising them with a slight turn of the head means
nihadan j c**o. This action generally The tips and chashm signifies implicit obedience. accompanies the reply p*laid the on of the fingers of the open right hand (back to the front) are right " Yes." left breast and bowing = the on hand the Also right placing eye. " Lowering the eyelids in also a sign for Yes."
Yes:
Dast bar
cliaslim
^^ p^
Astonishment:
1
Anyusht gazldan
&*>
(
&&$ ^&i,
.
ta'ajjub) gazidan
v=F^
or)
^^J cu^>
The
is
placed on
This action
commonly represented
in pictures of the
The Afghans lay the forefinger (underside to the front) transversely across the mouth and close the teeth on it opening the eyes at the same time in
an astonished gaze.
Halt
:
Va
ist*
or bi-ist
^~*?.\
&
or ^~~t\
fj.
The
right
arm
is
held
as in the British Cavalry signal for "halt," or the perpendicularly, open and extended right hand is held up a little above the level of the right
much
shoulder,
I
palm
to the front.
It
Republished for the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1907, by kind permission of the Council. is related that a European visitor at an Eastern Court nearly lost his life by
when
the king
was relating
cue of
8
latgah
*^*-^t
railway station."
390
Mad:
fore-
u&^k ^^U^ "he's cracked." finger dimagji-ash khu$hk-ast the hand across the mouth downwards, from wrist Drawing open right
t
o^
it
at the
same time
talking rot."
Go out:
95.
(a) Istikhara
etc.
8)Ufcuut
signifies
finding the answer on the right-hand page. The seeker first repeats the Surat^lFatihah a^li), or "Opening Chapter of the Qur'an," the Su-
g^
u
rat*-l-IKhla8
u^JI'
i(
*)?
On the
" the 58th verse of the 8u'mt -*l-An'am fUiilf %~> the Chapter of Cattle" (6th Chapter) three times, and then opens the Qur*an. Sometimes seven Salawat
are repeated in addition
.
;
first si
*
SljJL*
*-*
Juj&{j/o,
i.e.
&.**'+ ,$^
>^=cuo ^.Jlc
$/
-^.Uf
He
then
and
the Fatihah or Opening Chapter) and then Old hu^llali the lastly Aya-yi-malat%h' l-(jjiayb ^*$\ ^3lix> if which is tht
*&&*
Then saying ^JysuLf
^\
is
opened by
the seeker at random, by the forefinger of the right hand, and the top line of the right-hand page is selected. If no verse begins in this line, the seeker turns back and goes to the beginning of the verse.
or expressing pity, etc., are propitious.
number
is, after opening the book as above, to count the word Allah occurs on the page, and then to turn over (forward) the same number of pages, and again count the same number of lines from the top, and then if no verse commences in that line to read forward and take the first verse that oeeurs after that line.
Another method
of times the
IstiM&ia tyUv.L!,
to a
As. Soc. Beng., 1900, by kind permission of the Council. that the: The istiM/ara Kt, "asking favours, etc.
Jl.
7 '
*>^M
Mulla
for
an
iatilchara,
who
takes no foe
except perhaps an
One form
lirat
of
bibliomancy in England
enough.
omen from the first word of the from a Bible suspended by a omen an Taking
is to
take an
key
common
of properly any prayer, being the Arabic equivalent a has the word the however, signification. Persians, special generally by * * Incorrect Arabic for -r-khir-li " choose for me.
S
Salat t\jk*
is
namaz jU*
391
is of course often extremely vague. In addition to the above, the Persians, even the most irreligious, " or The rosary." generally take an istikhdra jUJL,f from the tasbih *$~* at of random. hold Fdtihah is recited three times and any two beads are taken
*
The answer
As the
first
bead between these two points slips through the fingers the " as the second is eAf* "Holiness be to God
;
^Jf
f<
Praise be to
God "
till
as the third
is
slipped
this order
is
,
reached.
first, second, or third expression falls on the last bead the reply favourable, indifferent, or negative, i.e. khub v^S miyana *^*>, or bad ***
From laziness, the Fdtihah is in practice usually recited only once. This form of istikhdra *;ls\M takes little time or trouble for most Persians carry a rosary in their pockets as a kind of play-thing and it is
resorted to on the most trivial as well as the most serious occasions.
a
Tajcful
'
'
J^&
'*
auguring,"
omen from Hdfiz. A &U* A^fyv hand and the following words are said c^jfjj-* vAwl^y ^ji^A JIJsjuj JU. ^^ILc ^U ^j j Uj U^j Yd Khwdja Hdfiz-i Shtrazi tu kdshif-i har rdz-i bar-i md biyd va yak fdl-i mundsib-i hdl biyanddz, 4 or ^j^ ^'^ *-^f>^ ^ ci^UJ e^eHt*^ ^^ v^t^J*^ ^ J>^ ^U Jsu iy 7a Khwdja a*y&-s>x>^~J
:
B applied to seeking a fal or volume of the Divan of the poet is held in the left
is
generally
(j
&
dar in kitdb-i Ichud mu'ayyan kun. 6 and the first line of the page on the right-hand is taken, and the seeker turns back to the beginning of that ghazal J>. If the omen is unfavourable,
Nabdt qasam mi-diham ki kull-i ahvdl rd The eyes are closed, the volume opened at
hazard
the
ghazal
J>
following
if
it
is
is
read
(called
Jjf <-i^
(c)
3Al) and
propitious
The Persians
and geomancers,
before start-
of
making
this
way
is
merely a
game
2
Out come the beads. Many a European Shall I or shall I not take a purge ? anxious to fretted and fumed, because day after a has critical surgeon perform operation beads said the the was unfavourable. day day " to take an omen" 3 Fal zadan
giriftan
is
^ij! JU
tafcful
^^j
JV^
There
no fixed formula.
6 By running the nail of the forefinger of the right hand through the top edges of the leaves, the book being held in the left hand by the back, front edges towards the sky. 8 Munajjim ^u*> " astrologer "; *ilm-i nwjtim ^su .JU "astrology"; rammal
^geomancer": *ilm-i raml cU; /JU (raml andakhtan ^^fjof <J-;) ctUA JU "astronomy", a term also applied to Euclid. " to cast a kashidan
'ihn-i hayat
eomancy":
Zlch-i tali,
^OJj^X
jJl^t is
^)
horoscope."
Falrgir
j& Jl^
392
ing
on a journey,
etc.,
house,
etc.;
numbers, and
Geomancers,
unlucky days.
Geomancy is supposed
by Daniel.
Td
Hazrat-i Daniyal
"
J^f<> o^aa* L.
(d) The 13th of iSafar, the second month in the Muslim calendar, and the 13th of Nawruz, are days of evil omen 1 ; also the 5th and 13th of every month. To avoid the evil that might overtake them were they to remain in-
doors,
all
of
On
the last
Wednesday
of Safar,
jump
Omens
number
of times a
first,
person sneezes, the crossing of a threshold with the right or left foot and many other things too numerous to mention.
(/)
zakhm
ing
it,*
^J
Persians also believe in the evil eye, chaskm-i bad &* or chashmp***-, 3 one be of the evil knowwithout Any may possessed eye ^^.
Ma
sha* Allah
aJDi
&U
before
gazing at their
effects of their
in a mirror, so as to
ward
off
the evil
Blue wards
the evil eye, and for this reason valued animals are this colour. Also the ispand seed is burnt in the fire.
Pretty children are often purposely kept dirty and unkempt, and further 6 guarded from malign influence by amulets ta'viz **j**. Carpets are generally woven by the tribes-people with some small defect
in the pattern, to avert the evil eye.
Manhw u*}*^*
on the
last
or bad
in
ciJ.
the
month
of Safar.
It
is
Day
and
will fall
8
Wednesday
fortunate.
of a $afar.
woman
in
kingdom unveiled,
The Mujtahida have the same right, being considered mahram. * In mard bad-chcwhm ast cu*f AAV^ j j^o ^f^ or chasm-i shur (or ahwn) darad ast or ) $)\b ( +}> )y *A. (m.c.): In ahatehtB-zaban-aah shum f^St ^J^bjO^^* (&* " this man o**t
(m.c.)
6
always prophesies unlucky things." jjb, a charm made by writing a text, wrapping it in bulghar ^UJU or scented leather (qab-i Quran), which is then bound on the child's arm. An amulet is
Bazurband
**ju
*'
talisman."
more commonly sar-rahl is money expended in charity ^ykfj ^, ^tyjj**, on the threshold, by a departing traveller, to insure a safe return. In India some Muslim women bind a coin on the arm of the departing relative to be expended in charity on reaching the journey's end in safety.
DamrrdM
393
ward
off
Certain
cities,
Mullas' houses, a Consulate, the stable of certain big o^. The writer once saw a soldier
However
in
spite
Kirman, declaring it was bast *^*~*. protestations he was finally removed by the
of
is
13 days, and every master is one month's pay. The chief of a dervish sect will auction certain sites, such as the Governor's Palace, the British Consulate, etc., to his followers. The purchaser erects a tent and blows a horn and refuses to move on, unless
given a sufficient
site.
(i)
sum
of
money over
the
sum
for
the 'evil eye of time, to the world, etc., etc. 2 The influence of the heavens on the fortunes of
man, appears
to be an
ancient superstition dating back to a pre-Islamic period. It has been supposed that Persians attribute their ill to the heavens, to avoid the appearance even of attributing misfortune to the Deity. This is not, I think, the case.
The Persians
still
man's
fate.
Muslims who wish to avoid ascribing ill to the Deity, attribute the occurrence to Fate, Qaza Ui, Qadar joJf, or Taqdlr jt*&. In the religious drama of Husayn, the sky is accused of being the author of his misfortunes.
Examples:
"
Ay charkh-i falak kharabiaz klna-yi tust (0. Ah Wheel of heaven to tyranny inclined."
!
K.)
aid
Tweedie mentions a wild boar being kept in the stables at Baghdad, and this is Some say the breath of a pig is good for horses. In 'ArabistSn, pigs* flesh is said to be eaten under the name of guafand-i farangi ^xSJu^J
1
ij&j*.
Ham
in Persia
is
sometimes called
gusht-i bulbul
JUb
oJ^
a
t
name
said to
have been invented by a telegraph clerk. The Baluchis of Bampur (Persian Baluchistan), a very different-looking race from the fine people near the Dera Ghazi Khan Frontier in India, eat wild pig and foxes.
2
Oardish-i Falak
,Jlb'
(jS^, Dunya
Uio,
394
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
alt-bunyad Hargiz girih-i kdr-i kas-i rd na-gushdd Har jd ki dil-1 did ki ddgh-% ddrad
In
charkh-i jafa~pi$ha-yi
'
Dagh-i digar-% bar sar-i an dagk nihdd (0. K.) " The wheel on high, still busied with despite,
Will nev'r unloose a wretch from his sad plight; But when it lights upon a smitten heart,
biguy Payvasta figanda-t mard dar tag u puy (0. K.) " Oh wheel of heaven, what have I done to you That you should thus annoy me ? Tell me true."
:
(
Ay
rdst
Whin. Rub.
499).
Chun
Idla
Ed
May nush
Ndgdh
" Like
Spring your cups lift up, with a And, tulip-cheeked companion, sup With joy your wine, or e'er this azure wheel
tulips
blast upset
your cup."
(Whin. Rub,
44).
CHAPTER
96.
(a)
XI.
p*i
).
Diminutive Nouns
:
(ja-^t or^*^
c
-
A*'.
&
and
&*>
also colloquially
affection,
j.
may express contempt, pity, simply give the idea of diminutiveness. The diminutive nouns may further " be qualified by an adjective signifying "small," little," etc. tf or * are used, as first three the rational For only beings (6)
:
or
(1)
vJ,yo
(Sa'di).
In prose ast would be used. Lola is in Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, the
Colloquially
name
of the
common
called
red
poppy.
8
mardaka
tf&j*,
also
zanaka &>)
(m.c.).
This k
is
kaf-i
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
-&5 zanak
1
395
"a
little
woman "
(rare).
'
tjf^a.*
dukhtarak or tj&>*diikhtara
little girl."
Tiflak-i
man
:
ijj&b (m.c.)
"
my poor
little
child
is
sick"
contemptible European."
Remark.
iJU*^
"croup"
(so styled
from the
is
nisbati.
A^J*=
2
<*&j
(3)
a
zanaka,
"
virago."
:
boy."
girl."
little
tyjS*
ft
"
virgin
(from dushtdan
^<HJ
to No.
Remark
*^u
also
<c
occurs
in
substantives
without
as:
&>>&**
safida
hump"
6<
(from a^
"a
98
hill"):
(6).
*&*
kuha
"a
j&&>
are
lamb,"
A^^
/wy'a
'
v5
''
a toal
"
(of
cat ion.
[in
s^
6anrfa
'slave," dim.
Ax?G jjj
^'].
Ruz-nama
*^-<
?^Vfc
f
^,
(5).
is
sometimes elided,
^>t
1
/f//I,
-'jKUTot," dim.
c^^A*
(mod.).
An unmarried
girl
or
woman
is
called dubhtar
j*^
(m.c.).
least)
These words are properly contemptuous, but from frequent use (in Kirman at their force that a husband and wife use these forms in. adtlioy have so far lost
Generally
if
woman
is
addressed as zanaka
^J
she replies,
zanaka madar-at
*
cs*)j>U> Ak)}.
The
"
tashdld
is
apparently used
why
'* the tree (or any plant) has sent out a sprout." Darakht bacfazada Also falak : to which the feet are fastened by a loop and held soles upwards. The pole is held by two men.
396
(4)
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
The only termination found in irrational animals is ^, kharak-i miskm " poor wretched ass."
^$-l
as
"a
little
chick."
little
horse or pony."
This
termination
haywanak "poor creature"; ^jy murg&ak "wee little bird"; (vide also last example (c). (5) For inanimate objects ^ and *** (or za) are u ,ed :~-*su*^ or e*>^ " hawzak or hawzcha (m.c.) " a small artificial pond *^U baghcha (m.c.) " a
:
ittle
garden":
bazicha
*#
ia/cAa
"a
4ujb
"a pistol": *-^J pulak " **u\* kamancha (m.c.) a bird's fish's scale, a scale on leg " " " a violin bow" chashm (m.c.) pupil of the eye p**- cJ^y mardumak-i
"a
:
little
game":
*$vii3 tufangchn
"a spangle, a
'
*^-/ ^wcAa
lane
' ' ;
maslikiza *}*2^c
"
*
;
"a
few
little
verses
"
;
^ ^^
*i^
^Xi
*
^^)
^<y^
iJL,
^JLXJ
t^
^iu
^ ^yi ,^u)^
;
Yd yak manak-i*
? then take of bang one grain Of rosy grape- juice take one pint or twain."
two
(O.K. 251. Whin.). " and in one or " In lakh.sha "a live coal, a spark/' naysha a small reed words the sha is merely a corruption of cha.
Words ending
daryacha\
tj
in
3*-*
sahra,
dim. ^^
|^-
sal\raclm\
As when forming the plural in em, final silent with the diminutive in *, as jama &*L" garment,
' '
:
becomes
</,
garment
"
J&*^ jamagak
' 4
a little
Remark
also
IV).
(m.c.)
The termination
^ is
"measles";
" kam-tar-ak
further
' '
;
J^U
talkh-alc
(class.)
little
"somewhat
less";
^^
(m.c.)
"a
^^
^
' ' ;
"a
little later
-^*f
also
means a
'*
toy hor^f
"
:
in
Indian Cavalry
wallets.
Regiments it 2 In m.c
8
kaf-glr
j^&fj a name
is
"
properly for qizilcha (dim. of measles'* (in the diet, also a gold coin and a bag).
A?JjJ>,
qiziljih
*
qizil) P.
aurtoh.dk
(m.c.)
=
or
Javok-l
so."
*
^^
1 '
manak-l
^^
t4
a small
man
jama-ale.
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS,
' '
397
' ' :
little
lower
' '
;
^
1
zudtarak
" a
little
quicker
muzd-i
hammaml
ra
bad-ak na
all
dadam ^toJ^i ij ^U^. *yc " badly" (Tr. Haj. Bab. chap. 17).
Remark.
I tipped the
The termination *j appears to be a form of A^, as A*ufa "a (class.) lentil," the diminutive of Aija dana.
:
or
In a few words idia *fu| and isha *&$ occur, as: dancha A^uj^ "a small door, i.e., a window (opening like door)"; mahlcha **^*\s> "acrescent; orna-
ment."
animate nouns, as
(c)
In bdzicha *fujk, the belongs to the original form.* Iza is also for " naviza <l dushlza tyjt " virgin a small boat." >^G
to
rational nouns,
a " a y pi sara mihtar or pisar-mihtar (m.c.) " oh 5a^5 yyo ^^j boy (not " son of groom "); gAulam-bachcha &*o ftt* (m.c.) "a boy slave" shutar***% bachcha *^> j& (Sa df) " young camel"; darmsh-pisar j-* cA^;> (Sa'dl) a boy dervish."
ruzi talabad
Va adamUachcha na-darad khabar az 'aql u " The chick conies out of the egg and seeks its living, But the young of man has nothing of sense or discernment."
Remark
the
/.Words
juy (^^)
^ in the diminutive,
Jaw ^^ "
as
wj^ or
" becomes
javak
a grain of barley
Remark II. These diminutive suffixes are called chim-i tasgj&r " and kaf-i tasgj&r j**-*** o(^. In kharak ^ja* poor ass" and pisark
"
darling boy,"
of
the suffix
may be
" the k
"a
leech
"
^^ oK
for zalu
also gives
a modified signification
^ chashmak
(m.c.)
"a wink,"
").
^ puslitak*
l
*'
somersault," (pusht
back ").
Similarly kaj
*
&
Baghcha
is
sometimes gazh.
is in
garden*'
(m.c.
Urdu bayhicha
*'
Pisar-i mihtar
j^^^^^
and
class.)
Bar 56 pushtak
"dive
398
AFFIXED
tutehmak
or
(tukhm
"egg").
" a carrot."
6ad-^ khurusak
zardak
U
"
'
'
croup
(imitative word).
Remark.
signify
(e)
Jjuf
and
<-&f, the
diminutives of
m and
an,
" behold
The
here
is!
"
;
m.e. k&chulu
^^
is
ktichM
J^^
"
tiny"
(for
children or
is
.Kuchuku j**>
This diminutive j
9
very
common
t
aspu j*l
kitabiijrt&, etc.
are n
vulg- an d
or zanak
local) are
<-Joj.
Yarn
used to express greater diminutiveness than mardak " " is used as and the
jj^ (m.c.
vulg.)
boy
is,
by
Irish,
This
(/)
bacJichagak cj
as a diminutive, as Khurasanis, in speaking, use the suffix gak *.> " dear or tiny little child " baradar-gak-i shuma
;
^ ;^
U& "your
(g)
small brother."
KhurasanTs as
Mashkula AJ^^X) " a small mashk *&**> " (leather water-skin), and mushkula dj&L* "a small bit of musk," are formed according to no rule, and are probably the only examples of the diminutive terminations ula.
97(a) (1)
Affixed
^, and
Grammarians enumerate
L
:
By
affixing a
^ (ma'ruf <J^*x5
formed,
as:
to an adjective, simple or
riiki
**
compound
an abstract noun
"
is
wisdom," from
<J^i
"good," and
danafi
bestowing of gold"; ^\^ e)^ jahdn-ddrl "empire," (from J^iujj, adj., " and " jld e;^, adj., world-holding ").* giving gold Abstract nouns are also formed by affixing this to nouns, pronouns,
verbal roots, and past participles, etc., etc., as: padishdh *Uj>b
1
"king/'
Briefly,
<_
from
5
:
all
adjectives
participles, abstract
by adding
t(
silent
h becomes
From nouns,
2
by adding
I,
as
4^^^ tf-5*^
alif,
panjah tumani
gar ma
worth 50 tumans."
A
u
as
^^
(m.c.)
"hot";
weather"; ahayda, P.
<2) to (6) (3).
"mad
from love"
*' cold, or cold l#f# sarma (m.c.) from shayd, substantive: vide foot-note
AFFIXED
^
1
399
nisti
padishahi ^a-U^b "sovereignty": hastl " " non-existence " manl ; egotism."
^j^
''existence";
In /aas^ 4.5^
"
^U
existence,
being" and
wwS <^~^
(e
"non-existence, not
If the adjective
being," the
is
is
added
helpless, unweildy," the ^ is compound, as: bi-dast u pa b^c^o the of to the second added part compound only, as: bi-dast u pa*$ usually " ^jb^ 0*0 <jj helplessness." Similarly in the case of a double simple adjective, the ^ is usually added
below)
past
tazagi
;
"freshness"
^t^ f* ()** f* j b he permitted me to sit in his "for H. B., XXII) Chap. (Tr. f&\*j\ ^UJLS p& " here, however, presence, to eat with him, and even to smoke his pipe, ham-nishml ^^^ p& should be substituted for ham-nishin (j^^ p*.
XLI,
p. 236).
*&J
^J^
e^
**
This Persian
may
also
0^/0
now
changed into ^, as: banda t*v "broken," ^j^-Xw bondage"; shikasta AJL* " chum fracture, also being worn out, broken down (old age) shikastagl and chigunagl <^j&*- "the how and wherefore; state."
s
the
is
^&u
"
^^
This
<_$
is
masdar
.
^^^^^
^(j
or the
of
tlie
verbal
noun, and also ya-yi ismi ^+~>\ ^b Such nouns arc included in hasil-i masdar j^^o (J^>1^ vide 115. A noun may be formed from the Imperative root of the verb by affixing " u :>yL self-praise ^, as: khud sitcfi (compound word); vide also
}
^^
115
(e)
and
(/).
Nearly allied to the ya-yi masdari ^)^^^ ^^ is the ya-yi mushabih, or ya-yi musahabat c^A^l^/o ^(^ which expresses similitude or assumption
(2)
of character, as
bi-farr-i tu
humd^l kunad
kunad.
(Nizaml).
8ar
Manl,
P.
also ba
man-l
An instance
Rul&sat
is
Maslar )&*&*
Inf.
of
in Arabic.
400
AFFIXED
" At seeing thy splendour the magpie acts the huma, The head that comes near thee humbles itself (lit. acts the foot)." of In this example huma*i ^U^ and pa*t ^5b both illustrate the " boundless Hatim of famous Hatiml Tay, generosity (from similitude.
1
^^
il
'
c^-*~->
<^t> "
Persia."
^ has a tashdld,
as:
^^
o
-
^ vM
is
wW
~4^, but restored in the feminine, as, shamsiyya *&***+ If the substantive is Persian and ends in ha-yi makhfi ^A^* ^U, &hamza " blue-black in is substituted for the ya-yi nisbatl <^b, as i*^* surma-** 5 " and colour" &~J light-green i.e. pista -coloured." The forms shamsi
3
J^
^X^
qal'a "fort,"
is changed into however also occur, but are incorrect. Sometimes the "a khana aSU^ house," ^(^ khdnagl ^domestic''; before the ^, as: " In India the form khanl soldier."
(j^*
qal'agi*
garrison-
occurs as well as khanagt, vulg. khangi, vide also (a) (1). If, however, the word is Arabic, the relative adjective should be correctly formed according to the Arabic rule, 7 (vide. Ar. Gr., Appendix); thus from " <kaxj bayza egg" is derived ,j**>., Ar. "oval." The form ci^ju is incorrect,
though occasionally used in Persian. Nuqra "silver" *y*J nuqra^i (mod.) " made of silver " but classically ,J>Ju is also found. As regards the final relative^ in words like ShirazI * vide p. 179 of Volume
;
Jl.
Huma 4< tho Common Lamniergeyer (vide Called alsomurgh-i dawlat &Jj fs** a As. Soc. Beng., 1906) (not mythical bird) is supposed to be fortunate; humayun
}>
^^U^
*
adj.
'*
fortunate."
*
c^-
+*
This
<v
is
45-
as
ts^**
(Pors.
mien)
3
Egyptian,"
though
is
it
corresponds to
it.
miriyy
"an
Egyptian."
un a substantive or adjective, as: arziyy "earthy"; pi. of these nouns vide AT. Gr M Appendix.
*
,
adding *i~
*'(Jod-
head";
is
*A->^| inaaniyyat
'humanity."
words, as:
In imitation
also
added
to
Persian
Wiariyyat
"stupidity,'*
**
zaniyyat
4
"womanliness"; mardumiyyat, etc., vide (1) (1). The words *dj&k fafuliyyat child" and Arabic infinitives and not abstract hood **&\jf karahiyat, etc., "aversion," are
nouns of the above
class.
Vide
(c).
+*
^j&b, "
pi.
dahriyya &<*j*&
the
6 i.e.
Hebrew language
a tinman."
'
'
'
is
But
7
Words
of the
AFFIXED
1, 2, p.
^,
ETC.
is
is
401
derived from an older yaka (old Iranian) or possibly ika. The Hindi I is derived from a Sanskrit Ika and other terminations. The old Iranian yaka or Ika, and the Sanskrit Ika, etc., have a common origin in
the old Aryan language.
the Pahlavi
179 of the Grundries der Iranischen Philologie. It lie. Pahlavi dln-lk, Persian dlnl, pious. This Ik
derived from
Remark I. This 45 is added to the native city of a person as a patronymic, but not to the name of a tribe, as : Muhammad Hasan-i Shlrazl <* " but Fath " ^$31^ (J^^ *+&jc Muhammad Hasan the Shirazi (or of Shiraz)
;
''All
Shah-i Qajar
jUU *U J^
Jtf
Afraslyab-i Turk
<Jfy
" Ghulam 'All the Afshar For things, (of the Afshar Tribe)." 'All-yi Afshar is added to both the city and the tribe, as: Shal-i Kirmdnl however, the
v^L^f
Qhuldm
^U^" JU "a
carpet."
^U "an
Afshar
The Persians, however, say mardum-i Kirman \&\*^ f^j* (not Kirmanl) " the " the women of people of Kirman," and zanha-yi Shiraz 3^-i^ c^3 Shiraz (and not Shirazi)." Remark
II.
The
;
l
)
" second
in the relative
there
no
feminine
^^.
' ' ;
(*&& saniya the feminine of <yti; also means '*a second of time).** " (P.) has for its feminine Yahudiyya &i*j# *a Jewess also,
e
and
Tahud
c^
'
the Jews.'
a
'
(for bayzl
^<A>
(for Bisrl
^^
vide
Notes on
Ar.
Grammar.
Remark
III.
This c5
ia
as
dust-i
M
.
<^+i&*
o*j^
sometimes added unnecessarily to an adjective, (m.c.) and dust-i samlml ^,5*^*^ v **ji In-hd
i^ ^+!**
*'
(m.c.)
these have
become antiquated.*'
y
This
^
"
O r perhaps the
Remark IV.
adj. (m.c.)
This
Participle
1
" = manuscript
can be added to the Infinitive, as: navishtanl, ^4^ khatt** Navistanl u&?> is also the Future
;
The Arabic
In mod.
Persian tubhm-murg&i
8
A* p&Z
**
oval
" and
'*
elliptical."
**
(adj.)
the moderns
' *
the old-fashioned."
In India qalaml
26
402
AFFIXED ^, ETC.
*
**
" Remark F. From or ^^ Delhi," e^^ DMam "a man from Delhi." From ^do*** comes also modern and corrupt. ^ik^^, ^ila-ax>
^^
Marvazl
*
^sjjj*
'
man
'
of
Marv
'
is
man
of
;
of Marv)
Margb (the supposition being that Margh was the ancient name and Rdzl ^cjf; an inhabitant of Ray is derived from Rdz jt; the
older
and from
Badakhsh).
If this
formed Kdshi
Badakhshl
^&*>&>
(of
is
Abu
Hamfa *J^i=w^jf
Remark VI.
^ ^\
.
*^
is
used
in
as:
^1**^
"
jismdrii
corpo-
final
^^
:
"spiritual";
3
vide
object, expresses some person " " ^^l^ cu^t- dast khattl signed
c^li
^^i^
**
"
^-?
is
the
words as
jangl
hikmati
J**^
"
man
:
(b)
Other descriptions of
^ are
^U,
(1)
*
The
;
* '
fitness
this is the
;
or yd- yi qdbiliyyat c*jJUj ^(j, the of added to the Infinitive, as sukhtam ^ii^** "fit to be
:
burned
(2)
'
vide
Remark IV.
uxthdal
'
;
The yd-yi
o<^ ^U,
vide
'
the
^ of unity,
*
the
y
(3)
of indefiniteness
41.
The
yd-yi khitabi
^'^ c5^>
or *c^
address,'
the
person singular of the verb, as: kardl <^tjf c thou art good." 1 This second is, however, usually distinguished as,
;
<^
of the
nlk-l
2nd
^u
fi'l.
The
ya-yi mutakallim
^^ ^,
or
'
^ of
the speaker,'
is (in
Arabic
rabbi
ilahl or
^}
44
first
karam aet and generous generosity is clemency/ the accent distinguishes the karim-l from the second which is a substantive karlml.
tu Karim-i va karlml
1
403
"my Lord"
^y&JbUo
(5)
^aa&* mushfiq-i
"my
friend."
This
^b
yd-yi muldtafatl
^
is
is
also
called
(or benignity)."
The
^b,
or '^9 of qualification/
the
that
is
followed
by the relative particle &\ and gives the force of the demonstrative pronoun vide 42 (b) for other names of this 4,5. (6) The ya-yi za*id <>oij ^b, or redundant <^,' occurs in the Imperative
;
'
after a quiescent
alif
f
" this
*'
bi-guy
a clever
workman "
e5^
or ^, as: bi-gushdy ^l&fc for bi-gushd "open Also in other words as in j^ife (for^/; ) r ^0^ j^
;
1
U&
Remark
III.
of satiating or filling up,' is the (7) <^ ^b, of poetical license used to eke out the measure of a verse as when an izdfat is
The
yd-yi ishbd
1>A
'
the
lengthened into ?:
Tlie
metre
is
J^'
^Uclivo ^^tix)
and the
izdfats after
^^ and ^^ have
is
The The
^ of
repeated action,'
z
;
;
the
^
')
;
vide p. 225.
i
so
named
(10)
^ pronounced
(as in
police
its
sound.
The
so
ya-yi majhul J^?^ <^ ^ is the the Arabs because the sound was
classically
sounded
like e
unknown
to them.
ai in 'aisle' or ey in 'they,'
'
ma
qabl,
i.e.,
quiescent
(12)
<_$/ its
movable by
fatha.
The
yd-yi izdfat
cJUi ^b, or ya-yi izdfl ^'Uf ^b, is the ^ that is the izdfat after the weak consonants and ^, as in ^l*^^
!
and
45^.
/.
Remark
c.-t>o^
The
in adverbs of time
may
^b,
or else
what might be
*Hiu tf
I
^ & ^cb
<c
asr-i
may
also
mean
evening, an evening; this night" (Scottice *the night'). In shab-% subh-i bdyad bi-ydyad dobj x>b ^^su^ ^^i (m.c.) " he must be here one of these nights or mornings, i.e. in a few days," the may be either yd-yi vahdat
"one
b, or the yd-yi
taqnb
With
hM
verbs,
44
and certain
<^ becomes
4^J,
as:
ft
(^t
verily'*;
^^
he struck me."
India.
^
404
THE TERMINAL
Remark
for
II.
Yd
is
alif,
l
as
ejUx^ yarmag&an
armughan ol*;t
(c)
(class,
and
m.c.)
"a
present."
(1)
By adding
iyyat:
Strictly speaking these are
First to nouns.
x
nine
*
o^t
"divinity":
*;><x*
"
being dis-
adjectives,
^^-^
"
poverty."
jo
:
******
muriimiyyat
" bestow-
ment "
&ibj&vc mujarradiyyat
:
being in solitude."
Fourth to particles, as
o^ius'
"
?
:
from>^
(2)
is it ?
"
is
-
o^.
o^jf^Ax
o^&
o^jaL
^jL*^
note 3, and notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix. Words formed by this addition are
* '
called
;alax>
"artificial
infinitives.
Remark /. In the same way, the Persian words pddshahat (Indian) and nazakat c^tji are formed on the Arabic measure of najabat o^Uu, hamdqat
Remark //.If the feminine termination
terminating in a single
<4
is
added to an adjective
^,
there
is
no
tashdid, as:
^U,
fern.
*JU, but
J^JU
98
(a)
(i.e.
The Terminal
* is
of
sounded), and (.^iaoo ?na^A/i or mukhtafi "hidden" (i.e. mute). The former may be preceded by any one of the short vowels, as rah '*/ road ," and&h *>Jf " grief"; jarbih*>j* " fat," and is consequently sounded. 3 As
' :
^M
two kinds,
viz.yfcUi zahir,
already stated, final s when mute is unsounded and transliterated a considered a vowel by some Grammarians. 4
l
it is
Also rah-&vurd
<ty)
$)
(class.)
and
oU^
(for
sawybat
all
mean
a present brought
i.e.,
verbal noun.
' '
Panja
' f
but panjah
panjZh)
fifty.
*,
Alter silent
it
is
written in the ordinary manner, viz. */~^ kasrah. dropped in writing before the ha of the plural.
Mute
I should be,
but
is
not always,
THE TERMINAL
The
final a in
405
kali-
&+&
,
become
silent
in Persian,
mtm
drops out.
:
(b) Mute or silent a is added to (1) A noun to form a noun that bears a relationship or resemblance to it, as: dast^~* "hand," dasta *L*<* "handle"; garm-aba *>\*jf = hammdm ; " " frame " dvdza chahdr-chuba door,
ajt^f
picture, etc.)
&?*> j^*-
(of
This
* is
called
o^lx>
^U
hd-yi
mushd-
bahat "the
(2)
of
resemblance."
of the verb to
It is
form substantives.
Thus
from bastan i*^ (Imp. stem band) "to bind" comes bandd **** "a slave," and from didan (shortened Inf. did) comes dida t&>* "eye": giristan "to eji~j/ (gin) weep," girya &.J "lamentation": ndlldan &*Jb (ndl), A^U nala complaint" shukufa &>," "blossom": larza %j) "trembling" from larzldan &*>jj) khanda *>Jx" laughter."
e^
:
This
verbal A."
is
called
^
;
<^^^
^^
^o-t/i
makhfi-yi
fi'll
t*
the silent
added to adjectives to form analogous nouns, as: safld *xi~ " a^ <{ U*> black," siy^* 5ii/aA white," ,sa/da Wai** (adj.) " a claw, a bunch five," panja *^J inventory, list of items" panj Ju
(3)
It is
"
^^
'
11 left-handed." but chap^*> "left," chappa**** (4) It is used to form adjectives or adverbs of time, age, number, etc., as: cJiaharsala* AJUj^a. "four years' old"; du-mdha &kU>^ "two months'
' har-ruza fyj j& chahdr-shaba A^ ; every fourth night ; daily shaban-ruza ajj; &(*& "lasting 24 hours"; du-dila "wavering, of two " endurminds " du-bdra a;^ " once more, over again " ; chand-ruza aj^;
old
' '
'
;^ dj*
' '
' '
ing for a
<*)U
"
j* "yearly": ruza
"
double, two-faced
a is
"
panj-shdkha
;
*^U ^u
This
du-ruya* **))}* pronged " of two men " (task, work, etc.).
:
<{
five
"
*)
(or
apido-?/)
*ubh
of
^>*
\<*&*
the
dawn "
siyahl-yi
chashm
(ra.c.)
(m.c.)
tl
"the black
<^^-*
list
Subs, chahar-salagl (j^^ 1 ' and five years' old. four being
^Wt
'*
pan;'-3to0i
^5^^
^,
etc., etc.,
the state of
the opposing (facing) armies." Du-ruya ty) j& Du-rfiya sipah aU^ &tj)j& sometimes means in two ranks, but whether facing each other or one behind the other is
doubtful.
*
Afi-dSnwfom chand-marda
/iolJ5;
budam
knew
my limitations
capabilities."
406
(5)
of
^ome
t>J
is
used substan-
tively in Persian, as
mujassama
*+~3x<c
ied":
a feminine agreeing with surat, etc., understood: Afcjx> " an inclosure." This is also the " h of resemblance " vide (b) (I). " mardana " fit for a king (or kings) (6) In such words as shahana AJUUi *Jf^, etc., the * is called by some native grammarians ha-yi liyaqat ciJlJ ^U
it is really
;
:
"the h
of fitness or suitability,"
and
is
Ana
interested
(c)
<k*f,
manner"
however, occurs as a separate suffix, as in AJl*^' "in a " vide 108. dastana " glove" salana " yearly
;
:
are
(1) To form the past participle, as: rafta *Jj>; the departed, the dead "). This I is called JJ*A*> " the silent h of the passive participle." yi maf^ul
' '
"gone"
(pi.
raftagan
/&*>
uAi^ ^*
ha-yi mukhtafi-
When, however,
"
and
is
the participle
1 '
is
the
is
called *~*k*
^-U ha-yi
' '
' '
(2) It is
used to form the agent (a present participle) of the verb, as: (also part, "writing") and is then called
'*
^iiitx
^b
the silent
j<
of agency."
;
(3) It is used to form the feminine of Arabic words, thus malik "king" malika " Queen " (in Arabic malikah). This * is called v*jJU ^U ha-yi tarns.
Remark.
* is
in Arabic, thus
(4)
of nouns, vide
*
96
(b) (3)
and Remark.
<3
Remark
The
<Ji~o
final
mute
**
of a Persian
in Arabic, thus
pista, P.
a pistachio-nut
"
fustaq in Arabic.
:
Remark
II.
The
final * is
99.
The
Suffixes
ban or
tin
van;
^ vana;
and e^t
and &j
van.
(a) These suffixes are said to be a corruption of man &U, contracted from mananda gjJJU " remaining" (also "resembling"). They are more probably the Sanskrit suffix van or wan, and are, according to Platts, in 0. P. and Zend pana.
etc."
THE SUFFIXES
(6)
gar, ETC.
407
' c
(1)
pasidn
is
J
:
"
of camels)
"
sentry,
watchman
gardener "; darvan ofjp (m.c.) "porter"; ft camel-man (in charge shuturban
' '
;
^J^
&(>
*^U saya-ban
)."
"a
(this last
^
it
' (
^^
:
To nouns
l
forma adjectives, as
^^
;
mihr-ban
"kind"
(in
m.c.
mihraban
(3)
).
"
wdzhun
u ?|^
,
humayun o^Ua>
astarvana
aij^u.',
fortunate."
affixes
*J^ "moth
(feather-like)";
eJL?y^*>
"barren,
a barren
in
woman
pulvan
c/,j J^
a field."
100.
(a)
The
Suffixes gar
/,
gar
^, gan
^
"
>
kar
3
;l^.
it
is
attendant"
(also
performer of service, i.e. God who one nourishment, parvardagar *;^j^ provides " " teacher " a king)" ham-gar /<* " successful dmuz-gar ffij>\ (m.c.)
as: khidmat-gar ^^Uj^
;
;
ruz-gar
j'fii?
j^
"time, etc."
; #,>li
yad-i-gar)
"souvenir";
gunah-gar or^l^i? gunah-kar "sinner" (class.) "agreeing with (of food, climate)."
Remark.
is
In yad-gar
j^
t
memorial, souvenir,"
' *
etc.,
not marked.
In ruz-gar J^)^
(6)
" time
fortune
it Ls
even
less
prominent.
in Sanskrit kar: it is
;
Gar
is
a similar
suffix, in
probably connected with, or contracted from, kar y<, gar ft, etc. vide (a). It has the signification of the English suffix -er. Examples: zargar />> " " " " kar-gar goldsmith (or a worker or maker in gold) ^&ty tavangar rich
; ;
j6 "one
skilful
oration, etc.)
"
;
(as
of
medicine, of an
Mihr, P. Sanskrit mitr or mitra or mihira. By affixing a [ya-yi masdar or as: shutur-banl vide wo 97 further mnshabahat, substantives, (a) (I)| ya-yi get ^j&y^* Ci " the work or office of camel-man '* mihrbanl kindness."
1
:
^kj^
Hurna
UA
or
humay
(S^*
A the Lamraergeier
or
reverenced.
8
c>^
kardan, P.
**
to do,
1 *
Sanskrit kartum,
and
Sometimes written as
408
ar, ETC.
Remark
/.
Remark
which
oJta
//.By
"
adding a formative
:
signifies
art, business," as
shikar-chi-gari nami-danad
^
If
(m.c.)
baioar-ch^kharm-gan
of a shikari.'
^ ^^^
'
is
formed
In India
*>U>
usual
to
)
^j> (jr*
religions."
(c)
Kar ji
' '
work
' '
is
y^
(in
gar.
Bad-kar
'<
evil-doer
f '
;
jafa-kar ;lli*>
"
gunah-kar
^ *U?
jK^w
committed a fault."
Possibly in amuz-gar jfyj*! and kam-gar )^fo, tuted for kar^. s
101.
(a)
etc.,
the affix
substi-
Ar
;T,
ddr j*
al Jf.
*
By
of the Infinitive
" kirdar 6 " " Indicating action, as guftar ^lii? speech jtf works " didar ;lx?^ "seeing, sight." (as opposed to words) This termination sometimes gives the sense of an agent, as kharidar (2)
: ;
;
:
J*>j*-
(m.c.)
"buyer";
firiftar
&>j
' (
a wor-
shipper
(3)
(class.);
a nurse (modern)."
is
kushtdr
slain in
;
anything that has died of itself (m.c.) anything killed otherwise than with the orthodox Muslim rite."
i.e.
also
If,
however, the
t?a,
suffix
pronounced
foot-note
(3).
as: babt-garl va *ufl~garl vide also 97 (b) (3), (^$f <*$***>) i>s Similarly taqslr u gunah-kar or taq#lr-kar va gunah-kar >l< ti& j
'
^^
* Also
8
^jjii'*** togslr-war,
^5,
4t
jf^^^ftJ
taq*lr-dd,r
By adding
"
;
substantives like
isft ^^
and
<Xx/o
]**&* taqair-mand.
"
doing or
attendant
*
zargarl
making anything)
"
:
c^T->^ Kargarl
skill (in
tar,
and
dar,
added
Note
Farfohanda
not kardar as might have been expected. aoiS^f m c .) not faru&tZr )V&>jji
(
.
farlbanda
ft,
ETC.
409
Some
adjectives with a passive signification are formed " taken captive ; arrested."
by
this suffix,
Dwar
Ddr
Jjj*
is
said to be derived
und
and
dr.
(b)
jtJ>
is
in
compounds generally
* {
"holder, keeper,"
(m.c.)
jla
vT
(m.c.)
" share-holder."
also
" twisted."
If the
noun be a compound
i:
affix is
added to the
f* j
4g
j ^-u
<s
twists," pick
8
u khamddr
'aql
"
intelligent, etc."
:
Remark.
man
Infinitive itself
c>*x>f
my
coming
"
;
amadan-i
vide
The shortened
farukht
infinitive
*
^^i j <x^
erft
can also be used as a verbal noun, as Tcharid u buying and selling" az guft-i u man In kdr kardam
:
p*^ ft
(c)
s&*> jl
o^f y
(m.c.)
"I
H60')(fc).
"
claw
Al Jf is a relative suffix that forms substantives, as J&A. cliangal fork" JUi* duvnbal" tail, after-part." In zangal J&j " rust (for zangar, the letters I and r being interchange: ;
' '
102.
The Turkish
Affixes Jl
or chi
^,
Bash
Task or Dash
(a)
The Turkish
; *
it
;
falconer
;
"
(^to
*'
a shikari "
5
qatir-chi
occurs chiefly in
modern
Persian.
Example
;
who
^j>(3
^^
By
imfila, div.
is
Abdarl <)!*^T
)1&j^ nah&r-dar. u hush ijy* ) J^ b * Chi has much the same In the UIghur dialect signification as wald in Urdu. of Turkish (Kashghar and Yarkand), this suffix is added to the Future participle of zakat-chl Infinitive to signify the agent, and to a noun to signify profession, as
Or 65
'aql
.
:
* 4
custom's
6
official.
' '
The business
410
If
dan.
*,
the
* is
"treasurer"
scullion)"
:
mash'al-chl
^^ cU^i
parvanch* i*^Jjj
"one who
Government
orders, etc."
ji
a gardener
"
j%
" a mediator."
influence.
as
Possibly
^ y<,
(<
qush-chi-gari
100
(b)
Remark
^^
uj*,
II.
few compounds are formed by the Turkish words bash " head," and task or dash " companion," as qiziLbash (lit. red- headed) " a soldier; a
Persian;
tash
Qizil-bash; etc.,
etc."; yul-dash
103.
"
fellow- servant."
Dan
"
;
&**.
The
as:
f
affix
dan
cJ
;
c>
u+3 namak-dan
salt -cellar
^'^*Xj
;
" case
eM^ khak-dan
"
;
cooking-pot
c^'^
(m.c.)
5
qalam-dan
(ni.c.)
kumaj-dan &)&*
snuff-box."
^*
* e
ct
anfiyya-dan (m.c.)
suffixes
-
Remark.
after that
^,
.
signify
as:
*&'
aJU.
^IL** -^13
*lf
av&
jfc
(as
)
in
rud-bar), etc.,
form
c
Persian
compound nouns
and place "
; '
of place
^j*
*-*j&
In Arabic the
*'
noun
of time
has special forms, as maqtal cliflx) " the East" (time or place mashriq ^-^
: *
of rising)
masjid
<*ax~*/c
mosque."
- - -
Those 'nouns
suffixes zarj)), sar
;U, 6ar^b, lakh lf ^t+~*) 'nouns of excess.' cursed" are Such words as ^'ixH
For
y^ ^t,
104-
vide
j'j,
68 VIII.
sar
Zdr
^U, stan
e^
y^
-,
or istan
c) li**',
^M
$>
kada
^.
*tf,
^f
*'
grarrf
khdna
&^,
:
shan er^, na
The
abounding
in, as
grows)"; shura-zar
2
*
JJ
specially-shaped handles, for cutting the paper. painted and are very costty.
*
6
are beautifully
Originally used for baking a kind of bread in In Persian anfiya ***>! without tashdld.
Compare <j>+*>
skilful
'
:
vide
zar, ETC.
411
uiJU
;fj
t)j
"
field of battle
(6)
"saltpetre "
affix
The
" meadow" *; kdr-zdr fa " any garden.'* (place of deeds) gul-zar yj d$ (m.c.) sar jU has the same meaning, and forms substantives and
ground";
'alaf-zar
;
;fj
and denotes plenty, magnitude, similitude, or possession, as: 2 chashma-sar ;U &Jb* "a place full (1) Kuhsar ; U */ "hilly" " sharm-sar "full of shame." springs ;U
adjectives,
;
of
Remark
I.
Sang-sar kardan
cJ^;Uw
'
to
Remark //.In rukhsdr jU^; " face modify the word rukh ;
(2)
It also denotes
:
"like."
khak-sar 5
born"
shah-sar ;Ua>U
is
(3) It
like a king, kingly." used for sar " head ," as \-sag-sar
U Ji* (old)
"
' '
subuk-sar
^U^
light-headed
also
unburdened by luggage
"
dog-headed
;
nigu-sar, or
jU ^ij or jUJjX), in classical Persian = "one who hangs the head from shame"; but in modern Persian only "inverted (= sar-nigun).'" and is derived from (c) The affix stdn &&** or istan &&*\ signifies place
nigun-sar
'
'
,'
the Sanskrit sthan " place/ The former is used after a substantive ending "a in a vowel and the latter after a consonant, as: bu-stan e>^>? garden
'
(place of scent)
(place
of roses
"; Hindustan*
^&<j*u*>
" India"
^Iw^j'
gulistan
d~tf "garden"
or flowers); qabristan
"grave-yard"; Farangistan
:
"Europe."
In a few words the termination gives the idea of time, as tabistan summer zamistdn ^U-xsj winter c^^j^ baharistan spring.
<
' '
' <
' '
' '
Remark.
c>T
an found
in so
many names,
M. Chodzko writes
"
du
Quelques erudits persans m'ont assure qu'anciennement le formatif pluriel &), donnait aux mots primitifs le meme sens geographique que leur stdn i.e. qui est tres probable; car an veut dire aussi propriet6 de,
i
:
appartenant a
appartient.
^^
^f
:
j!
ez
&V
ttf
ardelan
nom
d'une province,
gildn
nom d'une
province,
c^'j^-3^
mdzenderdn de meme,
lawn or any stretch of good grass or a meadow, etc., a green spot covered with weeds and grass. zar j) Kuhiatan &&*&}> means country with big mountains; kuhsar )\*ty " hilly. *'
1
Ghaman
is
an
artificial
'
^^
ft
"
humility.
fthak-sari
(^US'lk
an
* Also
6
For
(bamdadan
c>f^f^
p^, n&gahan
&\f^ and
412
azer-bijan de
zar, ETC.
^
/-
deskt-i
haveran,
les
il
le
desert
de Haveran,
les Ardels, les
doivent,
suivant ces
Hemeds,
marais
(jil),
dans
la quelle (ender)
<maz) arbres ou des chenes (mazu), les du feu (azer), les deserts de 1' Occident (haver), etc."
Remark.
In poetry istan
is
sometimes pronounced
^IL
elf,
(d)
The
l
affix lakh
if
signifies
^Kw
4
'
sang-lakh (m.c.)
"place," or numerous, copious," as "a j(*!> div lakh stony place; rocky, stony"
:
:
"
a demon-haunted place."
(c)
Kada
"
and
as the last
number
of a
compound,
place," as iAtash-kada ttf tjtil (m.c.) " a tavern " mdtam kada *<tf *tf (m.c.) may-kada <( mourning" but-kada l*f c^ an idol temple."
"
^U*
"
Remark.
In kad-khuda \**>*f
<4
bdnujhtf "a
of kada
(/)
***.
Odh "
;
tf
(Sanskrit gatu)
is
an
affix
(?
denoting
<c
(1)
Place," z&'.Khwab-gah
takht-gah
l#
^^
valise for
bedding"
farud-gah " a seat "
(2)
o.^vi (m.c.)
"an
on"
&
:
^/
(m.c.)
aram-gah
as:
&f evening time"; an-gah " 4< out untimely, then (m.c.) pasangah &f u^ "after that" &?-gra& ^ Sukhan na-bayad guft magar angah ki maslakat bashad (class, of season." and modern) *~k o^JLAA> A/ *&f yi oif <^U^ er*^* J w"^c a^ so 1 ^^a noun denotes a city or place of (g) The word aftad* abf suffixed to
^f;f
t^*^
(m.c.)
"Time"
;
Sham-gah
,& "the
<
abode, as
The
(h)
^^
(Bahram Town).
,
is
The
affix gird
or gard
^
:
have a similar
Ya&digird).
signification, as
not used in forming compounds. found in a few names of towns, appears to a/ ff^ Bahram-gird : *j* &. Yazdijurd (for
is
In Darab-kard
>ty&
perhaps a corruption.
Oa^
'f is
*'
&
which means
*
human excrement)."
Mad
"
kardan c>^/
^T
town ": iS
populous or inhabited."
umand, ETC.
i *i&> "house" as a suffix has a somewhat similar meaning as: kar-khana &'*(*$ "factory": rud-khana *'Ao* and gah " bed of a river and hence " a river.' l properly added to nouns, also forms a noun of place, (j) The suffix shan as gul-shan (^^S t( a rose-garden or rose-bed." In rawshan {jj) (for rawzari) " window " it is a corruption.
(i)
KM
to kada **
(3*,
' '
'
(k)
Na
tang-na
prominent part of
"
added to nouns or adjectives, as: place"; tdz-nd or tlz-nay <^U J^3 (class.) "the the sword edge that does the work (lit. place of sharp-
^U)
is
ness)
ab-na l^f
strait."
suffix is often written ^li.
Remark.
Na
&
as
is
:
also
cognate meaning,
daraz-nd
of
length."
,
105.
Dmand
is
^/oy,
**>,
(a)
Mand
et
***
and
signifies
a suffix joined to nouns, generally to form adjectives, possessor of, possessed of," as
of
wisdom, wise"; aqlmand xiU8^ tanu-mand ^Uj^iJ ^^ profitable strong." "intelligent " In arjumand ( ^i^^l) (also arjmand) " noble," and baruw,and ** fertile, fruitful,' the suffix is a form of mand.
' '
;
;
"
Wand <3Jj is occasionally found for mand oi*, as in khwtshd-wand <xij " hard "kinsman"; pulad-wand ^^i/^ (like steel)"; khuda-wand
"master."
(6)
Nak
J^li
of quality, as
gfaam-nak
u^lu-i
sad"; khawf-nak
"
"
;
dangerous
(c)
dard-nak
is
Ak cf
suzdk
*JU^
"
^^
"food" from
' '
<*\jy
gonorrhoea.
In mag&ak ^Ux3 ditch; low place, etc.," from mag&* <JW and tabdk "fever," the termination, apparently the same, "depth," is termed a relative suffix by native Grammarians vide 115 (e).
Remark.
*
'
106.
(a)
i.e.
Bar
and Ydr
t.
in,'
(1)
The
(
'abounding
as: zang-bar jb
^j,
Zangibar
river
1
"
sang-bar^
is
There
nala
rain, is called
*
A^^^
rwc-&kana.
4.5,
khiradmandi
414
(2)
tr, ETC.
Bar ^
used
;
is also
"
raining, scattering,"
l
and
is
to
form
pearls"
(3)
Bar ;L>
ear/ra
compounds, "
as
:gawhar-bar
"
^j*f
and
is
"scattering
also used in
(m.c.)
a small
load on a transport animal." In a few adjectives, the suffix takes the form of yar ^-\, as
(also bdkht-amr,
bakhtyar^^u
" fortunate"
yar j *j*
{
bakht-var or bakhtur,
or hiishyar
jU*
<;
107.
Awwjyf (contracted
jf );
Var
j*,
and
twr
;fj>
Gan
d$\ and
auar >yf and ar ^T, which are used in forming adj Actives from substantives, are from the verb ^;jT "to bring" and signify
(a)
The
affixes
"bringing, producing,
or displaying," as:
jjlb
dil-avar
<
brave
(dis-
playing heart)": )^)^; zur-avar "strong (bringing strength)." In sal&r j^l* *' chief," the suffix is the same, but contracted. above mentioned are var $> smdvar jj 4 and (6) Related to the
jrj
vara:
u endowed these suffixes mean with, possessed efii^ (m.c.) "learned"; ummidvar )^***'<
gush-var (or gush-vara] >\j>J
shalirvar jt>kU
of, full
of," as:
damsh-var
"befitting, or
)\j>(**
worthy of a king, kingly "; zarra-var Jj *)& " sukhan-var " an animal of
(possessed
life)
;
eloquent
^>cl>
" famous.'
5 is
'
In musht-vara
7
jf)iy^ "handful,
redundant.
is
)^} "brave/
same
suffix.
Remark.
The
suffix
var
is
"worthy." Inj^^j ranjur "sick," the suffix is perhaps the same as var. The suffix gdn signifies similitude, as: khudaygan (c)
oKjf<Xsx
*'
a great lord
* ;
happy.'
*
;fj,
signifies
"worthless
(fit
to be cast
;
"
fit
for a
king"
on the road)"; ahay-gan* (for shah-gan) " merchant." bazar-gan &^)$* (for bazar-gan)
^^
e;&L>
o^
Gawhar-barl
($* j*jr
*
3
dttrftvari
(j^jUj.
,
* All adjectives
may
be used as ad verbs
)\)
and ana
are
ana, ETC.
415
Remark.
Dihqdn &\&A*
is
the
<~>j**
of dihgdn &&*>* or
suffix is
dih-khan e
of &jS
In girdgdn "like."
(d)
^*J$
perhaps a corruption
Man
&(*
'Mike,"
as-man
"
c;
+**f
"sky"
= " glad"
(like
revolving
suffix
'mill-stone');
mih-mdn
cAt*
is
guest."
In
^U*
temporarily
Musalman
cA*A~*
by some said
pi. of
to stand for
108-
Ana *T
Ina
*ij
In
&
and Vdv
j.
(a)
The inseparable
as an adjective
suffix
it
is
"like";
as
:
ana added
Marddna
'
A^fjyo
"like a man,
manly";
div-dna ^fy^
"mad
(like
c<
'
;
div)
rubahana
nine, peculiar to
zanana wl>3 femi*JU^ fox-like (in behaviour) wily women" zishtana &\&) ft in an ugly manner"; ziringana
;
:
;
"
"
dast-dna *iU*o
"glove"; ruzdna
43 (aa) and 98 (6) (6). It can also be added to Arabic adjectives 'djizdna AJf^U "helplessly,
"daily"
viae also
in a helpless or
humbled manner."
" Kdyhaz-i dustana &&*)& &\ "a friendly letter (but not mardi dusldna a friendly man"); dustana AJU^^ could, however, be used as an adverb, as: dustana kar kard ^jfc AiU*jd "he acted in a friendly manner." " he In Ichawftiak-anapursid **"^ &{lijyS (m.c.) enquired fearingly," the Arabic to the added substantive Persian affixed ndk khawf J^, forms an
*
4
adjective
*if
"fearful," applicable to persons; while the additional affix ana forms an adverb or an adjective applicable to things. Tarsndk-dna its compounds are all Persian. AJltiuy has the same signification, but
(6)
(1)
In
fc>j
and
ma
*i^t
are two
for
(nisbat), as:
B
" from
adj.
zar
>)
gold;
of
simm &*+&
(m.c.)
pashimn
;
"made
"a
woollen stuff"
All adjectives
may
in var
silver
Ruzlna (class.) " daily; daily pay, pension." In modern Persian stm means "wire"; the Arabic word JJ/& nuqra " " he is 1U> for gold but M^ayll zar darad (m.c.) and very rich
: * '
is
;
used for
zar-varaq
(m.c.)
gold
leaf.
' '
416
pustln
1
ana, ETC.
cri*jj
"an
Afghan
sheep-skin
"made
of skins";
pishm
^^y
(adj.)
(m,c.)
i;&).
jj^b (rare)
"of silver"
&
;&, also
^'yJ and
Adjectives formed by the terminations asa Uf, -ana *Jf , etc., signifying "like," or by fam fti, gun & , etc. "colour," are classed as AU> +*) " nouns (adjectives) of similitude."
Remark.
(2)
The termination
In
also
zumurradm &ity), "emerald green"; zarrin bulunn e*U>k " like crystal or made of crystal."
"golden coloured";
forms superlatives.
It also
Remark
I.
* '
sangin
i^&~
"
heavy,"
Remark
II.
m &* also
it
The
suffix
added to the cardinal numbers, as awattn ^jt vide 48 (c). an e/f 4 like the suffix In &*, is used to form relative
, ;
in biyaban ^bU "desert" (from vf c^) payan adjectives and nouns as f< 'end"; kuhan cJ^y horse-saddle camel-hump." ^tlj " " The suffix in plsham ^^y forehead is probably formed from this em. This suffix is found in names, as: Iran &\j>\ and Turan e)!;y 6 Isfahan
;
Mdhan* c;UU (near Kerman). In abaddn e^t^f "inhabited," it appears to be redundant. In subhgahdn e;Ul<>*e, bamddddn ejf.tf^b, yagdn yagdn ^Kj ^&, baharan
;
the suffix
is
adverbial.
it is
adjectival.
An
c>
joined to
p>)
some
(adj.)
from rim
(J*f*>
"pus, matter,"
pleonastic,
as:
jushan <j-r>^
" coat
of mail
"
from jush
It
is
"a
sometimes
any*
<j,'*U
lafchan
"
&&M for
thick-lipped,
eH^^i
(class.)
lcaa-1
puetln Icandan (class.) or dar pustin-i * ' are classical idioms. backbite
*
t^uj4
)t> (class.)
"to
In
pust-i
mlahina
ast
ya buzlna?
a sheep or goat*s skin ? 3 Dir ji& "late," but yar-i dlrlna * An-i nfobat.
6 6
"
^^J
^ Oul
ct
*i^u*v
&j* e>^l
*ty6 )^>
an old friend."
Ir jj\ and TUT )j* are said to have been sons of Farldun.
agin, ETC.,
(e)
alif.
417
is
substantives for nisbat, as: angushiar ^A&f "ring" " " wine." "tavern " from lah finger" lahar
;
of final formative vav (vdv-i (/) Native Grammarians give instances o.*JUlJ fa'iliyyat ^) in patu yb, from pat ou " goat's hair, wool"; (pattu in India is a woollen stuff, but patu y^ in Persia " a blanket") shashu
:
"piss-a-bed
corruption.
"
^^
rlshu jfy)
" bearded"
is
probably a
109.
Agin
^
' '
;
or Gin
^.
"full of grief, sorrow" ashamed
' '
(^ a contraction of agin &*tf from dgandan c>>^T "to fill" ; gin and agin therefore signify " filled with." They are used as suffixes to nouns,
Gin
is
gkam-gln
&*+*
l
ful";
khashm-gln
^UU.
* '
angry
sharm-gln
;
^-^
^^^
'ambar-agln
&*;
^xlc
**full of
surma
(or
antimony
amber" "
surma-gin
khirad-agln
(class
"
)
full of
^J^^. (m.c.)
" wise."
110.
(a)
The Formative a
(alif f )
This inseparable suffix forms adjectives and participles from verbal " to know", dana* bf^ roots, as, from dan &\* the root of ddnistan &l~* & " learned " guyd t>/ bind li# vide also 70 (a).
; ;
;
added to adjectives to form abstract nouns as garmd " breadth " " cold " sarmd *>*o pahnd (also pahna-i
It is
l :
U/
"
heat,"
Remark.
illustrate the
under the
title
^U^ J^
(
p*\
"Irregular
o^*^
or )
</^^
^ cl*
U;^
' ' ;
**
/**'
Present
' '
Participle
:
inanda
&)&
^^
yjjA> "purchaser"
of complaints
":
4
:
o-^
****)&
^ (Jty^
rt.) ij*)&.j* (= ^^ "fond of learning": Jkb ^ "of little sense ": "of pleasing speech " ; fcW^ " servant " OAX)^
:
:
:
knowing
^i*^
skilful
' '
:
8xU;) "hearer
JU^
"camel-man "
4<
jy^U
"
king
"
^JjtA^
as steel"
Under
this
mischievous," " " the Arabic Present Participle of the form JUli, as: ^JUe tyrant.
: :
" executioner
"
head are also included such words as " kind " "
^/
<jy^
etc.
* *
' '
spy
^^
Also, of course,
Sharm-ru j) pj
This verbal
"shy, bashful."
AKf-i fa'iliyyat o^
4
8
alif is called
Many
"
compouad
adjectives."
is
generally called
27
418
(b)
fam, ETC.
adjectives expressing fulness and completeness are formed by between the two compounds, as: lab-a-lab *~J\d " lip to an alif inserting * s "of lip; also brimful": sar-a-sar j\j> "entirely"; gun-a-gun &j? l^?
Some
many
colours, variegated"
sar-a-pd
to foot, cap-a-pie."
Vide also
(c)
140
and
foot-note.
privation, as:
ajumbdn
e>UM
"motionless, fixed."
Alif is used to
(d)
When
or to attract attention
When
alif-i
used in the vocative of distress, as in darig&a lty& " alas! nudba && ^\ " the alif of plaint."
different kinds of alif, vide
f;tiu is
2.
"
it is
called
For the
(e)
1
Bukhara
because of the learning that prevailed there. Some native grammarians style this final a alif-i vasfiyyat o,jjL>j *-&(, and give as further examples zlbd y) and ganda foif in these, however, the alif appears to be
earning,"
t
l
2,
Remarks
II].
Fam*
suffix
fli,
(Pam fa and
W dm
Gun
Charta *'^.
The
fdm
^
' '
(rarely
is affixed
to both substantives
la'l-fdm
fb*
fU
of
*U*o
(me.) "blackish";
*
J*)
"somewhat ruby-coloured":
' t
bluish
;
" an emerald
Instead of
(6)
zumurrud-fam
(*ii
kuhl-fdm
Jl.^
p\~>
^
&
6
ty*>)
misl-i
:
surma (A/^J
f
li,
sometimes
is
found, as
b ^\>
sapid-barn
" whitish."
Gun &
(t
signifies
compounds "of
the colour of
" "
lala~gun
dJjf
gun-d-gun
&
^"
"poppy-coloured, scarlet";
of various colours, also,
" he's become pale (from sickness)." chorda **,*. and also jarta AJ^, means (c) Charta a^-, sometimes written " colour, hue," and occurs in a few compounds, as: zard-charda and *sj*.
Ouna-ash zard shuda *>^
^j>3o^'
**
Syn. ldb-rizj*jd
overflowing/' lab-bi-lab
'
^^.^
man
**
Up
to lip."
Or
sar-bi-sar
f~*j*
*'
as bi-dih va bisitan-i
^tdXkX) j***j*>
3
&*
(m.c.)
my
sar-bi-sar
/tZ
"
elephant
"
;
saplda
;
white
>J
:
pam
modern Persian
as suffixes
but warn or
5
pam
(m.c.)
" debt."
Kufyl or
Qulha-yi gun-a-gun
i$Ji U^S
&^jr
LS^r
kutttb-i
gunro-gun
^Sf
**
"
many
colours."
asa, ETC.
419
zard-charta
*5^
&
"
(old)
ing to
some grammarians
this affix is
yellow coloured" (not used of people). Accordfound only in the word siyah-charda
(d)
Rang J&)
is
*)**>,
etc.,
vide
112(/).
(e)
v-^
"
^ and
obsolete
eBza
i^
).
Khusrau's horse."
These
suffixes are
now
*-^yx>
112.
3.sa Uf,
etc.;
(a)
$a
U
* c
like
U^xu*
musk "
affixes signifying
like," as
"
Uf^
Uf uk* mushk"
;
Remark.
These suffixes must not be confounded with sa U from sayldan "to rub," and asa Uf from dsudan &$)*f'z (m.c. intr.) "to be
-sa
(or
jdbln-)
U a^
or
both of which also occur in compounds, as: jabha^ er^^ "rubbing the forehead on the ground,
;
ruh-asa
Uf
^
"
c<
sdn c)U has the same signification as the suffix asa or sa, and is probably akin to the Sanskrit saman and the Hindi sa. Examples shlr-san
:
cjU^A~
(class.)
"like a lion"
(rn.c.)
sham'-san
^U
(also
Remark.
for istdn
^^U
as: khdrsdn
J.^\^
(m.c.)
"a
thorny place."
In modern Persian sdn-i qushun dldan 3 army ; Imruz sarbdzhd sdn dddand *>*\s c>^ ^i^/^ii^jl ^U ji (m.c.) " the troops were reviewed."
5 '
^^ o>* c^9
"to review an
jjtr^
'
>
or as s &n guzashtand
(c)
(1)
Vash
(Jb)
(pash
"like,"
as:
mdh-vash
gbuncha-vash (Jj *^
(class., rare)
;
obsolete),
is
an
affix signifying
moon":
"like a bud (of a pretty mouth) "; qamar-vash farishta-vash Aigy (m.c.) [also farishta-sdn cjU ^I^i (m.c.)
e>^
or farishta-vdr fo
*xy
(m.c.)].
"
like
*
8
Probably connected with the Hindi me " dev ka sa *' like a demon ").
;
sa
(kald-sa
"
black-looking
"
;
mujh-sa
*3>-->f
^*
8^f
San ejU
is
Eastern Turkish
Uighur it signifies the total (in number). The either ten or a hundred millions (the author is uncertain
:
in
420
(2)
THE TERMINATIONS,
In place
of vash, are
Um
isk,
ETC.
modern
"
Persian), as:
shaft- fash
sometimes found fash and pash (but not in <>> *& "like a Shah"; sarv-pash Jtjjs*
like a cypress,"
u^ jt
"like a
used to form
"like the
adjectives, as
moon";
are also suffixes signifying "like," which are " fa e sun J mah-dis khwdis o"*-/^ " ^ke is but dis as same das ^/o has the signification yr^, dts
o*^
:
^^
write
is
Khuda
bl
das va
daman
ast
= "God
eternal."
Khuda-vand ^f<^ like God, lord, possessor ; " master, husband" pjO&A-vand MJ&J* hence by contraction khawnd *>)&* hard as steel, also the name of a hero.'
(e)
; * '
'
"
"
This suffix
4>Jj
is
mand
oJ;i
dawlat-mand
Remark
vand
/.The word
' *
furni*>J avand "furniture," especially "kitchen and ab from "water," *-$ be derived to and pans)", appears
(old)
experiment
Remark //.These nouns and adjectives of similitude, formed by the suffixes asa Uf wash o*j, sar ;U, ana A)f gun &^, vand ^, man ^, etc., are styled &*&*
,
,
p~\.
Remark IIL
Kirdar >\*J
is
also used to
form adjectives
of
resemblance
The
Suffix urn
to the cardinal
^^
"fourth";
seventh."
added to the
114.
ddnish ^Jf^
This termination added to the Imperative root forms abstract nouns, as "knowledge" from danistan "to know"; blnish ^ijj (m.c.)
:
Called
Mn-i
mctsdari
^) >*&* cH^>
or Mfn*t masdar.
Radical
^,
as in the
word
Is called
CHAPTER
115.
XII.
(a) The Imperative root of the verb is sometimes a substantive, as from " sukhtan <^^> (tr. and intr.) " to burn ", suz (m.c.) burning, inflam' ' ' to be mation bi-dih u biranj grief grieved ranjldan a^^j
'
* *
stdn-i
kdr
&
man er (^^ j *& (m.c.) "my expenditure and my income"; " debtor " bistdn-kar " t& &(*~j creditor."
11
c *
' '
bidih-
(m.c.)
fe
(m.c.)
(b)
few
of the verbs
6
of, as:
ending in udan c^jf form substantives ending in an " an order" from farmudan payman^*** "promise"
;
Asan o^f however, is an adjective "easy" (from asudari). few nouns are formed by adding ak *Jf to the imperative stem, as
105
(d).
suzdk
c<
gonorrhoea," vide
(d)
silent
vide
^8
(b)
(e)
hamza and
^jt*
generally compounds, are formed by adding a ya y or the &>\ rakht-8hu*i Imperative stem, as: had-guti ya, to bidihl (m.c.) "revenue of a o^;ado; bidih (m.c.) "debt";
Some nouns,
^^
^^
"power
of hearing
"
guy (^f
(obs.), vide
97
In bina*t ^UAJ the termination is added to the verbal adjective For jaJiandan" sovereignty," vide 97 (a) (1).
(/)
t
taj.
For
ish
atern,
ion
"from
(g)
afridan, vide
diddr
j(*i*
seeing,"
vide
101
(a)
(1).
(h)
The Infinitive
az dad ufarydd kardan hlch fd*ida~i nisi *^~~^ * " " there is no use in out and
^A*
I
^^
^it*j ^*
3f
(m.c.)
screaming
crying
aznd guftan-i 6
*'
in harf Jchayli
^^ o^ ^l \J& Ujt
Cl
(m.c.)
am
In bar
ma
^UU ^
Infinitive is used as
an object.
commoner.
^arm-on
etc., etc,
Suziah (jW**
is
*
8
jjLpy
has
become anglicized
Or
fa*ida
(without
of unity).
In modern Persian
U t vide
(q).
422
and sometimes
plural, as
Az paridanhd-yi rang u
"
By
The wretched
Indmadan-hd va " these
and the beatings of his heart, lover compromises himself wherever he is."
ma samar na-kard tj& 7*ji U ^^ii^ j " but it would and (m.c,) comings goings of ours produced no result be better to substitute here dmad u raft-i bisydr for the plural Infinitive:
raftan-hd-yi
;
Ifi^yk A? guh-khurdan-hd
(i)
is
common
expression in m.c.
affixing
c?, vide
Further examples
Prom (D**'s " to smell" comes buy ^^ " scent "; from e;^J intr. " to traverse" comes puy ^j, (but puy mi-kunad *tf** (s^i (m.c,) "he " " to (C s searching ") intr. grow," ruy ^^ e*H 5 > x) intr. to mourn s* ) ^~&8huslit u shuy washing, etc." rakht-shuy muy
;
0^
^^
<
^^ c^
^^
rakht-shu*i
'
washing clothes
is
the act or
(j)
It
was stated
sometimes a noun.
Similarly the Preterite stem (or shortened Infinitive) is sometimes a noun, " * " as sar-navisht cu<tf " to pardon, guzasht kardan destiny " ' ' " * let ofl rikht the casting ; form didu bdzdid *+t ; j&>*" visiting
:
o^i^
;
&^
0=^
vide also
116
(j).
*'
oo^y^ commerce " dmad u shud * 5 ^T, or dmad u raft cJ; ^ ^^ or in m.c. B also raft u dmad **tfj guft u shunld **& ^ oi? (Syn, yu]t-u-gu). These forms are sometimes in m.c. used in the plural, as dad u sitadhd-yi u ziydd ast e~| *dl#jy ^U^X^ j^td he has extensive dealings."
: ;
Preterite stems or shortened Infinitives of two verbs, with or without the copula ^, are used as a substantive, as dad u sitad 8 <{ 4 *1* commercial transactions" kharid u farukht j did (m.c,)
:
x^
'
Lawh-i Mahfuz
of
J^svo
God regarding men are recorded. Tn the Qur^an (*z+j*j**) the Qur*aii itself. The law tablets of Moses are called alwah.
5
on
which
the
is
decrees
the term
used for
Bazrdid
d'td:
bi-dldan-i
rajtatn Jkji^ jj
*
&*?&
({
went
to visit him."
Compare Hindi len den. Or l&arU farul&t oukjy *,^L also W&rld u farush J^i ^ " noise of 6 Qll u qal Jlji j JjJ taking" is somewhat similar; said" and qal, Ar. "he said," are coupled by the Persian
*
;
^^
(m.c).
qil*
Ar. "it
was
j wa)i
vide
116
(c)
Remark on doubled
words.
423
Sometimes both stems of the same verb are used to form a noun with
J j *J$
or guft
u guy ^j&tf
or guft-gu
oif, [= guft u shunid, vide (k)] "conversation"; " search f* j *~A. (or just u juy). This form, also, can have the usual plural.
c
'
just-ju or just
ju
(m) Sometimes in
of different verbs
(j&j^*&
J
and
"
tl
kill)
arrest-
ing";
or gir
bi-gir
bi-gir
u bizan
j
e^V j j*
>
(rare)
and beat)
tumult, noise,"
u ddr y*
u bi-band
(n)
tumult, confusion, trouble"; " tumult." <>i# j j*& (m.c.) Sometimes the Imperative stems alone are used, as: gir u ddr
(m.c.)
j4
or dar-gir
j4 }*
"
tftj^f
"tumult":
vide (m)
tak-a-pu j$
&
(m.c.)
"searching";
repeated,
2
tak-a-daw JZ& " running." (o) Sometimes the Imperative stem of the same verb
is
as:
kash-ma-kash (J&* <J^ (kash mapulling different ways; also quarrelling kill kash ddshtan): bi-kush u bi-kush (j&* ) ^fighting, rowing (crying " " 8 kasha-kashi a struggling" and kill') kasha-hash J**^ (m.c.) ^
"
"
^f
(old)
"allurement, attracting"
(p)
<{
attracting").
of
il
speaker,"
vide
43
"seller"
gu-yanda
tu-i
tu-i.
?
"
Who framed the lobs of quick and dead but Thou Who turns the troublous wheel of heaven but Thou
(O.
' '
K. 471 Whin.}.
(vulg.)
L5
forms
in rang pukhtani,
khurdani-ha
^t) 9 *
"this has been coloured by boiling not merely ^ii^.^ ^ti (m.c.) "this is for burning"; " Masih dar " food, eatables (m.c.) dunya dmadani bud
;
xpJr-^ (m.c.)
''Christ
had
to
come
A
^ &i
into the
l
world"
*'
in
khdna
(m.c.)
this house is so
This
alif is
called alif-i
at,f
ULfcu cJjf
*
For force
of repetition, vide
doubled words.'
Mard bayad
424
The negative
"
unfit to
is
be uttered
vide also
"
formed by prefixed na U as: na-guftani ^Ui?G (m.c.) nd-shuriidani-hd l^i^u&b (m.c.) "things unfit to be
;
heard
"
;
116 (m).
In modern Persian, however, ai can be substituted, as: l$j^>ii. for a noun, as: (r) The Past Participle, Persian or Arabic, can stand
** T
31 3
cr* **** *
1
*f>
^ **
Az
Va'z har chi rasad chu mst payanda ma- purs In yak-dama naqd rd ghanlmat ml l -ddn
Az rafta mayandlsh vaz ayanda ma- purs " Ask not the chances of the time to be,
And
you see
This ready-money breath set down as gain, Future and past concern not you or me."
(0.
K. 278 Whin.).
is
and ayanda *^f <w what hence "the Past" and " the Future."
Rafta
*)
is
to come,
^xf y j
**%.<
&(& J,>
JJ^b
^lacu
tf
A?
of
An
"
kunim
For what
is
K. 308 Whin.).
Vide also
Example
in (p).
Guzashtagdn or
(r).
murdagdn
^^
"
;
vide also
43
Muharramdt o^auo "things forbidden; black clothes"; mahsurin the beseiged"; manzur ^JeJ^ (m.c.) "aim; objection, view, i^/o maktub written a intention"; v> letter"; almaktub *->j&J\ "Holy
" l
igl)yea*A
Writ."
Remark.
Persian nouns derived from verbs are called
verbal nouns," or
^f
9
or;x^Jij J^>bw ) as opposed to the real Infinitive when used as a noun, which is then styled ^^i j*&x> p\ or
"compound
j^x
J^L*
In original zamana
*^3 perhaps a misprint Note continuative Imperative. JCaw, negative; not "less", but " not."
for
zaman-i
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
The Past
masdar.
Participle,
425
is
not called
hasil-i
p\
are
included in the hasil-i masdar j**** JL*U>, as: aiU^ "a razor," but this seems to be an error.
COMPOUND WORDS.
116.
(a]
Compound
Substantives.
chiefly
Persian
abounds
in
compound words
substantives
and
adjectives.
Compound substantives are formed as follows (6) A compound noun analogous to such English compound as cart- horse,
:
is
formed by the juxta-position of two nouns (in the English order) without * izafat, as: ruz-nama A*Ujjj newspaper diary account of daily expendi1
* '
lu
^(^ "Asylum
of
the
World
(in
addressing the
shutur-murgh fa* j& properly (but wrongly applied to other birds): gul-barg rose- petal "; but (poet.) " gul-i barg ^y uS (m.c.) any non-flowering plant with coloured or variegated
speaking)"; dsh-paz khdna 3 *U> j^f (m.c.) "cookhouse"; shab-khun *cJ>*u (class.) " night attack" barf-ab 5 _f J,J " snowwater from the hills"; the " Ostrich"
;
J^
6
' '
leaves"; khavar-zamin
&**>)
^(^
"
' '
Orient";
gfaarq-ab v f
(^
mashriq-zamm &**} O}^ ) "the water": deep miydn-pacha A^U &(*# (m.c.) "a
(class.) (or
;
tah-jur'ah
A*/?*
7
a3
(
<*
dregs."
This compound
is
^^^
v^O'
Remark
I.
compound
is
,&*
Jv^
(m.c.) (m.c.)
sahar-gahan ^Ulfys^ (mod.); manzil-gdh " place "; maklab-khdna ^la. ^K/o "school
M
;
mashriq-zamm (^*j oj**' (m.c.) "'the East, Eastern Countries"; matba' khana A*U. ^tx? (m.c.) ^printing
1
'bakht-yar j^i^V
Jtj*r>
^ 3
Vide
ifchbar
(J*>\
44
(6) (3).
The words
Ash-pa* J*
and
"
newspaper."
"a cook."
it
an
*
officer
whose duty
' '
(from " : person to be trusted originally was to taste the chief's food, perhaps to prove that it was not
i.e.
lu India a cook
is
"a
^^^-)^
(India)
" cook-house"
bawar-chl-garl (India)
But But
ab-i barf
tah-i
oy wT
6
7
426
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
(?
J>*** (m.c.)
"any
appointed place of
"
j&j
(also adj.)
khusk-sal
JU cJL
<JU
year
(a
(J*>)
(subs,
and
"grey
Remark II. Such compounds as khwab-gah been mentioned in Derivation of Words, vide
(6),
v!^>
(a)
e^ c
>
have already
100,
99
and
(6),
101
102,
103,
104.
Remark Ills
Many compounds
sar^,
as
sar-chashma
117 III
(a) (4).
(c) Two substantives of the same signification joined by the copula, form a copulative compound noun, as marz u bum ) Jy (m.c.) = u kishvar marz u bum (mod.); "empire, country" marz j jj* (class.) " heat " tab u tab nashv u nama ^ pick u tab V l3 ^ #$* writhing
:
^
;
^ ^
l
;
)^
' '
' '
*U
' *
jJ*>)
thorns
(i.e.
Tchar
Ichass (j^^ ^
}^
2
bl-dtid
' '
(shouting justice
and
injustice).
Remark.In
Arabic,
(d)
lit. qil
qll
qal
Jl^
cLj'
compound are
be joined ab u hawa tyb j v f " climate )\> or by an alif, as " " zana " 3 4 an outing and hunting (water and air ) sayr u shikar ;^ j j# " " " 6 " shu^l wedlock from zan ^} wife husband ' and shuy (jy& IJj s*>j {C in adam misl-i dlvu dad (m.c.) this man like a beast." ^ ^j>T ^\
of
Also
two substantives
'
may
either
by Vav-i
Atf ^b*
;
' '
'
,>
^ d^
o^
no
(m.c.)
"odds and ends, small belongings," the " noise Zur u sliur ;^ ^ ) signification.
5
a waterfall, river, or of attacking soldiers entering a city, Often the second word is a * meaningless appositive 6 ( tabi'-i muhmal
(of
sliur
cU^
C^> as:
u shar ;L& ^
^=
zur u shur jj
).
" and downs
Remark
I.
fjf,
and
talkh
u shlrin
^^
3 JCi
"the
tips
J& from
Compare
Ar. *J&.
also ahakh dar shakh (adj.)
**
2
3
intertwined."
Easterns attribute good or ill-health to either the water or air of a place. Hava can be used alone for "climate'* ab alone generally means literally that the water
;
of a place
*
6
is
good or bad.
is
a sort of picnic.
vide
'
^^ W,
114 (n).
synonym.'
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
and "
bitter
427
and sweet"
(of
the world).
zir
In
zlr
u zabar kardan ^
in reality
u zabar are
nouns used
^^
^>U ^ CA~^
"
to annihilate"
(to
make
'ia
and
was not
'
compound
substantives.
Remark
II.
rending"].
(e)
For
two Arabic words, as: akl u meat and drink " eM^f <j^ ^ <j^; and (Jii " cleaving, fissure, mending Remark.
consist of
;
:
' '
The contracted
Infinitives of
two
Infinitive of a verb combined with the Imperative root of the same verb, did together form such compound substantives as dmad u rait cu*; j ^x>f
: ;
1 15 vide u bdz-did VA jU j <x?j> guft-u-gu 5 oJ (k) and (I). formed from two Imperatives or Imperative (/) For a compound noun and 115 vide stems, (o). (m) (n)
;
;
(g)
A Numeral
*
noun, as
(open on
or an adjective, with a substantive, form " the afternoon " yak-shamba <uL si-pahar j^^>
;
chahdr-pd
J;^
" a quadruped
"
char-fasl d*&*
;^ (m.c.)
^ "
a compound
t(
Sunday
"
summer-house
all
four sides)."
* is
98 (b) (4)], the final formative adjectives similarly formed \vide for nouns changed into gl, as panjdh-sdla <^l~> l^, adj. of fifty years
' '
From
' '
panjah-salagl
^ilU
of
tl
2
lqp.ij
fifty
:
years
old.''
Examples
surkh-ab
^^^
rouge"
(h) Substantives are also compounded from an Imperative root preceded s a noun (or an adverb or a preposition), as dsh-paz jj <j*f "cook"; by " t( *' ru-numd ^j a present given to the bride by archer tir-andaz 8 31^! j*> her to show her face (for the first time 4 ) "; pma the bridgegroom to induce
:
" * *Joj
a cobbler,
is
bedstead."
r
~b
52
Ba
f;
In punjah-salagl ml-tavanam
ruz-l
dah
farsal^h.
is1ii<ir
}>u-pfyada
bi-ravcun
fj>/
** s_5W ^JJA |*V^ more than ton farsakhs a day." " tho office or business of cook": Ash-pazl ^*,j (J^^
t^**^"X f**f
^U
lx;ij
my
fifty
"
archery."
*
my father's wife," i.e. tho wife married to please the father: the second wife they choose for themselves. In Persia, girls generally manage to get a secret view of their intended, and of ten flatly refuse to accept him. Ditto with tho men. The Parsi women are not in ru-band, they are rn-ba~~
Tho Afghans
call
the
first
wife
**
KafaJirduz jj&
{J&
" a shoemaker."
428
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
In pish-kash <Jtf ^>J "present, gift", pish *v 0*0 "bracelet"; pas*andaz
J&ty
is
tion: dast-band
jf*i
khizj^
" servant"
"savings";
pish-
(also adj.).
is
Remark.
not
in
o**U> a place outside big cities an to a noun, as: khil' at-pushan where the recipient of a robe of honour from the Shah advances to meet it and "autumn"; ab nzan &*) vJf a fete be invested; barg-nzan djtj]
^^
is
thrown.
Remark /.
'
(m.c.) adj.
of
'running. fast
"
Remark
II.
Persian
noun
instrument'
compound, as: <jy fti "penknife"; " dast-mal handkerchief," but in Arabic there are special forms, as: miftah " mibrad " file " vide Notes on Arabic Grammar. " -Uixj key nouns are formed by suffixing the contracted (j) A few compound
:
&
"
(1)
" adventures
et
yad-dasht expectation of favours." This form can take the usual plural, vide also
; ;
sar-guzasht
c^^f
j*
chashm-ddsht
o^|^^-
115
(;').
"return visit" baz-khwast ^^\^ $> "calling to (2) Baz-did <x>j> jb baz-dasht account, retribution; demanding reasons for action taken";
**&>,*
>
>s
"hindering
]
;
[baz yaft
(k.)
"
;
^/
oJlf jb
person)
improve"
(k)
(1)
^to
^
,
substantive may combine to preposition (or adverb) and a c^cai, khidmat (m.c.) "a servant"; form a compound noun as: pish a of camp sent on ahead to pish khana &\^ (J^J (m.c.) that portion
^u
be ready
' '
on
arrival; pish-ddman
' '
^fa
<>^}
"apron"; ham-rah
:
fellow-traveller.
(2)
"one
tions
' '
pish-khwan e;fy Also a preposition and Imperative root as who announces the arrivals of guests; a leader ii? religious recita;
plsh-ras
^
;
' '
J '
<J>%
first-fruits.
(3)
Also
contracted
$* c^J
(class.)
light breakfast
(I)
An
"
j^
plsh-khwurd
^
"
Infinitives,
as: pish-dad
cA
(rare)
leavings."
may form
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
durbin
1
429
"field- glasses,
opera-glasses,"
khush-naws
^y u^" calligraphist
I.
:
"
durughgu^
p "a
liar";
Remark
"
(
.^j wX?;b
Adjectives are also formed in this manner, as: bank-bin looking into details also, particular about trifles (m.c.)."
last
The two
Remark
examples
in (1)
may
also be adjectives.
(m.c.) a
'
II.
In dur-bash-kun
^ <jb ^
cries
'
man who
(m.c.)
clears the
is
way
to
for a personage, a
man who
dur-bash,
{J*\*
an adjective
prefixed
two Imperative stems: dur-bash kardan &sf " dur-bash et <Jk )$& subs, (class.) a baton way
;
)^
"
to clear the
way."
a Future Gerundive preceded by na may form " the a noun, as: na-shumdan &&**\J rast na-guftamha non-hearing" = duruyh-gnftariha (m.c.) na shunidani tellings of untruths ~*i; (m.c.)
(m)
Infinitive or
;
' ' ;
An
l^^AG
things unfit to be
heard
"
;
vide
also
115
(n)
(h)
and
"
(q).
Many
(m.c)
Compounds
like pidar-
stitchta*
Compound
(b) (6).
Adjectives.
etc.,
are treated
is
a substantive.
44
used as a substantive, as dar-bi-dar j**) (m.c.) (o) Sometimes a phrase is mendicant" (lit. from door to door); khana bi-dusK <^>^ ^lL (m.c.) " "any wandering tribe, such as the Gypsies, etc. (lit. house on shoulder)
:
"a
^^
*aK
slave
(lit.
kun-ma-kun
&* ^
do")
''hesitating; also a
as adjectives
commander; and
also orders."
joined to a sub-
stantive by theizafat, as: ^hulam-i halqabi-gush <Jj& a&U^lU" bond-slave." few Turkish compounds, confined (p) In modern Persian there are a
to titles or offices.
In Turkish
lar is
(after
a vowel
si) is
the 3rd Person affixed possessive pronoun "his," as: b)^ daryabeg-% "lord of the sea (a title) [lit. the sea, his lord] ": begJarbeg-t rlt#
^^
^^
(title)
lit.
"Chief of Chiefs"
= Mayor)";
ishik aqa-si
bash-i
^Ij (.^tft cXx^jf (modern) "chief usher" (apparently from isKtk " " a "its head." door, gate aqa-si ^^1 "its master," and bashl ma hazar are treated as substantives, as (q) A few Arabic phrases " is or whatever what that in or haste, (lit.) anything prepared pot-luck (m.c.)
;
^^
:
^*U
"
is,
present
ma-hazar-i
;
^^U
lit.
"
don't care"
laytula'all
cW oJ
?
"
jgv
Zarra-bin
^t
if
*'
*>'
microscope or magnifying
9''
glass.
i PI.
8
pidar subhta-ha
izafat:
^j<* }*j.
(
No
the izafat
it
might be mistaken
for the
<^ of unity.
430
(lit.
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
layt
a
AT.
la'all"
and perhaps
"
^2
*'
Jiastl-yi
am become
Am
Not
Your Lord
(0.
"
K. 212 Whin.)
Qur*an occurs
*
Am I
not
" and
in the
the phrase ^Oy o^/i hence in Persian ruz-i alast the day of the original " 4< Covenant of God with man Sani'-ikunfa-yakun c^^^/^U the Creator be and it will be '). (Zi^. the maker of
'
'
Kun
Ma-jara JJA.U Pers. **an event" (for Ar. ^jj^*> ''wliat happened"). " be and it was " the words used " the Creation " (lit. fa-kan" e>^ v*
at the Creation)
;
by God
(r)
Also a Persian phrase may sometimes be considered a compound o^ct^ cX jlft^ substantive, as hdla va yak sa'at-i dtgar mi-kunad *tf
:
(m.c.)
*f
^j&A
(m.c.)
\*j* }))j*\
"he
is
pro-
crastinating."
PART
II.
CHAPTER
SYNTAX.
117.
XIII.
On
Something has already been said about the use, the pronunciation, and
the forms
]
of the izafat in
43.
it
Though omitted
speaking.
/.
(a)
cannot be omitted in
The izafat is, in Persia but not in India, always inserted between the name of a person and his profession, or between the title and profesproper
sion, as:
Muhammad Khan-i
;
tajir,
na
Muhammad Khan-i
' '
;
'
saqat-farush (vulg.
na-ki
the
a>) ufr^'fca* ^U. *+**.+ A^G ^UL &+:KX> (m.c.) merchant not Muhammad Khan the grocer
the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir
"
Muhammad Khan
Dablr^-s-Saltana-yi
"
(but Dabir"-s-Saltana
Kirmdn
"
)
;
"the
Dabir-us-Salfcana, the
Vazir of
Kir/nan
Mu*ayyid"'l-lslani'i
Mudirj***
f JUjft OJ^A:
Editor."
(6)
The
izafat
is
"
Haji
Agha
of Shiraz
"
;
Hatim-i
Ta^J*^
(^^ Tay"; Hasan-i Baluch* <c -o^ the Afshar." Hasan j(j\ (ir The izafat also couples the proper name and a nickname, or a descriptive Gur Iskandar-i Zu'l Qirnayn \rf (not Bahrain Gu,r) epithet, as Bahram-i
:
:
^^
Hatim" of the tribe of " Hasan the Baluch " Hasan-i Afshar
^-!
(in
**
(lit.
the two-horned)";
lsa-yi
Masih
India India
lsa Masih)
(in
Musa
c<
The
izafat
:
and j
bed "
and
after silent h
after c? it
it is
either
* or
When
,
its
stood
is
pronounced
like short i or e
as in
" bid
and
' *
in other
case.
The
latter
word
is
also
28
4IH
(c)
The words
shahr-i
" the white nastaran willow tree"; gul-i nastaran rose, sweet-briar"; rud-i " " the bird ts the river Nile Nil J# & (known as) muryhri humdy ^U* / Huma." As the last two examples show, the izafat is sometimes used
;
to their country, kingdom, city, river, etc., are coupled *-&* "the country of Persia" as: Mulk-i Iran
&\j*\
;
city of
Kirman"
;.
darakht-i bid
*y
c*i;a
" the
The
izafat is also
used in the
of (or on)
titles of
olj j*>
Sa'di
v ttf
the Wiles of
Woman "
kitab-i Oulistdn-i
^50***
&&J$
John
Gospel of St.
wltf. Compare also Injil-i Yuhanna U-^ c^axjf "the " and the Arabic Kitdb^lMuluk vJ>Ut *->& "the Book of
Kings."
(e)
The
izafat is
also
Rustam (the son) of Zal Isa-yi Mart/am fa* er^* " Dafud "Jesus the son of Mary tfy* ^J^ "Solomon the son Sulayman-i " " of David Agh& Khan the Eunuch Agha Khan-i Khivaja a*i>* Umar-i Khayyam (-^^ "Omar the tent-maker "; Husayn-i Imam (but Imam Husayn) " Hiisayn the Imam." Arabic fractions, as nwf-i (/) The izafat is used with the Persian and
Rustam-i Zal
'
"
J, j /*L*>;
'
^W
^
nan-%
^U
UAA>
*'half
a loaf";
sih-yak-i
jam-'iyyat
1 "one-third of the book." quarters of the crowd"; suls-i kitdb v an as the is treated on other adjective, is used in compounds, Nlm, hand,
^+*>
<x^
three
and
is
man
mm
ndn-l
p#
is
"half a loaf,"
mm
by
:
(g)
The
usually followed
;
the genitive plural, the two being connected by means of the izafat but as an intensive epithet, it merely qualifies its noun like an ordinary adjective, as oftl^ " the ashraj mard-i <^y ^j&\ "a most noble man"; khilqat-i ahsan^^^]
best creation," or ahsan khilqat-i
**
ei^t?)
e>^J
oJU^ i^r"^noun used collectively may retain the izafat ^^i dast khatt-i mubdrak dar <*M )& ^)^*
a
^
3
zamdn
ziydrat shud
"your
letter
reached
"
;
u mard-i bihtarln
(class.),
mard
ast
c~!
^ ^y^^
is
(m.c.).
Remark.
singular
noun that
without the
^ of unity
is
Arabic construction
<J
'
the taj&hallus or
nom
^***l
Dar
as'ad-i zaman-l
^*)
)&
Izafat-i maqlitbl.
izdfat.
435
(h) A noun or an infinitive qualified by a phrase must be coupled to it by ruz-i ba'd the izafat as though the qualifying phrase were an adjective, as az In zad u khurd fy^j a) ert jf **i ) " the day after this skirmish" az
J
or az du daf'a bdkhtan c^^b **i:> jt>j'> from &&+> &* "to the forest near twice losing" bi-bisha-yi nazdik-i shahr the city"; (j^^ &')* c5 lA chizha-yi dar an sanduq; tumdnhd-yi dar
bakhi,an-i
du daf a
l
&***)*
&*^jt
"
^ e^
J^
kamar-am u** )* cs^ e> y "the tumans tied up in my kamarband." In rahm avardan bar baddn sitam ast bar nikdn \d&**j* ^^\ p*~ ^f^j ^ e^/f (Sa'di) "to show pity to the bad is to show tyranny to the good," there
l/c
should be no izafat after avardan &&jjf, though in modern Persian one is often inserted reverse the sentence bar baddn rahm avardan ^;jf f*y eJ^^J and the reason for the omission becomes clear kushish kardan-i dar kar " " in this business dar kar kushish (but (m.c.) striving (J^y ft &,)* Lr*^ kardan cA^^j^u^J^ ); bisyar lab-i chu la 1 u zulfayn-i chu mushk
;
:
" <c J.&* &)*. (^^3 ) cU) v^*~J and many a ruby lip and musky tress (0. Whin va pish az dnki bickara bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haris" Rub. 137 )
&^
c^
25^' bud y C-A^^ fij**^ u^U f'j** u** *zjt *^&# " and before that Suh. (Anv. ^Kujfi^ Chap. I, Introduc., St. 3) the avaricious is dis. helpless one could arrive there, the clear text of
mahrum
latlfa bar-anglkhta
AA,JU
appointed,
etc.'
"
/.
(a)
janab
mirza fy**
v'^and hazrat e^-^w, the izafatis always inserted, " '* ^>^ ^^ V IL^ His Honour the Chief Physician
:
jdndb-i qunsalJ**j$
v^> e ^c.
:
Hazrat-i
Hazrat-i Sidayman &\+^ 0^^. A'alq Hazrat-i Shahinshah-i Iran &\^\ jjt^x^L^ o^^axiAJUf (Title of the Shah). (6) The izajat is used after the word mablagh Q** (sum), as: mabla^i " the sum duvlst tuman vajh-i naqd <*& **$ ^j* ^~~!.jt> &*> (m.c.) of 200 tumans
in cash."
" The Arabic word ahld&\ " people (belonging to any particular place, ahali, is always followed by the izafat, creed, art, etc.), and its plural " ahl-i Islam as: ahl-i Kirman &(*_> d&\ "the people of Kirman f&t JU>( " " <f ahl-i cMt veiled ahl-i va the Muslims
(c)
^^
hijab ^^^
' '
(class.)
sayf
qalam
J3 2 uftx** JAI
(m.c.)
:
civil
"
:
ahl-i khiyanat
eJUx
J*t (m.c.)
"hypocrites";
ahl-i
qubur*
Remark
I.
ahl-i tariqat
is
used, as
&.^bJt c-Ul
This izafat though required in modern Persian, is generally omitted in Indian. " the Mahalla-yi Wkamfohan quarter of the silent'* (a city cemetery): ehdhr'
"
436
izafat.
Ahl
also
of sense; a
worthy man,
etc.'
as
man
ahl buvad
May
61
True
For
know
drink wine, like every man of sense, Allah will not take offence."
(0.
^j cUf
"
Duzakh bi-jahan
111
suhbat-i
no- ahl
buvad
company
will
make
Az na ahlan hazar
farsakh guriz^jt
(O.
fit
worthless keep your walk remote." U ahl4 In kdr ast (m.c.) " he is
(d)
The Arabic
:
"
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as
arbab-i kharad
"
ojljuo v^U^t
&ja* ^U^f
people of science."
as
The singular
(e)
masters of wisdom, wise ": arbab-i ma'arif 8 In m.c., arbdb ^^1 is used as a singular, " " who is master ?
your
if
used independently
is
only
marhum
marhum-i aqa-yam
|*J^T fj**s
py^j*-
my
l&te
father":
izafat
my
Grammatically the
1
43
(6).
However,
form,
is
classically
and
in m.c. pidar-i
marhum f/V*
;*J,
the correct
used.
' '
The word abna*&], pi. of ibn (vide III (a) (3) ), takes the izafat before (t men and jinns the noun following, as cjU^ ^f ^Uuf abna^i ins u jann " animals and abna*-i (i.e. everything "men, (m.c.) plants jahan e)^ ^Uj| " in the world): people of our t;U ^j^i^ ^Uuj abna*-i jins-i mara bay ad
(/)
:
order or class
should"
sahib
^j ^^
* (
"fellow-country-
men.
(g)
when not forming possessed of, master of a compound, takes the izafat. This is especially the case when more than a
The word
,
"
Na-ahl
<J&\
ria-muvafiq
&\j*
^ or
**
etc.'*
*
8
PL
of
izafat.
437
expressed, as: sdhib-im khana &{*> owner of the house." Vide also III (a) (5).
is
^l
>-**(* (m.c.)
" the
u Occasionally the Arabic construction is used, as: ooJf w*^U> sahib 'l" u sahib 'l-amr (m.c.) "The Mahdi." bayt (m.c.) "the master of the house
;
Very rarely the feminine is used, as JUJf &^l* sahibat"'l-jamal "possessed of beauty" (woman) = malikat"' l-jamal (modern): fuldn zan <j^i (in writing), but more sahiba-yi In khana ast cut *JU* ^i iva^l* &>lx ^\ *-**(* (m.c. and in writing). o*! ast khana sahibi in commonly
:
is
ashSb ^Iss^f
wl*.*!
(1)
The
izdfat is frequently
l
sar j**
when
two
oiUt
of 10,000" (nominal, as a but amir-i tup- khana d^^^^AX>t. " ^A^jj^s mir-shikar a head game- keeper also a goot shot." mir-akhur " master of the horse."
^Up^xx| Amir-tu-man
"a commander
rule),
mw-panj "chief
amir- pan j.
*'<>
of 5 (battalions);
commander
of
5,000"; also
mlr-ghazab
-ab* (m.c.
" executioner.*'
official
in charge
of
a stream,
who
But
superintends the distribution of the water for irrigation purposes." <j"lw.*^* mir-i majlis and some other expressions the izafat. require
AlJUJy^o mir-i qafila
;
(2)
VaK*^,:
vail 'ahd
6
"
*ye iji)
-^-fr*3
heir- apparent."
cf(j
(lit.
'lord of bounty')."
^ 3
The word
Prince,
4-
tj/fc*
mlr is purely honorary. In honoured by the title of mlr-shikar. mirza, which before a name corresponds to Afr., but after a name to
;&& j**>
In Arabic valiyy wn (tashdld over the <j ). Vail vail ra ml-shinasad 4t * (proverb) = "set a thief to catch a thief " a governor." ^\)
:
him
vail nfrmat
o.
438
izafdt.
Remark
tion"
(legal).
^\
valiyy^d-dam
"a
relative entitled
to exact retalia-
al-vali
is
Vail ij)
" The Helper" (one of the 99 special attributes). also a reputed saint who has worked miracles, but in Persia
the
title is
given to any saintly person, generally after death. In Afghanistan and India the word pir is used for a departed saint and
'
saints
' '
while mu'jizat
(pi.
by "prophets." abna**&\ )
:
ejltU.
etc.).
^ bin sultan
" son
of
a king
"
ibn*Jrvaqt oJpi
Ibn ^f, however, is generally used with the Arabic construction, as: " " " ibn u -s-sabil J#~Jl ^1 (m.c.) "traveller : ^t a time-server
:
ibn*'l-batn vkjpi
&\
(glutton).
^t
*'
a son
"
Appendix) when
k
name
UJtb
\^r^ Husayri
'bn u
Fattmah. In Atabak
in gikr-i Amir-i kabir-i Fakhr u
*>*-* Bakr-i bin Sa'd-i Zangl j&^i iJoUf, and d-dm Abu Bakr-i bin Nasr ^txlijabJ^^^xfyi (Preface to the Gulistan), the Arabic construction is retained.
Abu
^j
^l^y^jt
Usually, however, in such cases ibn is in Persian written in full and is followed by the izafat, as &\ &+*>** Muhammad ibn-i Karim.
:
(4)
Sar:
sar-maya,
sar-rishta
"
'*
sar-ab
(<
source, fountain-head."
sar-aghaz,
"
beginning."
"
sar-afsar
sar-anjam
conclusion."
sar-angusht (m,c.) "tips of the fingers." aar-bar (m.c.) " a last small load added on the top."
This
j
is
genitive
is
formed by
simple
*
'*
uxtaposition.
Sar-dard &)&
j*
Ar
-
(m.c.)
"headache"
but dxrd-i
&)&
(m.c.) generally
Sarab vlr*
4t
ON
sar-khatt
THE}
izdfat.
439
"a
to point
out letters
between master and servant/' 2 " a head 8 sarkdr land-agent, an overseer of anything.' " settled in full sar-rdst " (of account).
* {
sarhang
straight, complete, a rank just junior to a Lt.-Col commanding a regiment.'* sar-fitna (m.c.) "the ringleader of a disturbance." (< sar-qufli money paid for goodwill to a shop master on transfer
*
of business."
qandt." "a a before to the traveller." journey, present ^*\)j* Further examples of this common and idiomatic word with and without the izdfat: tjit ^U*^ ffif* z>r** e/^a cA^*^ ^ *^A h ar
vjjt^o
" the top of a Persian pipe." y* sar-qalydn 6 " the head of a tribe (or of an army, or s sar-karda * sar-ndma " address on an envelope." " cream " for sar-i shir sar-shir (m.c.) (class.). " the source of a sar-db
(i-qandt) (m.c.)
of
a riot)."
sar-rdhi (m.c.)
f^
dushmanan-i dustdn-i
^whoever makes friendship with the enemies mind to injure his friends."
sar-i vaqt (m.c.)
"
punctually."
*'
at
hand."
zabdn l< on the tip of the tongue." rah " on the road."
az sar~j
naw
<4
anew.
"a purse sealed up."
"the
fort
is
on the rock."
ba d bar khdsta sar-i miz raftim (Shah's Diary) AJUO^^J " " after that we e^**-^ )* &~^lr* j &{*)> ^J^ got up and went to the table
(
j^ljAlw jang-i
Almdn u
Frdnsa dar
sar-i
Diary) "the Franco-German war was concerning this very Prince": " sar-bdld raftim " we ascended, went up hill *J>U~^I ^a. Jy^^> (**&! JfL^wa *** )) J (&*>**)& ftf tf ^*< kay sar-i qawl-i khudisldda ast ki ddarn 1 bi:
{
I)
tavdnad harf-ash rd bdvar kunad (m.c.) "when, has he ever kept to his word
Also snr-maxhq
S+Aj+# (m.o.)
<4
copy."
if
'2
:"'
One copy kept by each. Each month payments, Or mubashir jk* (m.c.) or sardar )\$s* (m.c.). The shops in a karavansaray <^j~**<))K belong
rent
is
to the
owner
of
whom
4
cannot turn out a tenant who pays his rent. paid. " a chief of a Sar-guruh tyrj*" (Af.) body."
He
Or
ta.
Note adam
for
f2>\
vt
one "
(indef. pron.
after &$
440
f,
eylO*>f *3W ^t
JLo r ftj
ej*-^ o*^
2/
lakdta /
mard
bi-firisti
so you've so
use abuse
<3>*
to
my
sar-i
maid
mu*l
:
and
set
her at
me
worry
me)?":
^f*J
^J*
~r*
"
*
them "
farq na-ddrad
))&
(m.c.)
^y
v^ e^-^-tf
" the * eagle circled over the water" uqdbbarsar-i in db dawr mi-kard (class.) " sar bar # zamin zad sprouted from the ground ": &&* j~*t j^^* etf*;j " burdan to the the time" bi-sar XAjf_^*i c^J>^ CU*X^>^^M,J pisar pass days,
;
f
v^
dmad
**
(Sadi)
and
in his strength
"
bi-sar
burdam
4
the boy became perfected in his art &***> &* man muddat-l bd
'*
I lived
3
f
time and
sar~darakhti
suffered
chtz-i
much":
nami-girad
3j**+*
(class.)
c>^
c5^J^
-**"
^tJU
duce of
fruit trees
"
:
^A-^O^VJ^
" *H^ t^ \a&* j* sar-i juldn mi-jumbad (m.c.) So-and-so is still alive, he's still " $ar-i zakham-i u mdlldam "I rubbed got a kick in him j-ooJU^t
:
^j ^
salt
on
his
wound
(figuratively), hit
sar-i khar
:
o^
&thj*>
siy j*
ravam
<J/
&&j>
o>Lf
'*
kardand ki bdz
sar-i
sarud
guftan
(class.)
^^
then made to
me
Remark
I.
It will
is
a preposition,
it
always
Remark
II.
o^*^,
sar'sabzj*~*j*
Vide also II. (g). This word is frequently used (without (5) Sahib. the izdfat) to form compounds. In modern Persian the izdfat is sometimes used where it is omitted in old Persian. 6
Examples
of sahib <~s*\* in
compounds
* '
sdhib-mansab
1
an
officer/
'
Sar-i
her at
me":
the
to
Zan
sar-i
^wx?
|j
<Jj*>j>^<> &)
dies/*
j^)&f*
":
in
some
localities
applied only
to oranges and lemons, citrons, etc. 6 The Afghans follow the old Persian idiom in this as in other points.
**
c>U*^
v^^
or eahib
izdfat.
441
"a
master
(in
any art)."
qdhib-qiran
" Lord
<l
of the
happy conjunction."
sahib-dawlat "rich."
JU ^a.U
sahib
sahib
mat
(m.c.)
rich."
hunar "
skilled."
Ltf
sahib-jamal
(6)
j
bdz
(JJ.&U
J* "devoted
fakk-i izafat:
to sport'
;
";
'
ashiq
of the
(local?)
knuckle- bones
(the
sides
Shah, Vazir, Shaykh, Duzd): ^^s^J *-JU na*ib-nasaqchi " under- executioner (m.c.) "; 4j^>bU. i^Ju na*ib chdpdrchi "who looks after post-horses," but o;li^ v.5li na*ib-i sifarat " second to the ambassador,"
are called
bone
and
title
;
oJjyu
^>.5l>
nafib-i
saltanat
(also
cuikLJf
^U
ncfib s-saltanat)
^JU ncfib-i farrash-khana "the one under the farrashaiUfevAfy bSshi" jlj^ ^^shagird chapar (m.c.) = v^) v^^ na*ib-c?iaparchi; Jj o^T shagird ash-paz il cook-boy, cook's assistant "; j]>j 7-^ pisar-bazzaz
:
1
^^
(m.c.)
"a young
Turk
of
' '
' ' ;
&l^
'^ shah-khana
chestnut
tl
"
oy U shafotut" a kind
;
mulberry
"
"
^ shah-par or^
;
^\*
A* shah-par
sMh damdd
term
for); j*
*j
U
;
shah-tir (m.c.)
"abeam";
;f^ ^ shah-savar
1
4 '
a good
rider ";
^.^l^
ddmankuh
(m.c.)
*'
(m.c.)
^.s/i-i
the skirt of
the mountain"
4 *
^AU^f
;
mrxM
'
'
(m.c.)
:
a small shell
'
^^ &
^*
1
;
mikh-lavila (m.c.)
horse picketing-peg
1
J^
^jf sag-obi or
(m.c.)
^T
a/7-i
dbl (m.c.)
"an
otter"
v!^ ^ ^ jama-khwab
" source
of
Anight dress'
dregs in
/c
;y
>->1
&*^
chashma-nur (m.c.)
;
light";
(m.c.)
wf
A*^
chashma-db;
*<$-^ darydcha db
e^
i^^
tah-butri
"the
a bottle";
(m.c.
A*^
but
*>
l;
A)
tah>jur a,
(m.c.);
<-U
*3
tah-jdm:
man-banda
and
better
^J
than
e^
**> 1 J
man-f 6aw</a or
man-i mukhlis
yi bi-pul Jjj
etc.),
SoJu ^xi.
A;iic^a
'
va bazar
^
;
*^/0
M
:
an ^ at tne foot * After the prepositions \j~ siva except," and b p^ one or two words ending in alif the izafat is sometimes omitted, as
'
y
auspicious conjunction
(of
two
or
more
planets)
a fortunate
and
'aahiq-kush (me.)
l k
lady -killer
"
(as
man
killer."
8
of the cloth-merchant."
442
sivaman
U pasandali bi-ist (m.c.) jUJU. ja-namaz but ^Ui ^U. ja-yi namaz "a place for praying"; (m.c.) ^prayer-carpet," " a back (m.c.) street," but <^/ ^.j pas-i kucha pas-kucha (m.c.) " a flower resembling the pome"behind the street" ^fj? gul-anar (m.c.)
o^l fy^te*
a^^
Such
jj
common compounds, as ^ nay-shakar (m.c.) "sugarcane" and ab-ru (m.c.) "honour" have come to be regarded as one word.
:
v'
Before an adjective
' * ;
u&j*
y^
" a dukhtar Farangi (m.c.) (m.c.) d>J> Turkish girl"; <*&;* /*^ hakim-Farangt " the Frank doctor"; ^;j c^=pi^ " a (kind of) finch." gunjlshk-zard (m.c.) the izafat is sometimes discarded specially after a license (c) By poetical " a Frank girl"
y^
dukhtar Turk
silent
mi-bin am.
Maqlubi
1
The oJUf
*
(
J>
fakk-i
izafat
of the izafat" of
c5
-)
which
izafat-i
in (III) is
^' vitf
is
usual order of
inverted.
;
Examples
^U;jl< kdfir-mdjard
examples of /H*-e
^.^x;
"
"
y<
!
t5/tr-j
majard)
are
Jj-^o
mashriq
zamin
"the East";
axh-paz
-w
"
as
&\^
jdhan-pandh
Adjectives that precede their nouns do not properly take the izafat and are examples of the "inverted construction" (vide 4'? (6) ).
V.
(a)
There
is
no
thus; C^T^
f^
*jU*'*A*
between the proper name and the title following it, ^UlUi <^+sv f^ Mirza Mahmud Tabatabd^-i^
Mahmud
of the tribe
Compare ^**
J^l avval
ahab
*'
the
lirst
night
**
in the
of
God "
is
an instance
is
is
who stammered).
izdfat.
44$
the
other hand
the
of
^lx
^jJlJt
?
Hakim mja
On
is
Governor here
(6)
"
are not coupled together by the izdfat, thus c< " mother-in-law sisterkhwdhar-zan "; ^j A
1
Compound words
&))*!* madar-zan (m.c.) in-law"; (j)*j *ikx khzna-bi-dush "wandering, vagrant asbdb-i barham zada; Jl* b^* mard-i bd mdl).
(c)
"
(but ^3 p*j*
^^^
The
izdfat
seldom
oolte'
occurs after
s-*i?
quantity, as:
*>**
^^ ^*p &*
kunad
(Sa'dl)
"he
handfuls (Sa'dl) couple " a db vO^ yak gaz yard's depth of water yak jav p<* 8\m (class.) or syu ^5-^ jav-t nuqra (m.c.) " a barley corn's, a grain's weight of 5tH^ Jtit^ w&u* silver" yak sang db (m.c.) "one sang of water"
a sufficient quantity dam-i chand db dshdinid (Sa'di) " he drank a few sips of " a muM-i du khl,k * of or so of
:
"
" earth
' '
^^
:
(m.c.) yak qdmat* ^f " ten camels " J& p# nim ndn-i /^/AJ te dah nafar shutur (in writing) " half a loaf" 6 &**^ (class, and m.c.) but^li ua^i nisf-i ndn-i(m.c.) but " du db db" or A:a<sa a water of A^K ^f ?/aA; ^ khum yak kasa-yi ;^ glass 1 " two earthenware of vessels) jars (large barley "; yak finjdn chahl jav " " *** yak finjdn h-ilf a maund ^*U. ^laxi* w^; Tilw ma/i &*> (*# y*i &^*' li a cup of silver" (i.e. either made of silver or full of silver), but nuqra
;
du dang khdna
db
;
{<
two shares
of the house
"
cux>U
;
^ finjdn-i tiuqra^l
VI.
(a)
lt
a cup
made
of silver."
Modern Persians
thus the Muslims say ***> fUf Imdm Jum'a (a title given to the chief church dignitary in each district by the Shah), while the Zardushtis
izdfat,
f l*>i
Imdm-i Jum'a.
izdfat)
wf
5^^
e>
(m.c.)
may
be translated
Also
A^
v.jf
%^to
madar-shawhar
"mother-in-law"
(i.e.
husband *s mother)
*
8
Also
y
1
&*&.
^3
dam-l chand az 36
jf
(class.)
could be used:
v' C5!)^
qadr-l 36.
Mitshtl
du az
kliak v^Lk
cxifc* cX>
j^J&*
(class,
and m.c.);
blshtar
^U. s^4*j^ du
"there
mushtis
khak
CU-H^J^* ^
or sang
^Ux
yaA?
musht,
k&ak
is
nlst (m.c.)
not
of earth
"
:
sometimes inserted.
Co
(6).
*-&*
and
daiig
+*
c>(6
Or qadd
(or kalla
or sar
36.
Izafat always follows ma/, subs., but not nltn adj. A weed that grows in the qanats has a leaf resembling the tea-leaf;
to
it is
dried
and infused
form a medicine
; f
into chahl
and
cfiayi.
444
izdfat.
"a very
without
small quantity of water," while *Jf *.i^-& yak khwurda db (m.c.) " a little water" there is no difference in meaning (unless izafat
;
Yak
noun
a,nd
in singular)
"
a band
dasta muqallid ^ax> AJLo^j (without izafat and of mummers," but ej!*iflx> $L dasta-yi muqallidan
(m.c.)
^15x
&Lo
dasta-yi muqallid
"the band
of
mummers."
but in
a>?
Yak
of f#
izafat
:
In c*~f
l
v-jf
izafat ,
bim-i an bud
is
should be inserted.
it is
The
jj)
used after the Arabic participle baqi,* when " " the remainder of the 14*^. baqi-yi ruz day
;
treated as a noun, as
perhaps
an
ellipsis
}
of the
is
word
vaqt.
In
bdqt
In India ci}j^^ madar-i zan " mother-in8 law," but in modern Persian cJ}>^ mddar-zan without the izafat
^;
* '
or^b
c^JJt; ruzhd-yi
^(t bdqi
an adjective.
(d)
Blshtar
mardum
/*i/
j*&$>
most men
'
'
btshtar awqdt
c*L>jt
j&#
btshtar-i
mardum
men":
vij&jf
the greater part of the ft>j* <c the greater part of the times";
j&x
tl
is
the same.
Bishtar-i ishdn
y&x>
with
**the
izdfat
k-jJte is
greater part
of
them"
j\
(not
bishtar-tshdn
bishtar
&&>t
j***x)
the
*a#^|
construction
cJ^f
j*>**&
az
Ishdn.
Ohdlib-i awqdt
Similarly otfy ^-JU( agAlab-i awqdt and oUy^irt aksar-i awqdt are correct,
though the
izdfat is
sometimes omitted.
ast.
The
izdfat
is
also
correct
in
the izdfat before an Infinitive governed by a preposition on the ground that cJf*V ^ &ty^ p*") rahm dvardan bar baddn is the equivalent of e^y &^s* bar baddn rahm dvardan. In India
o^l e^ i*JU oU^ gumdn-i ghdlib an (e) Some modern Persians omit
^)
the izdfat
is
^jj&fjd (>*
omitted before a preposition even in such a sentence, as ;|^ 31 A*J ba'd az savdr shudan-i dar kishti. The advantage of the insertion
:
of the Izdfat is
c^^/
or
;j>
apparent from the following examples: tojj** &{*jfi jt o^yo " " the (m.c.) people of Kirmanare going mardumdn dar Kirman mi-ravand (m.c.) "the people
o^y
going to
{tf
Kirman"; (^'^
j$ ()*& jj~*
jf
kishtt
^f
&*
j\f
jl
**>
embarking").
dar-dmadan-i
dmadan
lj Persian agree that &**$ j& )\ *> ba'daz *>** ba'd az darthe of bagji, being equivalent c^ >> eP^T )* y dar bdglt, the izdfat is necessary. In pas az dmadan-i Eustam bi-
Some modern
khana *ilu
1
^^ ^^f
j|
<j*jno izafat
is
possible after
Rustam. 4
(chlz)
Maslahat an bud " that was the prudent measure," but blm-i an
In this case baqiyya can be substituted. Similarly in all compounds of madar.
'*
was
after
my
return
is
ON THE USB OF
(/)
^5.
445
and subjective genitives "love of our neighbours," and Persian signify either the love that our neighbours ear us or the love that we bear over neighbours. Mahabbat-i hamsayagdn ,ishat bi-ma Uo o-wk~J &&(+> V^AXL* and mahabbat-i ma nishat bi-hamsayagan
The
objective
aay both
in English
are unequivocal.
VII.
On
the use of
is
it is
plur.
*
)
Masc.
*
f
)
*,
plur. *<
Fern. sing.
9
Masc. sing.
9
ojfy
eJ(jf
)
e>r^
(y^f
(
ofi
^1^
.
Subjective.
oiji
^f
^ji "
c$^
ii
Dependent.
Objective.
of^
Examples
>
j
zu'l-jalal
9
e,( J
*'.
*.
zat^l-kamalat
perfections."
the prudent." is often wrongly constructed, no count being aken of the Arabic number, case and gender: so the month before Muharram
ulu'l-absar
this
'*
In
Persian
word
3
>
in Persian A^aaJf
or a^^Jf
^i
indifferently
it is
^i
"intelligent."
is
In
" has great rank, is honoured khayli ulu'l-'azm ast very m.c.) Ulu'l amr "Emperor or Emperors" (used as a esolute or enterprising."
"
this
man
"
^^\j)\
^jJU^^iui ^t
ing. or pi.)
The Persians ignore also the meaning of the definite article in the word ollowing so e^i^i (m.c.) means the same in Persian as e^^t jl\
:
Arabophiles, however, use the correct Arabic cases even vhen the compound is used in a Persian construction, i.e. when governed
>y a Persian
Some Persian
noun or
verb.
118.
The Cases
in
of Nouns.
Nominative:
(a)
;he
beginning of a sentence in
l
modern Persian is often employed at or near an absolute sense to introduce the subject,
omitted as
it
of this
word
is
446
being independent of the grammatical construction that follows it. This consecutive nouns in the
Sometimes the subject is introduced qualified by a relative or by a subordinate clause: the sentence is then broken off and left standing without a verb, a pronoun or noun in apposition to the subject being
its
verb.
*>iu4J
|*+^
(*r*
binad (m.c.)
ty+>
<k
u mi-uftdd kamdl-i mihrbdrii mi-namud "she saw a young girl whom every one that saw her loved. In, $ f;l^i ^c> <**# ^jj *> j&&fc>j* Ix5 j^ vir-* qarib-i jahdz-i md du jahdz-i digar ki pur -bar budand 3^j *>j<^j
^ 4/^f
J'+*
^'^ j ^
1
*** \j ^3^* my eyes don't see) *y*> dukhtar-l rd did ki harki chashm-ash bar cA*^^
"
&
u^
dlrak-i
budand "near our ship were two other laden ships that had had half of their masts cut down," there is no verb for and if there were, some conjunctions would be required before
dnhd rd
td nisf burlda
A somewhat similar construction is common in English ballad "My heart, it loves a gypsy, oh!" In, "the Prophets, do
for ever
?
poetry as
"
(
(Zee.
1. 5),
the pleonasm
is
>A*U.
j^ ^U. Jf
cr^lj
fJ&
*l>
t^
*^ JL?
*&~^j*~
&c&* ji
cr^j;^
darmsh az
sadma-yi safar khasta va az sdkhil-yi rah muta*alim pd-yash az jdy namtthe Darvish wearied by the journey and its hardjumbld (mod. Pers.) Compare the old English construction ships was unable to lift his feet."
* 4
*'
'
The subject of a passive verb is called &Lc(> p~j ^ U J>iU " the object " and is in whose subject is not known Persian, ancient and modern, always
put in the Nominative case.
In modern Urdu the subject or patient of a passive verb, being the verbs be put in the object of the action, can in the case of certain compound
accusative.
2
This construction
has found
its
way
into
Indian Persian.
urd
In the following example, taken from a public notice in India, the pronoun ^* % s-*^* cfl* C ** is incorrectly in the accusative: ) cux>jiU y \) $ " should 3 a he will servant be dismissed." accept tip, oyJb jj any j^f^L
*
Genitive case
(b)
There
is
This construction
common
in
it
is
probably
9
.'..
called
<*!*&*
Such a sentence
is
f^
qatl
Lx?
*
obviously incorrect.
killed*'
is
^f eW
as correct as
UT JiJ
any
it
'
ho was killed."
^^
Urdu koj
is
an Afghan idiom,
o^>?
447
are placed together in a " state of regimen*' as " the son of the king," the first or governing word is pisar-i malik
(
called
oUa-Ji
),
Aj
that couples the two words together is called the izafat. 1 but the izafat is used, besides, to the proper genitive construction
;
couple the substantive to the adjective or adjectives that follow it, vide 43 (<7), and also to couple substantives together as a name and a trade or
nickname, vide
117.
we
substantives coupled by the izafat are often used where in English use a substantive and an adjective (the governing word having the effect
Two
of the adjective),
The
great experience." be used to construction can also izafat signify the material out of
:
as
*^?u
o^,
ka&rat-i tajriba
"
which a thing
is
o**L
sa'at-i tila
a golden watch,"
of
^U
gold"
(also
sa'at-t az tilla
watch made from gold"); u*U\ yAtif angushiar-i almas "a diamond " a a ring," but angushlar-i az almas would mean ring made from diamonds." The genitive construction is often used where in English a substantive
"a
with a
sliab
preposition would be used, as: f2j** AL&i? fbi clU ta*ammul-i ayyam-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'dl) "one night I
1 ;
^J
was
f&j&> *x^^
fo*
j*.
here in Persian a preposition could be substid*& tatammul bar ayyam-i guzashta ml-kardam.
Infinitive,
which
is
treated
&*
it
may
also
&* jy j ba'd az savar shudan-i kashtl getting into the boat" [or ^"Af p o>-^ )ly savar shudan 3 dar kashil (rn.c.) vide 117 (A)]; * i^x A) o^, ^jj&& ov^>j l^if ejj>f^ \y* sazd dadan-i anha bi-dast-i digart-stna man " " their c^lb f^ ^ (m.c.) punishing lies in the hands of another, not in mine " & c^^l^T &* J> ura taqat-i saza dddan-i anha-st na mard he has power \j* " SAJ b ad az niza' kardan-i ba u to punish them, not I ^1 ^ &&f aL>J y (m.c.)
;
]
^AS
t>
" after quarrelling with him," but y &*/ j*y *** ba'd az niza kardan-i u vide also remarks on "after his quarrelling (with me or some one else)"
1
the izafat
117.
XI
"
b [}*+& ]
[bi mar]
cjijt
AJU
ba halat-i
When
oUa^
^AJf vJLox} mtizayf ilayh are separated, as: c^* <J^t^j^i pisar-i ]ch.iish-gil-i iulan. 5 There may sometimes be a slight difference in signification between tho two con-
^^
kasa-yi miqra
may mean
either
" a
silver
pieces," but
izafat.
&& \f*
fn
Or omit the
For
" a silver cup " kaaa-yi muqrcfi India this iz&fat would be omitted.
man.
only.
&* vS*-*^
bi'daet-i
448
ba'ts-i hayrat-i
balki
the astonishment of
all,
" va hakim ham, aru$k-l chand zad when, to not excepting myself and the doctor, he (the sick man)
man
In this passage fi^j e^ manva hakim are in the genitive case, though, owing to the faulty collocation or incorrect construction, there is no izafat to distinguish the case. The words
groaned, opened
eyes"
(Haji Baba).
orJu*. <^**lj
ba'is-i hayrat-i
&&
balki, vide
120
(h)
Remark. Note the genitive case or the use of the izafat in the following " The road from Kirman to Yezd " * & eA^ rah-i Kir man bi-Yazd " Bandar-i rah-i road" 'Abbas; "the B. Abbas authority for v*^)^. *;
:
(;
this"
<(
yof
<*i-o
"
J^o
ast;
u^
tars-i
marg;
" he
is
"c^y^D*
tumam\
in need
money"
foj*jf
*a*-f
J^
^Uax/o
$ u muhtaj-i pul
''tempted of the
121 (o)];
12 1 (a)] and dzmuda-yi Shaytdn [vide " L&C Jl^.* muhal-i 'aql (m.c.). contrary to reason, impossible
Devil"
e> l t*
Example of the objective genitive bi-hukm-i g^uriir-i pa-yi suturan-i " confident in the sureJ* (&**. ( ^ r H. B., Chap. V) khud &\)<
:
footedness of their
^horses."
Baba";
:
Example
J<
Haji Baba
^ ^^ i^^J
Vide also
the
117.
flight of Haji
me; my.
(c)
The Dative
There
are
(1)
ji
two forms
2 t{
of
(2)
I said (to)
him "
p&
A> is
usual.
(3)
with
t;
is
These twoforms are not however always interchangeable. The dative obligatory when it signifies possession, with or without the verb
:
^b
8 budan, and also with the impersonal verbs, as *<>Jf;<xj ^gjH&i <xftl^jf^ 6 *&^ id har ki tlr az halqa-yi angushtarl bi-guzaranad khatim urd ) $
t
" that the bashad (Sa'dl) ring will be his who shoots an arrow through it" 6 dvarda and ki gazhdum rd vilddat-i ma'hud riist chundn ki sa*ir-i hayvdndt <4 It is A^Ua. rd \) **)$ (Sa'di) ^n*^ i5^J J (**$ ** b stated that the scorpion has not an ordinary birth like other animals."
;
obf^yu
o^
'
Arugh
ejjl is
belch
* 3
*' to give.*' Either form of the dative can also be used after f&\& dad an The dative is not necessary with impersonal verbs (vide Impersonal verbs)
i#
I;
&!
must be used.
ttra
In modern Persian
y&&l
anguahtar.
bashad the
ifc
be"
Ortir-l.
6
41
55% jSU
signifies
is
the whole.*'
449
Ear
((
kira
(Sadi).
a peacock must endure the journey to India, his mistress must endure fetters and prison."
Yak-1 ra dil az dast rafta bud atf; ****** y J* Jc5 G (Sa'di) had quite lost his heart." [Vide also (10) Remark],
f
j! \) &\.<\j=*-
)j~ )
0^1
va
Jj^-J
7w
V O^Uo y o>*o f; o)^ .-x*o aSy j ^JL shab sanam-i dar bar ki subh-i taban ra dast az
khirdman ra az
"the rich have each night a fresh her beauty and humbles the waving cypress by her exquisite by morning In none of these cases could * be substituted for t;. figure." *$ ^U ^^^ u*^ j^*^ "praise to u sipas Khuda-yi pak ra ki liamd In " and similar God the Holy constructions, the verb is understood. This dative is rare in m.c. o^ >jtX> \j*t *** *$ cu^xpb f^x mara bagh-Vst (t I have a garden that no one has yet seen." ki kick kas na-dida ast (m.c.)
(Gulistan)
J
I;
In the above cases, the dative by native grammarians is considered the muzdf ilayh. Thus in, savaran ra chun chashm bi-ma uftad tdkhtan avardand
jsj^f ^.^LU
jjtjj,
l^j
+;**.
&}*>
tyt;fj.^
ra
"when the mounted men saw us they c>;^ is considered the muzaf ilayh of
\)
chashm +&*
chun chashm-i p&*> &?*. according to English ideas &IJj* savaran should be in
j>tk't
U of;lj^
;jf
avardand.
:
Remark.
The datives
in
two clauses should balance one another haman dad, bi-man (mara) nlz yak shal-i Kashmiri dad
(4) If
substituted for
the indirect object express locality, the dative in I; cannot be bi-shahr rastdim "we reached the city"; <Ju, as:
^^) j^
\)
we attained our object }&$+> bi-maqsud rasidim " ' c< the bullet hit the 'game fjulula bi-shikar khwurd (m.c.)
^j^sj
preceding examples could
' f
' '
;
&)ys*
^^o
a^if
in
none
of the
be substituted for
AJ
But
mi-ayad)
<>yf ^5/0
wt^
fj^t
^f
^ J^l^^t u khwab-ash
"
"he
in.c.
is
feeling sleepy."
lt
what's the matter with you ? can be rendered either tura chi ? or ^* &*> >v bi-tu chi shud. shud by ix& fy (5) The preposition AJ has many other significations besides the **to" of the dative, as ov|<^ v^l^j b pa bi-rikab guzasht " he put his foot in the stirrup iron obviously in such instances its place could not be taken
phrase
The
' '
Another and
common
reading
is
ranj-i Hindustan.
29
450
(6)
Duration of time can also be expressed by ; of the dative,* as k rd ruz tamdm-i yurtma 5 cu*j &jlj JUjjlfa. yd chahdr na*l *+*)ji !j jj) fW " shab 8 rd whole ? or canter the one trot must dnjd day bdyad raft? (m.c.) "I mandam fvl t; s* (m.o.) stayed there the (whole) night." dar (dar tamam-i ruz) could be In the first example the preposition
' '
:
^1
I;,
mandam
:
"
"
A
"by
few adverbs can also be formed by the dative in I;, as fj Uj qazd ra Some accident, by chance," (but ittifdq, not \) $&\ ittifdq rd).
:
grammarians consider
this a
Andak fursatrd gard-i fand az an bar-dyad ^^* &\ $ &' ^&\ \) o^/ " at the ceases a it in short (Anvdr-i Suhayll) time) slightest opportunity (or " to exist rdstl rd khildf-i '-aql buvad 89 (h) (3). (Qa,ani), vide
:
(7)
If
is
y ^^ or kitdb rd bi-'Amr(u) ft>\& ^&? \> **j u Zayd dddam fd* *>) j ,j+*> \j v lif. (8) The affixed pronouns may take the place of the dative in I;, as: *t */f #**> Ij* ^o o^t ^Aft (m.c.) hlch ydd-at mi-dyad ki ?, or *$
,
turd
**J
(m.c.)
or V}T
^ v^ W
^b
" " do you at all remember that? ^ly^ ur khwab mi-dyad (less common,
:
^^ ^
admit
of rd
is
I;
^
is
may be
&
^^U
sildh
he gave arms and money to his army"; the more ordinary construction would be (Jlj&J AJ bi-lashkar-ash, (9) When the dative in t; has a noun in apposition, or is qualified by
usually added at the end, as:
^iif
fj
{<
or without
tafcht-i
IJ
is
\*)>\u
dadan, as
*'
(Sa'di)
CU^RJ
^.b
\jfrj
j{
^^
ra
\)
2 As the preposition dar can be substituted for this to consider this the dative and not the accusative caee.
s
\)
it
is,
I think, better
4
*>
Or shab anja mandam f &iUo lapjf v.*. The Arabic accusative used adverbially,
final
e.g. (qazft
an can also )
be substituted.
(
j not pronounced).
are
451
Ziaydpisar-i vazlr rd guftam (or fii? ^~j ^3 *> bi-Zayd pisar-i vazir guftam) ki tl l said to Zeyd the son of the Wazir " j\4j *>o}f -&^ c*a/ j *f >j^ shakhs-l az marddn-i tj ^ii> jang-dzmuda va kdr-dlda rd guftam ki
:
^^A
"I
va
warrior."
"
In Minnat Khuddy rd
Great
<azz a
jallWi
cU j>
.
l^jljJL
f;
cut*
(Sa'di)
thanksgiving to the
last after the
and
Glorious
God
", the
phrase
JVjJ*
'azz* va jall a
Similarly in *
^sjt* j+*
*****
^^
jll;
yak-l rd az
muluk muddat-i
'umr
II.
S.
Remark.
is
When
the dative in
rd
is
f;
rd
^a^
v^
^J
still
(10) The dative in tj rd preceded by the particle mar sometimes used in books, but not in letters.
Remark.
dative
is
sometimes in
classical, rarely in
:
modern, Persian
Sag-I rd luqma-i hargiz fardmush Na-gardad gar zanl sad nawbat-ash sang.
"
(Sa'di).
dog ne'er forgets a morsel (thrown to it) Even if afterwards you stone it a hundred times "
"
is
Urd
^ ^ o^^^i
j^a.
^he
(m.c.)
forgets nothing."
(11) The dative in rd I; sometimes takes the place of the preposition <4 for God's sake." For further remarks on bardy, as: Khudd rd the locative dative, & J>**> and <u> J^*i<, vide under these heads.
^,
\^
The accusative case (1) The accusative has two forms: one form is the same nominative, and the other as the nominative plus the suffix !j.
(d)
:
as
the
One
(2)
f;
article
and should be
<Azza va
jail
A>
jjx
in Arabic the Preterite is {be His name) the wisher assuming the completion of the action,
:
"
and signify " exalted and magnified used in precative sentences and in cursing,
Prefc.,
452
demonstrative pronouns, the proper names, the separate pronouns, the 2 the reflexive pronouns, and the pronominal adjectives <*/, interrogative
and
and both,
it also
a certain person
one
the others."
In m.c.
pronouns when
(6).
affixed to a
vide
(c) (8)
and
40
Remark.
definite,
:
zaban-i
After the name of a language, the t; is only added if the noun is " 5 I wish to learn Persian" as fj^k cr*/ ^0 p^j**** mt-khwdham Farsi bi-yamuzam (m.c), but in selecting a course of study
3
.
at school the pupil might say, "I will take up the Persian and not the Arabic." Zaban-i Farsl ra ml-amuzam fjy ? ^*> h c** ejkj ; though grammatically correct to insert the \) here, the sentence with it has the same
9
stilted
sound, as
'*
I arn
now going
to
(3)
The ra
tj
must be added
mood
or of causal verbs,
when
the object
definite (not
when
it is indefinite).
Remark. An adjective qualifying a noun often makes it definite, while Vide p. 461 note 8. the omission of the adjective indicates that it is indefinite.
,
a phrase, Arabic or Persian, is in apposition to a noun, the I; must be added at the end of the phrase, as: 8 f*^ v^*V '; *** *^ <j*>) "' * ra bi-khwab dldam "I saw 'All (may Allah be 'All (razly" 'llah 'an-h
(4)
]
When
^
^
"
pleased with
him
in a
dream."
ian '^ c hand az mardu*^ ***h v^tj* j **^ *-y)f man-i vaqi'a dlda va Jang azniuda ra bi-firistadand ki (Sa'dl) ''they sent
a^oJali-a/b
\)
^^j
^
4i
severtil
warriors
l
of
experience,
6
1 '
tried in
battle, to
"
fj
^>;
<^UL: j
jjjo^j yak-l az
learned
uLamd-yi rdsikh
men
of fixed principles.
:
ra pursidand (Sa'dl) they asked one of the In classical Persian, however, such is not
OJ&A
(Sa'dl)
+xvi
kJjJLc
i;
kunand
in this
.
one of the kings of Persia that with ra could the equal propriety be inserted after the word example
6
^
of
yak-l ra az muluk-i
'Ajam hikayai
:
"they
relate
and of explanation,
f;
must
qadr^
^Xfti^t
In
fjadr.
The
ra
fj
is
in
m.c.
kttdam, or
v^"^
4
^ kudam
kitab
(vulg.)
ahl
3 *
*
? (vuig.)
*';
^f^H*
\jfc. f'
kudam
yak-l mi-
Rasikh
fr*1)
means
of
sound
In modern Persian
\)
^^
453
of
Zayd pisar-i Vazir ra didam 139 (6) (4). the Wazir," vide
:
In the "apposition of qualification," a past or present participle denoting state or condition, or an adjective, is placed in apposition to a
(5)
if
definite takes
tj,
as
dldam
"I saw a
sang-i
*
" (m.c.) "I saw an elephant limping and stumbling dldam &* %&*\ fy )* ^j** (m.c.) "I saw a stone
:
:
riim-ruz guftam in fitna ast khwabashburda bih (Sa'dl) mid-day'* fil-i ra uftariu khizan dldam
;
in
these examples
ra
t;
could
not be
omitted.
Remark
/.
If,
to an indefinite
according to the usual rule omitted, as: " " he had a slave, a blockhead siyah-l ddsht kawdan (Sa'dl) nawkar-l dashtam ablah (m.c.) *'I had a servant, an ass."
noun the
is
In &*+*^
)&
^i.^ j
c^*-**
f^^
u ^.)
4
ablah-i ra
didam samin va
kliil'at-l
dar
bar samin (Sa'dl) " I saw a fool, a fat fool, with a fine robe, a costly one the first substantive is definite and the second indefinite.
"
:
Remark
'*
II.
Man
;
mar-i ra
f*i*
"
;
*:>y
*!j;a ^
^;^
\^*
didam
^^
b^
;^eX
*'
"
:
zalim-i ra
*&** !; ^^JUo I saw a tyrant who (or when) he was asleep khujta d%dam " I saw a and zalim-i khujta i ra didam sleeping tyrant." ^ &&**> pMo The shade of difference in meaning is slight, if indeed any really exist.
^^
"
^^
(6) If
the
-ls
i;*:
if,
however, the
**", it
merely an indefinite article, its noun does not require '* a certain ," especially if followed by the signify
relative
Kitab-l bardy-i shumd saw(jhat avarda-am(m>c.) requires r>, as *'I have brought a book as a present for you "; if ra be added it signi:
book as a present " and the sentence is incomplete and some, such phrase as c^-U ^H tf ki layiq-i shuma ast is necessary to
fies
" a certain
it
^^
t$
p\
i^
^IP^**
U&
ix>
^t^j
^\X
kitab-i baray-i
am
ki la*iq-i
shuma
ast.
Similarly in f**&
j^ a
jj^*)
//.
to-day,"
1
it
ra
f;
names used
*
examples
in
Arabic grammars the English boy learns that Balbus the Muslim buy is taught that Zaid is striking Amr(u).
* '
is
2
8
But ^ c5^*
The
r5 appears to be redundant.
!;
(d) (11).
454
clatise followed,
&
*-&J ^jjA <*r ki-khayll qashang bud; imruz dtdam ki khayll qashang bud (m.c.) ^l^A dldam "I saw a nest," but (&>& (I; ) Uf ashiyana-l f*^ " dldam I saw the nest of a bird ashiyana-yi murgh-l (ra) C*j^ ^l^. asJilyana-yi murgh-% ba chahar tukhm dldam (m.c ) "I saw
*j*
JjJ*j
*>
(or ftl-l-rd
lj
^6
a bird's nest with four eggs." Dukhtar-l dasht o^b <jr/^ (Sa'di) "he had a daughter " here it would be wrong to say f; <4^*a dukhtar-l ra unless a relative clause followed, as 0^1 &) ^Lrfrk * <^* Ji **" t> C5>^^ dukhtar-i ra ki didi bi-Tihran rafta ast (m.c.) "the girl you saw has gone
; :
to
Tehran," where the ra is necessary. iili. 41 Compare the two examples already given in (t) ***} J^'JT khana-i atash zadand and ^J>3 ^Jf t; ii'i, khana-l ra atash zadand. For t; in relative sentences qualifying a definite noun, vide the Relative
9
*&
and Demonstrative
(7)
^5.
Nouns preceded by a cardinal number do not usually admit of \) ra unless definite, as: Hazar sarbaz dldam ^A jl^^A "I saw a thousand " soldiers "I c?w saw two horses," but fO^ f; ^t JN dldam asp fxj> *-^l^d ^?w asp dtdam tc l saw the two horses" eu*^ ^,1^ ^^ f; AA5lJDj^> ^Ji H /0 ^<^^ *w dw ta*ifa ra dar jahan dust ml-daram 'ulama h ^3^ ^^ va zuhhad ra (Sa dl) " these two classses I cherish dearly in this world, Vide- also (15). viz., the learned and the devotional."
:
Remark.
tive pronoun,
A
is
if
as:
^#
f;
fj
4&fcu
d***-
&
Aiio
A noun
f;,
in apposition to a definite
f;
admit
e~of
of
but
must be
affixed to
noun in the accusative does not the first noun, as cM- O-M^A &\ o&J ^[^
^li. *i*^ ^f^j f; ii5 ^A) ^jf ^i^; khwaham guft zan-i Hidayat JZhan-i Raslitl in nlm tana-ra baray-i Shu' la Khanam sawqat firistada
jU^j oU^*
"
t;
ast (m.c.)
I'll
)
Khan
jacket
cu
f
as a present
(without
I;
for Shu' la
a ^/^ Khuday azz va jail mara HJ|^/ v^Ux3 ^i v^jU |^o Jl^ ^ malik-iin mumlakat gardanlda ast (Sa'dl) " he said God the glorious has made me master of this kingdom." Vide also (5) and end of (4), and (c) (9).
If
it,
ra
to either noun, as
avarda
am
(m.c.)
^j ^y^^ p\ a^f otJ>^ " I have brought you back something (from a journey) as a
chlz-l baray-i
present."
Sawqat oily*
is
^f
ti)
rah-avard *'a
present or
and
m.c.).
455
:
Rd
!;
" A*?*** kunad " he does not give up loose talk and lying v>^ shind kardan rd khub mi-ddnad (m.c.) " he is a good swimmer.'? (10) With several nouns coupled together by ^ it is necessary
:
C^*S <~fy
\)
^S
c^ ^
to
add
t;
example above in
* '
(9).
' '
Two
affixes of
f;
sentence "
He
invited
my
f;
heavy to the Persian ear. Thus the " would in Persian be rendered father and me by
pidar-am ra da' vat kard and rarely by ly^t u mara va pidaram rd da*vat kard.
]
*&j*&t)()*Jj e^
man u
f)^j
the grammatical
(11) Finally
tf
f)
o^
is
added even to
indefinite
nouns
if its
omission would
cause any ambiguity, vide 41 (t). " sirka shir rd In the sentence " vinegar curdles milk mi-burrad, the ra
is
correct.
In speaking, however, if a pause be made after sirka, and stress may be omitted, as the intonation prevents any ambi-
guity.
Vide
Remark
to (12).
muqdbala kunad va khayr rd bi-sharr pdddsh ravd ddrad (Anw. Suh., chap. II, S. 6) '* Damna answered, If one return evil for good, and think injury a just recompense for benefit (I am, then, indeed, without hope)." (East. Trans.).
Remark.
Just as in m.c. the rd
is
sometimes omitted
nouns, as:
it is
sometimes
{
unnecessarily inserted
after indefinite
sharab
rd
;
bi-db
awdz*
kardan
is
kardan
L> v(/^ awaz bi-db shardb v!/"* indefinite: the rd is, in speaking, unneces-
^^ o*>
v^
Vide (19).
is
An
f^
\^\
formed by prefixing the particle mar urddldam (old) " I saw him "
;
Remark.
In
^|^A/O
^yiii
shind
is
kardan
mi-ddnad
(m.c.)
he know how to
reply
il<io;>c
swim?",
\y
the object
regarded as indefinite,
but in the
^L.
^y
tj
IJJ*
shind kardan rd khub mi-ddnad the object having definite, and ra must be inserted.
The
affix
In
the Persian
first.
Here ev man
is
is
used
of
&* man
ra
a vulgar
accusative
first
object.
'Awaz colloquial
for 'waz.
456
should
case
:
indefinite.
This,
however,
is
not
always
the
Ed I; cannot be used for both the dative and the accusative in the same clause. If, therefore, the accusative is definite and requires
(14)
t)
be expressed by
then the
[;
bi: if
(m.c.),
must be omitted, as: 1&> *j*> v^ or *? ^w f; v^ kitdb-rd bi-man bi-dih, or kitdb mard bi-dih " ^fa Shah pisar-i Ichud rd tdj dad \) *?^ j~$ (m.c.) "give me the book " the Shah * ^ fcl> Shah or s\z khud dad
of bi,
but requires
1;,
ra of the accusative
o^^j
\)
tdjrd bi-pisar-i
*^^f
(m.c.)
wept
till
He
<H^iu aJjy ^! [y* & p\ *<JjJti l^ <; td mard in farzand bakhshida a$t (Sa'di) long nights " = ast td In bakhshida bi-man me this son farzand gave
his
(own) son"
(mod.), or td in farzand rd bi-man bakhshtda ast G (mod.); here'; rd is really necessary to show
clearly
that
x>jy
farzand
is
not the
subject
its
sometimes causes ambiguity. (15) The rd must be omitted after nouns preceded by cardinal numbers
unless
definite
si
shamba
thieves
***)
( vide. (1)), as: c*u^<3Jt '; j& *^ **^ jj) ruz-i " nafar duzd rd tandb anddfchtand, means they hanged the three on Saturday"; omit !; rd and it means "three thieves":
I)
v^
si
&*J>
j&
5$ )
^iAo^itio
^UJr
tj
j& &*
first
cardinal
numbers may be
r+
d
'
<M~^
-ij
LJ* )j
(^.j|
;l^
t;
^^
*^
jam
-i
si
rd hd chahdr in tawr
minavisand
" three
3
plus
)^o ^jf
:
tafriq-i
four is written thus, 3 + 4 "; t; ;l^ &j& chahdr rd az panj in tawr " five minus four, thus
&* ^j**zarb-i si rd bd chahdr in tawr" three \) multiplied by four, thus 3x4": A-I-P^VJ. ; l t^ b ^ c^X* p~& taqsim-i hasht rd bd chahdr in lawr ** eight divided by four, thus 8-^-4" o^f )j~$ <**uf U
x
lj
4"
p y>4iAJt
;^
AT.. ^-jy ^
~
...
\)
(^*>
1
g*o
c^^*3
^^^
li
js:
amma
dnchi kusur
ast,
du
khums az hasht Us
rd chuninmi-navisand
- " f
St
;
v
;
f^ u
^ ^^ ^ ^
^
^
<^h& j
va
sumn va du suds
rd chunin
!;
f +
o";
~
-f-yj^ijf'-AA*;^
^j<5^
'
thirds divided
by
from
left to right as in
English.
6ar musavat darad.
a in m'^on
cfa/ato^
457
]
The ra
etc.)
is
"greed,"
omitted after generic nouns used generically only when the sentence is very short.
(as
In dar arad
" tama'murgh u mahi bi-band **y <^U^ ij* +b tfi )* (Sa'di) it is greed that brings birds and fish into the net/' a ra would be necessary in prose. Similarly after nouns used in a vague or general sense, as 3^ f^O' ^^^ dast az to' am bdz kashld (Sa'di) " he withdrew his (the) hand from food, he here ra could not be inserted dast is really part of a comstopped eating
:
*^
' '
pound verb
dast kasliidan.
But
in
bi-kas
(Sa'dl).
"The
world
my
By
the word
dil
won"
though used in a
general sense.
Remark.
(m.c.)
"get ready a (any) horse '; ^/^iU. ]) %_*->! asp ra hazir kun (m.c.) "get ready the horse" (which has been mentioned or discussed): but " j**(s* s^vif asp hazir kun (m.c.) get ready (the) horse" (used generally)
the
\)
ra in
this
last case is
omitted even
if
the speaker
horse.
(17)
Compound
dered one word, the first portion of the compound does not admit of ra.'2 (18) In classical Persian, i^ is frequently omitted after an accusative with a possessive affixed pronoun sometimes it is added ^^^ ^ tx^j<x> ^ ^r^fb Jtk^
; :
bi-pasandldand they saw the kindness of his nature and the excellence of his " in the administration example, I; is both inserted and omitted :j)j>0 &j*> ^jjju*oj fj chun surat-ash ra bi-did slrat-ash ra bi-pasandid. ^.^ b u**^;-i^
oJyj^i^
(Sa*dl)
AJ
"
Vide also
(10).
Remark.
f;
40
(c).
Generic nouns
may
(juftan
&& J^J
:
)tij>. <V
&
shows that the compound is regarded as one word bina kard bi-guftan-i baradar baradar (m.c.).
8
^^
In
In another edition
!j
ra
is is
o*^*^
tadblr-ash.
additional
necessary.
458
(19)
it
would be
correct
[vide
also
]
[the
makes the
&&& ^^*> ^\ *b (11) Remark], " the companion heard what was said" noun definite without fj ] nukta pish-i
;
bnzurg.i
I
hamt-guftam
p& ^A
Jl^
:
J^^j
ti
^jf
' '
:
^t
(Sa'di)
"well,
was mentioning this point to a certain learned man man na-shunid* " he didn't hear me "
^^
^^ &*
Jy*. harf-i
jJjA^jU &tf
Jk^
"
:
*^
**j
otherwise shayad khayal-i in safar hargiz nami-kardam (m.c.) I might perhaps have never entertained the idea of this tour" in these it would have and been correct, grammatically examples idiomatically, to
vagar na,
insert the
A!~J
\)
.
^^; ^
ra
3
Al~J*i
J*A*> j$
&*2\jS
*j
t^j^t* &'
<y>v>
f;
&{**&j'Q
^*jjt guruh-i
marduman
did ki har yak bi-guraza-i zar dar mi'bar nishasta va rakht basta he saw a band of men, who for a small piece (Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 28, East.) " of gold had taken their places in the ferry boat and loaded up their goods
'
:
is
either iM
and or
<x^>>
must be omitted).
is
rare
in Persian.
The
following
is
an
^^^^{^^
is
(class.)
literally
The
fj,
affixed
admit admit
of
as:
of the dative
pronouns when themselves the direct object do not J^j zadam-ash (m.c.) I struck him." Neither do they " I said to him." tarn-ash as
'
fj
ra,
J^^'sS guf
(e)
fx^ c*^^
++^9
illustrate the rules given above 4 ura tuhi-dast didam, I saw him poor. jf *' 6 A >* I don't in the least hichnami-fahmam (if*'*** sukhan-i tu gT:
|;
understand you."
^ybujx>
^^
coll.)
z>y^ ->jlJ ly
mi-khwaJiam
(class.
and Afghan
=
I
bi-kunam (m.c.)
"
tj**
^^
mi-khwaham
Also m.c.
The
2
3
Commoner
to insert ra.
indefinite).
the indefinite
Here ra must be added (though the accusative is there is no izafat. It would be correct
Note that
after
to write guruh-l az
marduman
without
*
6
ra.
Note that
*
In m.c. the
or A$5l>
ciation
:
in
such words
(pi.
is
nuvvab used in m.c.) in m.c. is >-*?& riayib (without *). But in w->JU generally omitted in pronunciation.
nava*ib or
is
v^>
oU^G
na**bat) the
is
retained in pronun-
used in m.c.
459
'
(class.)
a certain wise
[
man entrusted
an ravdn kard* (class.) *j* ^fj;oT ^* t)*t b c5^ yak-i ra bi-daryaft-i " he sent some one to the matter." into enquire &$ osi? &JA. b ba khud guft ki sar ra nami tavanam ^AJ \Jj\) ^ly^J ^ y* " " he said to himself I can't make my head larger. 3 buzurg bi-kunam
*
'
mi-dasht
a hundred
f
1
lives.
of
silver
as
dear as
t;
i^j) j
c*>^ 5
vi>lkl^
*\y*-
Ai^^" &)<*>
\s*
ij
^^A
sliakhs-l
j t;^iu^ i^,i^ padishah <f the dar dast giriftami-namud king saw a certain person standing under the wall who held a fowl in his hand that he was exhibiting to him (the king)." 6
3
&*
^^t
jfj.^
ra
zir-i
mur^l
^U^y J;UJ
present."
7
<*ijUj?
8j>
firisiad
xUlCjA5
&i&^jf
g xxi *** you know how sheep are killed?" but ^x&f ^^ fj oia^ ml-damd chi-tawr gus/and ra mi-kushand ? " do you know how a 8 sheep is " In m.c. the distinction killed ? between the two previous is not observed, but if the word ^f^\ insan were substituted for gusfand, it would be incorrect to omit the ra, as insan can be definite only, as it means the species man.' "I saw some birds," f*jj> ^/^ ^"** ba'zi murgJia dldam (in.c.), but ^^v ba'zi murgljjia ra dldam kidar mja nlst(m c.) in the o*~oJ Uajjt ^ *r ^X}i \){fj*>
*
} :
^^
latter
example the ra
G
is
A$\
I; (jJll
^^ ^15
^?!
qall-yi khub-i
khwasta
bash/id chiz-i
ki
An
jltc
'a.^.ar
Dava-farmh m.c.
"seller of
* 8
European medicines."
(l
Vide
(d) (2);
yak-l
a certain one."
He
road in a book that whoever had a small head and a large beard was a fool. therefore thought to himself "I can't make the head smaller but I can the beard."
He
Or
or with
6
l>
i.e.
of t; and with " the *>^ cJ^sifver jr^^ grain of lamp generally, not any special lamp.
* ' :
unity),
jl
7 8
Vide
(d) (7).
:
Indefinite
460
if you want a good misl-ash rd td imruz Jiargiz na-dida bdshid (m.c.) have probably never carpet I will show you something the like of which you
"
yet seen."
nd*ib-i digar bardy-i khud tyttto jy *afjA> <j&' *j&* (s^. j^^ v^ taldsh khwdham kard (class.) "I'll now look out for another agent for
myself."
o**f
2
1
**** ***' j *V cr ^ to&'l; (j'j*^^] ** *?* *^ thi did ki Aydz rd kushdda libds-ikuhnava kaslj pushlda ast " what did he see but that sanduq-i Ayaz had opened a certain box and (taken out and) put on some old coarse
clothes."
*iyf
u*
cA^ J;*k
'
^^ J ^**j&j*
etft
jt** Qadir
va madda'd
"
(in.c.)
persons, plaintiff
and defendant."
In tar* dlgar-i rd farwffid (class.) "entrust this
:
oojUy
[;
^j&tjft
dar
dil
do this" l^stjt af^ld Ji;^ " I inwardly ki az injd blrun ravam (m.c.) ddshtam ?)) " b farz kun intended to leave this place 6 f; ^^J ^-U-k ^f 4< that used bd an tapdncha zadl yak-i rd kushtl supposing that you pistol and
work
vj# man
^^
^^
tA ^r"i ^- -^ a $ ar in pimr-i za'if td'un bi-girad albatta khwdhad murd (m.c.) "if this fragile boy were to catch plague he would certainly die." 7 <c ^A/C &} tj ^*^* A'^-Jf^ ddnistam ki sabu'-lrd dida mi-davad (m.c.) I guessed that he had seen some wild beast and that was the cause of
shot one of us
6
(or
them)
"
**h^
^ ^ ^^
his precipitation
"
^ ^^ J^\ {&
*i^'^,
in m.c.
rd ki dvarda
mlfchwahld, or
^f^^J
bi-kbipahid.
p as t
*'
Subj.,
**
of
which
t&?& dida Id
Chiz-i o-V^* **a thing," or tj ^jrj*^ chiz-l ra "a certain thing"; both right. In m.c. the Imperfect or the Perfect is often used for the Present. ** a Or better the other -." riayibi digar: jiayib-i digar ra
*
The Turks pronounce beg,* but the Persian almost like the English word bag.' The ra of the accusative after the demonstrative pronoun ia omitted, because the
'
dative has
it: if bi-dlgar-l
\)
after
kar should be
modern
is
Persian.
Or yak-i az mara kushtl. The \) could not be omitted after the pronoun yak-i. 7 Here /.5'wn At any rate the word plague** is giriftan is a compound verb. in Persian a generic term. If, however, a man fell sick of a fever or of plague in Persia, and it were said "he brought the fever or the plague(meanmg this fever, etc.) with him
* 4
from Bombay,
8
\)
is best inserted since if omitted sabu'-i might be taken as the subject, vide (d) (11). In speaking, the ra might be omitted, the context or intonation preventing ambiguity.
\)
The
461
I
(m.c.)
(J.
"the things
jd-yi
o^
had brought were mostly Jlaxxj muhdl ast ki " it could ishan
glrand (Sa'df)
:
never be that the skilled should die and the skill- less should take their place * " pty ** (^ tij o^# )t> ij^j vaqt-i dar biydbdn rah gum karda budam (Sa'dl)
"
my way 8
in the wilderness
"
^^^J^
^ aU-o <yj> malik dar hay*at~i u nazar kard, shakhs-i did siyah-fam za'if-andam (Sa^l) "the king looked at his figure and countenance; he saw a person 4 black in complexion and poor in physique" ^ er^
f \&>\
3
*^
*>
va suhbat-asJi ra gjiammat shumdrand va |j j^ix^^ ^ ra khidmat-ash minnat darand (Sa'dl) " and they think his conversation a
>^ta c^ixj
cu^jJi
^U^
treat
a favour
to themselves":
<^ty (D\^s
pish-ash firistad
ij) ^^k. ^$jyf JU- js v^l^ malik, dar hal, kamzak-i khub-rm/ 6 (Sa'dl) "the king at once sent him a pretty slave-girl ":
^^
<x*^j
ii
^.^xjj
tj
(class.)
^U^xa^
t;
^-^
&.+&*
rci*
A^A
haqir
^y<>>
cU-.x3
^iU ^'^j
har-ki du#hman-i
kuchak
ki atash-i
andak
muhmil guzarad
(Gul.,
Chap.
^
l
^*J^
hikayat-i
shikar
is
be omitted and
*
after ki.
Here rah
is
if
be inserted.
*
Here there
is
no ra because the
is
for
signify
6
"a
certain person.'*
Ij
Here
must be used
as the
'*
signifies
a certain
clearly
."
the object; there
is
Here the
ra.
is
indefinite
and kanizak-i
is
conse-
quently no
7
Biisa
dadan &b\>
<***>?
In modern Persian zamln ra would be preferred: <H*^ V^ O'fc >c3 ^o>inln-i adab busid, or H^y ^) V^t Oi^j zamm-i adab ra busld are both correct in modern
dative.
Persian writing.
kissed
the
ground or merely
is,
touched the ground with his hand and then laid doubtful. The expression is now used figuratively.
3
on
think,
Here ra
is
modern
the two
noun
sdefinite
(Remark
to (d) (3)
).
Persian, because the epithets make '* In " whoever thinks an (his) enemy mean
is
^y^i^AOa. fj ^*^^ A^jA har ki dushman ra haqlr shumarad, the ra because enemy is to be considered definite, i.e. "his enemy."
equally necessary
462
namudan-i shakhs-i humd*-i rd bardy-i ishtihdr-i hazar rupeya about a person shooting a lammergeyer for an advertised reward
"
rupees
ty f;
"
(tree)
fj>b
j(> p*>
\)^
c
^^
jd-i
bi-bur (m.c.)
du
3
td-yi dlgar rd
dadam
'amal'i
(m.c.)
"
:
^;f,>
pddishah du
"the
service of a king
has two
chashm-am
:
"I saw
my
(ja,***
cU>f OAXXL/O
j^Au
c<
f^
JUU o^fj
olli.
^y
rahat-i
ajil
kardan
5
khilaf-i
ray-i khirad-mandan
(Sa*dl)
to
disturb one's
comfort by anxiety of future wrong, is to act contrary to (the) present the opinion expressed by ths wise": ju~\3 ^kSU ;K ^jf (J ^- v^ vtr^ <c to exchange wine for sharab 9 bi-db awaz kardan kar-i 'aqilan nisi (m.c.)
(
water
is
ar
wise person."
*$ *^^ pddishdh kird did ? the answer f; &f ki bud darmsh-l the query, <va ^ ^ IA^U &^ but to rd; >j <^H<> the reason ki pddishdh u rd did? the answer would be darvish-i (without rd) in the first reply there is is that in both replies there is an ellipsis
Remark.
To the query, *^
might be
second there
is aft ellipsis
of bud.
prefixing
ay or yd
form used
The Indian
the
hazar
specially applied by falconers to birds of prey, just as a muleteer in Persia styles mules " cattle.'* The ra is mal, while this same word in Panjab villages means necessary here direct of the the Infinitive which is specialized by the clause to distinguish object In hikayat-i shikar kardan-i buz-l "story of shooting an Ibex,'* the ra following it.
is
is
not specialized.
The ra necessary
after the
(4).
pronoun
me
' *
give
8
me
one of them."
ta-yi dlgar
But du
Here
Vide
*
6
ja~%
ja-i ra
and
is
ra preferable."
raliat
Bemark
\)
as the
the adjective
\)
also could be
Though
;
this is correct, it
vide
would be better to
mark
the
object clearly
Remark
to (d) (11 ).
463
it is
suffixing
is
and in modern Persian is restricted to writings 1 (prose or poetry). Ex. o^t Jbg ^ ^k** 1^*^ Sa'diya ast I one other journey "0 Sa'di have safari digar dar pish (Gulistan) before me."
interjections,
:
I)
(& 2 CVj
is
understood, as: p
."
of Spring,
And
leave
ill
Hand
man "1,"
but
is
rare
and
Ay man-am bar sar-i khdk-i tu ki khdk-am bar sar (Sa*di) Oh I who am standing on your grave, woe is me " *
: '
!
** oh ay ki shakhs-i man-at Uaqlr namud (Sa^I) thou to whom my person seemed mean." Poetically the dative in ^ is occasionally used as a sort of vocative.
Dil mi-ravad
zi
Khudd
rd
!
Dardd
ki rdz-i
My
heart
is
leaving
for
my
heart-
Alas
help that
!
me
God's sake.
my
in a cannot be followed
vocative in a be qualified by one following adjective, the adjective Shdhd sitdra-manzilatd UJ)i*> ^UU* takes the alif of the vocative, as
' *
UU
often begin
Modern Persian letters oh king whose dignity is high as the stars with dust-i muhtaramd, instead of the correct classical dustd
!
' '
alas!
is
a
8
" are sfcill found " and " Kbudaya O God! bi-bum-i sham instead of bi-bum baz.
man-am.
a
in rn.c.
is In
is
saying in m.c. ; abhir chi t&ak bar ear-am biIn the example, Wak-am bar sar might also imply " would that the earth covered me instead of you" Persians delight in ambiguous
4
K&ak
bar sar-am
common
"
shall I do!
Ea
is
464
muhtarama, which
tion,
however
also used.
The usual
classical construc-
however,
is
to
add the
the noun, G^x> U>Cc tju^ or to the noun only if the epithets precede it, as UUcj^ Jk*x) j fj&', but with two or more adjectives, the a of the vocative
is in
dust-i muhtaram-i
mihrbana
^^
Cj^*
*Z"jt>.
The following
are also
common
]>J>c
^AWO and
lk*
The
ablative
is
az.
For
its
various uses
vide
90 Prepositions
(h) (1).
119.
Number
of Nouns,
(a) As in English, nouns of multitude denoting living things are followed the verb in the singular or plural according to the unity or plurality of by the idea in the speaker's mind, thus L
:
tAx&U* Shdhinshdh-i 'ddil rd ra'iyyat lashkar ast ^Ht*; \) J^^ " " to the ^ ^*+^ (Sa'dl) just monarch the people is an army p* " the crowd extended right td dam-i qasr jam'iyyat bud (Shah's Diary)
o~*>t^J
j^
up to the palace" *}**f &J> y j ,_^:*u ^aJLk khalq-i* bi-ta'assub bar u gird dmadand (Sa'di) <c a whole people through fellow feeling collected round him " ^-^ +)\* <*+& J> ^ **- *uj1 guyandchi gham gar hama s dlam murdand " <c *>}> v|^ )j*^st" c^* they say what care we if all the world die (Sa'dl)
:
" the ahl-i shahr hanuz khwdb budand (Shah's Diary) people of the city were
still
asleep*"
**!
t^LH^
cJ^^J
bar misdl-i hay van and animals 5 ": A^f v^y 'Arab guyad (Sa'dl)
5
e>^^i AJ^L ^ijlJs ^\ In td^ija-yi khirqa-pushdn ** this sect clad in shreds and patches are like (Sa*dl)
In English
*'
the committee sits daily," but " the committee are at variance."
*
3
Note the
of unity.
is
izafat,
4
5
In modern Persian hama-yi 'alam. In poetry hama hence Indians always omit it after hama.
Here the singular verb could not be used: the subject is not but the whole plural phrase c>^^ &*;** <XiJLfc ta*ija-yi bhirga-pushan.
used generically:
similarly
in
Aitflfe ta 'ifa
alone
Hayvan e;^^
(m.c.)
*UJ;
lAjb^
|;
para-i
sarbazha
raftand
or
*^; UUj^sjf
colloquially.
8
some
of the soldiers
went" both
is
the
subject (lA)bj* sarbazha) and the verb should be plural, but para-l sarbaz raft
used
OP *Uj*&
^tfj*
Arab
is
an Arabic
collective
noun.
465 " he
**&*
^&
&+*
plural, thus: mardum mipeople" mardumdn is also used.* In the m.c. phrase guyand "people say"; **! &j&. *+* mardum hama dar fikr u khaydl-i c&M' Jk* j j& )* (*3r*
(6)
p*s
asayish-i
khud
ast B
people of his
(c)
own
^^^
ty.
;!>
The worde;-*A* dushman " enemy " * is treated as a singular, thus &+** dushman gunkht (not txxlii^? gunkhtand) the enemy fled *> e^*"*^ dushman dah hazdr bud (incorrectly *>^ budand) "the
:
(Vazlr of Lankaran), the speaker is thinking of the small state as one body ; at any rate ast should be and.
' '
' '
enemy were ten thousand." In &JJD/T jji) 07 J? j* jt c)li*^^ dushmandn az har taraf zur avardand " enemies (Sa*di) pressed him (the king) on all sides," the plural noun is used to signify more than one enemy, i.e. a collection of enemies. In djfa ^^^aaavo cux/olah. jf^& e>^y j c^l^ (**"** (&)* ^ar ^ n mawsim " at this season the hava-yi bay& u bustan-i Shtrdz khassiyyat-i makhsus-i darad gardens of Shiraz are particularly delightful," the synonyms &\3*jj j e.b bag& u
bustan clearly indicate the plural it is therefore unnecessary, but not wrong to say IjitiUjj } ib bagh u bustdnha (or basalm) 5 ^~>*
;
^^
*' the mosques and houses of the city." 6 masjid u khanaha-yi skdhr (m.c.) (d) (1) Generic nouns denoting rational beings are preferably used in the plural thus it is better to say <v! J&A^, &\j>\ ^1^3 zanha-yi Iran Ichushgil-and " the women of Persia are s good-looking," thanos*t <J^^^ c^^' ^3 zan-i Irani
;
^ ^^^
Zanha-yi Bangala khush-gil ast *'the woman of Persia is good-looking." " the women of Bengal are mostly dark," but siydh-fam-and properly means " the whole of the women of zan-i Bangala siyah-fam ast Bengal are dark."
x>^j
ra
l)j>%*
e->^^
It
)j*.
*+*
Note the
plural termination added only to second adjective (or noun). adjectives in the singular,
Similarly ^olk' in English though plural has
*
is
folks.'
3
In
classical Persian
mardum
is
sometimes singular
1st
Book
dog
of the
thus in the 4th story of, the seven sleepers' says, Pa-yi
nikangirift u
mardum shud
/0
** C*J*J
^f
,
^**\
ejf^j!
(^
L^^^
* k
($$
and
(**^*j
(*^/
c^-
\J& ^(j ; $ n shafehs mardum-i Iran ast man mardum-i Kirman-am (m.c. and
vulg.).
4
6
Indians occasionally use f&j* mardum for t>jx5 mard. When the word enemies is intended the plural is of course used.
' '
" the house of the Here the singular fefaana would be incorrect, as city'* would convey a singular idea in Persian just as it does in English. Note that the plural termination is added to the last noun only.
^^
Not
\tfjt\
Iran.
Zan-i Iran
e>|/!t
30
466
budand and o*f w^" i^ j y* sarbdz-i Iran khub ast are considered correct in modern Persian. It is correct to say
lj
also used
l*^t
*
and
1 e)}; **^
budand, bisydr zan dnjd bud (or Thus obligatory to use the singular.
e>jj*V uldghhd-yi
^^
not so good).
It
is
not, however,
i(t
^xu ^uldgfai
Bahrayn,or <j>
asses
of
Bdhrayn "the ass (breed) of Bahrain Island," or "the Bahrain," are both correct and both have the same meaning,
latter might
though the
(2)
mean
Generic
nouns
unqualified
use the singular, with a singular verb: thus the Persians frequently for 'amal cU* the we use in when plural; they say singular English
the
"
actions,"
is
w^. chub
employed
it
for "sticks,'
'
etc.
The
rule
is
the noun
If,
usual to put
in the plural
however, the noun is qualified by an adjective, it is even when it is used collectively. Modern
l
Examples:
^^ c5^j &
;
**
^*^
c^V^^JJ'
&\b
e>[^t
^s&ty ol^AU
Bus
Master handed
me
5
we went up
tc>
the steps, or
A*** *JU-
we
jjj^j
^r^4
^***)&
)j&l
t^bji *A^WJ
^; )Mkindr-i rudkhdna
hama
dih va qasaba va zird'at-i angur va darakht-i gilds va-ghayra bud (Shah's Diary "on the edge 5 of the river were everywhere villages and townlets and
6 vineyards and cherry
ferees,
etc.":
I;
^\yo^
**-c^f cuif
^Vf;
have
&*
) *>\*d&
and
cuf
luj}
signifying
"much,"
)^>f^
bisiyar,
^^
^
khayll and
may
be in the singular.
&) csV^^-V
three have
practically
nidMsanaha-yi ziyad (but not rudrkhana-yi ziyad without <^)l the same meaning except that the makes the noun
slightly
3
more emphatic.
Or
{**&
talagrafha, plural.
The
step.'*
8
Kiriar-i^tf
kinara-yi
\*j& kinarha would not signify the banks of one river " both banks." faraftoyn would have to be used to signify
:
<J>jlo
)t
du
faraf or
(&?jk
Dark sour cooking- cherry ^.^\ alu balu dessert cherry if& gilas. and is understood after &Uj baata. In modern Persian Note that haramzada would follow its noun.
1
467
va
rama injd ast (m.c.) tl there are many camels and oJf and would be unidiomatic) o^i ;bj~^J &~**? l**i>t f **&
:
r
shunida
am
Injd kisa-bur
bisydr
ast
common
6
here
"
:
(or
and)
*i,!*if
(m.c.)
^U
dnja bisydr
jahdz
ships
"
(m.c.)
many
jam had
shuda
langar
anddkfyta
bud*
collected there
and cast
their anchors
(here jU-o
qualified
by an adjective
(other
than the
collective
it
is
adjectives or adverbs (bisyar jU~o khayli^^ , or e>fj|y fardvdn), usually in the plural. Thus, if jahdz in the last example were
j^
qualified
tiJ^j
^&
AiktjJt
j.J
$.x
^
4
;
J>ty dnja bisydr jahdzhd-yi buzurg jam* shuda lJf ;U~-> es^j^ jahdzhd-yi bisiydr dnja bud t>y,
;
is
also
correct.
;^ bisydr jahdzhd dnja bud jli-Jjt^ jahdz-i J^ ^lx-o ^Uj^ jahdzhd-yi bisydr buzurg " very
^UjL^
:
large ships"
-^^>j
might be mistaken for jahdzhd-yi bisydr*i buzurg jt>^ the latter, however, is better expressed by many large ships
' '
j^ j^**>
^}j*.
is
<c
^)y
^^^
)\%~*
to
^v
:
J&>
^~>> bisydr
lci$hti-yi
many
however, necessary to use the singular for the plural, even when ' no ambiguity could arise thus the asses of Bahreyn 6 are fine could be
It is not,
:
'
Bahrayn bisydr khub khub and. ^-^ ;U^j ^^u ^U uldghjid-yi Bahrayn bisydr In referring, however, to "the asses of Persia" it would be necessary to use the plural as various breeds of asses would be meant and not one cb ^jf ^^U hulu-yi in bdgk khub ast might Similarly vi[ single breed.
vyL
^U-o
^^^J
ijlf
uldcfai
ill
^^
be rendered
* '
' '
is
:
tree
of
this
garden
is
fine,"
;
there
of
tree under
discussion
o~!
;b^.> ib ^)\ ^l^lk;^ darakht hd-yi %n "the trees (generally) of this garden are fine."
(e)
^^
The
plural
is
the idea of
number
or quantity
j>>
*<;
\Jojc
\j
4tl>'U
qdfila rd dar
_/*
v^^
it
;*6-6wr,
"a
cheat."
4 If
the idea of
8
would here
shud
men
*& j*&
3>(j
/A-^
j^
(m.c.).
4
6
^j Isuf ^)J*
This island
is
^IgLf ^U**j bisyar kashtl-yi buzurg anja bad (or better budand). famed for a breed of large white asses.
468
*arz-i
NUMBER OF NOUNS,
STOUNS OF MULTITUDE
rah duzd zad (m.o.) "the caravan was attacked on the road, " " but M&) (A^ duzdhd zadand robbers attacked it or the robbers attacked it
f db
t(
"
:
bring water," but j^ l^f ^t in dbhd bi-riz (m.c.) biydr ;U) v "throw away all this water (in different vessels)*": j ^^jl c^; 8 l <J*^ ru-yi daryd az kashtl va qdyiq va kashtihd-yi <& ji ^jJ-> c$J^ cf
V^
Diary) "the surface of the sea was covered with ships and boats and great steamers. 4 Yak muddat-i bimdri ddsht oAa LS){+# ty*^ (m.c.) "he was ill for an age without a break," but c*i<> ^;Uu^x) muddat-hd blmdrl ddsht (m.c.) "he was ill
for ages
on and
off
"
;
**>**
^F^
ta'ajjubhd ml-kunad
(k).
Vide also
Nouns denoting
In gandum
is
Persian require the plural to signify variety, or diversity, thus: " this is wheat " is ast o**f correct, as the wheat ^jf (m.c.)
f&
&f
:
"
" wheat
\)
(^^S
in the latter
gandumhd rd jam kun (m.c.) example the singular ^oJ^ gandum should
%n
6
be used as the wheat is in scattered heaps. Similarly db rd rikht " he spilt some of the water (from one vessel)," but CA 5Wa rd rikht lt he spilled the waters of various kinds or in various vessels "
not
dbhd-yi \n
AJIA.
" various kinds of seeds"; u>l nan "bread," (fi ndnhd ^abJ tukhmhd " "loaves vide (k). Sometimes the double plural is used for variety (and " zurufhd (Ar. and Pers. Pis.) different kinds of vessels quantity), as
:
:
du rud-khdna bi-ham jam' mi-shavad +** ^.j "the waters of these two rivers join 5 " " ^\ u rawghan mlo^^jix* sharabhd-yi Frdnsa "the wines of France " 6 "he sells butter (clarified) ": seed," but farushad (m.c.) ^iJ tukhm
^5x3
(m.c.)
^^
^^
* *
i.e.,
is
equal to a passive.
With an
and
like
^^
56,
v^
last
sharab
etc.
are incorrectly
definite.
noun
only.
qfiyiq
Though the
(d) (2).
first
two words
^t
^^ kaahtl
and J^IJ
are in
the singular
end of
5
Pas angah
bi-dusti
*/ *** <o*^*i
^^^
(or
i^T (j^
***>
here
}H
would not be so
"such
great or such
numerous works ": in modern Persian *$ oi^x U^|^ ^li^, chunan karha chunan kar) ml-kunad lei
.
ft
c>^
469
oU5lu>
ajcfibat
" various
wonders."
(g)
Vide
The Persian idiom requires, except in rare instances, the plural where in English we use the singular, in all such sentences, as "to act
:
like
a wise man," etc., etc.: ^.y^ ^l****^ J ^ v"*^ ki In harakat munasib*i hdl-i khiradmanddn na-kardi (Sa'dl)
1
^j^
"you
(or
bi-tarz-i
u-it
&>
did not,
man
' '
:
cA^ja
' '
:
"
^d*
before
bi-libas-i
darwshan
darwshi
disguised as a darvish
^*>T
^ ^j
me
&&** ^b
like
mastan
plsh'i
man dmad
"he came
one drunk."
The
by the
" would
in Persian be rendered
plural.
Compare with
(o).
An adjective might also be used, as bi-libas-i darwshi. The occurs in poetry or in the rhymed prose of Sa'dl, but is contrary singular to usage.
Remark.
(h)
47
(g),
After the word " pair," etc., or the determining words mentioned in and after cardinal numbers,'2 the noun is the singular: In juft*
girifta
budand
pair of
>*tf
*(j?
was caught when they were 4< a month old": ten camels*": ftf j& t* shulur dah ^ najar yii " dali nafar adam, or ten men." dah mard t* (m.c.) &j*
Memoirs)
this
"
^ **k
cX>
\)
cj* o*i^ Ur
>f
birds
Remark.
is
After
117.
U<
mablagh^
^^
used.
Vide
is
verb and substantive, (i) The substantive in a verb, compounded of a used generically in the singular, even though the idea be plural:
(j2)Alx>
^jjj sj^j ^iifjJ jy f;ji l^fy' farrash'hd urd kul giriftand, burdand pish-i ' 4< the farrashes took him on their shoulders 5 and carried tnadar-ash (m.c.)
'
him
off to his
(/)
mother."
is
The
plural
,>^j
aiU. A+A
*t; of^Jfcf
sometimes used where the dual might be expected: " there were atrdf-i rah hama khdna bud (Shah's Diary)
"; the
plural after
hama
('altogether')
Arabic broken plurals are frequently treated as singular: the Arabic plural of
is ^.^.Li tajir
jlJ tujjar, but vulgarly U^UsJ tujjarha is used But "the men were two thousand " oJj^j ;|^& j*
&&* ^jj! modem colloquial y& ^ dah shutur. The man was lying senseless on the ground.
Occasionally but incorrectly ^^A
as a plural.
^Sj*
tnar ^ lun ^ n
du hazUr
budand.
8
in juft-i murgh..
*
6 6
In
dukan bud ^ there were shops on both but (^jb tarafayn sides of the road"; ol^Jk) af-raf is common is modern colloquial, The plural dukakln-i &M&-* (or dukanha-yi kb&>) ^5^ is used by the educated only. the singular. would be used if qualified by an adjective, vide (d), the verb remaining in"
Properly
^ e>!^
^^
farafayn-i rah
470
NUMBER OF
NOUiNS,
" there would be wrong. (Atrdf-i rah khdnaha bud l^l> i; oi^fef (m.c.) were different kinds of houses on both sides of the ways '). and snow, land, butter, (k) Collective nouns such as wine, water, etc.,
'
etc.,
are used in
Jo^ jvtr*
I
the plural when different collections or heaps are referred shardb rd khunuk bi-kun "cool the wine (one
a-^f/j
f
c5^ r^ shardbhd-yi Fardnsa "the wines " the land of France" &(*j? i^*) zamm-i Kirmdn (or tract) of Kirman," but isfajf 45^^ zammhd-yi\Kirmdn "the tracts or districts of Kirman"r **> }A i&dt )$ dar jangal hizam jam* m%-lcard (m.c.) "he was tj&>*
one wine)," but
:
gathering
*j^* C
4
wood
(collective
and general)
in
the jungle":
^*s**> <J&^>
;>
jam* mi-kard (m.o.) "he was gathering collections of wood (either different kinds or different heaps)"; vide also (r)
:
o*j)
Ifj^L
"he
"
**** lt**^ ta'ajjubha mi-khurand " they eat the flesh of various animals " mi-kunad, vide (e) and (/). In m.c., however, the plural is frequently incorrect**&* ly used for the singular, as: A*I ** <^Ujx> muha-yi sar-am
;
^t>)}****
(**J luhum
safld
'
^^/J^^
(i)
^j* mu-yi sar-am ; vide (/). <( In kitdb this sort of book" (/) qism ^tif p*J ^i this sort of worm but l^U^ in qism kitdbha ^t p~$ * kirmhd " these sorts of worms
^y*
'
'
shuda
ast, for
1 1
jur
"
:
(or insects)
t;eWealso
135
Concord.
(m) After ^Ujf aqsdm and similar plurals signifying various kinds, lt *' the singular or plural is used, as: <*s^j^j* j V**> -> ^-^ f ^ J&* -i ki bisydr anvd tutihd va tild*i-i td*us-hd va &j* qarqdvulhd-yi ^U-)
^^>
" there were various qashang bud* (Shah's Diary) species of parrots and * here the singular could be used but peacocks and golden pheasants
'
;yW
incorrect).
(n) In English, a noun taken figuratively may be in the singular when the literal meaning requires the plural: such expressions as "their face," '* our life" are common in Scripture. The Persian idiom, however, admits
<6
How
"
Jt
fH^^l*)
c^~U
&\
\)
otijj
c^o
o*o to
*J^^ ^U.
'our life (lives) is in your hand": *U Shah gardan-i hama rd zdd " the Shah beheaded them all." In such sentences as "We have changed our mind " j&ti fj tj** t-JU^
dast-i shumd-st
md
^j,if^
khiydl khud rd tag&ylr dadim it is in the Persian idiom, as in the English, better to use the singular, i.e. if only one purpose or opinion is meant ' ' allow us to go home or to depart to our houses would be correctly
:
* '
for dual.
Should be bfidand: elsewhere the Shah correctly uses the plural in a similar sentence. The plural termination is ordinarily added only to the last noun.
9
471
rendered in Persian by &Uj;fAj bi-guzar bi-khana-yi khud bi-ravim> the khud though plural khanaha-yi might be substituted without offence to the ear vide also jib in last example in (v).
;
^^
;
(o)
Contrary to the English idiom, the predicate to a plural subject ia * ' the thus in the sentence, " These men are devils
,
word
*'
devils"
:
in
Examples
*>i>Ui
&j*
>U*^
*+& jj^
^ &$
fa bar sufra
all
hama
numayand
oJf <jf^xa*
(Sa'df)
"because at your
&tyk
table,
"
:
J&o^vsA^ **A
:
and
(Sa'di)
tAi.
*if
&*>
^^^
(g).
&U*>\ Ishan
dushman-i
^{i~A
ma hama
banda-yi
Khuda hastim
God."
Compare with
In the following, Sa'dl has one predicate in the plural and one in the
singular
:
Ouftam
*$ ^*& i*v *' <^i? &&>) o^c^ ^ift? jib* fj> ^)\^\^ mazammat-i ishan ravd ma-ddr ki khudavandan-i karam-and
l
**lf>>
'
" hersbanda is used as a collective noun, but they are the slaves of money it would be better to use the plural bandagan, which is the reading of another edition.
' ;
Ouft 'khatagufti ki- banda-yi diram-and* (Gui.) ' (the rich) down for they are the lords of bounty.
,
"I said, 'Do not run them He said ,' You are wrong, for
In the following sentence from the Gulistan, the singular word darvlsh might in ordinary prose be plural Sa'dl has used the singular to preserve
:
the rhyme:
cJ^* jf
f
^^
o^ o ^> U
l
^;Ui
^tj
Ji*j jSi
*
f
^jt*
cA-^j^
^ ar
Vide
(a).
<f two .*j ^>o ^2*3 \j*) du kas dushman-i mulfc u dln-and (Gul.) 1 are enemies to cardina the of Church and State," the subject du ka*, because persons
In &>t
&
number du,
In
is
to be considered a plural
is
not used.
v*A^&j3
xf
eJ^A>a J &j*+
(Gul.), the first
L&J)*
ot^P
^
is
a va 'ala jall
tavangaran and
and
with
tav ingar-himmat
*s*j**> {J<*j)t>
e/^y
tawangaran
to be considered a subject
darvlah-slrat
as the predicate,
^y
tjj*> j (3&c()
vuzara-yi
singular
&\\
lj*>j (JtfU hama khiradmand va ba *aql 8 Ki * 'because,' here gives the sense of * In modern Persian &ufan-i and jahan ra.
5
JA-OJ^A.
&+&
*^
balki.
is
here
472
va az ghuday ta'alq
Even
if
^
in
bo substituted for
jj*>j, Persians prefer the singular, for euphonic reasons. The plural, however, can be used, as: ma hama dust-im (m.c.), or
ma
all
friends
"
correct.
(Shah Nama). however, a plural or collective predicate in English (whether substantive or adjective), be qualified by an epithet, it is frequently plural
If,
Hama bandagan-im u Khushra w- parast Man u Giv u Oudarz u har kas ki hast
1
In khalq hama kharan-i* ba afsus and *+* ($&. " U *l ^r^-i thesefolk are asses, laden with conceit." (0. K. 227 Whin.}. &kj In addressing people, however, as "You blackguards," the plural is
: :
requisite, as
lfi^ ^00 U shumd pidar-sukhta-ha (m.c.) ordinarily, however, the pronoun would be omitted, as e/*"=M c5 a V ahmaqan t( oh ye fools." (p) The plural is used instead of the singular out of respect, as: CU-*JLS!J OA-O jt vjD^J^ jUIab.! ^Jo C5^* U"i P as a $ ar ij*))*f ){**\
:
f
^J
safa-yi
k
vaqt-i 'azizan az
suhbat-i
ag&yar kudurat-i
pazwad
ikhtiyar baqi-st
your valuable time is wasted and you become bored " by strangers, the option still remains with you (to leave the city). 8 In c>^ vJ#j ^Ubo Jyliu lvU, jMilAi^Ul^^U^iiJ^i^ layiq-i qadr-i padishahan
(Sa dl)
*'then
if
na-bashad
iitija
il
common
;
^ULt^U padishahanisuaed
the application of the advice is made general and is not directed so pointedly at the particular king present before the speaker ji ^j\k* 3 Jr^ 4< *$ c^j ^Ua. oULojo> mas-mul va matlub az dustan chunan ast ki I hope
:
you."
In the following, this respectful plural is carried to excess, the writer assuming that he is not worthy to address his superior direct; consequently he addresses the feet of the servants of the threshold, etc.. etc. ^b uUxj ^ij bi-khak-i* pa-yi falak-farsa-yi A la ^fcU^Ulk u*&S\ e^-o^icf
;
j^Lvj*
^1^*^ ^jl^A
pa-yi
^li^
:
javahir-asa-yi
mubdrak
'arz
mi-shavad.
name
a
3
would
but
is
not so good.
vJi)?L)*
^^
'abid
by the plural
'azizan
city.
he has invited
him
and spend a
little
Or tV>;U* ^r^l o^o.uJLcl e/^^V c5^*f ?*& c5^ *-^^ ufy* qurban-i
Humayunl
for
Shah
only.
473
On New
vious
:
Year's
Day and on
is
special
occasions the
sent
Terms
found
more involved and extravagant than the foregoing are In modern Persian, Persian, and are still in use in India.
;
however, these forms are daily approaching the simplicity of Europe in fact few Persian gentlemen are now able to write these long involved expressions :
on
special occasions
when they
are necessary, a
Munshi
is
employed
for
the purpose, and the Secretary to the Royal Recipient paraphrases the text " The usual by, congratulatory address from ."
(q) The plural is sometimes used instead of the singular to avoid a pointed allusion. Thus in the 24th story of the First Book of the Gulistan when the king imprisons the trusted Khwaja, another king in writing secretly
1
^j <yiJLot>J i^^^)^. cAi*- )*$ o^t e/f ^1* ki muluk-i an taraf qadar-i chunan buzurgvdr-i na-ddnistand va bi-'izzati kardand Some one informs the master of the Khwaja of the matter; (Sa'di). ^ta AJUf^ ^.^y kj?l< b foycycj* cr-J^ *$ \) u$* 9 u ft fulan rd* ki habs
^^
^^
muluk is used, though each case was one king and no more.
plural JjJU>
it
is
well
known
that the
agent in
is
uj^^*
is
"So-and-so
(m.c.) <j*~j^ fulan kas ba-Ingllslia dusti-yi but one Englishman great friends with the English (there being
3
^ &&
in the place)."
(r)
In a sentence like the following: "He is learning the Arabic and the substantive in Persian would be singular, as: u zdban-i Arabl va Farsi mi-amuzad*; the
'
LsV'c^jy
is
zabdnha
not
admissible, and
there
is
an
ellipsis
of
the
word
the plural zabdnhd were used it cjljj those of dialects would signify the different languages vide (k) and (i). followed by a (s) Cardinal numbers, as already stated, are ordinarily
zabdn before
^^
Farsi :
if
^3
singular noun.
it
However,
"all three,
:
all
four,
not wrong in modern Persian to use the plural, as y >^j> &-yfc etc.", his har si dukh-tar-i u or y ^yfc har si dukhtarha-yi u "all three of
is
t
^Uy^
daughters."
The
singular
noun
is
preferable.
The meaning of the word *^f^ here is doubtful. In modern Persian, Armenians and Hindus are addressed as *V>^-, and the Jews and Parsees as Mulla.
1
*'
verb in the relative sentence. Ij e)^ fulan rd is the object of the This substitution of the plural is not an uncommon vulgarism in English : *' the young men of this town do take Really,** says Harriot to the overbold Harry>
2
Note that
liberties.**
No
**Give us a copper* is another example. ra. Vide 118 (d) (2) Remark.
474
UL*^
si tan
bina-yi musahabat-i
ma
kar
bd rukn-i chaharum, ki tu bashi, tamhid ydbad chi akdbir gufta and har chand dustan bishtar bdshand hujum-i bald bar whan kamtar bashad (Anv.
Suh.,
will be
'
Chap.
III.,
S.
6.)
"and
us
three
supported by a fourth
pillar,
have said,
the assaults of calamity (East. Trans.). Arabic broken plurals being in Persian often treated as singulars, such constructions as JrU*f *j>jf^ davdzdah asbat "the twelve tribes (of Israel)"
1
"
they be exposed to
are occasionally
(sibt)
the
singular construction
Remark.
it is
i,-*jp
nouns coupled by an 'and,' are subjects of the same verb, usually necessary to add the plural termination to the last only, as
If several
JUlt^jyk
^jf in khar
>2
u asphd
,
and
incorrect)
"whose
u asphd : ass and
kist
for ^.A^f
yk whose horses are these ? " would signify " whose is this
;
dxfdU U,_^f
U^
^t
l
In kharha
^t
JU ^^\
and
^^
ass (one)
this
horse (one)
si^^f
^U^jkf^
in
(m.c.), the
jj>
"
^^
\^)j*"
c5^
)jj* p^
3***
(*&*&\f+*
ijjjj
^^
te>*
\)
j *;i j
MJ*
bi-vaqt,
parva hami-guzashtim (H. B. everything with the greatest unconcern, confident in the sure-footedness of
their
juy u jurda va dara u tappa-ha ra bi-bdk u Trans.) "but my companions rode over
3
horses"
):
^ ^ ^^M j
= ^X&f j
>($
^j\
jl^
jt
u qayiq u kashtihd pur bud daryd az jahaz u qayiq u kashti pur bud.
(Jj^j
following ways of forming the plural of <^*& or )> P as l u bulandi (or pasti u bulandi-)yi dunya " the ups,
)
In Arabic the numbers from 3 to 10 govern a broken plural in the oblique case,
This slovenly construction might also mean "whose ass and whose horses are
?
theee
is
"
In,
cJkf
j^*i
JU
^^(
^
^jf ^
^^
n &&ar va
m asp
mal-i kist
(m.c.), there
no ambiguity.
8
Jfcxlfc
t^
-^j'
j?"
fs
better than
**dk
^)j> A*A hama-yi buzurg u Tcuchak-i shahr ra taldbld vfe^ ) ^) &+* hama-yi buzurg u kfichzkan-i shahr ra
talabld-
NUMBER OF
and downs
NOtTNS,
475
world" (1) U>^ ^U ^JJbj c*~J past u bulandhd-yi dunya, pasthd u bulandhd yi dunya, (3) tu* c^V**^ j <^*~i pflwS u bulandihd-yi dunya, (4) l^a c^-H^^ ^ c**^ pastlhd u bulandihd-yi dunya, (5) IA^ ^If-oiL j o^j pas M bulandlhd-yi dunya.
of this
(2) UJ^ ^U-xiij j Ifl^j
Similarly in modern Persian if a number of plural adjective- nouns are united together by izafats, the plural termination is added to the last only,
as: jj tjJl&J**.
p&
[
^j>JU3
f;
Ulx^
fj
^ ^l^
m
&*$) *&*.
Ai^ ^l ^b
^Ifjlftu
U
fcl:
gurisna-chashm-i luqma-ruba-yi p* L^^ j p&f ma bicharagan bay ad sharm u haydha rd tamalluq guyim, fib-i shdn rd pur kunim va khaytt ham " 'tis thus we (Tr. H. B., Chap. 22) pay the wages of the king's servants
it
of
* *fv^^* shutur-bachcha, or
&
^i-i
*?
bachcha-shutur
Ujlft
"a young
camel,"
;
is
is
tukhm-i murgh "an egg" A^U bachcha-shuturhd similarly often in modern Persian with the plural lfrV p*3 e^o p* tukhm-murg&, tukhm-murgiha. The origin of these barbarous plurals is perhaps to be
qualifying such
l^ j** ^\
shutur-bachchahd, or vulgarly
words,
pounds, by an adjective.
ft/
"Hot eggs"
*
:
S?^
is
41
wp
daranda
at least
meaning; in
>Jj^ v-^?
^^t^
bachchafid-
yi gurg-i daranda the epithet would refer to gurg, while J^f 1^^ c?^^ bachchaha-yi daranda-yi gurg might mean "those young ones that are
daranda"
(as
opposed
to
those
that
are
mard-
lang p>*jf singular used in the latter case, it would signify that there was only one Sunday during the period of march (i.e. that the march lasted less than 14 days).
used to halt on Sundays" /t^Oo ^i) aM-i,C| 3^ ruz-i yaki; here the Imperfect gives a plural idea to the singular noun. Substitute the Perfect for the Imperfect, and the noun must be in the plural ruz .i yak-shambahd rd kardim. f^U AAU^J
"We
Were the
#*+*> (in.c.) "exactly this amount," but "about this amount" ^iaj JU jlj r (*i^j hamin vaqtha bud ki pdrsdl bi-Tahrdn rasldam (m.c.) "it was about this time last year that I reached Tehran " if oJ>^ ^^A hamin vaqt (sing.)
(y)
Hamin
qadr
Note no Mfat
after
ma:
6?
alwrm u haya
note
fib is
Tufchmha-yi garm
^/ ^l^io
melons), or "seeds
476
PRONOUNS*
(z)
Sometimes a substantive
is
is
:
of
" enemy of enemies, deadly Amirs"; jfjfiAJt >***, etc. In 4**\ j** are and Arabic the coupled by the Persian izafat. plural singular enemy," " " *U> Shah-i shahan Lords &&l*> c^ of &&& Lord Ex. crt^l^ **>** word first the of king kings," ghan-i khanan. Shahanshah *U*A^
:
an object
repeated in the plural to indicate that " the Amir ^j^H\ j&\ amir* 'l-umara*
of which
is
a contraction of
eMU
Shahan the
plural of shah,
is
an example
of izafat-i vnaqlubi.
45
(c) (3).
CHAPTER
120.
XIV.
Pronouns.
for per(a) The Personal Pronouns are not usually expressed except The first for or for personal contrast, spicuity, emphasis, vide (g) (h) (i).
pronoun
with
is
common
'
in poetry
me
(I)
as long as
'
ain
I.'
&'j*
"
t/hou art
he
who
is
The
1st Person:
The
ptj^*
&* man mi-guyam (m.c.); /**&*> u^y Many Persian Muslims maintain that
*^? banda
*ar?
mi-kunam
(m.c.).
applicable to the Deity only. The their ears sounds arrogant or egotistical.
If necessary
the 1st personal pronoun man is Persians seldom use mun &*, which to
for
emphasis
to
use
the
1st
person,
they
say
^\,
o*^M
The Afghans
and Indians use man frequently. Occasionally in m.c., the 1st personal pronoun plural, even, is used to avoid the use of &*> man, but care must be exercised or the pronoun will give the idea of the Royal plural. The Shah, speaking not in a mere individual capacity, but as a
representative of a country, adopts the plural ma, as: .;^&i*> U u^cj^e^ l ai chun khidmat-i shuma manzur-i nazar-i humayun-i ma-st
:
amr farmudim.
)
(^$->*
8
44*^
In private he
is
individual.
The
1
following
is
is
also used.
Indians use the 3rd person sing, after fcjjj banda, even in speaking. 2 The Royal plural was not used by the Anglo-Saxon kings: ic Aclfred
*
(I
Alfred).
fiiNt
The Anglo-Saxon
8
writer
makes himself
plural.
Royal plural. Forms and ceremonies at the Shah's court have been much
simplified of late
PKONOUJNS.
477
Imam Razd
:
at Mesh-hed, to
whom
he had sent
U cu^i
^j;
^jA j CA*!
l
Nas%ru'l-Mulk
ast
va
Nasir u har shab rawshan ast yd khayr mardtib rd mufassal an bi- arz bi-rasdmd 1-Mulk I hope you are well. For how many hours nightly does the electric
( '
light burn,
and does
it
An
plural, as:
fails to
U we have nought to do with those that falsely j;a ^i>Al^^ ; l^ be claim to patriots." We md sometimes stands for 'all men,' the speaker though single <{ we are all _>.>U ^ ^iL? &+& U identifying himself with all men, as:
6
'
^SltiJf
In
an assembly, a person
will
suming that he speaks for the rest, considered a sign of overweening pride. The plural is occasionally used for the singular in vulgar language. 'I' or 'he' may include a person's immediate belongings, as:
^Afyiuuo
Ichayli
ojoA* ^*<*>
ma
s jffj^o ^o man sar-i rdh-i shuma rd girifta-am, &*j$ \j " zarat mi-lchivdham (m.c.) I'm in your way, please excuse me
p\
(said
My;
either
me.
"My
<j/
o^U^
himdyat-i man,
may
signify
"the
defence of
me by
another," or
"my
defence of another."
In Persian the ambiguity can be removed by adding a pronoun for the person c^oU^ himdyat-i man bi-s?iumd, or e>w UA o^U^. who is defended, as: Ui? shumd bi-man: himyat-i ^^5 f^^ ^* sabab-i sadd zadan-i maw (m.c.)
^ ^
I called
me"
(instead
of
"my
defence")
is
not
The Deity is addressed in the 2nd person singular, as: ^j+tte y bf^ " God! thou knowest which of us two is speaking Khuddyd tu 'dlim-i (m.c.)
the truth."*
More
civil
than
*ji
bi-giiyld, or <**&&
s*
shark dihld.
I*
*
8
*
Anjuman
will
sometimes use
ma.
Or (!*' j? t; UA i\) (^y tft-yi rah-i shuma Said by both parties who witness against each other.
ra girifta-am (m.c.).
478
PRONOUNS.
Ta
JRaftft
ta
u uzr pazlr
f
Ay
tauba-dih
hama kas
" Grant
repentance, and accept my plea, thou who dost accept the pleas of all "
!
me
(0.
K. 276 Whin.).
)\j&
^^
may
is used in precations even when addressed " 'umr-at dardz bad " may thy life be long oJUy
;
fjt*
be thy sacrifice."
Darvishes and poets also address the sovereign in the 2nd person
singular.
Parents of the poor classes address their children, even when grown up,
in the
when grownup,
as
and
;*J
^^ jy
'aziz
^\ <>1^ eHJU^
an
;^>
p^* ^0' *!
^^
)**
Jj^
fan-i pidar tu
other in the 2nd person singular.* Friends in familiar conversation will often change from the 2nd pers. pi. to the sing., especially when joking <^^ ^ tu-bimiri.
Brothers,
lover, in poetry
and
in real
life,
person singular.
Servants, and dependants or inferiors, are addressed in the 2nd pers. but if the person addressed be an independent person or a person not sing.
;
a dependant
of the speaker, it is
much
Persian gentlemen
may
People more or
less equal,
in.
c^*J C5JD
c^**^
*U^b
ast,
and o^lAi.
*
Parents of the better classes do not habitually address their children by an affecis apt to bo copied by servants and to become
* '
a permanent name. A mother would call her son Hidayat All Khan in full. For the same reason a gentleman would, when speaking of his young relatives to a servant, ** the children." say J&bawariin or J^&ayan, and seldom bachchaha
3
Persians often address children by the same terms that the children use to those
who
by
When grown
up, the usual polite forms are used, brothers addressing each other
their titles
6
and using the polite plural. The Shah is said to address his own ministers as
tu,
WA
shuma.
PRONOUNS.
**.
L*
l
479
A*. ^Jl$
shwna
?
chi mi-guyid ?
o*5U;ix*
Ji^
janabi
'all chi
mi-farmaytd
As
lation
'
thou,'
is
also used
when
art a scoundrel"
&^
s
^ ^i^y
special isotu
khayK
pers,
*'
;
'pidar-sukhta-i*
sing.)
:
thou thief"
fy ^\ ay duzd
(with verb in
2nd
^i-H ^.L As already stated the Deity is The use of y though common amongst the vulgar, is by the educated restricted to the expression of contempt, of affection and familiarity (children and trusted servants), or of reverence. Hence its employment in
addresses to the Deity.
(3) The third Person The 3rd person plural is often used for respect instead of the 3rd person singular, especially when referring to a person present, or when speaking of
:
tu khaytt amin-i
" thou (and thou alone) art honest." addressed in the singular. 4
a person in the presence of his relatives or dependants, as Ishan mi-farmayand " he says."
in
^l/cyL*
J&j>\
As in English the 3rd person plural of the verb Persian the pronoun not being emphatic, it
,
is
is
used indefinitely
omitted, as
:
but
<^*>
^x^f
mi-guyand they say, people say." Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun. 6 In Persian (as in English) one should avoid
such sentences, as
"
Jj+io^i^ [ 5 ] *&*t* J>j A^A ^-^ ij^x> aj at>* <4~ Sayyid Javad bi- Mirza Hasan hamlsha pul mi-dihad, [u] khayll mutamavvil " ast Sayyid Jawad always supplies Mirza Hasan with money, he (Sayyid
:
cu^l
Jawad)
is very rich" [in vulgar Persian the pronoun > u would probably be inserted even though it is not properly emphatic]. " He " and ji u when retrospective should refer either to the noun immediately preceding (" Rule
;
of Proximity ")> or to
is
all
etc. in
is
Not ij^y tu duzd. Even in the 3rd person, the Deity is singular. To use a plural verb after the name of God would by some Muslims be considered v-j shirk or polytheism. In "* the Quran, Allah frequently speaks in the 1st person plural. The Zardushtis addrey Deity, ^!^>J Yazdan, in the singular. Modern Parsees generally use the Muslim woru
2
1** gbudZ,
6
for
God.
This rule applies to the relative. Vide (q) (6). In English it is better to adhere to the rule of proximity, as the rule of emphasis
is
sometimes misleading.
480
PRONOUNS.
Reporting a speech in the 3rd person may cause ambiguity in Persic^u, as in English. The remedy in both languages may sometimes be found in
the direct narration.
it is prospective referring to the following clause "to In Persian the sentence would be inverted, correctly." speak the Infinitive standing as the subject as aaiyiuj* oJj <^U^ ~$s>^> o^a>
"
correctly,
the pronoun
learn to
harf zadan-i sahlh khayU vaqt mi-khipahad (m.c.). Similarly in the sentence "He expects to clear a hundred pounds by the transaction, and I am sure
[
he
will
do it," the
it
"to
clear a
hundred pounds"
*& cu*f fo
is
omitted in translation, as
ajjjt
<^flj
^
Jci
<x>U?
u*r/
jjjxf
o^yL
az %n mu'amala sad
lira gir-ash
bi-yayad va
is
cold ",
dark ", are expressed as in English o*t **& shuda) OM! ^>ti tank ast (or shud).*
it is
;
"
Some
meaning
or xjf
'*
as:
English impersonal verbs take in Persian a nominative of cognate baran mi-barad **it rains" barf mi-barad t>)\* <^vJy
^ ^ ^U
or
i4
*'
it
snows/
f**>
'
8
**
I"
it is
me" 4
man-am
(m.c.):
it
f&j*
I;
fe
cjf
it
isyou that
command here" &>i&* p** (x>^.\ *S ^jJUi shumas-id ki inja hukm mi-kuntd " I who command you am the man" >~&f (&<***> &\*j* &&# man ki (m.c.): farman mi-diham an kas-am, or ^ v>i.^f ^U ^ \*j <J^v man ki farmandih-i
shuma-yam an shakhs-am.
I.
Remark
originally
though
relative.
genitives
are,
in
modern English,
*
adjectives only,
In,
*
**
am
*5
his
'
and should not therefore stand as antecedents to a " it is doubtful whether bondman, who bought me
;
his
'
or
bondman
is
If the
firsfc,
jj^x \JA
>J^L
\j*>
ptf fJU
e^o.
piA
II.
Remark
gulam-ash hastam chun mara kharid. ^^olU Except by poetical license, a pronoun in Persian should
:
^ man ^ man
^
*)l
render in Persian,
;
if
the second,
Or f}*.
& ^H^*l
yad bi-giram
me
to learn
English":
pronoun
refer.
it
is
no noun or
clause to which
fche it
up with
me " juii?
can properly
ft kar-i man
gu&asht.
Also
,j*$4A hlchkas
^-^
klst or
^H^ klatl
(m.c.).
These vague
^T
jfa
S^*^^ akhirkiatl, bi-gu (m.c.). 6 The same rule holds good in Arabic.
PRONOUNS.
In " Twice in his
life
481
man
Once
in her
wedding
dress
man.
'
AA.J
till
bdshad
'arusi
nami-kunad
(m.c.)
"
marries "; this construction, though occasionally used in m.c., written Persian.
incorrect in
"
Owing
***&
and
bed
late,
-kj**
the
<
Khan
j&j\
1
dlr khwdbidan,
^ Khan
JA*
-V
>
v^
jt
az sdbab-i mayl-i mufrit bi-sharab va bi-jihat-i 'adatnadir qabl az zuhr dlda ml-shud; in m.c. JUx>
;
is used but it is incorrect, ^is^i/o az sabab-i mayl-i mufrit-ash might be and as ash might refer to a second person and not the subject of the sentence.
^
o>l*l
c^+>
3V
/*=p-^
otJ^r*
1^)
(jwS;
^ t^^
Khuda
pidar-ash rd biydmurzad
then -God bless uftdd (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. IV.) interfered." When the pronoun precedes its anteun a cedent, the construction is termedy^l cUi ;U*e izmdr qabi -z-zikr.
'
C-
"
The first person is more worthy ( second, and the second than the third:'
(b)
2
J^*f
"more
idiom
j*Jki
the
cu*^^>
speaker
mentions
himself
&*'$'
first.
^^
fa
L5^^ )* f^^J^^j^
t^j^
j \^
plshin
va dust-l chun du magjiz-i bdddm dar pust~i* suhbat ddshtim " I recollect that a friend and I, in former days, etc." (Sa'di) ma n V& c5^^ ^^T^ J e/ pisar-i nd-khudd-yi jahdz ham budlm
jtJj>jj
man
'
(m.c.)
^>jt^
I too
were present
" there
:fe
^b U^J^
na man va na shumdbi-m kdr ta'alluq darlm^ (m.c.) "neithei ^;t^ (5i*J 6 you nor I am concerned in this business."
dir
tehwabidan
"
former might signify getting up late next day." * It is usually this rule that determines the person of the verb when differen in the plural. persons are its subject ; the verb of course being 5 But when confessing a fault it is in English permissible for the speaker to assum<
as
^e
the
first place.
In modern Persian yak pust. a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers connected by conjunctions or or nor, it should in English agree with that nearest to it. For
*
6
When
th<
th<
31
482
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
i.e.
is
2nd
and 3rd
may
an inanimate noun, as: *>> *& v^-> ^W eX^Jf ^Hr* c/f J& ( ot/- I? ) j an mlkh-hd az zamin chahdr vajdb buland bud va sarhd" those yash (or sar-i shdn) tlz (m.c.) pegs stood four spans out of the ground and were pointed"; *&! J^lxLoi; rdstlydt-ash In ki (vulg.) " the truth of it
refer to the plural of
jMv
the antecedent to a demonstrative, possessive, or relative " No one as not pronoun distinctly known, ambiguity results, as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined & them in dogs " o-^ij^ ty 3^J J^^* \) <vUof \&j> ^*0* er^V** Ito9 hif w> Jiich has id bi-hdl tarktb-i gurda-yi insdrii rd ^paiiii (jL tejf
(d) (1) If
is
:
^^
J^
makshuf na-karda bud; halta VaseliyusTiam.dn ra faqatdarsa^ataftishkarda. Read kidneys (ij i*t- J^? gurda-yi sagha ra) for them (lyf an ra) as the
*
'
'
'
is
'human kidneys.'
i^Ay
cj^j
*^
fjl* *^y 4 ^U^3 j|j^ Uijj^y A** %* bayad rish-i tu khayll safld-tar va az in-ha daraz-iar bashad va chashm-at Jchayll dunyadida-tar ki ma ra rudast 1 bi-zani (Haji Baba) *'your beard must be much
^J ^^
^ (jr^
1
*^-*-^ j
deceive
whiter and longer than it is, and your eyes more wide-awake, before you can me"; here the antecedent of in-ha is the singular risk, which
the speaker, thinking of the hairs of the beard, incorrectly treats as a plural. (2) Though the affixed pronouns may sometimes be the source of
sative
31 (a), (3) ], the position of the accuambiguity as already shown [vide and dative ra will often determine the antecedent, thus
:
magar vaqt-i ki dukhta-ash ra bakhsKidi Zlbd Khanum digar* misl-i an ra nakhwdhad khwdst*? (m.c.) "but Sir, when you have presented the made-up
here the \j garment of it, will not Ziba Khanum want another like it ? ra shows that &&j,> dukhta is the object and <Jtf ^h cannot, therefore, mean "to her": (j^t^teu AXSX^ dukhta bakhshidi-sh would mean "when
;
"
this
f;
(^AsJ
its
x^
u^d
?
t;
md bi-shinavim?
account
Rudast
is
Nfrkbqjahad bhyast
as
'*
want one."
" Dlgar here has the meaning of again," and does not refer to the cloth but to
time*
PRONOUNS.
483
as
Remark. It is not necessary in Persian to repeat the possessive pronoun, " From his birth to " his death <J$j*j $ ** jj) > az ruz-i tavalludta ruz-i
marg-ash, or
J^j*
jjj^
c4^y J^
when
of
*
31
The former
(e)
is
the better.
the demonstrative pronouns 'this' and 'that*
*
(1)
In English,
in
are
used
the
'
sense
former,' and
'
latter,'
'this'
'
:
and
'these'
that
and
'
those
'
with
:
'
former
and
Precisely the
same
}
rule holds
good in Persian
(j^f
l
e>*
,>
c/f
*j$
J&U^/
^ji
*&lj
jt
tjjb;^
cX
Dogs and porters when they see a stranger at the door, The latter seize him by the scruff of the neck and the former by
his coat-tails."
"
b&j* &$
e/f jl
cf^^y^t
tf
ta ikhtiyar
kardl az an
fariq ra (Sa'di)
that you chose the latter class in preference to the former." " in the " " Compare the use of Inja here" and anja there following:-
Ixujf j
(^AJ naqd-i na-dihi biz&at-lna-sitani va Inja ta iradat-l nayari sa'adat-% na-bari (Sa'di) "just so the house of worship is like the shop of cloth- sellers,
^U^
*^^t
o'31)
1
va'z
^ ^J
you pay cash you get no goods, and in the former you bring sincerity you get no lasting reward"; here anja and (inja) inja are reversed, not by a slip in writing, but because anja refers to an object more remote to the speaker's mind, viz. the shop. u "he" is used for an "the former " in (2) The personal pronoun jf
for in the latter (anja)
till till
OAAI*JJ*
^UA?
Shakhs-i
hama
girist
Chun ruz shud u bi-murd u bimar bi-zlst (Sa'dl). " One wept all night beside a sick person When day dawned the weeper (the former) died and
one recovered and lived."
the sick
e/f
an would
CM
Must be pronounced
giriban-sh, to scan.
*
*
tej O^ ^ *
484
(3)
PRONOUNS.
This and that as demonstrative pronouns
' :
(a) (3), the pronoun this may refer to a preceding or a succeedor clause, as: "I tried to lift him, but this was impossible" ing noun *^ *k* e*>f c/*^ l> y f*~f>^ khwdstam ki urd bar pa ddram valikin
Like
'
it
(>!>
inna-shud
**S
^.
(m.c.)
*
is
1
"this
is
my
jj afjf
CA*| khdhish-i
man
t^cr*^
as,
(4)
Such
''such people"
when
it
qualifying a noun,
becomes
;
demonstrative
will trade."
pronoun, as
should
with such I
"
:
When, however,
follow
lovely dress
(and
so)
is
often
omitted, as
was such a
of unity
'
"
(that
In Persian, the
and
as
a certain intonation
such
'
demonstrative adjective, as p' **}}** 1*5*7* vf ^ ma b-i sard-i khurda im " we've drunk such a cold water (that I can't describe it, or I hate (m.c.)
to think of it)."
(/)
Classically,
and
in m.c., dnki
sative
is
A^ff dn
rd ki: but in
he who," and its dative and accumodern Persian u ki and urd are also used:
is
{t
An ki khwdb-ash bihtar az blddrt-yast An chundn bad-zindagdm murda bih (Sa'dl). " He whose sleeping is better than his awakening
.
were better dead." 3 U Aa. ix^laxx: ji cu^f c^b v UA. &f va an rd * ki hisdb pdk ast az ty f j muhdsabachi bdk ast (Sa'dl) "what fear has he of the accountant whose
Such an
ill- liver
6 accounts are clear and straight ? Even in modern Persian a&f dn ki and **VT dn rd ki are to be preferred
"
to *^l
ki or *$
!j
y urd
ki.
they,
In English also, these and those have greater emphasis than the pronoun " and are better substituted for it before the relative "who."
&(**/* tshdn ki tars-i shdn bd'is na-ddrad chird bdyad
fear
"
Why
tf eA.-!(
;Ky^ Jij
**\j \j*>
tj&
^**lj
bi-tazvir kdr
bi-kunand (m.c.): for 'they' read 'those,' and for <y ishan
ki.
))^*>1 9 or
chunln mardum
W ^^ ^U
.
; J>&f
chi <arz
kunam ?
&
\)j\
ki, it
would not be
O^
PBONOUNS.
(g)
485
is
a pronoun referring to a subject already mentioned, or to something present, the pronoun unless it is emphatic is omitted, the verbal termination sufficiently indicating the
the subject of a short clause or sentence
When
person: oi?
me": oi?
jf
u bi-man guft
"he
said to
me."
^^\
is
But
in a sentence like
*I^>i jt
" what he has A^uf anchi u navishta ast necessary, unless the subject has just been
mentioned, for otherwise o*t &&j> A^uf anchi navishta ast might signify " and not " he has written." " what is written
Remark.
following
:
oiklj
^Cj o*jj
o+& v l^t
ejX-
jvx>^^3
j(
^$&j*ji &sof
Lot
e^y^kU.
man'
1
<xi~A
<^x*f
& Jb
munasib-i
sirat-i
^j^^ amma
nist
'* but as for what gardamdan va baz bi-na-ummidi khasta-khatir kardan (Gul.) did as is not the part him it and him regards snubbing you away, turning of a magnanimous nature to first encourage and then disappoint a person."
(h)
similar rule
question:
"Where
is
may hold good with regard to the object. Thus to the namiSo-and-so?" the answer might be p>\**+> " I don't know, I haven't seen j^/o^j^j na-didam-ash) ash J^*>&)&> ura na-dldam of na-didam instead j\ \)
^^
would be wrong, as the separate pronouns (unlike the affixed pronouns) are
Remark.
Where a pronoun
it is
express the meaning, see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow and are led to consider the cause of J^^xj AUXJ ^* tf \j ^>jf u> c$^b o^i^t it"^^'f ma ikhtilaf-i rangha-yi qaws-i quzah ra lei mi-bimm bi-khiyal
or a pronominal adjective does not clearly Thus better even in Persian to repeat the noun.
"We
ki
ba is-ash
chist.
Better
say
"
*U65'i-< an
(i)
ikhtilaf chist.
If,
subject
is
emphatic,
it
must be
are the
inserted, as:
j ^jJ^lLX
U ma
makhluqim va u khdliq
"we
created and
He
the creator,"
man Tchud-am bifiXja ftj** p*"^t f&i^ (&* "1 myself with my very own eyes saw it."
*
J>
Mahmud
lost."
kitab-ash
gum shud
(jb\X
^*
(m.c.)
" Mahmud's
of
book was
For
(k) For the position of the 130. clauses, vide (q) (6) and
(I)
relative
relative
while
'
In English *each other* is correctly applied to only two objects, one another' is applied to more than two, but no such distinction is
;
observed in Persian
4
^^ yak
dtgar
and
jt>>*
p*
ham
each other* or
'
one another.'
486
PRONOUNS.
In English
'
each
'
is
'
every
when
are only two or at the most few. 'Every' on the other hand singles out persons or things when the number is more than two. In Persian har
bo
is
each
'
or
'
every.'
is
though properly singular, may qualify a plural noun that a is as bi-har dah nafar-i "to every ten men"; unity: regarded " " har dar bist c^xct^;l^ ^A k^a qadam-t at every twenty paces har chahar sa'at-% yak martaba " once every four hours."
'
Every
har,
^^ ^
Remark.
s$j>
^ "none
***>
,
na
f.
is
But in
^j
which
is
^
l
#& ^ ^
j*>.
relate to two things only: for be and should 'none used. any In Persian there is no such distinction ^ j& har du with a negative
and
*
'
neither
'
'
j*>
(^yjf
#>& hich az in har du with a negative verb, can of course For examples, vide 39 (/) (2).
self, used alone, is properly a noun, both in English and " the love of self is predominant" Persian, as:
^s**l
The word
i;
^
f
^^f
adam
&+?.
khud ra az hama
(o)
Hama
*+A
"all"
"He
gave them
a turn an
(m.c.)
"
<-
cA^t
j
J
$*
did
e;^y u bi-hama-yi ishan yak tumdn dad that he gave them all collectively a &\*j* but
;
^^y
(m.c.)
properly
eAA-Jt 3
signifies
jt*
tuman."
(p}
in Persian, as:
va tu
j* liar du, is often pleonastic in English as well as wan ) er "you and I both agree" *^t y f^^ ^ J A 8 har du muttafiq-lm bar 'Amr ki and (both) met," Zayd "Zayd
"Both,"
u Amr
(har du)
:
ham
fj
<Jix> ( two hats are (both) alike " oil j* *>^ j*> In du kuldh (har du) misl-i* ham-and (m.c.). In "they (both) met
^Xj^x*^
oL?ilx>
these
^^ ^
^3 ^ ^
j+z j
'
singular.
)(f* <jf 3
c)^'
(az
an chahar
ta)
na-raft,
but in m.c.
* 2/ afc
Or tjfyj* har yak-l. 3 Even if the meaning be "you and I both agree with a third person," the pronoun both* is not wanted either in English or Persian. * But in *S[ UaH* ^f in kulah-ha har du misl-i ham-and (m.o.> f* l& )* j*> the wo rds har du "both M are necessary to show that there are only two.
'
PRONOUNS,
4>
487
(j*j*) lahan (har du) bi-ham rasidand, the pronouns 'both* and
(1)
Which
'
but a clause, as
ki, as
"he
lot of trouble."
'
^^
*&
la
u bl-gunah
(2)
lei
na-bud (m.c.).
In English, 'that' is frequently preferred to 'who,' as: "I that thee unto y b <*&*> man ki ba lu harf ml zanam speak ^UA p>y** * hamdn-am Also that in English is preferred after a superlative, as " the prettiest woman that I ever saw "; in Persian this relative must be
' '
J^
'
(3 paraphrased as f IP^ ^(^^ ^jb <yj JILJ ^xs man id bi-hdl zan-i bi-in cu^i or &) ^>\ ^JJAJJ **Sl^& khush-giti na-dida-am (m.c.), JL^^ khush in zan ast (m.c.) or *jt& Jto &f c>^| &j gil-tarin-i zanhd-1 ki dida-am
: f
^j
^^^
all
That is more restrictive than who.' " the Hindus who came to the Consulate
' '
'
"
(3)
Yesterday I interviewed
JLJy>
AJ
<*il>
^i*
<L*&
^.jj^^
ftjf
s^&
ly^f
A^T
dlruz ki hama-yi
Hunud
ishdn rd muldqdt kardam (m.c.), signifies that all " interviewed. But yesterday I interviewed all the Hindus that
Consulate"
behind.
interviewed,
In
olSlto
&
A^J^XA <L*
>
jj^
Hunud'l ki*
bi
qunsulrkhdna dmadand muldqdt kardam it is not clear whether the Hindus came and were interviewed, or whether all came and
From
**
these remarks
'
it
will
that' in preference to
who.'
ay
e;^
^ f^
'
:
&U~Jt **-
tSa'ld^s-^aUana ki hdkim-i
s-Sultana,
'
Kirmdn
of
khidmat-i jandb-i bud rasldam (m.c.) " I went to the Sa'ld 1' 1
wU^
cux>*^
However,
man
Kerman,"
it is
'
rendered by
1
therefore
of
'
who.
If
ki
to refer to
4
8
+t>
VSAA| fc^j
buda
ast.
(JLsi^.3
!u
o^/of
&lrx
tS
or
<+*
dlruz hama-yi
:
ki bi-qunsal-
amadand mulaqat kardam (m.c.) (^ ra could be omitted in both the previous must be added to the second example in (3). examples, but the relative
Or
Hunud
ra.
488
PRONOUNS.
" There were very few passengers who escaped without serious injury. Times 8th Jan., 1868. [This might be resolved into and all escaped,' etc.
'
That would exactly reverse the meaning almost all the passengers were " Hodgson. In *j* l^iU &c**o oJ^j &ijb~* ( kam seriously injured.'] musafirin budand ki sadma-l bi-anha na-rasld, the ambiguity is preserved
:
in Persian
*>ty
***t>*
is
)l
-
&>*x*> tf
little
na-rasld
to
kam budand
ai><* \*}
also
mean
A*/o
^ ^ ^^ t>^-~*
^c^clU;
e.'.O
5
az musafirin khayll
<s+* kam-l az
kam
bl-sadma
^^ jf
musafinn bi-salamal
dar rajtand.
'
(4)
What
'
is
The host provides what fare he pleases/ 'what' a demonstrative both adjective and a relative pronoun, and must be
In the sentence,
fiar
rendered in Persian by
'
ki,
as
mlzbdn
liar
khurak-l ki
^^ <xb^^*
&$
^^^^> dfaj**.
'
'
The relative what with its compounds (< whatsoever,' etc.), both The interrogative what in English and in Persian, refers only to things. though also neuter may be applied to persons, but when so applied refers to " " What are the character or quality of the person or persons, as you ? o>^iwfc &*. U shuma chi hasttd (m.c.) ( = what sort of person are you ? shuma chi-kara Jiastid (m.c.) " what is your profession ? " but <Hi~A *fe *^ <c what have you to do with this ? " or
(5)
:
^
is
Whatever
j**>
'
' '
-.;!*x
t>*>^>
u*> &+)
#W
bi-hich vajh
1
mm
+j
The following sentence is, therefore, "He is unworthy of the confiequally objection cable in both languages: dence of a fellow-mortal that disregards the laws of his Maker," ;Uk &$j\ ^ >^~-V u layiq-i i'tibar-i insan nist ki hukm-i L*** ^' b cA^^ f^
placed as to prevent any ambiguity.'
&^
*j
** He that disregards the Khaliq-ash ra bi-ja nami-avarad (m.c.). Corrected: " <*&f laws of his Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow- mortal
o^cJ^
)ty*
^^
arad layiq-i
i tibar-i
8
insan
ritst
(m.c.).
should follow the nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of another noun. Avoid such sentences as Muhammad pisar-i " *AK ra son of Ghulam kiln kitab the bi-man dad Qliulam Muhammad, 'All who gave me this book /' unless (jjiulam *All be the antecedent
:
Pronouns
of
'
who.'
Asia
>U
'
asl an
Remark
II.
Not
it,'
vide
(a) (3j.
PRONOUNS.
In,
481
" David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath/' and " David,
th<
father of
Solomon who
built the
In
e^Jlx *r c;U^- j*j t*j\s the ** may refer either to Even in English the writer should not be at the to Sulaymdn.
cJte"
t^
Da*ud
mercy
o
c
from confusion as
sometimes in familiar language omittec i In, "he is a man I greatly respect/' the relative 'whom' is omitted in Persian: c*W omitted be cannot ki but the connective English, -;f*x jkx^Iaa^o tf u sJiakhs^ -st ki muhtaratn-ash mi-daram (m.c.). not infrequent error consists i (8) Hodgson says, "an awkward and
^&
as abrupt transition from a relative clause to one of direct affirmation, have read of a man who was very rich, but he was very miserly."
'
Persian
also,
this
error
occurs:
^cL y
Uf
Jj+i*
ki khayli
mutamavvil
amma u
^^
or vulg.).
the principal subject is sometimes erroneousl treated as the object of the verb in the relative clause, as vJSOV ** -* ^ IS 42 (e), duzd bud, vide ;jj J^NJ mard'i ra ki imruz chub zadand
In
modern Persian,
'
and
119
(g)
footnote.
of errors in the use of the relative
:-
"All these princes are Emperor and ever as tribute, furs and gok second year repair to Pekin, whither they carry " &* \^*\ ciust which their subjects collect from the sands of their rivers
tributary to the Chinese
Itama-yi In
umura mufa-i Khdqan-i s Chm-and, va liar yak sal dar miyd bi-Plkin mi-mvand, ra bar ay -i kharaj bi~hamrah-i khud khaz va rizaha-yi tila mi-barand ki ra'aya-yi islian az rlgha-yi rud-khana-lia-yi khu&4 shan jan
as well as 'gold dust' is tl inl-kunand (m.c.). In this sentence 'furs in the Persian furs cann< and both in the English antecedent of which whither the be gathered from the sands of rivers. Correct as follows *L>* ^* J carry as tribute furs, and the gold-dust that'
'
c
'
'
-^Ajlib
IA
tila-1
^ ki.
who
For confusion
is ^ Classically tho Emperor of China means " a bowl of tho best china." 4 The singular jjj rba could bo used
490
ADJECTIVES.
Luckily the monks had recently given away a couple of dogs, which " were returned to them, or the breed would have been lost
"
ittifdq
ruhban
sagbi-kas-i bakhshlda
mi-raft.
budand
ki bi-lshan pets
Here
Corthe principal assertion rected Luckily a couple of dogs which the monks had recently given were returned to them, etc.' bi-husn-i ittifdq yak juft sag ki ruhban away,
incorrectly placed in
'
bi-kas-i
."
CHAPTER
121.
(a)
XV.
Adjectives.
Diminution of quality cannot as in English be expressed by preand least to the adjective. Resort must be made to paraphrase, u kamtar az u dawlat ddrad (m.c.) " he is less rich " as ^;f^ oJj^jf jty {$ y " ov~>f ot^^ j*+ ^icl?ui shuja'at-ash kamtar az digardn ast (m.c.) he is less brave than the others. " few " or " little (6) In English the indefinite article before changes the meaning from negative to positive, as: *' there were few persons
fixing less
:
:
\\
5 '
'
" <4 he needs little " there were a few aid," and present," persons present " he needs a little aid." The distinction in Persian can be preserved by
:
t^uT anja kam-i bu-dand\ sentences by x>j^j ^ chand the second two by *-+* and anja nafar budand; kumak dddan bi-u kamtar Idzim ast, and ^+? g+'
first
iXAt^Rjtx)
yak kam4 kumak mi-khipahad The negative use of kam and kamtar
.
is
also illustrated
^b
&f
^^
*'
^^fc
by the following
kam kun
^^4
p'
crave not of worldly sweets to take your fill," &^j&!)* &> *> vtf an bih ki dar in zamdna
friends
kam 3 gin
(0.
dust
from
this
rude
multitude,"
K. Rub. 77 Whin.).
m.c. phrases jj* *t; 31 fj&frjb&j u bi-kam-tar chiz-l az rah * " goes wrong for the least thing ij ; ^t In kar ra " kamtar bi-kun (m.c.) don't act like this," and && kamtar fazufc bi;
^ jM
*
^Jy^^
raltib.
2
*
In m.c. often incorrectly used as a singular: In m.c. o&=> ju/i is often slovenly used
'
pi. of u-Mfc
like
the Kri^Jish
word
'
couple
for
two
8
mean "
*
properly signifies a pair, male and female. Kam here means 4 not" as may be seen from the whole context,
;
it
'
it
does not
less."
of the
means
^ ^ fy jl^df
gf-fctf
comparative for the superlative and vide (). & U-hlcli chlz az rah naml-ravad, )\
ADJECTIVES.
491
kun " talk less rot, don't talk rot," (more cutting than the direct ^* df** fazuti ma-kun "don't meddle, etc."): cuk */ *-*&> *i\*\*. chanddn ki talab kard kamtar yaft (class.) "the more he searched the less he found.'*
^
71
Andak
(/).
with their (c) In English, adjectives implying unity or plurality agree * " " nouns in number, as that sort of person/' those sorts of persons."
:
j^ ^
:
)&>
in jur-
mardum.
(d)
v=***
!
JW
In comparisons, the noun in Persian should be repeated, as &* y-t " J* V**' y asp-i man az asp-i tu bihtar ast my horse is better than
Colloquially it is sometimes omitted if no ambiguity arise from the omission, as: o**( y&xJ U jf ^* j+& umr-i man az shuma bishtar ast (m.c.) "I am older than you." Jf the word asp w^*t were omitted in the first
yours."
lie
In the m.c. phrase c*i ^3^ &$ baz-i an ast, the word baz is merely a corruption of y *>> bih az. Baz-i an ast is, however, used in speaking by even educated people.
When the comparative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison should never include the former. Thus it is correct to say: " eu*u3 " Iron is more useful than all the other metals ^Lo^j.^ etjji* 9+*>y ^Af
ahan az hama-yi filizzat-i diyar mufid-tar ast. But it is incorrect, though not an uncommon mistake in English and in Persian, to say" than all the metals " e^*! y *xJix> o|>l> i*A Jf ^af ahan az hama-yi filizzat mufid-tar ast
" " improper to say Solomon was wiser than any king y> 3 e;U^ ^yUfj> ^l^k Sulayman azharpadishah-i ddna-tar bud. because Solomon was a king and he could not be wiser than himself. The correct form is "3 " Solomon was wiser than any other king y ^U^.^ eA^^o ^ *A 3^ c>m**
It
is
1
(m.c.).
az hama-yi padishahan-i-digar
is the case with superlatives. When the superlative degree is employed the latter term of comparison should not exclude the "The former. Thus it is incorrect both in English and Persian to say:
elephant
is
the largest of
all
u,a>
^yf>^
Modern
'*
oy^
(m.c.).
har qadr
blslitar ifdab
(or
*
8
g%r-a9h
amad
Those sort
of persons
"
is
common
of
English vulgarism.
the
(e).
kings"
e>to>U^L}
^y
lJ|j>
oUiL^
vide
y^>J
el**
aat is correct
vide
(d).
492
ftl
ADJECTIVES.
buzurg-tarin-i hama-yi hayvanat-i digar ast
(m.c.).
all
others
is
^**
&*A jf
V.JJA*
ayb-i
^^C^
ousness Mrs
ness
is
correct (m.c.)
Covet-
the worst
l
Say
v-fc*
covetous-
^^
yi 'uyub
(/)
ast.
superlative
plural,
^l^a
,"
cu-itf
&$w-t" darwshtin an
darvishes
he who
still it
-*'
may sometimes
qualify a
noun
in the ordinary
manner, as
^-/V cs^"*
mard
ast (m.c.).
If,
Persians
^ij
^^ ^
Arabic and precedes the noun, some ^^j ***[;* dar as'ad-i zaman-i '*inthe " in a time the dar bihtarln
vaqt-%
is
o*!
y^
*^*jl
hama
^^
In qalam
l^Jt^
is
A^^JI ,JJ
^|
In qalam az hama-yi
qalamha bihtar ast (m.c.) the former expression both are in common use.
:
by even good writers, as y cl^'f afzal-tar;^ w*~if ansab-tar; p&j* a alam~tarin-i hama-yi mardum (m.c.) "the wisest of all."
:
(^ fl*\
"
per-
(h)
Some
J^l^ kamil
fect,
complete,"
of
comparison, either in
English or in Persian.
:
" Other examples are ^ pur or^JUx> mamluv "full ^J^ Khali or iuh\ "empty"; rast o^i ; "true"; durugh "false"; &>\$ nihdyat " extreme " or (subs.) c~*i; rast "straight." mustaqlm
^ai^x>
"More complete" is, however, in common use in English and "most complete" is not uncommon in old ballads. Sa'dl uses yJU>K kamil-tar and in khayli sahih* ctir^^ Kamil-tarin, and the expression o^f y ^^^ tar ast " this is much more correct," is common in modern Persian.
^^ ^
kM
The words
and
*-^*
;^
))**>
a com-
"Zayd
tarlnri
was the most culpable ' dy^Atf <*+* ^y^afl* *JJ Zayd hama-yi digar bud (ra.o.): say Zayd was culpable above all others'* A+A jfy IfU 4x5) Zayd bala tar az hama muqassirbUd (m.c.).
of all others
*
ADJECTIVES.
49S
(i)
When
noun, the order in Persian is (1) numeral, (2) noun, (3) adjective, as: &jJ j& du navishtajdt-i dkhirm-i shuma your two last letters
'
'
' '
J.|
JL>
%* ;a
dar dak
sdl-i
avval-i
(**)
saltanat-ash
"in the
first
ten
c#
first
^^
j&
two names."
:
A
of
Korman "
men
cA^
c\ j^>
\&*.j^^ *j*
jt>
du mard-i
'
dlim-tarin~i
Kirmdn
(or better
Remark.
fours and
(c5-^f
If,
it is
'
'
'
^
(j)
*~> si td-yi
and ^js
^ )^
first.
it is
in
To avoid
are sometimes
*
joined
to the
things animate and inanimate," oU* ^ 'dlam-i haydt va mamdt is better than c^U* ^*JU ^ oU^ ^Jb 3 (This haydt va dlam-i mamdt, but the latter is more emphatic.
the
singular
thus,
for
"
^^
"
/*^
dlam-i
is really
<JUa*Jf
o^a*
Qdli-yi
naw va kuhna
ra biydr
\j
zifjy
LS^* signifies
the new (one) and the old (one) carpets"; but ;U? \) j y c5^^ qdlihd-yi naw va kuhna ra biydr signifies bring more than one of each [vide
also
bring
119
(r).]
Remark.
it is
In the following, owing to the non- repetition of the adjective, not clear to what two objects "Between" refers: " Between such a
Scylla
c
steer
clear?"
(repeat
r
(jO'Jer?^ (tf^*- e;^3 az miydn-i Charbydis '), a;xk ^f>lv rud-khdna va lajun-zdr-i ki mi-tavdnad bi-guzarad. [Say
^^^
chumn
^^
lajun-zdr-i, etc.]
In
"a
well-dressed
^^U (J^^ &jj &j* mard u zan-l khush libds-i, the adjective both in English and Persian qualifies two nouns. But in " a well-dressed man and a woman" <yjju^ <jry wiorA* khush libds-i va zan-* 9
zan-l khush libds, or
uA
du navishta-yi
*
8
Ar. br. plurals are often treated as singulars. It would, however, be better to say In modern Pers. 5M*5 preferred to ajc&irln. abhir%-yi shuma.
The Old and the New Testaments &** j *!*^ *** >ahd i jadld va *o%. The Persians have a great dislike to the close repetition of the same word ; they delight in ambiguity and study sound rather than sense, therefore, an ambiguity
that in English would be a fault,
is in
494
or
ADJECTIVES.
k
is
<jUJ u*^* L*J* mard-l khush libds bd zan-l, the attribute to one substantive.
^3
restricted
may mean
(1)
for
all
with some boys." (3) In Persian, however, **vj ty*j& ^^ 6*^ nafar mard u bachcha could have the signification of No. (2) only. No. (1) would be expressed by j& c: y
twenty/' or
"
btst
*j blst
(I)
nafar mard va bist nafar pisar, and No. nafar mard ba chand pisar.
(3)
by
When
in English
two adjectives, or
sets of adjectives,
connected by
'and,' qualify the same noun in the singular, it is better, if two nouns are intended, to repeat the noun after each adjective or set of adjectives,
thus:
"I
egg"
fO;>&
<^ ^*^ / f ^
3
,
(*>JL^
if
or tukhm-i murgh-i kuchak-i laq-l khurdam (m.c.) tukhm-i kuchak man murgi-i yak J
-a^
[
*j* p**3
va
lag
but
fresh
and the
other
addle,
would
be better in English to repeat the noun in order to avoid ambiguity and in Persian the article, if not the substantives, must be repeated, as "I ate a
:
(i.e. two eggs) f^;y^ $* *j* p*3 ej e^ va man yak tukhm-i muryh-i taza \) yak-i lag khurd&m: j^ ^j* *~**\ " asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biyar can only mean bring the bay Arab " but Arabt va kahar rd *~\ horse would
"
$ ^^
"
\)j
^^
asp-i
biyar
mean
J&U/c jfo^b
cua^f; rakat-i
*'
pdydar-i mustaqill
;
J4
real
ness"
In
is
preferable to Jai~*>^
o>>*fr*
o>k~?
AJti^jd
*J|;df^ c^jxuc
(yalcsan nami-shavad)
(is
*''the alfeation of
an
ellipsis of
mahabbat after it. If two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, they should be coupled to each other by an izafat; as in the above example,
** asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biyar bring the bay Arab horse." or more Sometimes substantives with a preposition take the* one (m)
* )* ***& *tyj1 {j**$er~^ place of an adjective, as v^ *3* jl \) ^&. ra 'Arab kanlzak-l az muluk-i chmi dvarda dar g&ayat-i bftdan JU*> j yak-i Msn u jamal (SaMl) " a Chinese slave-girl, possessed of great beauty, was brought and given to an Arab king."
l
^&
:
(n)
Some
"
by the
genitive, as
ocf;^ Jblf
qdbil-i
zird'at
capable
**
cultivation
(of
Tchasta-yi tir-i
taqdvr (class.)
wounded by
the
arrows of fate
"
^A
&*>** mutavajjih-i
It is
much
by the
oopula.
ADVERBS.
;
495
" " wounded *hahr " going towards the city $ ^jj?** majruh-i u by him" ; " J&* JUtx> muhdl-i *aql\ khwdhdn-i desirous of "; haris-i "covetous " desirer of ." talib-i
of";
It will
participles, active
and
passive.
122 Adverbs.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The following quotation from the Gulistan, therefore, contains a grammatical error; it is
(a)
probably a misreading
Bi-chashm-i khwish dldam dar biydbdn Ki-mard-i dhista * bi-guzasht az shitdbdn (Sa'di). the English errors " thine often infirmities";
;
"the then
of it."
:
An
'
4 adjectives can be used as adverbs adverb qualifying an attribute to a noun is ordinarily placed between
In Persian,
its
attribute,
as
*s~*t
c$^^*
^5^^
or ^^p^ c^A ^~*>.j*\ &*t (m.c.) "this is a very strange matter " in amr-Vst is often misplaced In the adverb m.c., however, Ichayli 'ajlb.
"
j*\
i&*\
In amr-i Ichayli
before the noun, and this causes ambiguity, as ?^f -^>J** " there was a bud there (m.c.) very large ship anjd khayK kashti-yi buzurg = '* there were many large ships there " ^i^^ *uf (vulg.)" but correctly
:
^^ ^^
:
n i<i kashti-yi khayll buzurg-i bud is clear. (Phrases, etc. signify(jflrt Lf^ In <Wf ^f^i^ v} Zayd Ichanddn ing state or condition are termed hdl JU..
dmad, the word ^f^^ khanddn is termed Jl^ kdl and <x>3 Zayd, zu'l-hdl}. that adverbs and adverbial (c) As in English, care should be taken
adjectives are so placed that they affect what they are intended to affect. This rule is oftenest violated in the use of " only," "not only," "not
<f
not."
In the sentence " these books will not merely interest children, but
"
Jv
I;
by the
.
genitive, inflected or
uninflected.
2
The
Another and better reading is ki ahista sabaq burd az figure of syntax by which one part of speech is used
" he Also occasionally in English as
flies
Enallage.
*
high."
In
difficult cases
to decide
whether
quality OP manner has to be expressed : if the former an adjective is proper, if the latter " ' * ' an adverb. Ex. " I sat silent ' ; " I sat silently musing ; *' stand firm ; " maintain
496
ADVERBS.
masrurmt-sdzad balki mardum-i bdligji ra mz (m.c.), no obscurity 'either in the English or the Persian, the collocathe words not merely,' do not refer to the verb tion is faulty in both " these books will interest not interest but to children.' Reconstructed,
na
though there
'
'
'
" *Jb o>;U ^jj/*-* f; J&M 4A* <u l^ltf ^| Jb rd na kitdbhd masrur mi-sdzad balki mardum-i \n faqat atfdl fty*
biligi rd
ndz (m.c.). " In 'Umar was not only the destroyer of the Persian nation, but of
its
language and
"
religion
cjljj x^itf
v'^ *Q
^ &^\ ^*
*
J^o^|;Jt v^*^ 'Umar na faqat haldk kunanda-yi millat-i Iran bud balki khardb kunanda-yi zabdn va mazhab-i Irdniydn* niz, the English can be corrected by merely transposing the words not only and placing them
'
after
the destroyer
' ;
must be
recast
j (D^j *j& u/)U Wi j^jfyi v^Xo 'Umar miUat-i Iran rd ty &l**yj& t; faqat haldk na-kard batki zabdn va mazhab rd mz az miydn burd (m.c.). " *f " Because the parrot used to say this phrase only to all comers \^
Jail cuKjjx? ^j ^JJ+A c5-^-^ [better \) j v^Jxx> jj Jail ^^.A ^i\. 3 In m.c. man tanhd &*> Husayn rd didam would accordf*** f; t^r^ " or " I " only I (I alone) saw Husayn ing to the intonation signify either " but **** saw Husayn only faqat (or I^L) tanhd) man Husayn f*** |; &*-** (&* man Husayn rd tanhd (not faqat) didam, or rd didam, and f&* Ij u^^er
^^
^
j+*
ij>j
cr?j
b itrtr** cx man Husayn rd didam va bas* (m.c.) could each of them have but one meaning.
4
j
^^
The
*'
commas,
is
not at
first
sight clear:
^jUa.
XX)
ay e^y
c-ai^ *J
o;^yU
tf U->^j
the lower part of his dress was particularly improper A comma (H.B.). should be inserted after the na, which has to be read in connection with the
"
^A ^
^t^U
words preceding
Remark. ment of "
it.
" Compare, It is true I boarded in the house of Mr. Cherry the headmaster, but I scarcely ever saw him out of school, and I never remember to have heard his voice except
ever, never, scarcely ever, etc."
Hodgson.
when
j*b
in anger," **
^^
y>Uw oJ^ g* j f&t, &*)**> ji ^jU \^\ ;<3J man nudratan urd khdrij az madrasa didam
15
vaqt-i
gkazab ehunida
When
*'
'*
is
followed by the
same
parfc of
speech
*
8
In slovenly modern Persian, e>^l whan might be substituted for u^jtf Irawiyan. The Afghans would probably say man-i lanha, if tanha referred to the
^^
pronoun. ^ This
classical
idiom
is
common
in Afghan colloquial*
CONJUNCTIONS.
bdsham.
*
'
497
:
In the English read I do not remember ever,' and delete when' in the Persian, insert the words o*j hich vaql after *> ki vide also 123 g**
;
(6) (5)
(d)
Remark.
Adverbs are occasionally substitute 1 for nouns, both in English and " wf ^t->J eiUU " Till now Persian, as they have paid no taxes ^A ^5( 13 2 2# a/-aw. hlch mdliyydt na-ddda and.
] :
" He may serve for two or more verbs, as *>&*{* spake and acted wisely," but $3 $6 > j\ u 'aqilana harf zad va ^-ir^ kdr kard (m.c.) is ambiguous, as the adverb may qualify both verbs or only one. In ^ ^ * 5 a) o^ J-A A lUu y S aqilana ham harf zad va ham kdr kard, the adverb qualifies both verbs and in c>^j *-*/^H &jf^* c/3 <**> J *^ ^ *^Wle y
(e]
One adverb
in English
J>J
the
tirst
is
verb only
also
va ba'd az an bind kard bi-harf zadan, the adverb qualifies w/ +* )\ j j>j Jj^ aJiUU aqilana harf zad va kdr ham
kard
ambiguous, but in
^)
o/*- ai^Ulc^
^^l^y w
ftar fcard
va 'dqildna
harf zad there can be no ambiguity. to an (/) Two negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent affirmative, and can be elegantly employed to express a positive assertion,
as
ft
:
ol>
U^^ji j*>U
An
it
may
be
joined to
Uj^Hjfy
^J^
A*^ j
^(i
\\
az bdkhtan-i
ll du daf'a khayll awqdt-ash lalkh sJmd he was put out at losing two games." (h) An adverb qualifying an Infinitive may sometimes be regarded as
^^o dar
(i)
*+) &tl cjOoJUg part of the verb and be preceded by a preposition, as j^j j& ziid* rasdmdan-i inkdgk.az kutdh-l ma-kun (m.c.) "don't be careless
:
^^
in Persian, as
^y
^puf A^
' '
^^ ^U man'
^k
kardam
\) )\
ki dnjd
nd-rawd*
b
(l
I for-
= ft/
^i^ <^; j\
urd az raftan
bi-dnjd
man*
123.
(a)
Conjunctions.
as:
:
" but
and
if
Also in English
'
till
then
'
(Pers.
oy
:
fa
an
vaqt).
is
" revenue" Maliyyat ol^Us prop. and donkeys sheep paid by wanderers
4
5
C^T*
J^
pul-i sari
jUA
*
6
* *
commanded him
to
go there.
' '
32
498
In Persian, however,
**>
CONJUNCTIONS.
/j
vagar,
(in
&& j valikan
**
',
Ufj va
amma,
)
bj va ya,
va chun,
Ixjlj
fa-amma
writing for Uf
ammd "but"
two
are
com
Some conjunctions
Both
are
composed
of
corresponding words.
Examples
(1)
of corresponding conjunctions:
and:
(l
He
"
<*;/
^^
it
is
&MA.
^y
ham khanda
(2)
kard va
ham
girya.
yet, still,
Though, although
"
gawd
"Though
j
the
sea,
still
never full"
rud-khana
jl
L?j,i
J^I^
suU*4?j ;IVA
<*^/t
agarchi hazar
Remark.
Words
may, when
joining
that prefixed to nouns or pronouns are prepositions, " " Before my illness sentences, become conjunctions, as
:
^x^^kGji
Many
I (m.c.) j^jo pish az na-khushi-yi >JjXc ^fj' Jt>% pish az an ki mutavallid bi-shavam* (m.c.).
:
man
" before
was 2 born"
conjunctions are also adverbs. " Whether or: they are killed or I, it matters naught" (3) Whether jl& ^lly (b) *^. A^j *ixi/ ^/c jjf^rL khivah man kushta bi-shavam khwah
na-darad:
''it
makes no
!
him, or I
"
ty&j
<ak
1
*i^.^
\)
y c>^
^j ^
\\
man
va chi isJian
lira
Either
or:
" no fear had he of either God or insan (m.c.) man " " either go or stay " d)^ ^ jj*.^J ya bi-raw yd bi-mdn; vide (5). M " nor Neither act nor promise hastily ^^ cJ^ JU,^ ** (5) Neither >j ^u j na bi-ta'jil amal bi-kun va na va'da (rn.c.): "he feared neither
:
i^l-o j!
<xJ
o^ (^
^^
& na
tarsaz
Khuda^dashtna az
'
'
&^<c y
AJJ
<3^ 3'
A^
tars na-ddsht
na az
na az makkluq.
"
Especial care must be bestowed upon These are correlatives either expecting
*
Remark.
(
'either
*
or'
{
and
'
neither
nor.'
'
or,'
'
and neither
'
positions,
i.e.
either'
must not
neither* a preposition, nor *nor a proprecede a verb nor or' a noun, noun. Though there may be no ambiguity in such sentences, as I have nofc
*
Hodgson.
Also pronounced lakin. Note that the Aorist and not the Preterite
It
is
used.
first.
CONJUNCTIONS.
499
Compare:
without
"
ixtf
" in these times one can neither speak of Church or State cxx3*^0 txSjjI** oJ;^ dar zamdn y AJJ J* jt ^^ti &l#j
^^
(m.c.).
The
be"
)f
o^
122
&ij euJU
speak of neither Church nor State ": the Persian y <ju na az millat va na az dawlat. Vide also
Remark
"
I
to
(c).
am
(
*...*.
(it
"
should be
'
am
not
).
(1)
UJU &*j
;^ &>
i
^ u^^yo
&+*
**
&*
;
(2)
cU*
but
(3) j*I~v
u^ ^
1
70
Ul* U
^x5
f
man
*
'
amal
.
an
*
ya
an
murtdz nistam
though correct is not good (4) f u^^ va na ilm an murtdz-am though correct is faulty
l
*^
^ ^*^
**
ej-^
^^^ ^
amalan
(c) English conjunctions are used as connectives in correspondence or wiiii t^dverbs adjectives
:
Some As
(1)
as, so
"
:
He
is
as amiable as his
ast, or cu^f
o-*!
misl-i baradar-ash
mihrbdn
oW
*'
e>^t^ <JJ*'jt
s)*&\
fin <iadr-i ki
ham
ast (m.c.).
so he rises in estimation
"
hamdn
(2)
So
)jj~~'
as:
J
^jk*
t5^
"No ^f J/ d*
riches
make one
^*Jj^ gAA
so
happy
t
"
vJU
(JI/o
rd
masrur naml-sazad
(m.c.).
"Speak
so
as to
be
understood"
^>A
^yio
(3)
that (expressing
consequence)
him" <**^ +> (j>> ^A &$ *^*p O;^ Aw*f ^^^ ^1 w tawr-i dhista ki Inch kas nami-jahmad. mi-zanad harf " " He is not Not (4) only but, but also: only deaf but (also^ blind k'ii AJ AxJL but better owwj ^t -^ na jdqat kar ast balki kur ham
understand
y
:
^
such
(5)
Such aa
^^J
as
I
There never was such a famine as the present famine " A man cJf^suA AfcA vaqt misl-i hdld qaht-i na-buda:
'
'
/0
misl-i
man
adam-i.
si
such a thief as
^-^
^^
^Ua. cJj
Such
that
" Such
is
the emptiness of
' '
are
o<xfJU^
jJU+ib
is
a demonstrative adjective, as
'
'such people':
JUxf amsal-i shunia ashfehas (m.c.) "people such as you.' Note omission of \) (modern colloquial). The ra should, however, be inserted.
600
+***,&
CONJUNCTIONS.
lazzat-i dunyd an ^adr bi-maza ast ki ma hamisha dar khaydl-ilazzat-i hastim (Here A^U^. chunanchi could not be substituted for tf dlgar (m.c.). because of the preceding ;^f )
jL&
(7)
More, sooner,
jjf^afcJ^ jf
ft
etc.
than:
4<
^.ukx*j
dihand
" The Greeks were braver than the Persians yj>j^* o^ <^ A| (m.c.). *jty ejlyf cU* aAW Tundn diKr-tar az ahl-i Iran budand (m.c.). tafsil-i qaziyya rd chunanchi (8) Pas, hama chashmhd bar man dukhta,
1
^LJl
(jiw ow&fj
;<>
vdqi'
*JIW
"
&&>
*j *<*
&j
all
^^
it
';
*^' J^*^
Chap.
XXXII,
p. 99)
then, while
matter, not as
(d)
it
One conjunction may serve for \* *> go and [if] see him i)jj /*-y j& agar ma biravim va urd bi-binim ". p*v <4 the Foreign Minister and the War The the Prime Minister, Shah, Compare:
Minister were there
'
'
me, I related the had been related." two or more verbs, as: " If we
c^^
laajf
Jo^
,j\j
j <?^;l^ ;^ L^3j
/^l ;^^
^ Shah, Sadr-i
1
,
'* We have A*azam, Vazir-i Umur-i-Khdrija va Vazir-i Jang dnj a budand md kashfi ^ j ^ ^ ships and men and money and stores J^j jl>~ ^iU^ ^j;t ^ va sarbdz va pul va zakhira ddrim (m.c.), but better ^-:;l^ j^r^ (*-J^ c5^*^
' '
a^
^jb f* 7?Ai ^;!^ J^j md kashtt ddrim, sarbdz ddrim, ham ddrim (m.c.). 8 U id <; until, as long as, as (e) The conjunction
rise
pul
ddrim, zakhira
far
to a little ambiguity as
or not.
*
Thus "stay
till
it may either be followed by the negative na return" can be rendered either by Axis' ^xo U
f*
'
j> (&*
bshumd
'
sabr kuriid td
man
bar qardam, or by
^/
ki
U-^
f*j&
is
^U
;
If fa
means
'
'
until
it
requires a negative
as long as
Td
:
vaqt-i
&&)\j
not
marry
till
133
in the Persian
^4
(a)],
oj
^^
uA[^ oUtf
*
<su.j
***> &\1>~&\
^
'
dar
Inglistdn hlch kas td vajh-i kifdj na-ddshta bdshad zan nami-glrad (mod.) there
example means
as long as (they
have not
got)
Misrelated participle.
f^
>^>
Sadr-i A'azam.
And
>JJA
Preposition.
4
6
The present
j^o
l*
^^w
^J
&
ta bar
nargardam
till
shurrta sabr
kumd though
correct would
not be used.
"
I return'*
jab lak
baifoe
vidp Phillott's
CONJUNCTIONS.
501
ta is
tive or both negative, but that this is not a necessity, will be seen from the following examples G &** <u*a> khasta shudand ta ura dana sdkhtand = 13 tjy
:
iia
li'j>
ta
t;jt
by the time
Ura dana na-sdkhtand dram na-giriftand tt oJJ^fc ffyf ta ura dana sakhtand lt wearied were they
AJ
c^*&
fAljiu ^x&
u^
say
;($y*
<a
bi-sarkdr 'arz
sit
nishast (usual)
"
till
^ <J+^.vt ^& ^j
khwaham kard
^
'*
:
my
^!Ja*ij|
tell
/g fa
till
^jy '^1 y az mja na-ravi ta man bar na-gardam (usual) (jSlj laxvji C^^ (^^ td man bar na-gardam mja bash (less usual), or laxijf inja lash ta man bar-gardam (usual) = 1^1 3' f*,{jj ^x>l3 ^b ^t^ ^y U ^a man na-yayam az Inja na-ravl (or ma raw). (jy
act thus
;
"
you
me
about this
f*> j* w*
ki agar bar maid uftad iU^^i fitna na-shavad (Sa'dl) the negative is in some editions omitted, but the sense is slightly altered with the negative the sentence signifies "he feared that
^i?i
;
s*&
Ax?i
&>
>x^^i andlshid
"; without the negative it signifies: "he thought that should the matter become public, it may cause mischief."
*
if
the matter
become
public, I
(/)
Seldom
if
ever* and
if
'
seldom or never/
"He
seldom
ever conies"
may
be rendered ff
J^
>ul#
p*
Jl
(iqarhambi-yayadkhayli kam (m.c.) and "he seldom or never comes" by *& ^ <y O;>AJ ? u bi-nudrat mi-ayad yd Inch* The universal English blunder " I (g) gave no more than I could help" and similar expressions can be rendered in Persian by ^b ty e,X^o G ta
mumkin bud kam dddam fate jb bi-u dddam (&i*j*+f ^Uity A^yk
;
^ ^^c
^ ^^
'
harchi kamtar
mumkin bud
<{
(h)
scarcely addressed
hanuz
bi-u
had no sooner addressed him than he knew me "or "I had him when he knew me 3 = ou*LU fy> tf ^jj vJ^^L \^A harf na-zada budam ki rnara shindkht (m.c.): "I had scarcely
'
set foot
when the
roof fell"
*&\*S
^^j
a^Juf
Na~ravl ^JJ^ more polite than the imperative j^ ma-raw Note that the verb must be in the affirmative after es>)*ij
bi-nudrat,
and
in the
negative after
negative verb ought to be understood after however, this latter sentence is used though incorrect.
ayad
the
AScTi.
Therefore in
^T
^^J
lj
ci;^V
^t
bi-nudrat
ya hlch nami.
In m.c.,
e^j
bi-nudrat.
Hall
ki
man
In
^l^
(Gulistan)
<v
as soon
as
spoke
to
him."
A&JU,
almost obsolete.
502
<*-&*
PREPOSITIONS.
bi*mahz-i In
ki pa
amad
(or bi-mujarrad-i
mki
or
p&\*{
u)jj#
The conjunctions <*&f Jf ^J pasazan-kl, or*&i )\ <** ba'd azan-ki tl after that "; <jM** sabiq bar In ki, *&>\ y JUj qabl az inki, or " before that," are usually in Persian followed by *&>fjf tjku pish az Inki. the Present Subjunctive, even when referring to past time. That this Present Subjunctive may give rise to ambiguity is shown by the examples in
(i)
^^
126
(c).
As modern Persians have an objection to the repetition of the same word in a sentence, &$ is often omitted where in classical Persian it
(j)
would
didn't
probably
be inserted.
(is)
Thus
in,
"
He was
' '
sucli
a fool that he
&$
know
1
,
(&$)
o^i^J
(J+^f
;^f
^^jt
c5^ eA^T an
sar-iu'st
writing.
qadr ahmaq bud ki nami-danist (ki) asman bala-yi the second ki would be omitted in speaking though inserted in
124.
(a)
Prepositions.
A
az
the
izafat, vide
preposition in English can sometimes in Persian be expressed by 121 (o), " Tempted by the Devil" u u~muda-yi Shaytan
1
bud~u
(b)
In English the phrases " In such a difficulty or dilemma " and " in such a difficulty or in such a dilemma" differ: the former signifies only one
thing,
sakjhii-l
Shay tan azmuda shuda bud.' Preposition repeated and not repeated.
So too
^^^^
J^l
refers to
^'^*
ishkal- 1
^^
dar
cJmnm
^^r
express the
sakhil'%.
thought by ^xiu*
like
'*
^^ J^^'
Though phrases
:
in joy or sorrow
"
and
'
in
wealth or poverty"
distinct to repeat
;*>
are quite clear as they stand, it keeps the two states " " in the preposition, as joy or in sorrow p* )* j
more
ykam Though
still
"
^s^
j*>*
;i
tj
^*
to
**
preposition
is
be preferred in English,
distinct,
objects
to
repetition
(even
the
previous sen-
except in
I see
certain special
cases
for
phrase
"
It
ast.
it
Here
might be mistaken
for
transitive verb.
8
In the
first
is
Note the
In
rn.c.
of unity
is
added
to the second
i,s
noun
used.
only.
PREPOSITIONS.
503
nam
(m.c.), is
l ma-bayn-i ahl-i shahr va dihdt nanfi-Kgrammatically incorrect in English* and unidiomatic in Persian
^U ^i
/ar^-i
ta
mki
; tj ^fabf j v f the uninhabited salt desert of Iraq ": (insert^ bl before ^toljf of jl>+> namak-zar may be understood before it). abadam, otherwise the ^
pi**
} <$(,*
we reached
<
^
:
(c)
Besides,'
'
'
including
is
a hundred
va
*o%
<X
AAX>
^Uy
'
jt
v*^|^o (m.c.).
:
Inclusive of
y**>
oUl^
^*U>
^\ j>
" exclusive
3
of, except,'*
))
aside)/
refers should be plural, but the environment to which 'amidst* refers may be singular, as: "Among his " amidst the x miyan-i) <J^&*) friends" ^l* ma-bayn-i (or rufaqayash;
(d)
The environment
to
which among
snow "
*Jji
^U^ miyan-i
*
barf (not
4^ (^U ma-bayn-i
barf)]
1
"amidst the
darkness" c**Ue ^Ux; miyan-i zulmat (or;^ dar, or *^;^ (j ^ miyan-i tanki). In Persian, if amidst' refers to singular environment ^U* miyan only
is
"
divide betweea
ta)
two"
l>
;Uc
^
'
mabayn-l du
e)
(
^-A> U;|JA
'
Betwixt/ or
*
between
'
is
'
parties, but
among'
or
amidst
to a greater
number.
(
' following are examples of a misuse of the preposition between owin- to a confusion of thought in none of them is it clear to what two
:
The
'
are from well-known authors and the Persian translations have passed muster with educated Persians. 6 " Between each 8 are planted box trees " jU^ plane tree ^l^;* 0<*o;*C
objects
refers.
between
'
oUj> cUf j
only.
ahl-i dihat.
is
added
to the
second
noun
*
i
Corrected
"Between
in villages."
in its stead to
it.
*
a private
Allq, forage
and kah (chopped straw). be noticed that though ^Ux? miyan can take the place of ^xilo ma bayn> the latter cannot always take the place of &\**> miyan the former refers to singular or
:
plural environment the latter to plural only. " Errors in the use of * Taken from Hodgson's English." * Insert " and the next."
;
504
niahdnda-and. 1
PKBPOSITIONS.
"
parts, with long intervals is*ty &*^' j *& jy+jy* ^(3S ^>\
^^
ty
+j* (^ U
shud va
fasila-yi ziydd-i
ma
bayn-i har
juzv* bQd: "where between every stitch she could look up and see what was " UU3 j <xtf W?j*> a$*u ^A e>*jU v^-JfjJU* Uut ^ going on in the street *& } *$/
^^ ^
va dnjdmi'tavdnist ma-ftayn-t Aar bakhiya sar bald kunad va tamdshd-yi tfoyi " between the kucha bi-kunad (m.c.) junction of the Tigris and the Euphra:
tes
a considerable space
is left
dry "f*\j
o**l
^
ast.
JaBvx>
^.^U
ittisal-i
shuda
^^
'*
(/)
'With,'
crAr^
^^
>*
Jtamrah or b 6a, originally signified association with 4 i^ waw hamrah-i bang-i khurus bar-khastam (m.c.) *Lr*
:
'
was up at (i.e. with) cock crow." bd u jang Tcardam may be used either
I
in a friendly sense
'
"
I fought with
him "
'
f^ J^ j
on
his side
'
:
^)
b \)$ %^ii3
him."
'
*
'
With
(b ba) 9
sometimes
is
'
signifies
in spite of
J1
'
' *
with
all his
wealth he
an unhappy
man
c~! ^UU
(g)
On sometimes
*
'
'
signifies
<J>j*>
I left
him
f&) <^S^
)\
immediately
(m.c.).
Remark.
practically so
:
Td
in
c<
ti,
as
soon as,"
jt
is
fit>
u^
(**S
\)
J^
raftam (m.c.) "as soon as I said this, I that the two actions were simultaneous.
(h)
him
>?
:
ti
id
properly signifies
Az
)\
'from'
?
<j?;o>
*^>*o j
^~Jj! az pisar va
dukhtar chi
of sons
dan
(m.c.)
" what sons and daughters have you (what have you
(m.c.)
and daughters ? " ): ^j* **> c5-;'r* J u $ az m <*l-i savdri chi ddri ? what riding animals "(horses, mules, or donkeys, not camels) have
C
The
on
on botany
and
zoology.
4
Is
&+
signify
also J)A.
j$
-A
C/#^
*>ayn-i
"
parts
and would,
therefore,
mean
Also
JDijla.
"Between
and Euphrates at
their junction
al*.^ (iH^^
d*w ^j*
&*j* j wv
ma^aU-i.
zadam &*&} {Js* <^j* *JjlS " I shot him in the head," but head with the f*JLAf* *)* *&** tofangtti-yi tar-ash zadam "I struck him on the
* Qulvla turyi sar-ash
butt of the
rifle."
505
; ttuj
you ?
"
:
*f
some
ji
j*l$u
^^ ^bU ;lx
' '
^
u
AfJf 31
chaahm-i char-payan
his eyes
'
karcfi bi-chashm-i
kashid,
"the
farrier
of the
'
Toward or towards may be used for both place and time, as *' We were travelling towards Tehran" pi$&*j*>* oj/^ ^J*> I* ma bi-taraf-i Tahran safar ml-kardim (m.c.) "towards morning" *f* ^k taraf-i
(t)
:
subh (m.o.).
CHAPTER
125.
XVI.
The use of the tenses in classical Persian differs somewhat from that of modern Persian. The Aorist is used both in the Indicative and Subjunctive moods and
.
is
used
prefix
*j
as a Present Indefinite.
%
Examples
o^b
li
^
!
(Sa'di)
"
they say
p& tjl* aijjj guyand malik, ham dar an hafta shifa yaft the king recovered that very week."
shikar-i bi-barad
Uftad ki yak-% ruz palang-ash bi-darad (Sa^di) Not every day does the sportsman kill his game ; It may happen 8 (or it happens) that one day the leopard rends him."
^JjJ
^x* j*
$J*fj
OwO
^Jr *&
+*
J^ ^JIV^
^J
na-manad guriz
c<
Dast bi-glrad sar-i shamshtr-i fiz (Sa'di)t In necessity, when flight is impossible,
The hand
^"
'
Uw
:
^ ^y
f;>
^\^
"
oif (Sa'di) **he said, I fear oif guft man ura na-danatn *
*
:
(Sa'di)
he said,
is
'
I don't
know
him.'
(2) It
*J,
ya'ni tura
1
Pros. Indef.
'
Pros. Def.
ham
"
5i> hafta.
In
belonged.
In
&AA ^l**
^
*
The Aorists
be
')
of
^)^\
uftadan and
^^
it
may happen
it
may
*
perhaps.'
In modern Persian
iUA
506
khwahand pursid ki 'amaLat cMst va na*guyand ki pidar-at Iclst (Sa'dl) " that is you will be asked a (at the Judgment day) what your deeds were, " you will not be asked* who your father was *Alj <j2j> &&U4* i^U-jtf il) <X&t <jL& J jjj -JU ^A4A J? Oul hamin panj ruz u shash bashad V%n gidisidn hamisha khush 8 bashad (Sa'd!)
:
"The
of
rose
season
will
last
but
-
a
ptf
this
Gulistan*
^*i?
mine
will
blossom always":
eJiif
M^
"he
\jj
e^c
UJU^' Jt\
0w// agar
If
I will silence
him/
The king
said,
'It
will
oj
**^ er*
man
^laut^ff grw/< agar anjam-i In chandln diram bashad zahidan ra bi-diham* (Sa'dl)
^Lx
it to, I will
cJ^
he said,
If
give so
many
jf
u jahan khwahad bud Nay nam 'zma u nay nishan khtvahad bud Az pish na-bud&m u nabud hlch khalal Az In pas na-bashim va haman khivahad bud <{ The word will last long after Khayyam's fame Has passed away, yea, and his very name Aforetime we were not, and none did heed When we are dead and gone, 'twill be the same."
^4/ bas ki na-bashim
: :
(0.
K. 150 Whin.)
Guyand mara /a, Izad-at tawba dihad! U khud nordihad var bi-dihad man na-kunam
*
'
**
They
say,
May
He
(3) It is
grants
it
Allah grant thee penitence not, and did he, I'd rebel."
(0.
'
!
K. 329 Whin.).
3JfyL>
^f lu ^
able
to
none
is
perform
it.
Jf
az tu
khwahand
same
pursid.
sentence*, apparently
Note the regular Future and the Aorist precisely the same meaning.
*
*
in the
with
Shaah old
for
*
^
Guliatan of course
Wwah. means
'
Rose Garden.'
* 7
Mod. Pers. $3 **j> fchwciham dad, or ^AO^o ml-diham. Zahid a religious person who has renounced the good things of the world. X4|J The Subjunctive after ^L*Jiy tavanistan, though the ordinary constmction in
is
modem Persian,
not very
common
507
^j
jf
khmshqasd-i
through
fear
halak-i
of
:
destruction
"
man kunand (Sa'dl) "I feared lest they (the ministers) their own life might (or should) determine on my
U
<xu< cuc;Ux>
^^ bi-farmud
id musara* at kunand
'
(Sa'di)
" he
(i.e.
"
:
cU>jJ
a0rar
* a kfiirqa ki pushtda Khuda-yi* azz va jail mar a pisar-l dihad juz chi milk-iman ast isar-i darvlshan kunam* (Sa*'dl) &&> ^xK U, .yjf (Jjljy (^ *jli J-AJ A>" j^if ^4^ (jfj^jt &\>s^
f :
am har
^^
^^
chandan
vahm
arzaq
mubalaghfi dar vasf-i ishan kardi va sukhanha-yi parlsluln gufti tasavvur kunad ki zahr-i faqa ra taryaq and va ya kalld-i khaztna-yi
(
Sa'dl
in
praising
them
(the rich) that one would suppose that they are the antidote for hunger's poison or else the key of the treasury of God's bounty": 1>;I ^<d* Jo'A* y .>juj U qazi ar ba ma nishlnad bar ftshanad dast ra (Sa'dl) \) 0^,3
{
**
sit
in
time
to the
,3
(^^ ^^o-^^Jj^
*j*
jr
bihisht
bdshad jay
Should your
lot
he to go to Paradise
ki qu^l^
murda-and
^3 ^ ^\
^-
ll
(Sa'di)
Tu
qii i
Bar u khalm-ast u bar Yusuf nikii^ (Sa'di) " Thou wouldst aiippose that, till the world's end, ugliness
Has reached
its
height in
him
as beauty has in
Joseph
"
Kardand
^^ the past tense would have been used here had the author wished
:
to
convey the idea that they wrestled then and thero on the spot. 2 Note Aorisfc the Present could not be substituted Iza/at incorrect.
3
in this
condition
in
In Mod. Pers. b&wciham kard bjfi (+*]f^ or mi-kunvtm /**> c5 X5> * Modern Persians wave their arms or their handkerchiefs in time to music or dancing a majlis-i shurb, or majlis-i tarab. They ro also expert in making a loud
noise
snapping
with
their
fingers
(failing
zadan.).
Contrary to
the dictionaries,
think, ^.xilfeijj
cu*o
Jast bar
fhhandan
refers to this
motion
of the
No
Persian
whom
508
is,
just as
none can be as
beautiful as Joseph).
(5)
(1)
is
in telling stories.
guyand
of
ki
^) ^ Jf) X
&*>.
(Prof S. T.)
"
it
is
Rustam
Sn who
is
o^?
f;
,*-;
^1 &^> ^U>
^/r^
1
**
*&\ j*e*
Nasr Ullah
KMn
ki pisar-i
they say." however, used as a Pres. Subj., in place of the Present in " U " * there any one of you who knows (to know) Turkish ? j| English, as <>Jt<v LC<VJ *$ CU~A azshuma has-i hast ki Turkl bi-danad ?" (m.c.) " There
(m.o.)
is,
n guyand
Aoris
:
Karim KW,n bashad In rasm' rd guzasht (m.c.) <( Nasr Ull&h " the son of Karim JQian established this custom ^*'>? (^^ " so
:
The
is
^M
it
s-
*'
o^jj
t^**'
kas-i
nut
lei
bi-danad (m.c.).
In neither
of these
is
examples should
c>3tv>A/o
ACJ.
o-?
(Sa'dl,
also m.e.)
"he
said
'what
shall I
r
" " what can I do, what should I do ? (m.c.) say " shall I do this ? " \) )K&* in kdr rd bi-kunam ? (m.c.) ^A^ er^ (& " I'm *r man zdmin nw-shavam ki u bi-dihad* guarantee (me.) pul for him to give (the money) " ^U' &' (**** ^j wa'da mt-kunamki bi-yayam " I l *>' promise to come," but ^-of /* A ,**&* *>*) wa'da <rm-lcunam ki khwd" & ar^* t; Jiam dmad I promise that I will come" &*>* ^*y
?
"
**> chi
Icunam
rjuftl
H fehurda-yi mma
fallen
bar khalc-ash
rl]ch.ta
bits of
enamel had
on the ground
"
(Sa'd!)
**
Tn
kunad madhilsh
(Sa'di)
'*
the Preterite (not the Past Habitual) is used for the supposition would not have supposed that." Tn modern Persian the Imperfect would be used instead of ^J*
in
I did
not believe,
gu*l or ^f*S&
ffuftlt
tf
^'^ ^*
^^xiacw^
ham-chunm
mi-guftl
ki.
Outl
y*&
1
The word^t^*O
common
is
Dastur )}**&
is used only locally in a high priest of the Zardushtis, and also locally
in India for
'*
custom
"
ra daatur mi-kunlm
The Arabs
word for " permission." perplexity and the use of the Aorist
use the
:
p*\**)jLb I;
U-& (m.c.)
is
a vulgar joke
in such
obvious.
ml-shavam ki u
pill
(m.c.), * Vide
guarantee that he
will certainly
(b) (4).
509
k&ud rd hamrdh bi-baram yd az " shall I (should I) take my saddle and ndyib-i chdpdr-khdna bi-glram (m.c.)
jf
I zln va dahana-yi
" them from the owner of the post-horses ? The Present participle in e/f an with the Present Tense of &*
'
shudan
(o).
2 used as a Present Subjunctive, principally in final clauses & &ftt and also where a doubt is &? *>' td introduced by kitd; td-ki, ki,
t
expressed in subordinate clauses, expressing an object, order, advice, hope, t*$)j* )\jfc AJ*&J vaqt-l duty, desire, distinction, fear, permission, doubt, etc. " when to the bazar" (but to ki bi-bdzdr bi-ravl (m.c.) go you happen
:
LSJjV
)^
*.
*&h
vaqt~i ki bi-bdzdr
mi raw
(m.c.)
' '
who is about to go or generally goes) *$ \) e^t^k ^f^-o t{ mi-dam khwdhar-at ra ki bi-Khdn bi-dihlm (m.c.) you know that ^jufcjj ejijiu when (or if) we (happen to give) your sister in marriage to the 1jhan " " " when we JIU give, as we are going to give f*^x> ml-dihlm would mean ^*j ^JU <u<*> va^c *>" |*xC ^ty* hald divdn-% bi-kunam ki ibrat-i hama-yi dlam bi-shavad (m.c.) *' now I will give a judgment that will be a warning " to the whole world.
(said to a
person
am shuma
tSjJU* U^>
bi-yayid (m.c.)
In writing the Definite Future could be substituted and in speaking one Definite Future and one " " I ^5Uj U^ (*;|>HX| ummidvarhope you will come " I would come "
:
hoped you
bi-yayld.
(might)
fty.)\j***\
any alteration
able to
"
:
"
^A/ocilfJu *>ljix*
ta
G j J^^o
^^
jojy
or) ilj
;
ml kunad va
or
ml-kunad ^A-CC^JO ^JijIjU (m.c.) <4 whatever it may be able to." " I had (4) It sometimes takes the place of the Infinitive in English, as " * kitdb-i na-ddshtam ki bi-khwdnam no book to read ^if^ ^l>-u " I had no that I to had no book tools to cut read, might read) (m.c.) (I
:
^W
"
wT
p&*
Jt^AAfi/o f; j*!j>
"
y^i
(m.c.).
(5)
It
is
^b
*;>/
ijoj*
J^
Jt\
*tf
Shagird-chapar ^bU.
4* chapar-chi master of the &k*> jbU. c^SpSr-fc&ana. In a subjunctive sentence the verb
tive Mood.
fi
^?ki0 the postboy with the horses, while the^bU. cttapar or is the man who carries the post, and thej^^ u-J^ na'ib-chapftr is the
is
subject to a conjunction
1
vide
126 Bubjuno-
Nazd-i
I
man
no-fetid
(&
*s>
na-*M "
had not
(there
ftet**
&
510
may your have eaten) blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts." It is sometimes used for the Imperative as vf 5jkJ {j*> JjJ U ^^
:
"
^&& ^^j vaKtapul na-gtri, qatra-i db bi-kas-i na-dihi (Tr. H.B. Chap. IX) " " but till you receive payment don't give a drop of water to any one
!
Mood, as
p>jj,
Vide
126
(c).
is
Remark I. It will be seen that the Aorist (Present Subjunctive) used in subordinate clauses expressing an "object, consequence, order,
and often
advice, hope, fear, duty, desire, inclination, effort, permission, necessity," in conditions. Vide also Subordinate Clauses and examples
,
Appendix. <c In sentences expressing purpose, resolution or wish, etc.," for a subordinate clause in be substituted can the Infinitive usually ^/A? qasd-i raftan ddshtam or the Subjunctive, thus: ^ifi ^y. (&\^-
of the Tenses
Remark IL
^^
khwdstam bi-ravam.
bud " to be weighed down by trifles is o^jf )J j^ ^t>^ (class.) &j* *3iy j5t^c to be like an old woman"; were ast substituted for ty ^J|y tawdnad bud
Remark
III.
it
would show certainty. The writer however implies that even some 'ajdtiz would not submit to such a thing.
(c)
^)5l*u:
In
classical
Persian
the
Present
^ijf-t*
*
Tense
**.
is
is
chiefly
ki
&f ****j
-^
?
ml-guyad (Sa'di)
king asked,
what
he saying
"
malik purstd
:
Ki
is
"
?
Karda baaham 126. Vide pAl> &3/ an example of the Past Subjunctive. 'Aj&iz, pi. of 'ajuz. & In the Qulistan this rule is generally, if not always, observed; but in the Anvar Suliayli, the Present Tense is usually used for both Presents, except in the verses.
a
*
*
Dahan-sh (poetical
license).
Persian dentist (who has but one pattern and one pair of forceps for every kind of extraction) first lays the patient flat on the floor and then sits on his chest. Operator and operated-on then roll on the floor for a few minutes in an agonised embrace. As a Persian rarely submits to having a tooth extracted unless
lie is in
an extraction are severe. 4< European methods," and place the patient with his back to a wall. The tooth is then secured and the patient dragged round the room. In Sa'di's time the methods were perhaps more primitive.
Some modern
51 |
It is in classical Persian rarely used as a Future [vide (d) (2) for the modern use of the Present for the Future], an instance of such usage ** being :-^U~j ^jclLkJd ^^Lo ^tx^ia/o^ ^U^i 0^*30 <*j^j >^f) ^^jax> a*jj zdhid farmud kiman si ruq'a m^navlsam ; tu bi-dast-i amm-i u mu'tamad-i sahib" l-ikhlds bi-sipdr " the pious man replied, I will write three letters and
^^
'
do thou
and
deliver
faithful person:'
(d)
(1)
^^ ^
^~v
of a select officer,
and a confidential
c*tf
ia
used:---
As a Present,
"
)j*
.|
(2) In m.c. and in modern writing it is used instead of the Future, as Chashm ; bi-shumd hall mi-kunam +&** ^U- Uj *^ (m.c.) "certainly, I & &tt\ *UJ| >i.f JU sdl~i dyanda will show you (instruct you)": {}j*p j*j 2 6 inslwf Allah bi-Tabrlz mi-ravam (m.c.) "next year I will go to Tabriz D. V." man nami-ravam, bi-man clii? man nami-ravam (m.c.) " '' &* I won't t-^ I won't
: :
pi)
go,
go
fe o^Uj
^>
khub-l
ayar u bi-nawkarl pish-l shumd biydyad kdr-i <{ it would be a good st(or mi-bashad or khipdhad bud) m.c. thing if he
or
)
O^AJ^
"
:
came
to
you
as a servant
will be
a Saturday
"
:
farddshamba
0*^1
^ivli
oUfj
^^
(m.c.)
ast (m.c.)
**
tomorrow
&U
^\
A^A
hama-ruzam
*st
"this
will
be a daily source
in
It may also be used lik^ the English Future in issuing commands, and is such case more polite than the direct Imperative, as U>^ ^U^* ^ ^ j^+J AWJ o^^jj ^j^* toj*i \*y *&f l*a# x*;jf rd dar har jd-yi Taymur ^-o ty< dunyd bdshad swrdyji karda paydd namuda mi-yirld* dast basta 6 mi-avarid
:
^^
whatever spot in the globe he may have gone, track and find him, seize him and bring him here bound." This Future is more polite than the Imperative.
Injd (m.c.)
ti?ack
<c
Taimur
to
Remark.
The
will
<
have"
or
"I
have [vide
^ty ^au
t^
v Ur
^f J\
'
commonalso
in Hindustani.
Note
'2
to the
<^ second word only, Insha* Allah " if God ploasos, D.V." corresponds to tho English **I hope to." 4< Compare the English I'm going now; I'm going home next year.**
would be added
*
^
The Present,
In
to indicate certainty.
<*
Here
not
&k*si
tj
(j&#&
ra basta
"having bound
his
compound
with
(>jt
512
)
l&> er
man
it
fat
will
ida-l
"if
buy
this
book
be of no use to me."
(3)
The Present
is
also
in a Potential sense as
" Kirman
lias
a class
of
women
an egg from the midst of its white/' (4) In quoting an author living or dead, either the Present or the Perfect Tensecan be used, as <c Shaykh Sa'di says "( o**i <u? or) &)** ^$**>
:
f*j
va Shaykh Sa'di mi-yuyad (or gufta ast) (m,c.), but the latter might mean "he has spoken " whereas the Present would refer to his writings. (5) In dramatic narration, the narrator will sometimes transfer himself
to the time of his narration,
sequently
c^-oJ
employ
the
and speak of past events as present, and conPresent instead of the Past In modern writing
is
common.
Examples
tf {&j> ru-yi urd dldam va Khuda rd shukr kardam ki pisar-i man j~j " I saw his face 1 o nisi' class.) (by the light of the lamp) and returned thank 1 . & *** not son was ttiti he *) God that ^-yf my j>y>j / ^x*
'
tj
!<>>
pxa
f;
^^
'
'
^y
o-l?
j>
mi blnad
ki
ki
was no gain
to be
made
in
l
c^AJ \\^ r^o ^*xi; (m.c.) 4< when I arrived I was no longer there" it would be equally correct to say ~j^ j^ jahdz na~ bud or ty *'j }^^ jahaz ralta bud, tlie tense used depending on the dramatic
;
Raftam did am jahdz nlst saw that the ship had gone,
vice versa.
f&z cuiu
^L
31
(Tr. Haji
In,
"He
to say *vt
(m.c.),
^y
latter
it
is
better
o^t ^^lu-S
is
a^
^ ^
did ki nasnds-i
taraf-i
u* mi-dyad
(m.c.),
ml-dmad
^ (SJ
1
though the
^j^ (^^^-^
*f
***>
**> Indians and Afghans write and say chi mi-blnad ki yak nasnds-l taraf-i u mi-dyad.
chi
Note
(g of unity with pi. and its signification. This however may be considered an example of direct narration.
Better
Note that
513
"
r^ ^iby
r; xj
his voice
AO. **f
Wf
r^Xj
jty^
it is
(Tr.
my
Hasan."
(6)
The Present
did not
sometimes used
wast a thief
Past in English,
as
"
know thou
"
^^
*>
j;~J|^xi nami-ddnistam ki
ditzd-i (m.c.).
If the
it
that you were the thief (of that article then)." that are at all times equally true or equally false (7) Propositions should generally be expressed by the Present, whether in English or
in
know
Persian,
as:
"He
was such a
fool
that he didn't
know
l
the sky
is
head"
cx*jy
^ ^iJb
'
^U^f
cu-vJfj^J *'
ki namt-ddnist
dsmdn
(m.c)
(*?J^j*j*j (><* ^r^ ^*l^* e/*> ;:>U ) faf pidar-i man u tu Adam, va mddar-i man Havvd ast,* pas man u tu barddar-tm (class.) " the father of you and of me was Adam and our mother was Eve: therefore we are brothers."
(8)
The Present
is
in Persian
is
action that
am)
in this place
"
used for the Perfect in English, for an "I have been ten years (and still
j^.vc or
)
^~& li| ^
(m.c.)
:
*>
o^f
JU
^^
&i
dah
^-?
mi-
shavad)
kidarmjd hastam
^i^*
s^~^ ^^ ^
<^^
khayll vaqt
still
confined to
my
time (and
am)
"I
Persian"
fjyof
is**^*
JU
chand sal
Remark
/.Both
in
classical
and
:
in
is
*ty ^ >. cui? dn dah dinar mail ust cu-^| JU ; li^ ** &ty *$ 8 it found have to whoever (the purse), let him he said, may happen (class,) " reward.' his be bring it to me and ten dinars of that will
[
^^
*
Remark //.A Continuative Present can be formed by the Present vide' (o). Participle and the verbs, &ty budan and ^* shudan,
(e)
(1)
The
classical Definite
Future
is
,
2
8
Bud would
signify that
Adam
asman) to avoid repetition. was rny father once, but is not now.'
Vide
79
(6).
Direct narration.
The unapocopated 33
514
khana sayd kh^ahl hard, Dast u pa-yat chu 'ankabut buvad (Sa'di). " If you hunt only in your house, Your legs are weak and useless as those of spiders." " **. " what will you* do ? &*** v Chi khwahi /card ? (class.) a man yaqm daram ki u khwahad amad (m.c.) *'I am dAfjA. jf * f;
Gar
tu dar
l
^ ^^
man zamin-am ki u pul bicome," but **>*> J;$ )\ *$ pM>\*> dihad* (m.c.) l< I am security for him to pay the money"; the Future ' <Wf &*>^ y tf here would mean I am certain he will pay it ^U? I think or am of opinion gumdn mi-baram ki u khwahad amad (m.c. only) that he will come," but xbo *f fji ^x ^U? guman nw-baram kibi-yayad " I think he So too ajy come." and (m.c. JWa*l ihtimal mimay correct) " a in itself and is therefore doubt ravad there is a probability," expresses
certain he will
*
:
^^
'
followed, not by the Future Indicative, but by the Present or Past Subjuncj *>' tive, as: ^oUj *j *jj# JU*M ihtimal ml-ravad ki yakh bi-bandad (m.c.)
**it will
ki
4 <>^b <*i~^ ^ tf ^j^ J^^f ihtimal rm-ravad probably freeze" J< it has yakh basta bashad (m.c.) probably frozen." This Definite Future (and not the Future- Present Tense) is regularly
:
used in speaking by Indians and Afghans. The Future sometimes indicates certainty.
rustling in the jungle one might say: Janvar-%
{<
(m.c.)
this
must be
"
this
animal
** ^**t ^IJo *&ljJ c^^l cJ^ ^^ pas zahir art ki in nishan-i insdn na-khivahad bud (mod.) "therefore it is evident that this can't
:
"
(doubtful)
some
man";
*
while
"
Oof^xi
it is
impossible for it to be,' (2) This Future is frequently used in classical Persian in conditional
vide
sentences,
place
is
128
(cT
in
modern
Persian
its
(/)
taken by the Aorist, i.e. the Present Subjunctive. In modern Persian the Definite Future is not much used
except
in certain districts:
when used
:
it
f;
^ fHr^
kardan
in
^ ^ *j+*
p*
f^
/I agar pidar-
in a conditional sense,
to do
77.
H5
/0
eJ*/^
*^
<J/it
ml-khwahi
(class. )
construction
is still
used
speaking in India
and
8 i.e. I
dad
<*AJjA.
II.
do not say he will pay the money, I am security for his paying it would be the direct narration and not idomatio. Vide
yafth.
k&wahad
131
(/),
Remark
* Ihtimalri
*'
it is
probably
freezing,*'
515
am ham
though
bi-mirad In kdr rd
father were to die
khwdham kard 1
' '
:
(m.c.)
"I
j\ ^.yo
will
do
this
\>
even
USa J>\
my
o*tf
^Af>*6 ^>Wuf
a^t ^Ij^
(m.c.)
'even though the Deluge were to come I will not give up accomplishing
this."
In,
CA*^
pb\}S
>*JLu
^A
tf
eu**j
IfJUo
years I have collected ind will continue to collect (this sum)/' the Definite Future is necessary in she second verb.
kliwaliam girift (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII)
"for
many
(g)
The
Preterite
or Definite
Past
is
corresponds to the
/hat closely follow
same tense
in English.
As
each other, it will sometimes take the place of the English Perfect and sometimes of the Pluperfect; vide (I).
sometimes euphonically prefixed, without lowever affecting the sense, as: ^M^ *$ &jf ^~~ u>^ p$ c$# f*&j* &}$> kard ki ddman-am az ^9j* euvo y chun bi-rasidam bu-yi gul-am chundn mast
In classical Persian, a
AJ
is
*>
hist
'*
bi-raft
(Sa'di)
when
I
reached there,
the scent of
the
roses
so
ntoxicated
rery
mo common in
1
that
lost
This pleonastic
to is
poetry.
have forgiven him though I do not approve," the wo verbs in the Preterite signify an action just past and done with, he time of which is therefore known bakhshula-am -ij^^ would mean that I have pardoned him before you asked me/
\ldam
**
(Sa'di)
y Uux> Ijyj^. tS ^sS guftl ki khurda-yi mind bar khdk-ash the verb oJi? gu/ti is the second person of the old Past (Sa*dr), Vide p. 507, footnote 5. labitual tense and not of the Preterite.
In, Ai^vfj (J^IA
:i
ikhta
In,
i
p^/
*&
^
it
**) )*
f~^ $ &** 3
^ *&
fjb">
ma'lum shud
dvdz-i nd-khush
l
ddram
Sa'di)
"
I see that I
he
>ast
Preterite as
kardam have a disagreeable voice, I repent me," &<^shud is in refers to a past event that closely follows another
^JJi>
'
event, viz.
this
^^f^?
muttali* garddritdi,
if
and
it
also signifies
have
while
ast
rero
moment
learnt
the Present
'
>>^H>*
p-^
ma'lum ml-shavad
it is
now
he Perfect cu~f
appearing to
me
that
'
:
fj>i**>
ma'lum shnda ast would signify "it has become tawba this) that": also the Preterite *j>
*
8
Bott r than f**' ml-kunam which might also be used. i Maslahat nami-binarn **$* t ^ euacvL<a^ would be equally correct. Aat understood.
*
Quft,
:
zrdanidi
'at
ki
dldl Inki
mard bar
'ayb-i
khwish mu&fali,
fehvsh
daram
.'
516
tTSE
OF THE TENSES.
'
force of
heard.
is
used to express an action just completed, provided there " have no continuance of the action, as: Daw khwurdl ^t^j* IJA? you
The
Preterite
is
taken
khwurdam f^)^
^ili
"I
have
just
swallowed it."
The
Aorist
Preterite
is
also
in
conditional
sometimes used for the Present Subjunctive or sentences, to signify a foregone conclusion, as
:
^s&j* i-i&^jSt ^j* ^9) j>\ you move on, you are safe; if you sleep, you are a dead man." Vide 128 (e) and (/), Conditional Clauses. It is also sometimes used as an uncertain Future instead of the Present
agar
raffi
burdt
Subjunctive, as:
**~^
*^
^t
' '
>
^J ^^ $ ^ J^J A
shuma
it to
jafimidid
;
bi-navisid
write
here the Pres. Subjunctive could be substituted, har chlz ki u bi-guyad va shuma bi-fahmid.
*>& y ^O**- J*
modern, Persian shows that the order was forthwith executed, as:
<>te
osfrAj^ vSAAJUt
After verbs of ordering and the like, the Preterite in classical, not in &??j* *^l*
^ ^GU} U malik far mud ta ustad ra khil'at va ni'mat* dddand
(vSa'di)
order,
of
honour
"
:
<xiA<^
<++** 5
ojd^ U
va ni'mat bi-dihand* would merely show that the order was issued.
(e).
Vide
125
cuU-j >&/ Usj Ax>La. ^ ^.^U j oJL) A> ^&to &1 j*> 8;^ an na didim ki rakht u silah va jama riha kardim va jan bi-salamat burdim* (Sa*df) (t we saw nothing for it but to give up our goods 7 and our arms and our clothes in order to save our lives."
In,
^^ CAX>^UJ
chara-i juz
For an example
of
the
Preterite
When
a servant
is
taiobct
klc
ftyj*>
<*>
^^
*>.
generally, (*l**l might and has a wider sense. 6 The Preterite shows that the king saw the order carried out. The Aorist merely nhows that the order was issued for the benefits to bo bestowed then or at some future time an order that in Persia would be but imperfectly carried out, if at all. In mod. Per. however this ambiguous Aorist is always used. 6 In mod. Pers. riha kunim and barim.
is
In'am
In the absence of an adverb of time, these Preterites might refer to Past time. *-^+*> ni'mat means " benefits " lye a small sum but
not clear
it
means
For the a in
lii?
guftd
vide p. 13
(8).
:
The
the Perfect to an
iefinite time.
In m.c., the Preterite, like the Imperfect [vide <-+&*> jt esent * u~* jtf J^ ^
:
^i)
& p*
*f
8^
md
fti*
^*b) pas man &&*$ cr* ^ ^jj **" c^4 ^ e*jf kunam id bazar ham ki az khabar-ddr turd az matlab bdyad pish vaql bi-har kas rasidl shuhrat bi-dihi ki vazir bi-man chunln va chundn
a^a^j
)hj**>
1
ty o-Sj
jf
^ &>y&* ^
(.5***^
c^-3
karda ast (Vazir-i Laakaran) <; then I must make you quainted with the matter before-hand, lest when you go to the bazaar and set somebody, you spread about that the Vazir has confided to you such
idmat'i
ruju'
d such service
rddar-i
:e
'
'
:
*i~>f^=io
ham na-khwastam
:
(Vazir-i Larikuran)
harf-1
cf^^-^v >* d**j&.& &* man digarmisl-i tu pisar" I no longer want a nephew
ddshtam bi-guyam-at
C<
you"
c<
o*-^
to
p^l* <^y^
to
(m.c.)
have
ki
bi-
tnething
yam-at
(h)
ddram
of an action and frequently takes the place (i) the Preterite in English, as: o*of ^o i<xo *j? $ jfy )^ bar bar az kuh sadd the hills gave back the echo again and again" ;>H^ ^/f '-drnad (m.c.)
* {
:
J s\&* jl cr^V ^^ (^^ ^^- dn jdnvar bi-nazar namiladlikin az sadd-yi u ma'lum mi-shud ki Ichayli buzurg ast (m.c.) <e that irnal continued to keep out of sight, but from its cry I thought (kept
*'
*-%)Jj
c5^^ A^
^^
it
/*^^
thinking) that
^y~.x> U^> xi^a.
**
i.e.)
while I
&f ^*j must be a very large beast " *t f^z f^T i shumd mi-sukht 4 vaqt~i ki ml-dmadam dldam ki chirdyh, " was returning I saw that your lamp was burning
: :
u munag&gjias shud b -chdra* ml'ddnistand (Sa^i) *' the king's enjoyment was disturbed (by the abbering of the slave) but no remedy could be found"; here the iperfect Au-ofjaw naml-ddmstand signifies that the people kept on thinking
'aysh az
^^ malik rd
JS
Bi-gufta
J**# ^CJ j
norchiz
^
budam
jA^U Jf i^
man gil-i
Va
Mood
126
(g)
128
(e)
Remark,
rav *
Here (Sty
bi-ravi
would signify
is still
*'if
^-^
raftl or
clT^ m *
Or &}?*%* ml-stizad
^-*AX>
burning.
^^
an used
/ah az
6
but o^i^ jl J ^-^ *fy* *tjr u munaghgha* ml- shud would be correct. In modern Persian chara-i would be preferred.
^J
j*
618
of
v v
I studied Persian
Ju
<Jo
l>
*/& sa/
continuously for
In the sentence
mi-guftand (m.c.)
i^i&t^
didn't
**>
^wS^S
^ ^J
what
/?A?m
man
na-danistam chi
Imperfect dramatic, signifying that all the time they were speaking I failed to understand them/ The Imperfect therefore also signifies that an action is a " it was dldan-i u ml-raftam (m.c.) hahit, as my (+**?$* >! e;^ jj>> j* har ruz
'
l :
they saying/' the i^J naml-danistam could be substituted and would be more
"I
understand
were
him every day." Doctor Rosen says '* The Preterite is used in narrating events which (2) follow close on one another. Whenever the narration is interrupted by
habit to visit
:
is
used as in the
&
t<xo
+&J!* (fS
*
^I\
yjb
{***>*)
*\**>
sada kard
'
But in the followi mr sentence ^a****** f**j >3^ (**&*) ^^ somebody shouted, ^o bi-shahr we reached bazar ntftim, shakhs-i sada ml~kanl rasidim, ^j^c
"
the town, we went to the market, some one was shouting/ the third action took place either simultaneously with or before the second one/' ". in narration, can often be ren(3) The English phrase "I began to
"I went to the city and began to look (i.e. while I was looking) at the shops, when suddenly 1 heard the sound of firing ^^ ^ (*H>
dered by the Imperfect, as
:
tamasha-yi ^LiU ^ raj tarn bi-shahr f^-** dukanhd mi-kardam* ki ndgah sada-yi tup bi-r/ush-am khwurd (inc.): the reason for the Imperfect in this sentence is explained at the end of (2).
&)jZ
p}L
ujp ^*+c
fc(fC
*$
V^
A
*
similar use
of the Imperfect
is
illustrated
by o*
-5' al^ AS* murjji ( bar shcikh-i mi-nishast* ki ybaflat*" kas-l ^(i* J&fc cr ichall kard the bird was (m.c ) tufantj going to alight when suddenly some one " '* " was a nixhasta bud fired would be expressed by o^ A sitting gun;
^^
nti-niQhast has either the previous seated," and the Imperfect o^-^j " used to sit habitual the or signification "; the context gives signification,
v^as
'*
also
for bi-dldan.
^
3
'
Soda kard
j?>
!>^ could
also
mean "called
us.'*
yfo
Also
&ty
UUu
man
just as I
*
began to look,
lii
btnft
bi-niahlnad
(ra.c.)
wanted to
settle.'*
lift
v^
1
519
biyak dast charkh dadan va bi-yak dast asbab tlz kardan khayll mushkil bud balki fitch kar sakhta nami-shud (m.c.) " to turn the wheel with one hand and sharpen the tools with the other was by no means easy, in fact no work
could be
'
done":
ty
^*> AJuxU^i
j|
^fi
' '
kar-l az
ft
'
The Imperfect
1
is
Though
sometimes more polite to use this construction. Thus MJJ* axUf^iu* ^(^ ^*> bi-kudam dukan ml' khwasfid* birawd (m.c.) "what shop was it you were wishing to visit?"
vulgar,
it is
is
(m.c.)
"
**
mi-khwastl bi-shavad (m.c.) "what did you expect to but happen?" ij*b**& *^ chi mi-khwahl bi-shavad (m.c.) "what do " A you wish to happen ? dispensing chemist might say to a customer who had come tt> him before with the prescription, **- cu+*t ism-at chi bud ?
i
j^ ^i> iuA>
chi
a^
(6)
is
actions,
;^T
tit
e>*
^ hamchi
shuda
ast ki nim-tana-yi
panjah
sawqat
(Vazir-i
mi-kardam*
to say.
bi-firistad, ya'nl man an qadr ahmaq-am Lankaran) "and now it comes to pass
some 50
or 60
tumans
a-5
a present to your
(should
That
is
am
In modern Persian, the place of the Imperfect is sometimes taken Perfect; the difference being that the latter tense
that the speaker was not present on the occasion mentioned or has no personal knowledge of the facts, whereas the Imperfect leaves these points doubtful. Vide (t).
(i)
It
is
Persian
Even well-educated Persians frequently use this construction. The best colloquial is simple and not too correct. One of the reasons that Persians do not underPersian,
is
that the latter speak too correctly and employ even. An compound adjectives and words that Persians do not use in ordinary writing clause to a short will use where a Persian use one will Indian (correct) word, frequently
The time might also refer to yesterday. bi-kunam: also * Or hotter f*\y^ khwaham
127. Vide understood. tically conditional with the Apodosis * This tense in its simple form without the prefixes is
kard.
This sentence
is
prac-
still
used in conditional
it
sentences
Afghans
in
speaking.
in
writing only.
620
Like the Imperfect, it can in classical Persian take a pleonastic ty. or Sometimes the prefix ^A is in classical Persian added, and in
this
case the prefix *> is always omitted. (1) In classical Persian, it can take the place of the Imperfect to signify A *$ AUS'O.J&X habitual action, as: ejf^ly j c$ A;LA e>U*&>* (t>* \) ^^JUe
^^
jiu
cs^
!)
zdlim-i rd hikdyat
kunand
<c 6 it is told of a certain tyrant that he tavdngardn ra dddl* bi-tarh' (Sa'di) used forcibly to buy wood for fuel from the poor, and soil it to the rich at a
good profit"
^uj ^ <^**^ &*>*>) vaqthd zamzama-i* kardandi* va bayt-l muhaqqiqdna bi-gujtandi'1 (Sa'di) " at times they were " b humming a little and reciting mystical verses jb j (S^ ^*~1 ^i* c$^* " 1 (^-~o yak-i tawba-yi* bisydr kardi* va bdz bi-sMkastl' (Sa'di) a certain one
:
c$.aJuij
*jlft:svx>
^j
used to repent oft but ever fall again.'' (2) It has also a potential sense, as:
b^ ^"*i javanl
charkh-anddz u silah-shur va
1
bi-badraqa hamrah-i
bish-zur ki
ma
na-kardandi 1 va zurdvardn i ru-yi zamln pusht-iurd bar zamin na-ydvardandi* " there went with us as an escort a (Sa*di) youth, skilled in the use of
the shield and bow, a fine man-at-arms and an athlete."
(3) In classical (and in Indian and Afghan) Persian this tense is also used in a certain class of conditional and optative sentences as well as in
127 and
128.
Remark I.
with the Imperfect, either the same tense being used in the protasis and apodosis, or one tense in one, and the other in the other.
Remark II. In modern Persian, the Pluperfect and the Imperfect usually take the place of this tense in Predicative and Conditional sentences.
still
in
India
and Afghanistan)
it
is
in
pronunciation
istimrarl
*
is called by grammarians the ya-yi majhuL This " the ya of continued action."
c^Lr*^
CS^ &&*/*
In old Persian
J^t^
is
is
C5^i
ya-yi majhvl
i.e.
3 Bi-farh
*
6
dadan
f)fj
an idiom
the
*
still
rare.
Zamzam
Tawba
name
of
Mekka supposed
away from
to be
Hagar's
well.
*?>*
lit.
turning the
heart
sin*
signifies
renouncing
sin.
6 The Imperfect tense could be substituted for the Past Habitual and would be correct either in classical or in modern Persian.
7
in this sentence,
Note the
last
j only
is
pronounced
va.
521
The Future
Perfect,
In
tejc
jU
l
cj
id
and Past Subjunctive or Presumptive Past. two are identical in form, as ^>y d!/* jt (3^ ^ az shavad dvarda tarydq 'Iraq mdr-gazida murda
:
*b
"before'2 the antidote can be procured from Iraq the " person bitten by the snake will have died I; 6ilL^ J^? *x^ &bj*> U " td chubdn bi-rasadgurg gusfand rd khwurda bashad (class.) by the time
bashad (Sa'di)
:
^^
the shepherd arrives the wolf will have eaten the sheep
a
"
^el j&
dar nazar-i a'ydn u buzurgan-i Hazrat-i Khudavandl 'azz a nasruh* ki...ast agar dar siyaq-i sukhan dillri kunam shukhl karda basham
fa~kayj
(Sa'di)
have
Ta mard
'
<(
Ayb u hunar-ash nihufta bashad (Sa'di). As long as a man may not have spoken
His good and bad points are hidden."
o*j&x
^^
JL
kj
c^i;'**
J^
u^
**
and they (the doordar saray nist va bi-haqiqat rast gufta bdshand (Sa'di) keepers) say that there is no one in the house, and they may in fact
have spoken the truth 4
'
' ;
3 va ^^ "
yuyand
ki kas
*U
***&
o^s|
&'
tf sahib-dil-i ra guftand bid/in khubi ki aftab ast naAii^f cu-^ji i;j| shumda-im ki kas-i urd dust girifta bashad 6 (Sa di) "it was remarked to a
c
^^
^^ ^^j ^iii?
of
f;
^t, <+A\+
certain
w "se man
f
that
'
in
spite
of
the excellence
the sun
we have
never yet heard that any one has looked (should have looked) on him as a Vide 126 (k). friend.'"
(2)
'
In modern Persian this tense >^ " " must "or x>^ shdyad perhaps /
(
* *
^U
f;
by *A> *^ *^ ^ e)^^ u-^ ti^j 1 bi-rasad In bi-Landan tainki^ bayad u kaghaz uiJ^3y
)
^ ^
is
'
usually preceded
as
ff
by the time
In modern Persian
o**>|
will
instead of the Future Perfect, to signify certainty. 2 Perhaps a more accurate translation of ta in this kind of sentence
is
"
by the
little
time that."
8
In m.c.
it
also
Na
guy ad *ij&
or
**\ *&&,
*
nobody.*
In mod. Pers.
*${^ or
^^
^
AX&f,>
o*j
of *&>f
ta Inki.
522
London he
his
book "
is
must have
another method of expressing the Future Perfect, i.e. the Past Participle of the verb with the Definite Future, as c>^ **k c*?
:
by
^
i$j
f\
fj
tjL. ^Utf*
$ j^j
ia in
khud ra
bj$
<*&tjfik
tamam
Icarda
khwahad
it
bud
fW
or
or
could be used.
may
hoga
'*
will
have done.")
Remark. It will appear from the foregoing remarks that aAU " x& * bayad karda bashad properly signifies "he must have done* shayad karda bashad "he may have done 8 ", wliile karda khwahad " he " will have done. 4 (Afghan)
:
bud
&(> eiJj ^>\ 13 \^9 farda ta m vaqt bayad Compare (1) ^iC pl+j r, ^ur tamam bi-kunam (m.c.) " I must finish this book by this time tomorrow (2) &jS (**1j& or p&** p\+> \) v'^ J^^M ^ '^ farda ta In vaqt in kitab ra famam ml-kunam or fchwahamkard (m.c.) '* by this time to-morrow
In kitab ra
;
have finished)
this
book
5
"
c^j'^
^(
f^y
^U
karda basham ^UJ j farda ta in vaqt shay'ad in kitab ra tamam by this time to-morrow, I may have finished this book." (4) The following are m.c. idioms <*a. . (e~4f or) o^b l^y^ OM| *^*a- khivurda ast, khumrda bashad (or p* flrS/), chi kunam ? (m.c.) "what he has eaten, he has eaten, what can I do ?
%$j>
<;
(inc.)
(I
c^o| or
^b
a*f)
as)
it
"
ipj&fu;!;!^ ( cu%f or ) mi-tavan kusht-ash ? "what he's torn, he's torn; one can't kill him for (but <xL> BJJ^ o^t i^^ darida ast darida bashad "if it's torn, it's torn,
be)."
^b
owst ?f^ karda ast karda bashad (or " " what he's done, he's done; what can one do ? darida ast, darida bashad (or ji^jjd ^~*\ **!)&
let it
The Presumptive Past Tense may, in modern Persian, be formed in two ways as illustrated by the following examples ^'k b c&!>* ** A V' albatta gunah-i karda bud ki saza~. *V^ ra "he have must committed some fault to be punished yash yaft (m.c.)
(5)
:
^^
This Transitive tense might also in some cases be Intransitive, the participle
*!&
shayad.
523
^
:
karda buda ast might be used and albatta &# *j>y y * g>ij ^} *&*) )*> dar vaqt-l ki In
shud u murda bud " he must have been dead when that happened." ti <xU This has the same **j? Ajb ^Alif c/unah-i bayad karda bashad ki
first
meaning as the
Remark.
1
example.
Vide also
t
(2).
^\^ ft
g*lj
vaqi
shud~*
;
Ji
^\
0^1
a^yc
3)1^
%^
<x>b
t&j*
j\
u murda buda
ast ki
kar
*S <x*L
vaqi' sliad
but
for,
^^
tej*
Jtejj
jjjyo
y u bayad murda bashad ki In kar he must u hala ^ bayad murda bashad JJU. y u hala murda buda ast could not
' '
'
The Continuative Past Subjunctive is in Indian Persian formed by prefixing mi to the Perfect Subjunctive. The following examples are from the Iqbal~Nama-yi Jahangiri, Ed.
Bibliotheca Indica, of the Bengal Asiatic Society
:
cAb^
*J
.
** ***
l^X^y #(
I;
*
(
^>i^
(k)
(1)
Preterite
Tense [vide
(g)]
that
sometimes supplies the place of the Perfect in English. The Perfect Tense in English expresses an action just finished
it
and
" I
it is
incorrect to apply
it
*"
is
incorrect.
accomplishment down to the present it is therefore correct to say seen him s whether the meeting occurred to-day or a year ago.'
:
*
'
Since
'
refers
to
time
distinctly
past and should therefore in English be followed by the Preterite: it is incorrect to say " I have not seen him since I have been here (or since I have come here) 4 " ; say " since I came here/' The following examples illustrate the use of the Persian Preterite for
the English Perfect: " and I have cited 5 this apologue that it may be understood, that in travel the most complete exaltation is attained and
a
8
4-
is not used in Persia. " I saw him yesterday ." In Persian also the Preterite. Say ft ura dlda-l have you seen him In Pors. also the Perfect Tense
This tense
X^
' '
?
*
Az
vagt-l ki Inja
amadam
\))\
f^f
lap-Vt
^H?3
by the
Since
'
Perfect.
The
is
(gr),
para.
3.
524
that
(East. Trans.)
"
yU
)* *t *$& ^1**
1
Li
^^
^^
td
o^au JS
kardam
dar safar taraqqiyat-i tamam ast (Anwar-i Suhayll). course of Dabishlim was ended the other Vazir advanced
"
'That
which His Imperial Majesty, the Shadow of God, has been pleased to say in " (East. Trans.) ^^ y explanation of travel and its advantages
^^
zill"
llah
va fava*id-i an farmudand
Kuja
is
budl. (m.c.)
where were
time
is
>
' '
"
;
all this
past,
English Preterite, thus: ^ j>/ yfjj> sar mi-rizad ki chira 'aruei karda am
*$
&j** j~
^ ^^
Miak bar
(m.c.)
"he
is
scattering dust
on his head (and saying) alas why did I ever marry"; here the Perfect is used because the effect of the action continues. Similarly &$ij }t AJ*>J ki inja amada am ura na-dida am (m.c.) fj,f f\ awf tsuuf az ruz-i f\ " I have not seen or l?^ ) jt him, since I came here" ( f\ |*i-*k o^oU^ az ruz-i ki inja haslam (or amada am) saldmat am 4< J enjoy good ^} health since I came here ": h^ W*> fiala ura didam (rn.c.) "I have just
:
seen
" he has just died/' but cu-^l JU c&. ' '* c**l jj^c ^ai 5a/ a<9^ murda ast (or /aw^ shuda ast) he has been dead a year. Another use of the Perfect is to indicate a time (indefinite) anterior to the
him"
J|U.
hald
fva murd
(m.c.)
Preterite,
thus:
OS*M
ast
^>
<jr^** jfi
u*^
*
j*
Bandar-i
Abbas
an
shahr-i
mu'tabar-i buda
' '
(m.c.)
"Bandar-i
Abbas was
once
important
here cu~.| ^y buda ast signifies that the city is one of the has beens,' place before the speaker's time, whereas tj* bud would signify that the speaker was in B. Abbas when it was an important place. Note the following miscellane;
tu
ous examples: ft 8^ J^^y tf c*~jxj>* &**> muddat-i madid-i " shuda am "I have been in love with you a long time ashiq
*sl
;
ki bar
here the
would be more
to
forcible,
ft
*x
_yo>
^f v*^/*
*^
il
c^3^
I
^^ o^
am
;
ki murtakib-i in
amr shuda am
have run
risk
my
life
in doing this
' '
still
continues; the Preterite would indicate that the risk had been run and risk was over; the Present p*** mi-kunam would signify "I am running a " and be would followed another Present. now, by In classical Persian however the Preterite is often used in such a case,
thus
c>j
bud could bo
o^| a^ buda
(to
an arrangement).*
'
525
Also &j*j*jt+ty Payg&ambar farmud (class.) for c**| *:>>*y farmuda Perfect however clearly indicates that the writer was not present.
indicate
if
the time
:
is in-
JIU definite, but if the time is definite the Preterite should be used, thus *' *5J5 rasidaI have but <H*^ W*> just arrived," fl f*x*; man hdld rasidam
^
a
am would
^^ </*^ ^ ^^ ^*
i/U*
shudam
(m.c.)
"I am now
"
ft
am "I have
recently become a
hdji
Remark.
the
here," td hald, tinuance of the effects of the past act. If however the words JJla* or eJ>tf| U id aknun, etc., be inserted, the Preterite Tense should be used, as o,*lU* \) ^yx ^\f U j^f tjuf JAJL?J jf az vaqt-l ki injd dmadam td Icunun
:
Present
or
Perfect
is
"I enjoy good health since I came used in Persian to signify the con-
^i>j
^o
(m.c.).
This rule
is
in
The
,
contracted
third person singular is sometimes, in old the final being discarded as c^JUy
,
:
guftam
&t o**| cu^j <^iux ^ ^J^ " I (Sa'di) replied it (is like) a
and
in
modern Persian,
bad writing
in letters of gold."
Karm
bin u
(Sa di)
" Behold the bounty and kindness of the Lord That his creatures sin and He feels the shame."
The
omitted* altogether,
as
*A^ jf
jj *U* )
cua*>
^ cuxscuo y Afuf dnchi az mihnat va bald va " as for the travail and affliction which g&zashta
^ AU
"Shushtav was formerly a flourishing town" c5^^ j^> ^>^ Shushtar shahr-i mu'tabar-i buda (m.c.); (were bud here used in modern Persian instead of ow*i ^j buda ast it would signify that the writer or
speaker saw what he is describing). In the other persons, the substantive verb can be omitted only in such sentences, as: "The reason for my coming to your house was that I did,
and
still
"
j* \^
&*
**
w of U
Payyhambar
ml-farmayad"
It is the
says"
*
8
Hajl, Pers. for Ar. hajjiyy, or colloq. hatfi In modern Persian poetry the full form
8 is
**
is
scansion the
omitted.
taken away,
i.e.
understood."
526
tj
j*^
a n bud ki
(Vazir-i
man
khwdhir-zan-i tu Nisd
this sentence
hdnum
f;f->J*
Lankaran); in
the 1st person."
aS^U
is
If
ff
t*\&
^ i&)& j
am is
rafta va dida va
Compare
^Ajj^su ^
j
the emphatic statements " I do not and will not," as: &* man Mch vaqt tasllm nami-shavam va not^ f*^~* ^*j
&
khwdhaw shud
(m.c.)
IjjtjJyfc
8^
&&*;+&
CU-A
A^A
&$
^^ ^^ Jj^
***>
^j AAJ^ ma hama mdyil bi-ln khayal-lm ki harchi hast hamtsha buda va khwahad 4< we are all apt to imagine that what is, always has, and bud (m.c.) " be." will [In English an ellipsis after the auxiliaries have, do, shall, always " is correct only if, where the ellipsis occurs, the will, may, and can principle
verb can be inserted
it
without change,
i.e.
in
the same
form
in
which
In the last example be (expressed) therefore been should be inserted after has.
is
The Pluperfect
is
English.
or of the Imperfect
'
vide Conditional
vide' Optative clauses. *>.x& e>U*T ^ ^j^ jt ^Uj^X/o (jtf^S f^J *^J *> e;^J;^J' jO* ^A d ^A az dawr-i budam varuy az zamdn na-ndlida ty hargiz j j-J j*xui LT^V^ asmdn dar-ham na-kashida* magar vaqt-i-ki payam barahna bud va gardish-i
It ia also
In, p>\
^^M
tstita'at-i
budam is As stated
pay-pushi na-dashtam (Gul. Chap. Ill, Story 19), used to express time anterior to ddshtam.
^^J
*J&
ndllda
p*&&
used in narrating events that closely Thus in the following sentence, the Persian Preterites
is
the
and regained my <sj** cJ>^ f^ U chun dsuda sar-i ja-yi khud dmad pd va shudam **1 nafas qadr-i P&J! shudam\ here, if the two first Persian verbs were put in the Pluperfect, it would signify that 'I had rested, a couple of hours or so ago, or
yesterday, etc.*
had
rested
^f
Am is understood.
Budam
is
527
The
Pluperfect
Supposing a master were to order his servant to bring a c5^-;^* shikar-chi and were then to go out for an hour or two, and on his return ask The reply might be his servant if the shikar-chi had arrived. "he has come." amad (just) (i) <>x>f
:
(ii)
(iii)
*>*T amada, or cu*! l&tfamada ast he came and is still here.' &# *^T dmadabud 'he did come (but has gone away again).'
*
(9).
Remark.
budanii
is
^^
**/ karda
used
Pluperfect,
only
in Conditional
and Optative
(m)
or
(1)
is
Jtji OAAJ ^b} dardz karda hami-guft (Sa'di) "so he began to say in
^^ l^
^U
* *<& o**;<i ejfc>U ^Wf aj&f^ *!& fj (fJ( laliska-ha ra ***jf (J^^^ khamush amadand kardand, durust shud (Shah's Diary) paymnigdh dathta "the train was stopped; they got down and extinguished the fire, and all
derision
falx^& (jw^aU 4j^y toj c^t ij^J I; ^Tjt^^o magar Taymur zada pish-i madar-ash nafiristada-l (Vazir-i Lankaran) ra zamin-ash Agha " but haven't Taimur Agha to the ground (in wrestling) and sent thrown you
:
him
Pj^o
(in
"
^ ^f
*S
vs
Al* cUj ( jt> ) pas rava'st (ki) 4 akhir-i 'umr (dar) ^Jl^ Shu'la Khdnam bachcha na-dtda bi-mwamt (Vazir-i Lankaran) "then is it " right I should die without having seen a child in Shu'la Khanum's arms ?
^4 t*j<> *ap.j
:
pS9\j
*^Ji 9 *j\
ptijZ
\)
**)) ?y
*<*
riipiya ra giriftam, az
yaftam ? "he replied, I got the rupees as a reward for hitting the mark (with an arrow); but I have got nothing as yet by my begging": " we started before W) *->> w^'f (iftab na-zada rah uftddlm (m.c.)
su*al chi
fi&ti*i
sunrise"
&*\
^ (^
*l^*
*~>^^
^^
(*^^
^V^t" *^^
^J h* v^*
'
o,qab
mara
yarvarda hamrah-i man mi-amad 6 "it (the wild goat) refused to leave me but followed me everywhere, just like a tame goat."
vil
na-karda bi-har
ja-i
ki ml-rajtam manind-ibuz-i
Some grammarians
the above
to be a copulative Conjunction. 6
*
3
The Conjunctive
In Urdu, the Pluperfect here would have this same signification. Participle is also common in Hindi and Urdu.
Vide also (n). Tn the original, ki and dar are omitted. Ac *aqab-i u mi-raft would be right. Not mi-raft &Jj&l but C^MO y
*
^
is
verbs together by ^
and
'
528
Occasionally a redundant j is found after the participle, as *^ *#<> 1) L^>J>P &)& avarda-and ki buzina-l l darudt5*J ai-*^i t5?>^gar-i ra dtdki bar chub-l nishasla vami-burid (Anv. Sub. Chap. I, St. 5) "they
*J*
have related that a monkey saw a carpenter sitting upon a piece of timber, which he was cutting, and ". (East, Trans.); (either elide the va or insert bud after nishasta).
O**ji}
T JjA3f
***\
J AAW[J>
(,*;UuoU9j
^ f^ ^lA, jy^^xx* bi-'ivaz-i mkikhudrdtaht4himayat-i'Amir-i Bukhara bi-danid bayad khud ra taht-i himayat-i Dust Muhammad Khan, Hukmran-i Afghanistan danista va ism-i Amir Dust Muhammad Khan ra dar
j*5UJ cl^f.i ^A.
tukt
numa*id.
'
(Mem.
of
^^
;
^^
*'
l*Hi
*^ A
J^
if
shighal harchi
mi-ravad (m.c.)
in this
duzdlda ml-ravad were written, the signifi. example In these examples the redundant va goes secretly."
"
is
not
much used
in speaking.
Remark
/.
The va can
:
two or more
participles together, as
hisar
ra
c>A?jU ^r>J^ i&&$ )\*?~) cuil^o ^ t^f ^bsv* \) ; Ua^ muhasara karda va mashaqqat-i bisyar kashlda, ma*yus, baz-gasht
this
participle
can govern an
p**) e>^
eA' **j* *
i I;
<e
J^
^u ^y
buz ra yad karda bi-an makan raftam Vide also 142 (a) went to the place."
(2).
Remark 111. "This very idiomatic use of the Past Participle will present no difficulty to the reader if he will translate all these (subordinate) Past Participles much as he would an Ablative Absolute in Latin, i.e.
"haying done so-and-so (and) having made
this (and)
deed, he acted (principal verb) thus." f{ When rendering into idiomatic English, the sentences must, of course be broken up." Introduc. Vazir of Lankaran' by Haggard and Le Strange. can take the place of an adverb 3 c>^ ^^J o*a>y (2) This participle
{ :
a/
me
**& marhamat farmuda ba^an kumd ki (m.c.) " kindly explain to , " Ufl* ^iJL ^J^AxivAXJ Awyj to*jf cUx j bar khiffat~i 'aql-i man
(j
:
<*
haml kardand va nihufta mi-khandidand (Sa*di) "they imputed weakness of my understanding and began to laugh secretly
' ' :
it
to the
In modern Persian the form *^jj tf buzina is preferred. In classical Persian baz gasht without kard would be used.
'
'
Devotedly
and
529
can take the place of a substantive t^* ^^AJ bi-surat-i murda * like a ^^i (m.c) corpse* *o&** ^ilUcJ^ j*Ljt J^U^b baqt-manda-yi ayyamdawlat-i salatln-i Safaviyya ast (m.c.) " these (buildings) have been in " existence since the days of theSafavi dynasty cu^.i f*fj^ \) &&*& guzashta " ra khwaham navisht (m.c.) I will write what happened, i.e. the particulars'* jl <^^*&jf kardaha-yi u (m.c.) "his deeds": ft* I; &*y ^i In navishtara
: : ;
didam
(m.c.)
"I saw
Ba
Va'z karda-yi
"Against
I think
' *
Farmuda-yi na-karda siyah-ruy-am kard Faryad zi karda-ha-yi nd-farmuda s (0. K. Whin. Rub. 418).
Az jam-i fana chujur'a-% nushidl Az bud u na-budagan* bi-kulll rastt (O. K.) " And, when you drink of His entrancing cup, You hasten your escape from quick and dead.
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 429).
can take the place of a clause: khadim dlda va shunlda ra 'arz namud (m.c.) "the servant related what ho
(4) It
had seen and heard": AX( J 5 p* tukhm-i awal-kashta "the seed, the seed that was first sown." (6) It can take the place of an adjective: " one mi-kardam shab
f
first-sown
yak
ta^mmul-i-ayyamri guzashta
pondering on ancient
tafaf-karda* ta*-as8uf
life*'
:
" times
f^y***
'
*JUtf
mi-khwurdam
(Sa'di)
"and
quieted, quiet."
Part, malbus
u**^
(dressed), pi.
oU^U
malbusat, used
in m.o. to signify
dress, dresses."
; ertf In ra navishta
But
'
c **t>
Al*>
didam (m.c.) " I saw this written." Note the unusual uae of t*yj*b nd-farmuda
for
For
^
34
btida
Or **" shuda.
In mod. Pers.
is,.
preferred.
530
^3
13
Asuda
shab-i
Ta
ba tu hikayat
kunam az har
bab-i
Couplet.
I need the quiet night-timo and the pleasant morn as well, That to thee I may the story of all my sorrows tell.
(Eastwick's Trans.).
(6) It
Ji*^
o^y
this pleasantry
Faridun"
pa~yi
(7)
man
"my
foot
is
tied."
Sometimes
:
^ u*>* oL*t^ ^!/ 3!^*^ 3 *l) cJ)^* manazil-i rah az arz kard (m.c.) "1 will tell you the bi-Tahran khirnham Shiraz girifta td " cu-t ^f>^ kh,wablda ast stages to Tehran commencing from Shiraz " cu-| &w~^ nishasta ast " lie is " he is sitting, seated" sleeping, asleep
in English, as $j
f*^
ct
* *
he
' '
is
standing
jjU
Vj^j
o^^ ^^
du
sa'at bi-g&urub
two hours (remaining) to sunset." Vide (10). (8) Sometimes this participle can be substituted for the Present PartiDavida ciple with but a slight shade of difference in meaning, thus:
(m.c.)
manda
atnad
having run he came, he came running," but >-*f &1j* ^^ dair^n damn amad implies that the running was continuous; "he ran the whole way."
**>t
t&j*
= bi-daw ama d
<>^f
'*
(m.c.)
(9)
The Past
and
in this case is
sometimes supplies the place of the ura dlJam az bam uftada (m.c ) "I saw him *&*) ;y Pluperfect: fb jf from the roof" has the same signification as fallen (i.e. after he had fallen)
^^
o| or
o>?
(m.c.): V*>
to&t f^3^ ** \*t* b > ? * r ^ dldam ki az bam uftada bud (or a$J) 8 ***) !/tjjK kdravun ra* rafta did (Sa di) '*he saw that the caravan
r
MWyi.
cj>3
c^*^^ ofj
**>
*fi*laJ
laftfa
is
**
mysterious
meaning,"
which
doors*
* In
mod.
Pers.
O^f
ayvun
is
of
MWaJ
But $*t
roof**
4
:
fl*
jf
& ^X^
t;^f
f7r5
fall
from the
saownl AU;
^y\ if &*
531
nashat-ash burida va gul-i hivas-aah pazhmurda (Sa'di) " afterwards I saw him when he had taken a wife and had grown-up children
his
and his joy had departed and *Jl&& &* jjj^f o;U^ Myp yL
cdaj^ **
&U
tij-xxf
* ' at night when the safar-karda va gharat-avarda sildh bi-kushddand (Sa'di) thieves returned (in a state of) having travelled and having brought plunder
The Past
Mj
Alssujf avtkhta,
etc.
A^O
*^J^ shunida,
Aiif gufta,
*^j dida,
Compare No.
(7).
(11) The negative of the participles is usually, in classical Pers., formed In modern Pers. &* na is preferred. Umar-i Khayyam uses with b nd
'
.
both.
But
for
Na-karda gunah dar jahan kist ? Bi-gu " " Was ever man born that never went (O.K.). astray ? the scansion, atitf ^> na-karda gunah could be used.
Ay
"
and
ill
alone.
"
Hodgson
says,
of
"
means
of condensafinite
;
tion, as instead
two
verbs, one
clause
and
is
when
there
is
common
"
also,
subject
" Too
*
if
what a participle really one would avoid the error known as the mis-
related participle.'
"
known English
writers,
cities as errors examples from wellwhere the sentences sometimes contain no word to
1
which the participle can possibly refer, or where the participle refers to a Possessive Pronoun only, or where the true relation of the participle is obscured by faulty collocation, The error in, " Sir Charles Wetherell addressed the
House
(of
Lords)
few
selekar generally phrases similar to the above, as, aksar karke (vulg. Hindu.) " az anja girifta (Pers.), are used absolutely like etc. commencing (Hindu.)
:
"
from"
532
three hours
when being
e^JUx>
<j$*f;J5
fatigued
is
by
repeated in:
u>T)f
^ $& c^L ^
13
*U
ej^Aj
;bp j|
*>
******
mamlakat az darbar bJrun raftand (m.c.) "the Shah made a speech lasting half an hour; then being fatigued the * Vazirs left the darbar." In oJ) ojj# *j* ibj* jb^a vsjj zan dar baz karda mard birun raft (m.c.) " the woman having opened the door the man went out," though the participle may be 'misrelated' there is no ambiguity whatever. Further if the view
az an Ichasta-shuda
vuzara-yi
of
x of the participle is equivathe sentence 'and,' may also be grammatically correct according to the laws of Persian grammar.
some grammarians be
The misrelated
vSA^j^y
^
'
participle is a construction
common
**>j*
laxif
H.
B.
down
:
In
oA|
p.
is j*jyo
(^^u*^ y
parti-
jJUJ
^li/
&(**
^U
"
i;
(Tr.
is
H. B. Chap.
understood.
XXXIV,
288), the
ciple (misrelated)
being"
Also as there
is
nothing to
show
whether there
sukhan or not, it would be better, to avoid a possible misreading, to put ** f*j* mardum-i dih first.
is
an
hardly intelligible; to a listener, the ambiguity might be removed by the gesture and the intonation of the
reader, the following
is
To a
speaker: f*UIjj
*=*?>
is+*')*>
SL^|
aJJ
i*K &J+AA
owf
Jy fj 3^; j JU auJt w>*> &+&ij* f c*ULjj ^ cu-^o (H. B. to refers the here namuda the addressee, and lala, ***+> XV, 128); p. Chap. ^^t &^& na-Jcarda ast to the son. Though this construction is common in m.c., and considered correct
^;So
vide
is
142
(/).
The Present
Participle in
u>T
an
not
much
used.
As already
its place.
participle is used, it
(.?*** &j)j* (*u bi-hukm-i zarurat sukhan guftam p&) e*J!r#cA*' j^.J ' I was forced to open my lips and va iafamtj kunan blrun raffim (Sa'di)
f&
we
left (the
garden) rejoicing as
we went."
Their Lordships or Sir Charles ? If the word vuzara it was the Shah who was fatigued and not the ministers. were placed before the participle khasta shudct it would be clear that the vazirs were tired.
1
Here
533
Tell not
your secret
grief to
your enemies
horror rejoicing
all
For they
...fj^
the while.''
(lund
&*
*M *M
'
Jl^
IfJ
Ziba*
Khanum
muttering, says under her breath) r*i*>h is* t*^ ^li^^/o jfy^f az pahlu-yi dbdddmhd bd kamdl-i ihtirdz murur
:
l
Man chird " Ziba Khanum (going off " Why should I J^'o l^jabf u^)\
"we
travelled
(Tr.
H. B.)
with
much
we were
day,
* '
e>f ^Uf^^lx^j^t ubisyar khwahdn-i an bud ki (H. B.): (m.c.) " he was very desirous to ": ^^>y ^Uy ^J magar tarsdnbucfil (m.e.) were you in a state of fearing (when you saw him) ; but ^A^y jLo magar
"
tarsldl
**did
you
"
<XX!~A
think
"
<*xy
^Uy
formed from the Present Participle and t* magar tarsdn hastid "you are fearing }
refer to the
mi-tarsid
might
Ua.>f tf ^f ^UyL khwdhdn-i an budam ki injd bi-ydyam = present. ^jUj &f x mi-khwdslam ki griydn shud **he began to weep, ^Jwi^j>> he became weeping": cu~t girydn ast "he is a instate of
^^
o^
^J
tears" (present only); but *&** & girya mt-kunad, or be future mt-shavad might girydn (future
:
^ ^ ^f
*ij***>
mi-giryad
only).
J
J[w lahza ki az ajal
j*
*>
ganzdn gardam
Chun barg zi shdkh-i 'umr rizdn gardam Alam bi-nashat-i dil bi-g&irbdl kunlm 8
Z'dn pish
ki khdk-i khdk-btzdn gardam.
(O.K.)
receives,
When Khayyam
And
quittance at Death's
life,
hand
sift this
world away,
(Whin. Trans. Eub. 309).
Ere dustmen
sift
JDS hawl*
i.e.
wa
is
**
there
i8
God/'
*
8
there
This exclamation
emergency.
Stage directions
:
called olA^I
iltifat.
Possibly there
is
a misprint for
kunam.
534
Adjectives ending in a,
arms":
^ ^^
"a
powerful
kur-i na-
tutl-yi
guyd (m.c.)
"a
talking parrot":
^Ujyf
bina 1 (m.c.)
blind
man":
lb
\^ <j*>?
khattri
khwana
is
occasionally used
as an adjective as well as a
(Sa'di
noun
nakhun-idaranda
When
"
Bulbul guyanda bar mandbir-i quzban. (Sa'di.) of the month of Urdibihisht of the Jalali year, the bulbuls were singing on the pulpits of the branches
!^
i>w.|y
nama
'
:
chist (Sa'di
andm.c.)
the writer
knows what
e^iix* uJU*
<j&*>*)\*$$ faj>
"a
"an
wayfarer passed
by the assembly":
maghribl dar
i^tjtjj
*Ji^ ; ^
<j*j**>
!^^
Aleppo
j A ** f>*
.
khwahanda-i
4
(Sa'di)
African
' '
beggar
in
41
And
O Thou
Directors, born of
men, shall not direct me, " Their counsel comes to naught, but thou endurest
!
In modern Persian the Noun of Agency is rarely used. It is some"a times used as a mere adjective, as: Ji*>i>2uRu tj* mard-i balchsJianda (m.c.) " khayll bafehshanda (m.c.) very generous": generous man," and *xiu 9 f an janavar-i daranda-i- st (m.c.) " that is a beast of prey."
(q)
^^
An example
An
:
:
of Persian
*J/^ tcfkid or
^A)lA*o
d&
fyashv-i qabih.
Abstract noun can often be formed from the noun of agency by adding
gl t as
"
"
liberality
baML^handctgl
(m.c.)
8
darmandagl.
Urdibihisht-mah
"month
of Urdibihisht";
names
535
Even
as: )t
in
modern Persian
it is
occasionally used as a
noun
is it
of agency,
l&jjjl'
"who
that knocks
at the
(m.c.)
vs***y
door?": cu^^i, t*xwy ijaii^ an shakhs navisanda-yi khub-i *st " " he is a o~f wJ>? ;*JLa* e/f an janavar gazanda ast (m.c.) good writer
:
li^iAf
kushanda-yi ust
' ' ' '
(m.c.)
sdzanda (m.c.)
singer
<\>lx*
' '
.
*<*ijy
B^ojU
"dancer":
ki
(H.B.) "thereadei
The following
fear jahaz-t
ki bi-dan taraf
ravanda
an Afghan idiom: f^;t>* tyi**j) J^5f*? *fyfa^j* bud war shudam "I embarked in a ship
1
that was on the point of sailing for that country." In modern Persian ty uh) *J^bif*J *& ki bi'ddn taraf ravart bud, or O^IAJ (*) *-Sj)t> dar
dar sadad-i raftan-i ;*> ^i) would be used. bud cy^*? raftani The Future Participle or Noun of Possibility, formed by adding the
r
^ o J^f^j
3^*0
^l*' C5^
examples
ty
'Christ
:
.V^"2/*
is
illustrated
by the following
(m.c.)
c^^f
had
j*^ j^
^.i-^o e^-Ai^
amadani bud
to (or
was
to)
come
world"
is
o>2Rjj? e>ty^+*
^^J^ y
what
I
az kar-i shudani nami-tavan gurikht (m.c.) "it " is destined, what has to happen
:
impossible to escape
cH^^ eA?
3Ry
^^ ^^U ^
:
_'-^
tark-i
mdndani shudam
this
:
(m.c.)
"by
leaving
^^ u^ my home
**
mahz*i
have
had to remain
in
island"
^y^
ci* c,-
? J&*)
"
man
raftant
am
(m.c.)
have to go now
<e
J '
:
CL*~JJ
^*5/
j^
lio
&>
(m.c.)
not at
1
all, this
(said of a
rh\
healthy)
*'
':
a^
to
V^^JA^
will
*^A
liar
what has
(s)
happen,
happen."
The
-:
man
khub
riist
"I'm
darugfa-guftanha
az raftanhd-yi shumabi-haminam a jiz shudam ^^^- AJ tired of these everlasting goings to the bath":
"
gen. na-kardan)
genitive, as:
lies"; ^.yli c^Ust ita'at m-kardan (in m.c. "disobedience." As a verbal noun it may govern the
tellings
of
kuslitan-i
u "for the
:
killing
him."
It
in.
the plural.
In dava
bfaur-
daniat ya malldanl
3
^**J\*
is
^^^^ \^
if
^\ m .c.)
(
An
But
unusual expression,
correct:
a)*^
eJiSj-'
<*
%^
or
&*&
or
pazhmwda shudan
*
murdan
of trees.
^ I^J
536
t>
" Majnun's <^V mvldqdt kardan-i Majnun LayK ra (Heading of a Chapter) " U? w c: ra kushtan Laili Verbal &&* ^^tf fuldn (vide Nouns) t; meeting
:
gunah
nlst
= o~^
a'i?
(2) In classical Persian, the negative of the Infinitive with na but in modern Persian na is preferred.
(3)
usually formed
The
Infinitive of
a Transitive Verb
is
sense, as:
killed
(lit.
^te &***^t
b^ ur
fekushtan dddand
to be
they banded him over for their killing him).' as the Perfect Tense signifies that the speaker was not present Just (t) [vide ( k) ], so the Continuative Perfect gives the same notion but with the idea
,
of continuance.
is
rarely
if
Persian,
its
is
td hal ml-karda " " and they have been doing this up till now o*! JI-* *o^ e>^* ^^j^ia. cJj o^f a.^* j^jy fuldn shahr dah sal ast taraqql mi-karda ast vail chand-Vst bi-khardbi uftdda here 0^*1 s^x? taraqql ml-karda ast
Perfect
place being supplied by- the Imperfect. rare even in modern Persian. Examples
The Continuative
:
^y
rising,
was rising"
*jf+*
not be so forcible.
In the sentence
cu-ii
jj,^Cxx)
\)
^sj
ajJuacut/o
Qur*dn iri*-khwdnda vasar-i khud ra pdyln ml-dvarda va buland ml-karda ast* " have you seen him standing in the mosque while he was reading the Qoran,
j
lu^yf
^JJb
\^\
y
l
ati5lj
tu urd dldarl ki
dar masjid
Istcida
etc., etc.
?"
The Continuative Perfect of the Subjunctive is used in a similar manner as the same tense in the Indicative, but expresses a ^ f; Ipf *$ ^>o jUv^i doubt, as e^*t ^iiAc ; ^GuJL^* tf ^ *-H& JUi)t w*^ ^ shunlda am ki Musalmdndn ra ml-kushta ast
Remark.
:
ddrad ki dnhd ra ki wdjib u 'l>qatlbudd-and ml-kushta bdshad "I have heard that he has been killing Muslims but it is probable that he has
been
common
worthy of death." This tense is not used in in Abu'l Fazl&nd in the // tmdyun-Ndma.
is
The Continuative
The Imperative
Pluperfect
is in
*AJ
"
God grant
thee a
long
form
^AJ>
'
Note omission of
ra, the
Qur'&n
(i.e.
Khwanda
id
'*
Example from
St. Claire
TisdalPa Grammar,
537
is
even
in classical Persian
used preca-
mard tawba dih u 'uzr pazir u 'nzr-paztr-i hama kas Ay "Grant me repentance, and accept my plea, " of all the O Thou who dost
tu
Ya Rabb!
tawba- dih
accept
pleas
(0.
K. 278 Whin.)
prefixing
ml or haml
:
is
not
In classical Persian
it is
common
only in poetry
Oar
Also negatively
(Qa*anl).
The negative
in m.c.
of the Imperative
classically
formed by prefixing
**>,
but
the less forcible and consequently more polite <*> is preferred.* In ra gufta bash <J&* *iif ij "continue saying this," <j$U
tj
^f
in ra karda bash,
<jU
:
an Afghan idiom
1
it is
is
prefixed, as
^J
<^, hay
bi-kan.
For the same reason the Pres. Fut. " of the Imperative ^jj^ ml-ravid you
:
instead
will
go
"
for
&j^
CHAPTER
126.
(a)
XVII.
Subjunctive Mood.
The Persians use the Subjunctive more frequently than the English
in
use
it.
The verb
supposed.
is
frequently understood.
gener-
Conjunctions introducing the Subjunctive are *$ fjj& giram-ki, tf WU. sallamna ki "granted": *& ^ Jrjyix> mashrut bar in-ki, A^l^j bi-shartl:
ki
' '
"
provided
l
" whether "; *&jf>^ juz inki, &u) jO* magar inki "unless", *!>^ khwah and a&jf e>j^ Udun-i inki, etc., "except" **j?i agarchi, A*.y* harchand, " etc. "though ", and ^^^^bd-vujud-% ki, etc. " although ;**y> har qadr, " so ^ however chandan-ki" A&f*^ much; notwithstanding": ta, and a? " " that 02 on K ere' JUj a^ ?wH before
; :
U^ jarzan
jt\
agar
' '
if
"
a^fjl <>x)
st
pM
'
A^XJIJ!
ga6Z
**i5j
^lest", etc. Subjunctive clauses * are also introduced by the relatives 'whoever 3 j* har-ki, a^f^A har-an " and * etc. and **> har-chi or *uf har-an chi " whatever*
tTO^^t
At
when";
*& t^U^
mabadd
ki
'
oJj yk yk Aar vaqi ki (mod.) *' whenever." From the above remarks it will be seen that the Subjunctive Mood is generally employed to express a condition, desire, intention, doubt, or end,
it,
;
>wlj bashad ki ^^fc a^ taraf-l az mdl-i md dost bi-ddrand ki darigfa bashad ki chandin ni mat zdti' gardad (Sa'di) perhaps (it may be that) they will give back a portion of
stjt
&$
^b
>)$
*>
*>;!*.>
o-j>
U JU
j|
our property to us, for it would be a pity that so be lost" [in m.c. ** <*~4 crr~*l <j>^ * r trJ3 *>j*j* ^~**
;
u J u c5^3'
**
*j~
+! {
i^ **^
hama
ast ki \n
cJiiz
pay-mat shavad].
In m.c. also hargah, chunanchi, har angah, and agar chunanchi "if." khwahad shud (m.c.) 4t whether
shall be killed/
7
it
be
man
or beast,
3
,>
dtwd oat ehUb-i ;*>aj^t W^A. o^t ii'yk Aar " daraz the of whoever if ahud stick khwahad bi-qodr-i yak angusht (class.) (He said) ' the thief, will grow one finger's breadth in length ' here ast is used because one of those present was the thief : bashad would throw a doubt on the matter.
^Af^a.
y^
si^ttf
L#
;
to
do "
|*i>^
(m.c.)
but
&& (***
to do/'
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Remark.
539
when introducing
Subjunctive
f*?f
:
direct
i
and
<xY ^ naml-ayad **j* ml-guyad ml-guyad ki nami-ayam (direct) "he says he won't come."
(6)
tf
English in the Infinitive^ iu modern Persian it is usually in the Present Subjunctive, even when " ct I wish to go the principal verb is in a past tense, as py ( *& ) fAfj^v/
the
When
second of
two verbs
is
in
mi-khwaham (H 2
l
bi-ravam
"I
seized
him
to
bring
him
AJ
before
you"
fj>y#
+~ LT"$ ^
(**
ur
yiriftam
gave you leave to enter my harem" turn ki ijazat dad ki bi-haram-i man dar
be
used,
&
pish-i
shumabiyavaram:
fj*>
"who
A^jy
js (&*
tf &i& e>jU|
a*l\ (here
^'f
ml-atl might
but
&*.
with the
signification
chi
'since
p<**j> )yk
namidanam
tawr bi-raqsam
"I
don't
know how
(*\*+> to
<C
dance," but p**j' j>k *^ ^f*>^ nami-danam chi tawr mi-raqsam don't know in what manner I am dancing"; vide 123 (6) (4):
(m.c.)
".
In classical Persian the Infinitive was also used, as: u^j)* cAl) er*-? (i?.y maslahat na-didam az In bish " I did not consider i darun-ash kharashidan* va namak pashidan (Sa'di) it advisable to probe his wound further or rub salt on it" *t oJi? e>UaJ b eu+^ &+lf ki bashad ^Ikf u&$ kalima-yi Luqman guft >) darigli " to hikmat ba Isfian be a that it
:
*j
gu/tan (Sa'di) Luqman replied " waste the words of wisdom on them ^l+J^J Jf *j
:
would
pity
+>_
a&. A^
&$
iJ^^\
&>
guyam
"he*
replied
it
is
In,
<MxW>
.j
\)
(^*.
^**
)fi**
i^j* c^
^* sukhan
bar
In
muqarrar shud ki yak-l ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand (Sa'di) **it was decided to despatch some one to spy on them (the robbers) ", the
is
Preterite
used instead of the Present Subjunctive to show that the order effect. Vide page 514.
are instances of the Present Subjunctive used instead " I did this before I arrived in Kerman "
:
The following
*
8
Expressing command, desire, object, consequence, etc. In m.c., those Conjunctions would probably be omitted.
In modern Persian ki
bi-kharasham.
cu*f
(jfjf
jLg
ast
f*4>^
ki
^^
&*
^**j*^Jj?
oJu
an
pathiman bi-shavam ki
Note the
540
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
az an ki bi-Kirman bi-rasam
l
in kar ra kardam
' '
;
this
*~
&3
;
pish az an k
might curse
(m.c.)
*xif
fHrA* mi-tarsidam ki mara nafrtn* kunad &JJ f>j** u*ir^ *&f jf t_f% * ^-* o^ *~^ Ms^tf of ua J cr^f &*<*) L^'CI^ ^ vT jj (*^ i^Af* eA^ ^U ^ftju^ pish az anki an
happened before I was born (*& tavallud shavam \n vaqi* shud: "
**
' '
*)>>
*C5f jt
^^AJ
I feared lest
he
^ aJa^Ct
mahrum latifa-l bar angikhta bud va hirman bar atash-i satvda-yi kham-i u rikhta va sabab-ash anki t: and before that helpless one coulp (Anv. Suh. Chap. I. Introd. St. 3) 8 arrive there, ill fortunes had poured the water of disappointment on the fire
of its crude
"
-j
p.
p> fl^
311)
4<
ij* tf^jfy u^) (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXXVIII, ^ILy ^ji^ two or three hours before I saw you the Sardar ordered me to
:
(East. Trans.)
cu*U
**
jj>
" there were few who did not or would not throw money & the was scarcely a man there (to Story-teller)" oJ)!*^ J^j " *$ ojfcvi who would not give me money but " there was J^j c^. $*trt f$
go to the
bath"
a^ ^
j>t
<
scarcely a
man
me money "
ai J^j
^w
*f
^ ^tf p<
' '
:
few
remained behind in the city who did not come" ( t3JxUj or) **J^ *& *^Ailx> ^. After such expressions as 'before that,' after that ,' etc., the modern
*
Persians prefer to use the Present Subjunctive. This tense may, and does, give rise to ambiguity. In the sentence, "This happened before I was
as
it is
ji ^.u *y> ejU/ speaker has been born <JUj az varid-i Kirman shavam mani'-i pish amada bi-Yazd raftam, anki pish f**) the Present Subjunctive leaves it doubtful whether the speaker reached
but in
& *^f
^^ ^
^ *f
Kirman or not; he may have reached Kirman or he may not. But in, f*>d f;j< {*<H^ ^M *&f 3 cr*i pwA 02 anki anja rastdam ura didam it is clear
f
there/
equivalent shudan, and e>*""^ bayistan and ^^i-*jU shayistan, either the Subjunctive Introduced by ki [vide Remark to (a) ], or the shortened Infinitive can be
After
v^-iy
tavaniston
'*
to be able
"
or
its
the
verbs
used, as:
In kar
^^
!;jt<
^'
*^*>
:
*jf
^Ui
fj
^^t
^^
\>
^\
,
&\
or
?
:
>j
nami-shavadin ra kharld
?,
or nami-shavadkiin ra bi-kharam
p^&x
f;
^jb, or
reach
a
From the Subjunctive here, it is not known whether Herman with ratttdam there would be no doubt,
:
Or Or
**
**
4
6
nfi-shavad, and **> mi-thud, and *& *hud. This latter might also mean " we (or one) must not do this/ This might mean "we, they, or you oan't do this."
^^
'
SUBJUN01IVB MOOD.
<x>b,
541
" we bayad rah bi-yu/tim or bayad rah uftdd ought to start, we " 1 must start (*A# <xjU shayad bi-ydyad perhaps he may come" <y AJ& *>f shayad mi-dyad (m.c.) "perhaps he will come"): */ AjtAi fj jtf ^t
"
;n
rd bi-kun%
*T ojUJ ty tora kard, or f; jfc ^t na-shdyad ki In kdr not suitable for you to do this." (e) The Future* Indicative sometimes takes the place of the Future " I would 8 " Subjunctive; go through fire and water for you f; 3^ y ^NJ
(
Hr rd na-shayad
it is
^
;
(fjr*>t
^o
e^tj
*Jf J* baray-i tw
ham anddkht
see
mi-andazam)
but
in,
&W m
you to-day?", the Persian subordinate clause and must be in the Present Subjunctive or Aorist;
introduced by
)
*$
***j$*
y
tu
J^*4
imruz
^>Ui
jjyof
?
uiAjaj
:
bi-khaydl-i
tu m%-rasid (ki)
man
bi-didan-i
naydyam (m.c.) man gumdn kardam ki shumd dlruz mi-ay id * *$ ^U? >^T <^ j>^.> U^ "I felt certain you would come yesterday," or^ ^
1
biydyld **I thought possibly you might *+*> \j U-S AT owt cu.^ i?i a^r c^WTtaw
(or
come yesterday": eA^- ^*j &>\ M< 3< ^^' shumd rd mt-kushad
4 to kill i^f^A. khwdhad kusht) "this poison is strong enough " and will kill you", but bi-kushad is so strong that it might kill you *xix/o **. l^if Sb bi-blnam dnhd chi mi-kunand I went you raftam ^itj to see what they are doing" (Present only) aja <^^V ^-^ /># ^1^^ ^t o>ft?
oJtf
o6
' '
* '
Owf ji*t^ guftay khuddwand blddrhastam chiguna duzddn khwdhand dmad* (class, and m.c.) "he said 'O master, I'm awake; how can the thieves come ? " (**T **\j&* or) A^ j^i jf A^ > x^ ^^v g* A hichbi-khaydlam na-rasid kiu imruz bi-ydyad, or khwdhad dmad (m.c.) " I never thought he would come
*
:
k
to-day"; here the Pres. Subj. leaves it doubtful whether he did or did not come ; the Future gives the idea that he did come.
Note the
The Definite
Future in modern Persian would be contrary to idiom. In colloquial, ***"^ ehayista " are the " " suitable " and only parts of this verb used. shayad perhaps * In classical Persian the Future Indicative is frequently used in conditional Vide 128. sentences where in modern Persian the Present Subjunctive is used
>^
In English, would is often a past tense, as "he would not regard their enchantto time. After verbs ; but it is often hypothetical without any regular respect " I would rain wish it as a event denotes future it u*^ kash bi-bdrad of wishing " if he would as: it denotes conditional la desire, clauses, hypothetical (not Future).
8
:
ments
* '
"^^
hearken to reason
tional
"
<k
;
if
his wife
:
and ardent
It has
desire, as
" Would
would have permitted him." It also expresses condito God I had died for thee, oh Absalom, my son,
my
son."
numerous other
\)
significations.
<*>l**>
*'
But
oyo
>
iS ty OtsiMA
xj
killed
6
you."
Or *l|f
mt-Syand
(m.c.), or
^ufjl^
(m.c.).
542
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
In
classical
^A^^^^A U
ma har du Tchwahlm amad an ra both of us return we will take we Tchwahim girift (class.) "whenever " it (the deposit) back khwahim amad gives the force' when here &tf fi*f>^ in modern Persian p*'^. bi-yaytm would be we return as we shall do
o^?
^j^f^xi^f
**>f
1 guftand ki hargah
'
preferred:
&/
p*tj*>
& I/
XJ^^A^
fy jg ^l ttfj*> hargah yadgar-i turd Ichwaham " whenever I shall see your keepsake (the
on
my
you";
(if)
in
mod. Pers.
with
pi*>
tobi-bmam:
**'y^
*>}**
(class.)
khwaham
Future
is
did
my own
the
eyes I will
in
no apparent necessity
for
classical as it
and modern
(/) The Perfect Subjunctive is used to express doubt where the Present would obviously not be correct: atj WoAT AT OASU* j&iJu pish az In In qadr mihnat ki kashida bashad ? (class.), (but in m.c.
kashlda ast
believe
<jd^ *$ ^S(a^ (&& J>w qabul amr buda bashad (m.c.) " I will not that Shu'la Kbanum can have done this"; o~f ^j buda ast
sahib-i In
:
vxlj
i^^ ^i ^a.U
"
o*kb
^^>^
(m.c.)
"it has not, I hope, been patched and darned ? ,Jb ttf namak-i tu kur-am kunad agar khildf
^JiU
^^ o^lA.
'arz
&& <)
:
^JUJ
have been
jJJib
Axft?
*" s *'may your salt blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts <^+> A^I? " na-khurda I bashad? (m.c.) ^^iu gulula bi-man hope that I may not " *z~~>J * *v been have I ?
hit, I
haven't
oA*Sj j
hit, ^i/** ^^ ^j+t j va guyand ki kas dar saray nisi va bi-haqiqat rast gufta and they (the coarse ruffians at the door) say there is no
:
'
o*b
a*x>*;
aJUa*
^ia*
(class.)
&jS **I
j+*> J$j&
bi-'umr-i
na-dida bashand
don't suppose
seen such a furious onslaught." (g) (1) As already stated, the Past Indicative
the Present Indicative: vide
is
125
(g) last
example.
**
* '
if
is
Agar
khttaf
'arz
Icunam
f& uj*
ij&x^>!
should
misrepresent matters
1 '
(immediate future).
8
In
mod. Pers.
either
*&>
*& *A&
**'
*&
OA&*U
If
*>\
the doubt
8x^ dlda and (without X?^ ahayad) were used and the sentence would then mean " they never saw.
it
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
This
is
543
:
yj\* jt\
**
ki
chlz-i nishan-i
me say that if you want (wanted, were I a will show you something the like of which wanting) really good carpet, " *&** *Jf ){&+> * I don't suppose you have ever seen oji (>+* *? o*f 8<x
:
un lei bi-mu8har ilayh Jj>*^ *^fa;J \) *j*> hukm shuda ast bi-Kdbul rafta hisab-i Tchud ra pardakhta ma'zul buda bashad u (Memoirs Amir Afod r-Rahman, Vol. I, p. 123); in mod. Pers. U-shavad
<vb
>5>>
V UK
cu^U* ^f^>AA3| wntdvar-am ki vujud-i mubarafaat " '* I hope you may* have been well bashad bi-salamat buda (mod. letter), here ^b bashad alone, or *^\ ast, would also be correct.
;
^^L ity
Lr~JLij
^j ^
(2)
is
^^^
jf
auxyfc
harchi kam
amad (for ^^
bi-ayad
mi-shavad (Vazir-i Lankaran) "whatever is (may be) short in the money I now give you, will be settled when you * this sentence is practically equivalent to a conditional senreturn here
bi-%nja
kar-sazi
tence.
Vide
128
(e)
and
(/).
" to have, (h) As the Aorist or Pres. Subj. of &&\& ddshtan signifies the Past. Subj. of this verb is usually used instead of the Present;
*'
o*t
&?*>}*
^^^-j*
ast (m.c.)
har
*'
darid do want)
mawjud
cJiiz-l ki mayl dashta bashid (or x)te whatever you may happen to want is
ready there."
(i)
Indicative, take
(*))*
(Sa'di)
Wy &"
Indicative, and the Pluperfect the place of certain tenses in the Subjunctive Mood ** *)$? ui'J^ ^ Svaz-l bar avard ki murgh azhavd dar avardl
:
lt
birds
to
and he sang with a voice that might have brought 6 down the very listen to him" in modern Persian j^f mi-amrd would be
:
Vide also
127
(c)
(1),
Remark.
Present
libas-i
In the following Afghan m.c. sentences, the Imperfects should be <J>&. C ^W va digar Subjunctives: f*j**> J<^ fyf &f khushk na-bud ki an ra badal mi-lcardam (Afghan; in modern Pers.
^j^
p&
bi-kunam)
r^f
"
^ ^ ^jx
tf
x
*S>
^^
:
Jl^ f\ agar
^tPj^ bi-bhwahid if you want.'* Note Future Indicative. * 3 The Past Subj. here indicates doubt, I don't suppose* " the like nida id could be used, but the doubt would vanish,
1
Or
^ W>**jfj*
of
hargiz na-
hav e
*
^
11
over seen. *
i.e.
'
have been
+>
vj>t
*
*
along and still are. kam ast would mean that the harohi *^>j* is understood. or if-clause protasis
all
is
money
is
not
sufficient.
544
jahdz
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
ham
Persian
(k)
fjj{*>
*J&'Y *f
<y^
^^ "H^}
1
h (J* v**^
.
u~$
*
p>\
<iJ^J
khubl ki aftdb ast na-shuntda \m here expresses the doubt. Compare cu-j*
^~|
xb
aj^f
at/a
^^
c/f
AS"
vjf
^L^
?
If
girifta
bashad
(I
"have you ever heard that any one has ever made love to that lady
:
think no one has ever has)," but vs^f AJ^f girifta ast would mean '* have ' ' i.e. the latter tense you heard that So-and-so has taken her as a mistress
would
*t^
"it was beyond his sagacity to understand this " if a***^* mi-fahmid were used, it would signify surprise that he was understanding or did understand
;
refer to the present time rather than to the past. UpJy ;a ow*ty* ;*aijf l+tf (&* ** *j* * n qadr firasat dar u kuja bud ki in imcfra bi-fahmad t)
it.
of
the Subjunctive,
vide
125
(f),
(m) Note the signification of the Subjunctive in the second example of in qadr bi-paz ki mi-tavam bithe following ks)f***- yfW t** *^Ji *t j *' as a such are able to consume (now)/' but cook khipurl you quantity only
:
4
*^
cJ*^ t/^W
**
Jtf
J*^-'
n qudar
<
cook only
such a quantity as
you may
In modern Persian
dust,
dashta ba*
CHAPTER
127.
XVIII.
is expanded by explanatory clauses it is called a the and Complex sentence, explanatory clauses are called subordinate clauses.
When
a sentence
Adverbial clauses include Conditional, Optative, Concessional, Temporal, Local, and Modal clauses. In other words adverbial clauses place conditions
on the action
and
manner
1 object or cause.
are, Relative
and Predicative
clauses, vide
first
A
2
principal clause,
Conditional (Adverbial) clause limits the action or state of the and is introduced by^?> acjar if or some particle of kindred
*
'
The conditional or subordinate clause generally stands meaning. followed by the is therefore called the protasis ( Js>j ), and is
clause or consequent proposition called the apodosis
(
first,
and
principal
*>*> or
vl^
Remark.
The Apodosis
of a
command
I'll
as
p>*
bi-guyam in
"come
here and
tell
^ ^^
you,"
.
LXJ
by God
won't come,"
is
called p~3
^&
(b) There are three classes of conditions, viz. (I) impossible, or those that might have been and were not realized or that cannot be realized or that are mere suppositions and (2) possible, or those which may be (or may
;
conditions in which the apodosis or if-clause is latter these understood; belong partly to (1) and partly to (2).
(3)
(c)
classical
Persian, as also
in
the Afghan
language, the tense most in use for the first class of conditions is the Past Habitual, obsolete in the m.c. of Persia. This tense is interchangeable with the
Vide
of Hindustani
"
by Kempson.
Expressed or understood.
8
The Conditional
and according
fc*,
particles (bj
o^-^
are,
J\
aiar>
g<*r,)\
ehu,
to
vaqtl
etc.
agarcM,
****-j*>
ha*chand
etc.,
and *Xj&
\j*
fjJ
<^
vaqtrl ki
and {^Sj* har kuja: ml ayam tura Wwpaham falabid, and ^)\& <^y* f ^
^j*
heirj a
&
sentences.
35
546
Imperfect
the
in the
protasis
and
other.
)>>
\
Examples:
tf
o**[
^Uaf
jf
^j
tjvil*
*2*#y &1&
of e-A*0 cXU
suhbat-i an baddn tarbiyat yajtl* yak-l az ayn-i haqlqat ast ki agar dar silk-i Inahdn shudt (Sa'di) "it is quite true that had he remained in the constant
^.vS j ^U,
dar
y ^ty
" eta men, he would have become one of them m^ ^~j e^M *jf jf\ *xLo*0 AJ **f j& o^x> pisar chun pil-i ma^t
:
amad
ahamn budi
* c
(Sa'di)
the
boy entered (the arena) like a mast elephant, with a shock sufficient to tear {( up from its roots, a mountain of iron" (lit. if it had been a mountain of
iron, he
it
up from
its
place)."
Oar na*budi ummid-i rahat u ranj Pa-yi darwsh bar falak budl
bi-tarsidl
8
Ham-chunan
k'az tnalik,
malak* budi
(Sa'di).
Were there no daily anxiety (for food and The darvish's rank would be * high as the
If the
clothing),
sky.
God
As he
would* be an angel.
) ur^ ol^ait \) U^j^l agar shuma ra " had az jahan bar khasti -(Sa*di) you
8
insdf budl va
justice
and
world".
Ah !
" Ah
if
To
his friends
and connections."
qadr
i
man
1
anastl
khirdman hami-raftami
is
(Sa di)
(6).
Vide example in
125 (h)
4
fi
In
classical Persian,
and
and Afghanistan,
is
majhul
(e).
while later,
6
L5^* v/*^^ lajnle-i &hat$. Though future, the first condition is one impossible of fulfilment the same tense is used to express past time, for conditions that might have
time.
t
of
fulfilled.
From an
obsolete
be":
ante
ast
,
in ancient
Pers.
Later aste
is
547
my
Sud-i darya
(Sa'di).
"The
profit
the terror of the deep. Pleasant would be companionship with the rose were
for the thorn."
not 8
Acjar Laylq, va
Majnun
zinda gashtl*
*
Hadls-i 'ishq az
m da ftar navishti
to
(Sa'di).
"
Were
come to life Majnun would learn love's methods from this book They
Laila and
of mine.
jawr-i shikam na-budi hlch murgh-i dar dam na-yuftadi balki sayyad na-niJiadi (Sa'di) " were it not for the pressure of hunger, no bird
khud dam
would
fall
set
a snare."
ahd-i khurdtt
yac?
dmadl
Ki
Ki
man
jafa
6
man
pira
man
zan
"It thou hadst remembered thy childhood's days When thou wert a helpless babe in these arms,
When
1
Zagh
is
the English magpie, but Persians are not very exact in the names they Elsewhere in the same sfcory the zagh is called a ghurab which
properly a
ft
'*
raven."
Zayh
is
mere supposition referring to no special time. though future, ia expressed by the Past Habitual. Also note the singular verbs, Laila and Majnun being by a poetical license Also va for w. In speaking, Laylq is gener125 (h) (6). treated as one idea; vide also
8
Note that
ally Laytt.
*
Note
say
plr-i
Properly khurdiyyat read bhurdit for scansion. this feminine pira, or does the fc stand for the izafat
;
Persians
always
mard,
548
Remark.
is
understood, as:
az
6
JsMn ra
ki
kirishma-yi jamal-ash arusan-i bihisht ra jalva-gari amukhtl va az tab-i 'izar ash aftab-i jahan-tab bar atash-i gjiayrat bi-sukhil, chashm-i mast-ash (Anv. " and one of them (the damsels) the winning glance of Suh. Chap. 1, St. 8) whose beauty might have taught blandishment to the brides of Paradise (if
of
consumed
with the
fire of
whose cheeks, the sun, which warms the world, was M (East. Trans.). jealousy; whose languishing eye
is
Vide also example in 126 (t). an Imperfect Indicative (2) In the following examples,
the Past Habitual without any change in meaning
:
substituted for
&**
Jr^
|/ )** ***L^
for
kardami -J*tf is**J* c**^y^?t agar muraja'at <c if had I it mara mi-kard returned would qabul pidar " me, because my father would have received me back
LS^
*&%* *% oJpf )& tj* p&^\ j tj*> &k^ ^h* (jH&^ )& dar kashti hlch badban dar an vaqt chi mt-kardam 7 "there was no mi-bud* ham va na-bud agar
.
sail in
if
there
it?
"
:
p^^
ft
(m.c.)
t^t
nami-kardam
ishan halak mi-shudam bihtar ^ mi-bud (m.c.) **had I 5> &*>$ ^/o) oJ ? ^f JS\ perished with them, it would have been better for me an zamin dahan mi-kard baz vaqt bi-khushi-yi ^i^A/o jj* ^UJ ^^^u ^y^/o jU agar
(J*
<* *"*
W fi a9ar
I
man j-yi
not do this
tu
budam
:
would
"
a O ar
b(i
tamam
if
would
*-> gladly have been swallowed up in it" or) f ^ wt)*\ si darin chiz-i bud bud ba$& digar (or mi-bud) bi-nazjir (m.c.) ^j ^x> agar
(
^ ty^
^^^J^
it
"
o>fo^
o^aj?^
^j-L**
^^
^ ^^
^aT
(Prof. S. T.).
the previous examples it will be seen that the Imperfect Indicative (or the obsolete Past Habit.) can in conditions or supposi-
Remark
/.From
Or
might be consumed
'
45*^ budami, and the Imperfect In modern Persian however the Past Indicative
,
budam
Sometimes however usually takes the place of both these tenses. mt-budam is still used for euphony in conditional sentences. Note that a supposition, almost with a future signification, can be expressed
Persian
I
in
This might also mean **If I had been you, would not have done this'*; the context (qarlna or ma&lab) gives the time either
by the Imperfect
is
Indicative.
indicated.
549
j
;
as
* t :
If
had wrestled
would have thrown him" ^i^x/o^IA^^f bj^o^t ba u kushti mi-giriftam ura zamin nw-zadam dlruz >}x* ^jjcj |; j\ agar Q.O.) f^ eH^ h J fj& (j*^ y ^ ty'^l ^ J cu~oJ tu-' &^*> (JM^ layiq-i fan-i man mst va-illa agar farda ba-ii kushtl bi-giram ura bi-zamm mt-zanam r ^j *A>tj.^ khwaham zad) has the same meaning as ^ $ \*\&j*/\ ura K5 bi-zamm u wfc kushti ml-girijtam \5& &&& f; jf a^a/ /ar^a &a
him yesterday
*
^^
ill
f**^*
t-zadam: cu^i cl^>o ^xxi? ^i;>j p>\&^ nami-danam, agar bi-danam guftan" I don't \h mushkil ast (not bud) know, but were I to know (as I may or
\
ay not)
rar
it
couldn't
tell
"
but
even
mi-danistam guftan-as/i mushkil b&d (not ***! if I knew (as I certainly don't) I couldn't tell
L
e>
iff
tj'f
;j+jJ U
^'U
lUJ
e^f )&
vab dadam layiq-i sh*an-i man nist va ilia dar panjah-salagi ba Timur " T a qa kushll mi-giriftam zamln-ash ml-zadam mi-dldid (Vazir-i Lankaran)
plied 'it
'
is
not fitting to
my
my
fifty years,
would wrestle with Timur Aqa and throw him; you would see " c< I was a wrestling and was throwing, etc."). mrself (lit.
In modern Persian, the Imperfect Indicative
nditions,
is
for
though occasionally
;
idicative as in English
its
is
supplied by
Pluperfect
Remark II. For the classical (and modern Afghan) use of the Imperfect the Pres. Subj. in a condition, vide 126 (j).
(d)
can
\
as
*>*
\)
d?
<jf
3 dar utaq-i man mi-cKdid jjllf )& fty agar an gul ra cJMa budam " if I had i.e.) plucked that flower you would have seen (or would see) in my room j>ttit ^x> agaraz ir &*j Ml5 vJ^lo e/f $ p*ty. *^/r* **\ <**j^$ $ "had bar mala we or an budlm az karda ml-ufiad af iqdam taraf fitna
' ' :
l
The context
aiii
amma
but, Sir,
Uf
ayha, agar andaza-yi nlm-tanama'lummi-sliud bisyar jcjiub bud (Vazir-i Lank.) " here the context if the size of the coat were known it would be better ;
is
not "
if it
v>^*
cr^^
it
>uld
imply
had been known, it would have been better " agar andaza ma'lum bi-shavad M.ayli bhiib ast
:
size of the
garment
but
(JCi^x)
ow, and
*( (Jx^l/o
*
by
JM
/W^iiok^J
i&$$
^\
*j
ast (m.c.).
The Imperfect Indicative is used in preference indicate a supposition that is not likely to be fulfilled
;h
the Present
Subjunctive
Or
^fu*
mi-chidam.
550
our part taken any action, the conspiracy would have been public "; * ^13* *w tijf c^f fAtj agar Iriha ba-ham ashtl karda budand (*<\* a
khushnud mi-shudam (mod.) "if they had been reconciled (to each other) I should have been glad" ^^ itf ejA jl ^ tsW *** e*? v^f LS*J+> isi) ***b o- ^J etft ;* C5<^ */ agar an ruz 'aqibat-i %n bi-dida bud*
;
c^^
^^
w
oc-
j|
I* 4
Suh., Chap. X, Story 2) "if on that day thou hadst seen the conclusion of this
affair,
now have
"
(East. Tr.).
" " I wish chi bftcfi, etc. or tSSMkashakit and ^sw that, would to Heaven i.e. it is followed in classical and modern written Persian by the Past
kash,
1 ^(^^ kashk
! ,
(Sa'dT).
8 Oh, would that, the day death's thorn pierced thy foot 8 Fortune's hand had struck me with the sword of destruction."
i&?> *^ cua^Ax3 AJL^AI ()(&**) L ba rafiqan ahista mi-guft, chi budl ki man an darakht ra bi-danistami ki kuja ast ta du a kardami ki pidar-am bi-mirad
o*a^j>
e^f
eX
A^
(Sa'dl),
"(The son
said)
up a prayer for
that I
my
father to
kashki danistami
"would
knew":
**T
mi-amad (mod.) " would that he had come yesterday"; **T l^y u*i< kash jarda mt-amad "would that he had come to-morrow (instead of " would that it would happen to-day)," but A*> \tj* <J^ kash farda bi-yayad bud* shuma kash baradar-i in to-morrow": arrive that he should javan
(m.c.)
:
jj^-p
*** )*
vs^f
bi-tu
ib/
'ata
Ua*
kash
m
<**
tamlz-i*
ki
Khuda
in
>* f>^ *f (SJ*+* (& <-$ karda ast dar hama kas
This prefix
modern Persian.
'
* ra.c.
ty
^J
past.
The meaning
I
is
would that
didst die
*
is
would that
j;^(
*$
f&
:
^3
**
^ij*'
Murdl
bi-mirad in the sentence above whether (Past Habitual) could be substituted for the two last verbs are both put in the Past Habitual or both in the Pres. Subj., makes
^H
no
Kash bud
*'
would that he were (but he is not) " would that he might turn out to be (as he may).'
&j*
u*K
(m.o.)
^^
(j4(^
kash
'
551
bud
(m.c.)
"would that
all
possessed
God has
^<~te
given to you."
ki
urd kushiandi
(old)
^Jtf
I;
^i JUjb
^aiLS/ fj 5 tf "would that I had said this last year so that they might bi-kushand were here have killed him (by now)": if the Pres. Subj. <xL substituted for the Past Cond kushtandi, the time would be indefinite and
might
refer either to past, present, or future killing.
Remark.
the
From
it will
can
in
Persian bo represented
by the
same
" " would that leave were bi-shavad (or mt-shud*1 ) m.c., granted pt*> ^ ra bud u kdsJi hukm not bi-fakbut or) famida (or tj mi-fahmid *+^ <>^->
:
(/) In modern Persian, however, the Optative and Past Optative can both be represented by the Aorist or the Imperfect, and the Past Optative by the x ^* or) tsh <J^ kdsh murakhkhasi ddda ( Pluperfect also, as
l
:
^^
^^/
^ ^
^^
^ y e^^3f ^^^^
e<
^^j
man
pnrstda budi
would that
J)i*
you
f^
if^*
,
budam
(or
J*A,W
^i
nami-shudam)
m.c.,
cu+xL? jJoU *$
aj^ ^*$ U
^C^K
Td
<{
dam-l chand ki
(Tayyibdt-i Sa'di)
Would that people knew the value of life That these few moments they have to live, they might not waste."
et
Until I say
Sacrifice
'
me
youth
"
!
'(Masnavi).
(g)
clauses
By may
inverting
the
"How
1
8 occasionally be changed into predicative clauses, as " nice it would have been, if lea*e had been allowed <y
In Urdu kash is followed by any one of the three Optative tenses as mare " would that he would strike him'* kash marta "would that he had struck him" kaah marta hota " would that he had been striking him " kash mara hotft <( would that he had struck him" (remote time).
:
refer to
Past or
Vide
J^
652
.)
MM&
*
f
A;?'
murkhlchqsi dada
j.
:
mt-shud (m.c.), or
ast agar (or
^J
te\z
c^<*>t
&
a^.
chikhub
bi-shavad
Fut.
vidfe
(/) ]
^ v v^-
*^
(or
jfo')
murklikhasi dada
^Jff ;^^f <^^f V^-^ (Future or Past) o**f *<w baharalan skuru sliuda ast (better shuda bashad) "how nice
i*
a^
commenced."
(h)
&}&> bi-shavad
is
mi-bud agar dar an si rJnz-i dtgar bud AJU [vide (c) (2)]. ^\ ^^^ *&* jf^ ^j^ Jw tuhi'dasti hargiz da$t no- mi-dad agar bi-qadr-i maya-yi khud yndaqi mikardim; [vide (c) (2)].
bag/i bi-nazir
occasionally placed
first:
^ ^^^
^\
^/ ^ ^^
^^
128.
(a)
We now come
tense most
may
be (or
The
commonly used
the Indicative
if
Mood can
or
:
but (Aorist) introduced by^?i agar 8 usually take the place of the Subjunctive Mood
in the supposition.
there
is little
no doubt
Examples
masalan agar darvish jur*at numayad haml bar tahavvurkunand* va agar sakhdvat varzad ivrafnam nihand* va agar dar hilm kushad an rd ajz va bi-'izzati shumarand* (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. Ill, " thus for example, if a poor man show boldness, they ascribe it to Story V) rashness; and if he choose to be liberal, they call it extravagance and if he account it weakness and want of spirit" ^East Trans.) try to be mild, they
l
t^
eu*^
<*iUit
^j
^xio
U Ij^t ^^
qazi ar ba
(Sa'di)
*'
were the Qazl even to join our party he would wave his arms in time
Or f\
agar.
Classically ij$t}**budi
and
^^
*<*
used.
fob
ahudl
j^^
;
kash murakhbhasl
dada shuda
*
Ml-shiid
A-Sixd
^^
it generally supposes that the condithe Imperfect Indicative is used in a future may ride Itcmark I condition it generally supposes a condition that will not be fulfilled 127 and footnote 2, p. 548. (c) (2) * The Aorists in the apodosis appear to be the old Present Tense.
budi. not be used after the previous tense 3 If tho Aorist is used in a conditional sentence
(&
tion
possibly be
fulfilled,
whereas
if
'
'
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
to the dancing
(continued).
553
"
l
:
^b
^xv-o
c>L>>>^b^
of
(jJj
gardad
minnat darad*
in ra bi-jihat-i
this for
(Sa'dl)
assist
bi-
you
"
:
**
f&>\j=
&**+* t^k^
^&
^"
j*\ cigar
if
man
etft
you do
me
I shall
j^*;l
**jj>
J#kf
<J*j
6
A&^>
\)
cU*
j>jA
Aristu In masal
ra navishta ast ki a</ar faqat yak amadan-i bahar nist (m.c.) "Aristotle made the
proverb that one swallow does not make a Summer": ^i& MAJ f; wli^^ff khwaham shuma nazd-i ra bi-kunam U-A /fceVab firistad pa>/da a^ar &\L*j9 +&>ljc*.
(m.c.)
"should
I find the
it
to
"
you
;j;
*i l xft
o^jl
U^ jS\
** b^ 33-^ A^ ty Lf^j^ *->yV u^^^ ^-J: shabana-ruz-i mara bi-bmid mutahayyir khwahid shud ki
^ ^ ^'^
^^
^^r
shuma awqat-i
sar mi-barad
(m.c.) "if you were to see the manner I pass my daily " would astonished how I live be & ** jt L> fy) *$ j p*~>* 3 J^ life, you ra az miyan-f rishva-sitani $ ^Afyx tJ^/o fzj* agar az dast-am bar-dyad 7 mardum mawquf khwaham kard (m.c.) "the prevention of bribery shall bo
6
[
^^
contrived
if
take the place of (6) As already stated, the Indicative Mood can the Subjunctive when there is little or no doubt, as: o^f 30^ vsJW^Ji CJ& J+* ^/o OVTR.X-AJ AJ agar jan-at 'azlz ast bi-nasihal-i man amal bi-kvu
l
(m.c.)
"if thy
ji
life
is
dear to
thee take
<*>
my
advice"
jt
\)
cuiua^
$\
v^^f
^W^f
&f
^Lf f*'^
guft
ki
***;$
e^
agar haqtqat ra
az
man
?m-
pursid*
khwaham
u ahmaq
is
10
ast (m.c.)
"if
a fool
"
:
<J;^^*j e^J
ntstid
<>M~AJ
you
why
speak so angrily
Music and dancing are generally held to be forbidden. The writer says that the music at his parties was so delightful that even the Qazi, the judge and administrator of the law, would fall a victim to its temptation.
1
2
3
'Azizan Vi)]/^,
pi.
"you and
Darad
old.
*
6
baram
The indirect fj* u'j~f** **}&% Lr" ><* n chiguna bi-sar mlalso be would correct. (m.c.) 1 If the words f**^ c;^ )1 az miyan-i mardum were omitted, the sentence might be taken to mean "I will try to give up my habit of taking bribes." 8 Ast as every one's life is dear to him. ** 9 Or *b*j$ ** bipursid were you to ask.'*
6
10
" And
554
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
v*^
khwaatan
is
usual after
when a dependent verb follows, as: eu*>^ \j* *$ AAfyjuj* <JXo^?f ^ V *i^ v* &*J)*> c/i- ci^J ^ va <*ffw malik ml-khwahad ki mara CJ f;te o
agar,
1
khidmat kunad va tawq-i minnat-l dar gardan-i man afkanad tavaqqu* chunan daram (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. 14, Conclusion of Book) "and if the king
wishes to do
me
service,
:
of obligation
round
my
neck,
my
wish
is
that"
a^
1
^c;^^
*}b
^^
bi-ravid
bayad chdpdrl
"
bi-ramd (m.c.) f< if you want to travel quickly here it is quite correct, grammatically and idiomati-
say
&>jj*
t>
(&?) a*Afj*w
^\
ti
agar bi-khwahld
(ki)
there
is
Remark.
is,
in
m.c., often
f
used
^yf
*i
jl
&^k
AW^^^ (SJ^^ /
127
(g)
khwasta bashed* az
besides these,
(c)
it
dih mi-arand (m.c.) lt should you will be brought from the village (near)."
want any
thing
The
^b ^^a^o *$ o~f ^A, &* murakhkhasl dada bi-shavad (m.c.) "how nice if leave be
&y**
granted." (d) In Classical and in Indian Persian, the Future Indicative is often used instead of the Present Subjunctive (Aorist), as: e^^ j^^ *^ syoj* ^ ^&Af >* y j<* vj^^U &?** ahan-gar ra farmud ki agar baz */
f^^-
|*V
^\^
chunin jawshan Q khwaht saJcht 1 sar-i tu du khwaham kard (Indian) " the if said the make to smith, you king again (for any one else) such a good * " coat of mail I'll split your head in two 125 (e) (1) and (2). vide also
*
mm
^ ^A[^
ci^U*.
y^f
<x
*AI^ v*^
u;*r^
|
^ v$j*>
JU^ JU^. j *i<*jj ^AI^ ysv^i ^j 31 y hargah khwahad shud akhbar-i sa'adat-asar-i malik az nasimu -ssahar khwaham pursld va jamal-i ba kamal-i Shah dar cflna-yi khayal khwaham did (Anvar-i Suhyll, Chap. 8, Story) c< and hereafter whenever desire prevails, I will inquire of the morning-breeze happy tidings of the king, and will
iiJf
;^ jjU
f
iJ^i>o
ki shawq-% ghalib
"
*
8
^^
^^^ though
really correct
would not
in m.c.
be considered quite
so polite.
^
Or
same meaning.
In mod. Pers.
c$3^ S*ti e)U^ chunan zirah-l bi sazi, and ra after Also bi-sazl (class, and mod.).
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(East. Trans.):
(continued).
555
rasld (Indian)
**
bi-vatan-i Mud khwahad er^tf 5! eJJS- cW* **> **!>* " but in m.c. when he reaches his home (as he will do)
;
Sometimes the speaker assumes that the condition is realized and first in the puts the verbs in the protasis and apodosis in the Preterite or the In m.c., howPreterite, and the second in the Future or even Present.
(e)
;
meaning
is
generally
;
^h
125
(g)
"
^^
The example murdt (Sa'di and agar Ichufti a9ar ^ar cf^^y ^&*)*
neglected.
if
you
"
^ L$*)J** c*5^r
CL*A:XVO &j& ^j' OAXWO^?| agar zadi khwurdl va agar mahabbat kardi ^Af^L mahabbat khwdhi did (m.c. saying) "if you do ill, you'll receive ill; if " you are kind to people, you'll receive kindness (i.e. kindness wins kindness)
:
**)# ex i_r*i >la l+fy J>i j^\ <*>9 ar put bi-shuma dad pish-i man bi- ydvand cc will do), bring it if he (m.c.) gives you the money (which I think he tome": f^ (*j"*t or) A* /*^^fi agar hukm shud (or bi-shavad) wii-ravam
(m.c.) *'if
I'm ordered
to go,
I'll
go"
^t^-
^*tf
1
^^ y c*W J Ux ^>
}
\
0,-Jkill^ (jJ^^c
a^ar imsal baray-i u bi-hhatar guzasht ba'daha 'umr-ash tulanVst have a long life" (astrono(m.c.) "if he escapes danger this year, he will mer's prediction) ^j *j>l^ cflU \j JL*^ *j^* ^^c ^tf
:
,,
^ ^
f
^-^
***
farmudid va ita'at na-kardam muqassir-am^ (m.c.) "if you order me and I disobey, then I shall be guilty": **.**&) ^f*~^eH^ 4 amad jahat tVAj^ix |^ y^ 0,/of ^UjJs yaqln danistam ki agar in daf a tufdn ra khwahad shikast (m.c.) " I felt sure that if a storm came now, it would
PJ^AZ* |*^J agar
\
o~i
+&f
ty
^3
&*.j* J>\
agw
faryad zadi
turc\
similar construction
is
admissible in
;
Or
ay
<XA|>x
therefore luckier
2
if
Ar. pi. of
vsy=
gana
is
fjharlb
singular;
vulgar.
The
&!>*
malla or
is
w
1-
bug that
hence
3
nicknamed jf
T^*
more
forcible
556
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
apodosis.
to
me " can
1
Thus the example in (e) " If he gives you the be rendered " when he gives you the money bring
1
to
me"
*?j;l# or*
3
LT^^ *^
J>j*>
J-*i *****)
man biyavand
vaqt-i ki
(m.c.):
"I cannot
talk Persian
4
person present"
fa
*$
^^
{
?>*>**+>
*&>
u&&
u*^
it
(/'or
*>$$
bi-
zanam
(in.c.)
kunam
(g)
(m.c.)
" when
B
o^Lti
*#
^ *&>)
vaqt-l ki
I'll
man shumdam
out
ita'at
mi<3%*
I get the
"
:
carry
5
jtfd>
&
A
130
(d).
it*
f*l* !/
conditional clause
har9h yadgar-i tura didam tura yad khwaham leant may be converted into a relative clause, vide
Remark.
*'
temporal clauses have often the the reason that 'f j* hargah (class.)
whenever
"
is
meaning
"
if."
129.
(a)
Concessional Glauses.
The Concessional Clause is a form of the conditional illustrated The difference is that the protasis, instead of being in 127 and 128. " " introduced by is introduced by *a^?! agarclii "although" if jit cigar, etc., or one of its synonyms ^i^?f agarchand** (class, and obs.), >ia^A harchand or
*$
&IA.J&
harchand ki (mod.;, a -$-j^ harchi (however much), *^ or gu or gu-ki, 1 b va-law (ni.c.) ba vujud-i ki, <*>f ^ ba ariki, &&>.\ ^bainki, *jdj^j
;
]*&
go
ma'haza,
^f
!
^^
giiim)*
admitted, granted."
or principal clause can be introduced
(b)
The Apodosis
by the Correla-
tive
amma, &*?
llkan
and
t,ali.
These
Niz
ki,
is
but
1
this is
jl?
If the
Future
time, as:
*
8
Chun
in writing.
y>i
Or ^j^> ()*
**&\
W4
\)
J>J
^-fjiJj
vaqt
kipul
\ra
man
bi-yavarld (m.c.).
4 Shied
would be
incorrect.
(class.)
;
Or
m.c.).
fl
*X|3
f*>*
dldam or
*!
bMnam (class,
and
(Xxa.jf|
7
Ar.
"and
8
9
Also in m.c.
Also by ta
f&
giriftam.
ham
in India,
and Afghanistan
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES,
Remark.
of It is not necessary for the apodosis to be introduced
:
557
by one
^^xi
1
these correlatives
j l^
<&*fy
o***f
<xil,
p& f&j*
*&f
^^ b
ww*& bd-vujud-i dnki bd mardum ham-khdna ast u u mi-rasad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, St. 6) " though * izd dzdr-i kiaz bi-vdsita-yi a rat be a partner in the same abode with men, yet by reason of the
*^ <y
3'
*^> J1'
I
result
from
it
."
-", is
rendered
by
&s*-jZ\
agarchi
"
No
matter
in
benefit
from knowledge
s
is placed, he will derive i ylj oJl-w \\ jj*' J^l^x *AI>^ ^UJt &f dar harhalat bavhad az 'Urn fd*tda hasilkhivahad hard (or
^ ^
many
file,
' '
it is
impos-
sible that they should not be decided on the appointed date e>U>ax> >jUi J^i c>~,xi ^ax? >^U j^ cri^P bar <?^r muqaddamat dar* pish
e^ *b
^^
bashad mumkin
dar tankJi-i muqarrara faysal na-yabad 6 "though it may be four farwkh distant, an object will be visible to you by means of the " .Wf **^j&\> Ja^x. telescope, as though it wore close at hand
nisi ki
:
f**j*
)^ ^^^ *fr^
c^*U^
^^J
)t>
^
:
^\^^^ ^^^
*$ bi-tavassut-i
dur-bin** liar
bi-fdsi!a-yi
chahdr jarsakh
remains the same for years, may be, he cannot help becoming tired of
amad ki guy a dar fahlu-yi sliuma ast agarcld ham dur bdshad (t where a man's condition no matter how good and pleasant that condition
it
at last"
^ JU
1 ^-^ ki salhd-yi sal yak halal bi-manad va-law an halat liarchi khub va pasandida bashad insau khwahl na-lchwahl az an malul ml-shavad, or better
'
^^3^ *^^
^JjAcJla.
ao.a.yk
OcUj
o^|
l^
JL>
^5^^
oJ'a. *-Al^f
chand
hdlat-i
khub-i bdshad
is,
it
bdz Id-bud az
an malul mi-shavad: "however easy a thing seems difficult to a beginner" J&** }&* 3^? ^^
always
^^
<5
eW
)**
j*
c5;^
t^f ^yc
'*
Hr-t Aar ^adr a5a?i bdshad bdz bi-nazar-i mubtadl mushkil mi-dyad " shall not sell it now, no matter how much you offer )** j& (^Jj* <*$** hdld nami-jarusham har qadr bi-diM.
because the rat does dwell with man.
**lj bashad could be wrong.
ast
*
Note
collocation in Persian.
The subject
for
Conjunction.
8
Note the
collocation,
*
6
Dar pish
Or
oty )&
does not
mean
'
under
trial.
&j&
Or agarchi **jt\
658
(6)
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
following are further examples of concessional clauses "Though monkeys may not have the gift of speech, yet they
The
must
of
fl& ay V;**" j4 s*.j\ agarchi dar likin nist takattum bdyad zabdn-i hdl-i dar miydn-i khud maymunhd quwa-yi ddshta bdshand: "you have no affection for me left, albeit I am so devoted
a
cA*jA
4i
^J
4
[
vi*~x>
you" f^o-* ojf>i u-* *&T Jk*o *z~** *^U* (jfy cuxxu^ wan htch mahabbat baql na-mdnda ast va hdldnki man
to
5
** ^x>
Ij
iy
/^m ba
fidd-yat
mi-shavam:
"
forged, yet
though the debtor kept excusing himself on the ground that the bond was " he could not his
when pressed
deny
own
signature
u*^
1 ^f shakhs-i maqruz* har chand bi-takrar 3 'uzr ml-avard ki tamassuk ja*li-st vail akhir no-char shuda na-tavanist imza-yash\ rd inkdr bi-kunad ^^LLi^ [^y A^r^ "though you do not know me, I know you well" b tu mard llkin nam\-shinas-l man turd khub miVJ^ !;* (^ ayarchi* (+&*>
:
^^
shindsam:
clothes, I tf
"notwithstanding that you have disguised yourself in a man's voice that you are a woman" ^ j^ *J^AJ tj
^>Uxj o^itx^
}|
^j
zj<S
fta
libds-i
marddna*5
ammd
az sadd-yat ma'lum
different, yet this
is
mi-shavad ki zan-i:
should not be concord in a family "**&*! ^~*f A' o^Ui oA>yo Ai S^AWO ptrom tabdyi'-i insdn mukhtalif ast likin ^!<x>lA, ;^ %n chi sabab ast ki dar khdnddn-% muvdfaqat na-bdskad?; "though the story
^^
o^
of *^^' v-*-fJj (IXA j, o-| J^b interesting" o~t r 3 ^ or ) agarchi dn hikdyat tavll ast ma'hdzd (or bdz or rat, or r (^^ ( JV " 1 you are addicted to drinking, albeit the practice vulgarly mz) dil-chasp ast:
is
long,
it
is
oo^
c)>A^ v^** cfLr? contrary to Islam" vi~*f os*u^i ,J&L^<[ v^f ^J|l^^ ^;V bardy-i shardb khtvurdan mi-mlrid va hdl dn ki dn amr khildf-i shari'at ast.
is
130.
(a) (1)
Relative Clauses.
Another form
by the pronouns "who, which, what, and by the pronominal adjectives of quafity
and quantity.
^j
zabanri ^al
is is
opposed to
JU ^bj
zaban-i gal.
It
is difficult
to translate*
the former.
5 *
It
Or
Or Or
ahaT&h*-i
madyun.
In m.c.
tikrar.
*
& 8
4XXa>fc
Lcf
Harchand, or *f
t\i4
harchand
ki.
ammS or
jb &Sz.
Or instead
^L
(ro.c.) of
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
559
A
way.
compound
Something regarding the collocation of relative clauses has already been 120 (q) (6). said in the Syntax of Pronouns
(2)
The
its
is
ponds to
clause
position of the relative clause in Persian often nearly corresposition in English. Sometimes, the subject of the principal
first for
the sake of clearness, closely followed by its relative clause; the principal subject is then left to stand alone without a verb, while a secondary subject to a final finite verb is introduced to
introduced
Kempsorx
<
Vide also
is
Words
(3)
and that
come
&&/
cAi$Jbi
v^r
*'
c5*^ j
me
}
^^
^f
my mind
my
heart
to tranquillize
***>* *j* jftx^)j
(Anvdr. Suh.
ij
A>*s,3\
^
to
c^*aak)
&+& &}*.
the person
theft,
*-'
began
to feel afraid."
Vide also
(6).
The antecedent
may
it is
jO
by Indian grammarians
termed
is
o^y
'
is
qualified,' or^^-^o
'
commented on
connective *$ ki
tnufassir"
or
is
termed
(^
o!
***
kdf-i baydn,
and the
relative clause
commenting
" on
j~&* *
or <^/o
mubayyin
ts
oJU
is
called
J^*
Jv*>* oK kaf-i mawsul or *X* jl kdf-i sila; and the relative clause itself *X* sila. A sentence containing a relative clause referring to such an
antecedent
is
The pronoun
which
1
^U
*a*id
of Hindustani.
liis
4t
'*
Compare
Christ
sake" and
in
modern Persian
<x
*?
(J^^
Muhammad,
his
shafths-i duzd.
may
by a demon-
by the demonstrative
^.
560
"
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
***
is
f&a/
muqaddam
"
placed before."
in the
term J>*y
p)
Examples
"How miserably passes the time of women that do not know how to read and write" *iy^ ^j* tf ^tij oUjy *)*&* eu.< j&*. chi qadr sakht
ml-guzaradawqdt-i zandn-ikisavddna-ddrand', or c^Vj eJ^t^ **Jty c^r*** <jjfja+j cW qadr bardy-i zandn-l ki khwandan va navishtan vi*iu jji/**
l
naml'ddnand sakht mi-guzarad or aSy&t^o eu:**. oiilt^i ^f>^ *&$^) zanhd-i ki khwandan nami-ddnand chi qadr sakht mi-guzdrand. "It is very unkind to forget the past claims of aged servants that can no longer work"
;
^^
^! Jte&f
bi-vafa*i-st
cAr^b3 \) ^\j^ ($** ^-^5l^xi UJU^ khayll huquq-i nawkaran-i sal-khwurda ra faramush kardan ki az kar
j!
**
&*j>
^JU
J u ^t/>-> J A? uftadaandior: Jk^ &*j* u*r*y ^Aj' sal-khwurda-l* ki az kar uftdda-and huquq-i ishan ra o^-oJl*^ nawkaran-i faramush kardan khayli bivata*\-st. "Let that one of you precede who is
1
6^ ^^U^
^J^
qualified to take
^j
on
^^jo
>Jib
precedence" *&b &&) cr-y ^k* ^^-^^ j*> ^U^ &(&<> j! as miyan-i shumd-hd har shakhs-l ki liyaqat-i pish raftan ddshta
"Instantly report to
me any
unusual proceeding
Jr* ^
1
you may
" observe
ji lyo
|;y A^ixj
&j
Jt
o^
an
*^/l j*
ma'mul az u bi-binid fawr mard az an " in want of, shall be given him o&\y^ te\& JM^I (J^^ <*</> bi-har kas harchi hdjat-ash bdshad ddda khwdhad " i( A Whatever people thought they thought wrong shud. %$j* J^ *^ f*j* ^^ <>i^b mardum* harchi Jchaydl karda bdshand g&alat khaydl J t&j?
ojji^j?
glCo
e>f
muttali* garddnid.
"What anyone
is
^^
A^
c;f
What kind
eat;
of a
man is
he who eats no
flesh
'
'
cu^U^i dn
nami-khurad ?
b
;
(^t^
<^
certain);
the
some one that does not eat meat the Aorist would indicate a a>*^ o^/ &' e^-oJUJi ;^ &<*. c/f an chi jur insdn-l st ki gusht nasort of man is he (may he be) that eats no meat," (i.e. "is there what khurad" " Are your mother and sisters in the same house as yourself such a man? ").
doubt, as
In
this sentence, the position of the relative clause corresponds to its position in
(preceding
&)
c>[y[j>
nawkaran the
no verb,
vide (a)(2).
Note the two verbs together at the end, vide (a) (3). Note the collocation, subject first and then the relative
*^A
harchi.
verbs could either be both in the Preterite, or both in the Perfect, with but slight change
in signification.
*
orty^iu cxAjJ
KELATIVE CLAUSES.
561
WA y
hamin khdna-i
&f &U> ,^X*A madar 1 u khwahirha-yat dar cujU^aiyk. , t( ki tu hastl hastand*'* I practise the profession of marauding,
^U
"
me from my
' '
father
c^J* J
f
*&%
t5^j c/f
**>;**)
an
ba'd
nasl
in
bi-man raslda
ast dar
able"
ki
,jM
is
J^
sJmma nii-farmayid
parda
What you tell me of the weight of air, is inconceivU &JJ}JAA> *j c|3) vazn-i hava bi-mlzan-i ^Sl/Ojju*: The women of poor folk, amongst khilaf-i qiyas ast.
iyfc
'
'
whom
fields
like
men"
**
mardum-i
misl-i
faqir ki dar
anha qanun-i ru
*2> *&\f*>
marddn dar
will
any one
liar
be given"
W*
'
o**t
u^f;*
price
The
^^^t
s>^
p&
** *&*+**
of an
in
was some
U>
y^o
v^T
^UJrli
(^A
a^V-L
cu^f^ JU.
In
(a) (3)
it
sometimes come together at the end of the sentence. In a long sentence, however, with more than one relative or subordinate clause, as many as three
verbs are found at the end of a sentence, even in good
:
modern
authors. 5
The following example, far simpler than many, will suffice "In order to get rid, for a while, of the importunities and jealousy of his first wife, and also to acquire the good opinion of his father-in-law (who, although noted for clipping money, and passing it for lawful, affected to be " a saint), he undertook a pilgrimage to the tomb of Husain at Kerbelah
Haji Baba
i
of Isfahan)
\>to
gjli
J a
**
Note that
singular in
signification,
though according
makes the
of the
noun plural as
i
Two
locative case
5
verbs at the end of a sentence, vide ^(^ dar an is avoided after ki. In
*
Urdu
'
it
/aqir.
Note that
in
Uy*^ j
c>3
mardum-i Mr. Pepy's, his diary ; no verb to ^xaj pbj'Q 23 ^ u tehwahirha, the plural termination is added to the
t^i}
In India
*W &)
It
would
^^
qanun-i ru giriftan.
f&j* ^(Ayfcf^x j
Akx^ C5
Ji-o
owj] zan u
anha qanun-i ru
*
marddn dar
Indian would probably here say ^j*^ bas instead of 0U^ khulasa. The 'suspense* is of course excessive. The sentence that follows has puzzled
An
first
reading.
36
562
farigh
a* chand sabahJ, az dard-i sar-i zan-i awal pas, bi-dan khayal ki aqall shavad, va dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i taza-i ki bd Inki dar bundan-i kinar-i
l
bi-ja-yi sara
muzayaqa nami-kard,
dar sunan-i shar' vaadab-i din da'vq-i payadan dasht, taqaddus-l bi-farushad, 'azim-i Karbala shud.
'azim-i In the above quoted example the principal verb &*j? fj^ Karbala shud might be inserted between pas and JU^ e>l^ bi-dan khayal ;
^
5
**
,,
the subordinate verb taqaddus-1 bi-farushad *jjto strued with dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i taza &) )J
^^^
relative
ki following these
its
verb
<^;i^ payadan
.
.
dasht
and the concessional clause j^^> ,,,.,.*^! ^ ba Inki muzayaqa nami-kard might be inserted between the first relative and its verb.
.
^l^
(c)
statement can sometimes be more simply translated into a simple "He suffered a retribuin
which was
:
deserts,"
expressed by
w^Uxj
;^Jbj bi-tawr-i
JU^l
oli^
&*
^^U^
Ichud rasid.
;
may often be converted into a conditional clause thus, vr**ty'( a>f e>JIU^. ;^ ^f A^x*Ai^ shakhs-i ki In jur khayaldt ddrad kaftr " ua ast person who holds these opinions is an infidel, may be rendered
relative clause
"
if
a person holds
."
is
sometimes
useful.
131.
(a)
Predicative Clauses are those which form part of the predicate and without which it would not be complete. These clauses are generally linked
to the principal verb
by the connective
is
ki **.
In
classical Persian,
the statement, or question, or order, etc., that 8 generally ia the form of direct narration.
is
direct narration
classical language.
modern
Note demonstrative
a
2
Or
(before tf
(j
,^L JU*
khud ra
did.
Oriental languages prefer the direct narration. In Hindustani, which is more dramatic than Persian, the direct narration is used much more than it is in classical Persian even.
563
either in
"He
is
not the
man he
says he
:
is
" can
u
in
modern Persian be
**(
&&
(j,* jjjXfc*
tf
jt
Id
mi-guyad
Tel
man
fuldn shakhs-am
t
or (2)
o**^
cu**|
(ja**& &&$
laxijf
*ij**
*$ jl
u
tf
riis.
&* c^?y
(.^J^^^
0w/rt td bar-gashtan-it
tell
man
till
inja bash?
would at
my
return
'*
"
him
to Wait
but
if
^^ bdshad
would be
your return."
Even
the following:
hamsdya rd dil bar ndla u zdri-yi u bi-sukht va muqarrar kard ki In naivbat bl u bar sar-i da vat hdzir na-shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap, melted at his lamentaI, Intro., St. 3), "the heart of the neighbour-cat without him." feast the not attend would he tions, and he resolved that
gurba-yi
6 l
In English, the indirect narration is preferred *' a of clause is avoided either by using the infinitive as tion
Remark.
or the addi-
tell
him
to go
home,"
"
thought
of
going to
Yezd."
Native grammarians term the reported speech, whether in the 1st or in the 3rd person, &^*> maqula', even in the sentence bi-gu asp biydrad "tell him to bring a horse " the second clause is a &(jA* maqula.
(c)
After verbs of
preferred,
etc.,
tion
is
though the
direct,
as
well
rd farmud ki ru e/ istfj) ^ t) ^^ *^k pddishdh jalldd executioner bi-ru-yiman urd U-kush (class., direct) "the king ordered the 4 td G ^^ in Ms presence" to put him to death tyojto bi-farmud cu)t~x>
<j^
I;
^y
musdra'atkunandiS^dl)
sifdrish
(indirect)
" he
them
to wrestle
"
namud
raw
td
my
(my mother) further directed me face towards the door, by way of propitiating a
she
happy
1
The
direct narration
would also be
for
j^Jli
right, in
which case
tu
for^t u,
*
and
j&
na-shavam
na-ahavad.
The employment
,
necessity
8
For negative after verb of prohibition, vide 122 (i). " * If Z> U-kuahad were used instead of Jfc> bi-kush, the meaning would be the king ordered him to be beheaded in my (the speaker's) presence.'
1
564
stances"
:
&tf^U
w~!
^iyy*j
kunad
(m.c., in-
groom
The
(1)
+\
***
#> **>'!
)* j\fy J^^**
Sxx*aj>^
^^
^T
^ J (*>k
o*
**
oJUjj
e>y*a? i^feLu*
ali? ^j* d^ ^j
c_l*
J^AJ
'Man
'Alavi-am' va ba qafila-yi Hijaz* bi-shahr dar amad ki 'Az Hajj mi-ayam^ " a traveller va qasida-i pish-i malik burd ki, 'Man gufta-am' (Sa'dl) and entered the twisted his ringlets (saying) I am a descendant of 'AH
* '
;
caravan
'
;
the Pilgrimage
posed
s
it.'
ft
"
on the return journey from and carried a qasida to the king (saying) that I comof
Hi jaz
(saying), 'I
am
sent word that he would come to-morrow" (^ A^^^Ubjjt 3 u Khwahad vide pay gharri dad ki farda khwdham amad (e) (1). p*\j^ amad ^of ^A|^, indirect, would also be right, but might refer to some third
(2)
He
s>xf
'
person.
Remark.
The
direct
narration often
occurs in
(c).
subordinate
clauses
Vide also
amada " (4) "I regret that I came (*tf \j*> chira amadam (or ^fJJ^^f amada am) ? 4
(5)
"I am
have
come"
ti
^1
<Wf U-^
**>
id (or amadld).
mi-khuram
ki
will
come
to
day
" x ^
1
j^/l
j\
b^
**
(Wj***
&* man
ml'tarsam ki mabadd
clause vide also
' *
u imruz bi-yayad.
/ was
?
' '
(For example
of a negatively final
133
(b) (2).
(6)
He
asked
* '
me who
tu kist-%
= (also
.
' l
who
are you
"
)
;
^^ y
p***$
or
**
ki
am]
(7)
Ask
if
any one
is
there
'
'
V*~A l^uf
^^ ti ^^AJ
*
bi-purs ki
kas-l anjd
hast?
*
(8)
Tell
him
bi~raw
n>
or better
to go
home
'
'
^.
Vide
AJliu
(e) (2).
j& jb
bi-ravad.
Or
less
common
2
^
H iyaz jl.A.
./^la*.
liazir
kun.
is
the province of
which Makkah
the capital.
(^Ux^J
(a).
or)
fj>*
u^**5
*'
^^
^^
)\
e/ man
pashiman am).
Or
omifc f^'xc
Ijf
mabada;
vide
133
Ay a
7
The
(but not^fj agar) could be substituted for &$ ki. indirect narration would nearly always be used in such a sentence, though
is
correct.
565
My
jj)
custom
'adat-i
is
to read the
ax>G
man an
of
(10)
?
"I thought
pjj*
lay
"I saw a
(j^>
*>
gorilla
^T 4^
mi-ay ad.
(12)
vJjJb
^ILJ
tells
man dldam
ki
yak nasnas-l
taraf-i
man
" Husain
to
U
;
ki bi-zaban-i
ma
harf bi-zan
or
fikr
A person soliloquizing may, in direct narration, address himthe 1st or 2nd pera. according to the attitude he assumes towards himself (vide 4 & 10). Further examples c?*t>^ **$ *$ f*\&\j* v*^ bi-ln " what wilt " ki chi khwahi
self in
:
fe/rdlit.
fell
(direct).
"
or
*$
f&\ji ^t
**
or
t>j$
^^
uftidam ki chi kunaml J *^ e^^ bi-mkhiyal chi khivahi kardl (direct). These
*> t$*\
1
different interpretations,
if
treated as indirect
(e)
The following
"
are
modem
tion
(1)
He
come to-morrow
mi-ay am\
*
;
5>
^jU-?
f^i
&>
^b ^U^
(2)
Tell
him
to go
home"
Jjy
aHiu
^^
jA&o
*$
bi-ravad.
The
expecting you
"
^&
**J tk
*st;
\>
{J>\*&*
<e
^^
janab-i
'all
shumd
[or
The
If
indirect narration
is
in
also correct.
Ij
would mean the particular newsMl-Wkvpanam ^i[^iux> could be used, but with a slightly
j^ ruz-nama,
it
Ml-amad
frc^
might be substituted.
(1
tically
bi-fflrafj
man
ml-ayad "what do
^i
d^
gorilla is
advancing towards
me/
566
(4)
"Ask
the 'farrash'
o*l?
^^
x
(6)
Jiarf
mi-zanad^
jj&&
(7)
" " The four agreed among themselves to hunt in company f*lj jfl&b ^^l^^A^ jJuUj *r oJ^ baham ahd kardand ki biyayand
bi-ittifaq-i
"He
ordered
me
ej^ ^H\
J
jl
** ^r
"I came
3
*ij~* c**
Jl^J^*'
^
6
to ask
" Haydar whether you would go out riding to-day arnada budam az Haydar p*j$ *t j^^jf fty *^T c^'*
w^
bi-pursam shuma
(Vazlr-i
Lankaran).
(9) ''That very moment he will go and tell the lihan that you have cast eyes on his intended" *&*. jf a} f'^^3 tf **&* ^^(^ v)U* j**. &(** AJ^>X> ^^3^ Jiaman sa'at mi-ravad bi-Khan khabar mi-kunad ki tu bi-namzad-i u
cJmshm dukhla-i. 1
(10)
Khanam
us
at
appear,
come and
tell
once"
<3iJ*v
is)ilb
^^
(*l
^l^Uo
dalan
<ju
^3^ bi-Nisa
it will
Khanum
ma
tu-yi
bi-
From
frequently be rendered either by the direct or the indirect narration in other words the same sentence may have two different significations. Though the
following examples illustrate this ambiguity, it is apparent rather than real.
it
will
t& ki, or
Ijf
but
not^t
agar.
2 8
Or
direct narration,
Or
y***
^^
C5^'
agiha-yi
shuma btdar
astl
ml-zanl.
^ *\# ** ***J* *lf yak dlgar shikar mi-kunlm; or ;& j* baham 'ahd kardand ki bi-yayld ma har chahar nafar bi-ittifaq-i (***$\S* fe< ;&<*& <jjli3b yak dlgar shikar ml-kunlm.
aylm va
bi-ittijaq-i
l/0 * This could also be expressed in direct narration by j* (j* &* ba ham 'ahd kardand ki ma har chahar Uin ml' -)^^^^" (3^^ J
j&
pttf
}^
^
*>$
Or
direct
j/ ma-raw;
'
vide'
(c).
Note that
ki vazlr
7
The direct narration <#* )\j< )jj*l jt)j imruz savar ml-ahavand could be used but would not be so good. It would also be correct to say, ^^*t Ai^a fAa> U^ $ f Ixj ;^xi tf ki Taymur
this is indirect narration.
bi-riamzad-i
8
*
ehuma chashm,
*+*
Payda ehud
1^
bi-shavad.
it
From
its
or following
it.
Examples:
(1)
"He
below.
says
my
father
:
is
dead
"
if
direct
& mt-guyad
Vide
is
dead.)
(2)
" He says
his father is
ast
dead "
:
(i)
^^j A^*
lar-ash
lar-i
(3)
(indirect)
(ii)
*-*!
%*
ast (direct).
is
"He
dead," vi*l
+^ j*i **
*>&* J u
-guyad ki pidar-i shuma murda ast (indirect). The indirect narration would ordinarily be used as in the above mentioned
imples.
The Persian
[ration.
of No.
it
Were
is
father
dead
"
would never be interpreted by the direct " He to be so interpreted, it would signify in English, says
(3)
(lit.
He
is
dead').
The
direct
rration for
H^*
*>$
rda
ast.
(4)
"He
me who
was"
p**
' ' ,
***j*
c(
v* $ ^ &
'
az
man
rs\d ki
<f
He
i.e.
he said to
;
me who am
j u
Remark
I.
More
tluan
A Persian servant delivering a message y '+ ^"c^au jjjX} e>A*t (.;+* ^i^ixyo
master usually says (if agka salam j ^JJU^c +& rasanand va mi-guyand mumkin ast imruz bi-khidmat-i shuma bi-rasand ? In Kerman, the writer has never heard the direct narration used in ,c.).
h a message.
Remark
II.
p&** ttejva'da mi-kunam ^-? " I be indirect to narration <**} come," while bi-yayam may promise a AT va'da mt-kunam ki khwaham amad may be direct narration " I ^At^A.
*
^^
I will certainly
come
'
'*
:
<xlxj
"I
come"
(indirect),
ect):
l%dan~i
/*^y
* ^-y ^Uiu bi-khayal-am na-rasid ki u khwahad amad &*t**jjj*\ ^xj ^J^AX) cJUiu bi-khayalat mi*rasid man imruz
...
tuna-yayaml (indirect); ( <^f /*A|^A.or )*$<*$+* -namt-ayam (or khawham amad ?) (direct).
cu^Uiu bikhaydl m
This might also refer to some third person. The construction with the Present Subjunctive (the Aorist) is preferable in lern Persian. When the Future Indicative is used instead of the Present Subjunctive
1
more
forcible
than
fche latter.
568
(g)
The
"
I
(1)
am
is
"
a^f U^
"
*$ cuwt
In az sa'ddat-i
man
shumd dmadid.
"
(2)
It
*()
tejf ;l>*
(3)
l; <^Jt )\ impossible he escaped by this road mumkin nisi ki u az in rah firdr karda bdshad*
"How
did you
(oJJu~A or)
**tyj& V^A
I
&(^\ &
know without counting that they were sixty?" ^~J}& )^s ** *j>j+Aj na-shimurda chi taivr
budand
(or ha stand,
according to idea). see on reaching there but that the straw was on fire"
cu*d &tijt
^f
*}
Ai
^ixj
:
^o
&*>
*>*";
tuf anjd
uncommon
(
in
modern Persian
&* *f better to say intelligible, f*** O-J^ dnjd rastda chi dldam ki kdh atash girifta (m.c,). " He * (5) put a mirror into his hand and said now look at yourself and
is
(
t^j
cJi? a^ *^-'f ^ j>*^ me, and see if there is any difference at all between us te CU-A U e>U/o ^Sji Uf &> bi-dast*i u AJ^ ^^ <Jj>j f; e>^ d;^ 11^ d*ina ddda guft hdld surat-i khud-at rd bi-bin va taraf-i man nigah kun 3
'
"
^ ^
va bi-bin dyd farq-i miyan-i ma hast ? " An idea came into (6) my head to go to rasld ki bi-Yazd bi-ravam. bi-khaydl-am
(1)
Yezd "
^j
CL>J
&
*3 ^*^;
^^^
'*!
A ^"
to the
manager's letter"
f^j^
" I saw
it
month" *^
khwdhad
&>
6
didam
ki dar
siyyum-i In
mdh
dftdb
kusuf
"It
"
is
to be regretted that I
"
c^^l
cj>*>
i ^ct^
\j*.
dddam
(direct nar.)
(10) People began to be afraid that the police would hear the noise lij burst into the house" )ty BJOJ^ ^ lijc &*jt i^U^ * f&j*
^^y^
^^
bind kardand bi-tarsidan ki mabddd gazma gidwghd rd shunida bi-zur ddkhil-i khdna shavand.
**(&>
cU^-b
mardum
Ki "
in that."
Icarda
aat
-s**?
JJA^"
mumkin
3
va mam bi-bin
<^Hj
&*
lj*J
&j**
a*)j*o
Or better ki
chi javab-i
kaghaz-i
vazir ra
bi-navisam
(^
^JeU
AA.
A^
Navishta
Aly
for
But
oj~^
khusGf
eclipse of
moon."
569
"I saw
it
stated in the
Adab
Anjuman*
would be held at two o'clock on Saturday j;; ;a tf **y v<*' **^ 3i> )* j*^j> aU*'i .iUiui c*! (iX& ^A)^, orj^j ttotjix (^fr=eui j& o-cU A*\^ dar or) <j2^;a (^?vJf Adab' navishta didam kt dar ruz-i shamba sa'at-i du in'iqdd-i ruz-ndma-yi
'
"
Anjuman
(12)
^i&j/o
Anjuman
tf
aj oj| j|
"He
oU
^x
ft
laf
zad
lei
man
Farzin-i khud rd
in this
have a strong suspicion that he too was concerned with you " o^> l^ b ^3 tj ^j^ jt A^ c^*f wJU c;U? highway robbery a^ ^**f gumdn-i s (jJidlib ast ki u dar In rdh-zanl bd shumd dast-yar buda ast.
"I
(14)
"You
"
j>*f
security
(jo^
\^\
u^JU^
^ tf &*& ^^
C5^i^
l**
"
(15)
You
down
the
rebels at the very first" t\^\ &\+& jt tf ^j&jf c^/o^^.j ox^i. ^1^ U^ os^U* zdhir kardid ki az shumd khidmat* bi-hukumat ^i^^ixj t>j^4J |^ khayll
jM
hamdn
ibtidd
'*
mufsiddn rd
told
sdkit
namudld.
(16)
p<j*<> o;t>j
He
my
my
house to-morrow
6
"
f**)j**
OA?>^ f^'
u bi-farzand-am b
gufta
ki fdrdd khidmat-i
pidar-at mi-rasam.
(17)
"I
my
first
offence" fJU*
aival-am
1
^^
**)*fj*
(18)
fJJ!
j**&
could
multamis hastam ki az in
:
taqsir-i
dar quzarid.
not guess from his countenance that he would deceive (i) b me" *H}** ^3 ^t^ u ) JJ>J/ AT &ij&* JUJUt j\ A*V3' az qiyafa-yi ft ihtimdl nami-raft ki gul bi-zanad s (or khwdhadzad, or mi-zanad)" Here the
"I
The Zardushtis
which
religious
transacted.
is
an Anjuman
Bombay. s With or without izafat. In m.c. generally giman. * " Service to the Government " could also be well rendered by ^fcf^id^a
,
dawlat-
Farzand
For
which corresponds to the Indian expression ^Af^i.^^ Ichayr-Jchwahi. means child, male or female, young or old. &*jj*
Ow*f
+\
Or
tu^jt avvalin-am.
naml tavanistam
^? l^o
qiyas bi-kunam ki marti gvl fehivahad zad A< shows that he <M afterwards deceive.
devegfi.
570
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
Aorist leaves
->*^ JUkxf j| liUJjf az qiydfa-yi u ihtimdlnami(m.c.) "from his countenance it did not apj he would that have deceived me (as he has done)." probable *$ J)t t/ (iii) *}*' -^>**> JU&*I ji &U5 jf az qiydfa-yi-u ihtimdl nami-ra^ mard gul mi-zad (m.c.) "from his countenance it did not appear probs that he was deceiving me."
(ii)
\j*>
ki
132.
Subordinate Clauses
(continued).
now be
i.e.
Their construction nearly resembles that of relative clauses, vide ] the adverbial clause with *&sj vaqt-i ki 1 " when " aJujy& har vaqt-\
;
"whenever
*x5l^yk har jd-i ki, or IspSjA har I " " wherever " " bi-tawr-iki as, in the manner that *&jjl& *&*;&$ az taraf "from the direction that," etc., usually stands first, being followed by
;
9 *
aXxSl,^ jd-i ki
"where"
("adverbial clause") does not in Persian a subordinate adverbial clause as in English, but merely a clause that
Remark.
A **^
<xJU-a
m
<
tains
an adverb
take the place of AAX$J vaqt-i ki whei or *&i$3)\\ az vaqt-i ki "since," usually when the adverbial clause is
(&)
The
of place. particle *S ki
may
' *
shuma ra didam bi-u gu/tam ** &+**j man vaqt-i ki shuma ra didam hi-u guftam pis& ^b ^x>^ !;U he went, another came" <^f <^$j&* **> oJj &f jt u ki raft ba*d digar-i
initial;
*&?
f4r!^
fj
U-* &'**>
man
ki
W
at
ba'd az anki raft digar-i amad. {m.c. only) Ta with the verb preferably in the affirmative, 8 means ti, (c)
vide
'
unt
123
(d)
(e).
)jls
*z+*j <^UA haman hamdn taur, *J>jk e>UA hamdn taraf etc. " Somehow or other " is rendered (e) by
The
correlatives are
vaqt,
^ o^
(
hamdn
ja t
y>J
bi-hartawr-i(orbi-harqi8m-i) kibud
etc.
(^+~* j
dar hangam-i ki, A^XJ^ hin-i ki " when.'* The normal shape and order of the clauses are those of the line " Where the sucks, there suck I." 3 In Hindustani, when jdbtak signifies " until * 6r yahant ak ki, it is correctly folio by the verb in the negative, but when it means " whilst " by the affirmative verb " Hindustani Manual," L. 38 (6).
chun,
A^KxA^^
'
SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES
AJ
(as before),"
' '
by c/%w& hamchunan.
'
(/)
Before that
'
and
' '
after that
' '
Examples
(1)
(
"I cannot
help laughing
when
I recollect the
matter"
e>f
*$*(j J A
^j or)
^&^
2<4>x&*
^L^cf 7zar vaqt-i* ki an amr mi-khandam). came here" j^ ^i j^of laxi^ ^*^j 3f
1
/+^ 45^
(3)
cuxs^
( '
fj
as;
vaqt-i ki inja
amada-am
Sit in the
verandah
Vide
till
I return"
e>^t ;>
bi-nisJiln ta
man
is
bi-yayam; or
^^
123
pA# &* ciHt^w ^t^t ^ dar ayvan ^ /5 mawna-yayam dar ^i^ &*
$
*
ayvan bi-nishm
(4:)
(rare).
(e).
"It
<
8>
f^^
(5)
a long time since (that) my father died" valid-am muddat-l st ki marhum shuda.
will
Every one
went
vs**t
(j&~j*>
(0)
x
har
4
murakhkhas
41
ast.
"He
in the direction he
came from" cA
j^*j
a>
oJj o^Jr a^
laraf'l ki
all
amad bi-haman
(7)
i&*
"Sweep
\)
out
jt
7
j^j
7
***
XI
or)
^.C~.J(
^sy^-
({& AJ^
^ *-* A
^ J^
^0^
c5>)^ P* 5 ^
^^
crwfct'
gan
-* b
haratca
bi-kunad hama-yi in kaliskaha (or dabbaha ra) jarub kun. *^j J?V (S) "The only plan I could think of was to go myself" ^f 6 bi-ravam na-rasid. Inlci khud-am Inch bi-'aql-am ^i-*y ^li*j ^AA bi-j-uz " U ma tf ^^\ ^tji (9) "Both of us are all but caught ^.^j^lijS
?^
liar
du, qanb ast, ki giriftar bi-shavim. (10) "When you yourself see them eating you will admit that I
^>o J^j Af vnr^M
am
CA^!
.-jj:sw>
A:i
khud-i
Aj
)^**
&&$&
Bk.
uftad
chunan
^Uapi^A
*
8
Ishasls (Gnl.,
8, 55).
hamchunan nafis ast va (jhubar gar bi-falak rasad ham In mod. Pars.^b (>(+& haman fawr or +&jk bazham, for
ham
clmnan.
(fyi,
Misl-i pish
ki.
<J*
Or tf
hargah
Not
c^.?j
^a/of
amadam.
ki raft (m.c.)
*^
oJ^ m/^
"he went
right off,"
i.e.
without hesitating or
looking back. " 6 From the Hindi carriage or cart." ^jlf garl any 6 Note the Persian Pres. the for English Past Pot. Subj., 7 Note dramatic ast. Rast gufta am +\ AJJif c*^|; could
\
also be used
and
also
agar
tf
if
for
*$*j
vaqt-l ki.
"You
have no resource
o~oJ j&
(12)
ja-%
my
voice
may
be heard"
es>^
t;
*&
fi\*'*
u^. uf^
3
bi-nishm
ki
sada-yam ra bi*shinaw.
"
(13)
Wherever you
*~J^
*j
i^of
}jk$
dldi
(j-*
c5"[/?
any curiosity bring it to me just {** Jiar kujd ki chiz-i ^Ajja <x>&t JH^ *$ j&>
find
as it is"
antika-i*
an ra bi-jinsih bard-yi man bi-yavar. " I saw what was in his mind before he could make (14) any complaint" lx> *& c^jto kunad ma ft anki az t> sMTcayat uj*+*> pish ^3}j! (jiaj ij* f*'kj*
zamir-ash * ra daryaftam,
" His eyes were no sooner closed than he was in another world" 6 c>Ufc vtijjSj* fa* j V^UA ^^JLo p&A. chashm bastan hamdn va bi^avalim-i dlgar raftan haman.
(15)
4<
(16)
He
voice close
by"
^^
*-&&
is*}*
^** **^ ^
an
-i^
As
in conditional
[vide
and
133(e)],
the Future Indicative can in classical Persian often take the place of the Aorist or the Present, as
:
oJip
cXx/o
ta'ala
bmaydn
an hukm
" and when the pushida shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, S. 18) Creator, the Most High God may He be sanctified causes His decree to
b tr ishan
issue,
He
clouds and darkens the eye of the vision of the clear-sighted with way of escape from that
to
them, for
."
*
3
Or o**w t^Al^ ^)^ chara-yi dlgar-i nist (vulg.). Note that i*5l^ ja-i and & ki are separated.
Antique (Eur.), used in Persian for any good thing or rare thing, however new, carpet would be called *&} antika. Tuh/a is any choice article
common.
Ma
ft
zamlr
j%**b
^^, ^ r
'*
-*
that which
it
(is)
in
mind."
If the
singular
JU
this
world.
6
jj
may do."
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
FINAL,
573
133.
Subordinate Clauses
Those
end or reason,
i.e.,
Final
and Causal
clauses, will
now be
dealt with.
131
td,
(a)],
by a
final
conjunction
ki,
ft
or a* U
Clauses negatively final and introduced in English by the conjunction ^A* mabddd, or ^C|A^ 'lest,' are introduced in Persian by the phrases
|
Khudd na-karda
or else
by
&$ ki
that
'
Examples of these conjunctions have been given. Vndev Huruf-i'Illat&iid Kalimdt-i'Illat, native grammarians include both ~ " the final and the causal conjunctions; they are *^^- *t\ji) ** LrO *^ *^"
:
)*&*)
(i^f
V^** e^tO
'
*^-f )&&*)
Jl
:
eJljAv
J+A (i$y
'
*&i\
*-?*?***
**>$ *^l*J.
(b)
Examples
of Final Clauses
companions held out inducements to the end that I might 2 3 journey in their company j&* a)^\ &L^t- J-^ & A ^ **& vH^y Lr* f^j" mard tdkardand man rilz bi-hamrdh-i ishdn rufaqd-yam safarkunamf taryjiib
(1)
' '
"My
&
"
(2)
lest
ened"
cXvoyo
6^ )\&&
C^A-WO^
dasl-at rd
hamin
jd hi.
If
however
Here B^J |t^ Khuda na-karda could be substituted for \^y> mabddd. &' ki were substituted forfjiU* mabddd, the sentence would have
:
to be reconstructed
\j
cui^js L
vW^
^^
tf ;fckC I?.AX*A
\j
0,^0^
ki bachcha biddr
*
bi-ddr mi-
shavad na-tarsad.
[The sentence
so that the child
(3)
<x*^ii
^*>^
t^
may wake up
M
^}**-
but
if
"I
mean "place your hand here not be frightened."] he has deceived you, in order to get some-
may
^ o^
ejtfjl
^ ***^ Aiijji
f)
\+&
j\
& +tf
Mi-kardand cyj^Cvc
'
U &
ki ta, or AT A* alone.
&Z
l*j
ki
U
*
&$ and employing the direct narration, as &*bj >U4A rufaqa-yam mara targhib kardand ki hamrah-i ma biya.
for
13
ta
Ki AT " when.
'
574
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
-FINAL
man
'
ta'jajjub
naml kunam
u shumd rd
farifta
a*' ... tdaz In miydn yak chiz-i 'd*id-i khud-ash bi-shavad; or *ii^i G tivwb chi orj%\ o*^ v^* '1 ajab ki turd farifta bdshad td
;
agar
" Writeine word of his departure, in order that I may set c U ^^j^jj \j jj&K^ j^l his for ^.yo reception cf;tx> preparations
(4)
' '
f*>{*
y
(5)
man
dar
'
ta\
pishvdz-i
u bdsham
(m.c.).
little lest
\)j\
jj&i
cJaxxj
l*UA3
(^AJ
<jy
cuJ. he put a spoke in our wheel 2 urd td dar az bi-bin mu'dt pish vaqt
'
'
md
mukhil na-shavad (m.c.). lt He shook the pot to find out what (6)
J-J
cu -u**y jj G txir ) -^^^ o>[j5 * ( ^^JU/c ki dar an clnst (or pur az chist s ). " Chastisement to be
(7)
tf&
was
filled
"
ought
inflicted, to
**^3
see it
f^^ ^ *^^f (*j^ &*j* & ~*** mardum dida 'ibrat girand.
clause
Unlike final clauses, Causal Clauses generally precede the pr (after the manner of temporal, local and modcil clauses).
are introduced
or
G
'
'since,'
az baski, b
chirdki, *u.\
The
Causal clauses
(d)
^ * * Causal Clauses (*&** aU^.) 7 (1) *'As tliis verb is intransitive, the sign of the agent is IH " with the past tenses 8 ^^^> c5 t*^J^ v*^^ e^-0 c: ^ fj^ ^** c^^^U chunki in fi'l lazim ast az in sabab dar slg&ahd-y ^T ^w cU^
correlatives are cu^rpijj y\ az in jihat, iiHt J' #2 in sabab, etc may also follow the principal clause.
of
:
v^
Examples
Vide also No. (6). aldmat-i fd'il nami-dyad. " You had better (2) post a sentry here too, for this ravine ' the this of postern place speak,
'
is,
2
>
l>
Or JUflJUf iatiqbal. Or ^^ A^ \)j\ (*ti CU^ J O'"^ pish az vaqt dam-i u ra ism-i sJidb ra bi-u bi-gu '* tell him the countersign."
f
bi-bin.
Also
fj
11
Vulgarly jwr-i
chist.
*
6
Or A H.
For classical and m.c. meanings of &*oj{ azbas ki vide' elsewhere. Tho &$ lei is frequently separated from ui^aaJf J) a an jihat. <l The term cLl*3 a causal particle,*' includes such ^ar/-t ^a'^^
*
*
7
O^
parfci
and ^f^j
8
all
Urdu grammar.
is
"
intransitive
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
575
JA**
ddnd
chunki In rud-khdna guyd madkhal-i makhfi-yi In mahall ast. " I cross-examined him, because they say he was one of the deceased (3)
j!
u&**&
*
&*]
***j&i* f&j*
a
8
*y* (S^*)
man
az
n sabab
&f ftj&i* r^** vf* etff jt e>* * mardum mi-guyand jarh mi-kardam ki
bud.
"
(4)
Do
not
take
his
part,
for
"
o*jUa- himayat-i urd na-kumd az in o^i^aa/o f$$ Jjjf &{ ^f* c^ii jt ^-J^ jihal ki u Id kalam muqassir ast. " Inasmuch as (5) nothing was found against me in the informers' ^X c/ ***j (S^^ LJO**^ ^)^\ j* *Cj^ summoned" I not statements, was
<>^JLhJ \j*
CA^^X
<(
cxio
man
yaft
As
J*i
^l &y*
^
(7)
chun in
fi'l
muta'addi-st
'alamat-i f&il
isli'mal mi-shavad.
Vide' No.
' '
(1).
his childhood,
he must be more or
<?
less pro-
ficient in the
tXalj
^CDJ^X) i^ow*|
c^ar
Au/
^U
f;
^IC|
e)b;
^!^ fty ;^ o^
ast
ayyam-i tufuliyyat zabdn*i Inglisi ra yad girifta lihdzd maharat-i kam yd bish-l bay ad ddshta bdshad. '* As you are fond of obliging me, I feel sure you will not grudge me (8)
JU|^
3jlj
^-ioj
cMw
(help)
9 *f c~i {^AJ. **)]*> Jj^ lj matter" J& j>\ A^JJI (tr* &AsA*> kidar in amr ast mi-dand rd 'aziz ki* az bas khdtir-am &jf AxAf^io yaqin
in
this
^^
niz
(9)
without
it
;y>
j&
**
is
bdyadki
nist.
(e)
bi-taqsir~i
khud
mumkin
clauses,
the
Future
Indicative
:
sometimes in
dqibat-i
kdr rakht-i
In m.c.
<ijlj
rjx***> jt
"
the
throat."
o tn sabab is separated from A. jjj ^)| Generally applied to a Christian or a Jew. Mardum f*j^/o for a Muslim. Note the correlative CL^SUU) \| az In jihat or |3^J lih'aza is omitted it could of
:
course be inserted.
6
Chunki more modern than az bas ki &&^> A&J jf. it would be better in English it ',
*
noun
576
zindagi bi-gjiarqdb-i fand
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
ki
(
har-chand zudtar
khud rd az maziq-i
ta'alluqdt-i
dunyd
bi>fazd-yi rdhat-dbdd-i
uqba rasdnam:
" and since in the end the goods of life must (Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 11) I all desire with of tho in annihilation, fall possible speed to whirlpool of strait narrow the worldly things to the expanse transport myself from of the blissful regions of Eternity." (East, trans.).
the causal clause precedes the principal, the conjunction may be omitted, as: fjy 15+* e>j;# vs~* (*/ L^ havd (jarm ast blrun nami-ravam
(/)
If
&
CJ) L5**
!>*
<W- blrun nami ravam chunki havd garm *A>^ chunki havd garm ast birun nami ravam.
J
ast
134
(a)
Co-ordinate Clauses.
"Another form
is
of the
Compound Sentence
is
'
sentence
of co-ordinate clauses.
subordinate clauses in being accessory, or even antithetic to the leading sentence, rather than explanatory of its parts. They may indeed be con-
by conjunctions augrnentatively appropriate to the meaning they convey, but are constructively independent, and this too though they may have common terms.
it
nected with
"Co-ordinate Clauses
(2)
Adjunct! ve,
(3)
may
(1)
Appositive,
appositive or collateral relation is that in which no intermediary conjunction unites the clauses ." Kempson.
(b)
"The
The
b ^i'f jf jb az dsdr-i pd ml-ddnist ki rdh-raw az chi qabll ast va az kujd bi-kujd mi-ravad ; " from the foot-tracks he was able to bdr-ddr ast yd bi-bdr (Tr. H. B. Chap. V)
discern whatever
b 0*1
following are a few m.c. examples of Appositive Clauses lsxjl:^ jl j OM! <JA>J fe. jf yfy tf v2A~of>^c )\t> ;lj fyj**
had
Va or ya'ni is understood after tjjt* mithe Copulative makes the sentence more dramatic].
[
'
'
Sir
'
will
:
" man, to say nothing of never having seen him e;T /*! $X *>j;^j \) &*i* f\ ^AX^O p* i; ism-i an mard rd ham na-shunida am didan rd bi" well I have guzdrid kinar* (m.c.) enjoyed a sight of you please God I shall
the
durust bi-gu durust bt-8hinaw B (m.c.) "I gave you this order, did I not? " A) In farmdn rd bi-tu dad budam-na ?\ "I have never heard f&j* o!>>v lj&ji &4\
be said to you
"
>2
>i^
eu^^o
0**^
name
of the
"
*#
s^j^j\^^
^jlj bdr-t
be so extended.
^
8
jl kahljfo.
^ r *)$ v^
Or
COORDINATE CLAUSES.
577
didar muyassar shud guftdr nlz agar Khuda bi-khipahad khwaham shunld (Prof. ' S. T.) : the earth moves round the sun, I allow. Why * allow ? Say rather it
' '
does so
move"
**/**
&****> **
^^ *&.
L^
fj
-*4A* v&f^j>
^^f
Glram chira? Balki chunan bi-gu hi glram dunya dawr-i aftab ml-gardad "I looked for him in all directions not a trace haqiqat ml-gardad (me.):
him could be found >f p&(u ; )\ ^yf anja gashtam ; hlch asar-i az u nayaftam
of
|
l
at the service of
my
friends
:
' y
f*~a
c<
luf l?uijj y w*a* 'aqab-i u mja " (m.c. why should I object ? I am U^ V r^ ^ty^t ^^Va? chira * <oU
^xk?
)
:
man
it is
lie, difficult
for
others'*
JWU ^^
^ly
o^.}
e)^T
e>^
^^
:
guftan asan ast, baray-i ba'z-i mushkil (m.c.) phy, others have a greater liking for mathematics"
dlgar shawq-i riyazi darand
<f
:
L**^ c5^ baray-i ba'z-i darugb " some are devoted to philoso-
became
"
***
y^^
A ;<3&Ua [>
f*^**
).
^*^
(
"the morel
became"
^^ ^
(c)
f&)>j*
fo>;^
tf^j&X Lr*;^ j*
;^j d^ y&tf
;->ail^A
grammarians are
^J^^) enumerated by native and ham. Adjunctive j va, u^; pas, u^*** sipas, Jv n^2,
(^ftk*
is
may denote
'
Examples
:
right
f
v^.*ot^Jti^
^^
thing and what one wishes is another ra^-/ 5a0^ dlgar ast va kkwahisJi-i dil dlgar
felt
nausea
(of cholera)
was no sooner
him"
^jltjfc >jtf ^I/AJ c^>>t^ j i^* eA* ^J ^J(s^?bala^iqayyhaman bUdva rasldan-iqaza" what comparison is there between the Raja Bhoj and yi mubram* haman:
5 such a bi<r Qra^a ^w/a ? : Ganga, the oilman ? ttf >f j (?^ U sftaft fe/a '* amr-* business as this, and you not to know of it! 5^- ^" <4 before own look at tu 6?-Ma6ar!": va 6-in buzurgl insignificance your " c)^ 3 kkud-at ra nigah kun f; e>fy>! A> j*^^^^ *^ !> you abuse others
' '
{
'
"^^y^
S-
-^
^^
oJj
4
s
life,
c^^> j <>>of *V3 e>f)f ***J **&ke il*^. ^a/d amad * c< Many Muslims hold that Fate is, in some respects, absolute and unchangeable of in others that it admits of alteration; and almost all of them act, in many of the affairs in In the former case, it is called el-kada el-mohkam as if this were their belief.
,
Or on J5ara/ vo In faraf nigah kardam. Or faylasufiyya Gr. or falsafa Ar. form. When a number of clauses are connected by ^
,
as
is
called
be regarded the latter, el-kada eLmubram (which term, without the explanation, might Arabian Lane's Nights. as exactly synonymous with the former).'* cannot possibly live), and ajaU Compare ajali mafaum (beyond which period a man the previous period). mu'allaq (accidental death that may occur before 6 Ham* #5/5 Bhoj aur kaha* Ganga toll, a common Hindustani proverb.
4 '
37
578
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
l
va dushndm
of theft
"
!
LS&J
er j~i pisar-i
'
!
add ma-dih)
"
:
my
for breath
va nafas zadanl:
nearer the iron
is
"it
is
c>*>3 u*** J &*$** *++*>) }&&>\ In qadr zahmatkashidan he property of lodestone to attract iron, and the
placed to
it,
the greater
is
AJ}U, |jj rfar *an</-i maqndtis in* khassiyyat ast ki ahan ra jazb mi kunad va har qadr ahan nazdiktar bashad 8 hamdn qadr quvva-yi jdziba bishtar " it is not advisable to leave him to live 5 ast*: alone, accordingly do you
va,
" be substituted pas " then" baz " again wards '; ^1 j?Uj bindbar in " therefore." Examples
<^Uj ^, y ^ (+ ^jjlu o~^ oJUa^o ^L$\^i l^iJ ^y tanha guzaslilan maslahat mst bindbar 6 in shuma va u bdham bi-mariid. (2) If the adjoined clause implies a logical sequence of thought, then for
;
;
' '
may
*
AJ
' '
%^ Ut>j&i (3>&3
:
o.^.a6u
bina-barin Aqa-yizabit khud-i shdn bi-nafsih bi-jihat-i tahqiqat tashrif avarda and "he asked for you, so you must go" oJ; ^jb (m.c.) Mjf\) 0^1, &(&>\
ishdn ism-atragiriftaand,pasbayad raft : " His Excellency presented me with a watch well it was of no use to me for four days I kept thinking I would return it, then I thought he would be offended, so at last I retained it"
;
^<M
Ajall yak
sa'at-l
fikr
marhamat farmudand-kJtub bi-chi da,rd-i man mi-khwurdl Ta chahar ruz mi-kardam ki pas bidiham, baz kh.ayal kardam ki dilgir khivahand slmd\
(
'
first
that
'
'
^ ^f
is
J^i
the
wood
"
^ ^^ ^
namj-suzad
oar?
damp
^A jb
?
c**f
y ^*
"what
hizam
ham mi-pur si
him
to
ki chira
(m.c.):
need
was
there
for
put
in his
j>;
ai^
mudakhala-yi
na-ddsht.
chi
lazim bud
* If
8
In m.o. often pronounced duahmun (for dushnum), by educated Persians even. " (^xt* hamln were used here it would mean only this."
O
Or
*
^
In Urdu
modern Persian
uako
wuh
for
'
which might, however, be used by Indians and Afghans accordingly,' even at the beginning of a sentence
A^Jlift.
'
Not
COORDINATE CLAUSES.
Remark.
4
579
clauses
What
are
apparently
adjunetive
introduced
by
therefore
or a
synonym, are in
by causal
" It
not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly let you and him continue together " may also be rendered by cuaaJLA>o ^-ijjjf Igi'i \^\ *CJ^
is
^jJUj
^&U
j\
j^J
nist lihdza
Alternative clauses
(*J^^
&+*>)
l
are joined
By
the conjunction
L)
yd, or l^
va yd
"
or/' as
<Ju>>
^ <ulUx>
&J&J
chanddn mubdlagjta dar vasf*i Ishdn kardl va sukhanhd-yi parishdn gujtl ki vahm tqsavvur kunad ki zahr-i fdqa rd tarydq and, va ya kalid-i khazlna-yi
<j>l5;t
arzdq (Sa'di)
*$ *j* tf j! ^b e)U^ bj ^fj^^Ji ^y* ^# ^OJAJ ^la. ^uss.!) ^^ ^ bi-hamdn qdni' bud ki yah gdh bu-yi mush-1 az surakh-'i shumdi va yd naqsh-i pd-yi u bar ru-yi takhta-yi khdk bi-didl (Anw, Suh. Chap. I, St. Ill) "it (tho cat) was content if occasionally it smelt the
:
J&
^^U
&
its hole,
or
on
the surface of a board'"1 (East. Trans.): md-bayn-i tu va u hich khusumat-i ast yd na " you two or not ?
vs**t
^xyai.
$\
y ^^ U
'
The pleonastic va is seldom used in connecting two short clauses unless there are two ya. In some phrases the "or" is omitted, as: ^->&* A*O ^^ du si kitdb
" two or three books"
a
8
:
tf)j>
^&
yaki du td
or
"about seven
hist
si
dah
etc.
;
td\ (J^a.
but
^
^/^
" one or two " a CU^A O^JA and ten ": nine "about or eight"
:
13
si
chihal;
l3xij
<J^^
chihil
panjdh,
Interrogation can be expressed by adding the words ^ l yd na to the end of tho sentence, as *) ^ e**>f ^^R.A hamchuriin ast yd na (m.c.)
"
is
this so or not
(2)
"
"Either.. or,"
is
is,
^ yd
(^
the sentence
interrogative the
first
ou
7/a
to^
i/a
bier,
man or a mouse, do
^ L
sar
^"^ ^ ^
^ c^^jK
or die
"=
b yd kdr-i khud-
Fa
yd,
ijj
common
in classical
and consequently
in Indian Persian.
floor" compared to the board or canvas for painting on which the naqsh or drawing of the foot was made. 8 In m.c. The word nine ' is always generally slurred into ha/ ash dah ta. omitted.
tctfehta-yi fthak
'
The reading
means the
"mud
Only
^X/o
Uf aya mean
whether.'
In m.c.
of
lf
aya.
580
at bi-kun va
l
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES,
ya
dast az sav*i
man
:
or be
and don't bother me vjy^ ^ &*# ^f p*+> " am I awake or in a dream " (Vf ) US khwab nw-binam
off
'i
"
bi-kash (m.c.)
%
f)\&
bidar*am ya
jk(.
khatir
daram khud In biravam ra tabistan dar bi-sar kuhistan ya (aya) bi-vilayat-i " 8 I am to home whether or baraml perplexed go spend the hot weather " **l* in the hills ^ j 3' Sya tu az Khud Jj*\ {** </<>/
fj
r**
\*>\l~*jf
)*
\)
e^U^f
k fj&
***>
^Vj. man
^^
own
taraddud-i
w
yd
&^
dada bud"
to
e(
accord, or did
(3)
do so
"
*iy^
khwah,
u/
*
or the interrogative
j^j^j
vjuioj j
^jl
w*\c
o^j
^^ ^
&<*.
Uu> CMI
o^x>
' '
shows
itself in
the
face as
it
(Sa'dL):
man
6
(t?a)
^^ (j) >***> *\j ^-^ f>^ j*;l^o J,^P |^UJ| ^y insan ra 'aziz mi-daram khwah Muslim fchwah Hindu khwah Nasrarii " I love the sons of Adam, be they Muslims, Hindus or
^j*t$j
fean?
wa^*-
j^*~>^j**^*> j) y **$ *r^* \*-$ c>W-^^ *M* in shahr Musalman u dar bi-shavad har ju qadr just j J*A* tojs* 7 ahl-i chi az va chi az faqir hirfa payda nami-shavad chi az amir (va) " search as you will, no Muslim is to be found in this city prince, pauper, or " aitf i*A hama-yi tradesman |^ j*i* tij*. <**> \) j\ ^j^*)^ ^U^
Christians
:
"
jf
*^
j*
^
^
JLfct yt
**.
^JL^o
shdhr khwati
(or *ii**>
\)
Hindu
jf
<^s&
j^
Mwlim
city,
** j *xL&U ^L^o &. ^f& **A hama-yi shahr chi te 9 the whole du'a-yi shifa-yi urarrw-kunand )
alike, are
recovery"
va.
is
usually prefixed to
lj
ya> only
when
*
preceded by another
substituted.
ya.
direct question
clause
Note that aya translated "whether" introduces the direct narration and the is therefore merely equivalent to a direct question. It is better to omit aya
possible.
when
4
6
Or better omit va. Chi "what does it matter one way or the other?" There is no between chi and khipah as there ia between the Hindi verbal form chahe
.
.
distinction
.
chahe and
kya (' Vide' Hindustani Stumbling Blocks). Mt-daram j^tjj^o (and not daram) comp. verb. Here az gives the sense of amongst and means chi az amir just uju bi-shavad
.
'
is
8 From this sentence it is not clear whether the whole city is Muhammaaan or the tow5m H/* ^ahr chi whole Hindu, or whether mixed. ^<xU <W jf j{ jJL*> (/^^ az Muslim chi as Hindu shows that the population is mixed. -JUs^o a^A &^j^ ^eUJ
A^_^
needs no explanation.
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
*t
581
a'amm
l
chi
man
va chi
an " whether this or that " " shumd whether you or I."
az
m yd
&*.
A*
"Whether
or
not"
is
rendered by
:
&>
fj*>
|^
verbs being in the Subjunctive, as fjj$* <jusd*x> 11^ Mwafe i\jL maslahat bashad khwdh na-bdshad mi-ravam: "whether ad visible or not I'm
* '
*U
*U
going
f&)
j^ji
i\js*.
&
C*!A*
is
afyx
fcA^Sft
it
Negative alternation
.&*
na, or
A>
na. ,*>j va
na.
'else' is rendered
by tyj varna or
*
*'>j?j
vagarna
j va agar na),
and
in a contracted form.
Synonyms
*-
va
ilia,
Examples
j^x^xjt
o^^^jl v*
va
%
khud
razi-sty
v^^*
3'
}\
am
work"
f$
ziyad va*
&jk(*>
vishtam*
>A?f
"
amusement "
^x ^DJ
rawshan ma-kun va
" <tf U^ between two persons, otherwise they will have a quarrel ^jt AUt^t &$ *}** (y+* $h *-H^y e^ H^ C5* j u?;^ ^H^; ^t ;* murasala-yi f^ (J^f>^ *~ty * awdtin-i shumd ki dar in raqima zikr-ash rd ml-kumd bi-man na-rasida, va ilia
:
f
jo> ^ ^AJ miyan-i du ddam atash dar miyan-i Ishdn niza'-i mi-uftad "don't light a fire
^^ ^T^f
^-
mumkin na+bud
first
<e I did not get your javdb-ash rd na-navlsam (mod.) else in I should to have refer answered it as a this, which letter, you
ki
matter
of course."
If
Remark.
o~oJ
&+* mumkin
&j**
(.+*
mumkin
_tf
you
** na-navishta bdsham would na-bud, the Past Subjunctive p2>^ *i^y be correct. In the preceding instances the Subjunctive follows K, but omit
(
c*~jj or)
dj*i
&+* mumkin
,
na-bud-(oT mst) ki
ill j va ilia bila shak javdb-ash rd mi-navishtam f; J^t^ J^^ have to run " is finished, otherwise I would write more for in . My paper Similarly /^y^
&
*5 f**% kdgJwz-am tamdm shuda va ilia bara-yi shuma ziydd-tar mi-navishtam, the Subjunctive could not be used for mi-navishtam, and obviously the Future could not be used; it would
"
/^y ^*y
d k)
k* C^^
to
*^
j.
2
s
Or omit
va,
budam
*
could also mean Mi-naviehtam *&;> refer to the past only. could however (m.e.) Or 1carda-id no difference.
t
./'
Navishta
532
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
to say, ,**H>V }*&& p&\** Similarly a.^ ***** *j** ))j*\ d)
*-*>
1
however be correct
bi-nawsam.
(~ i!^J 0*0 Jixj A&A cX az dast tMfa wU^f shustam vail imruz khud bi yak fiafta pish jdn f *J$IA khud bar khasta dakhil-i da*ira-yi ahbdb shudam "a week ago I despaired oi " but e life, whereas to-day I was able to get up and join the company
f
kagkaz na-dashtam ki
1
blshtai
-^j
f\
<u~
:
^U
jf
here shustam would be incorrect the Present Tense *j&#o mlshavad shows that the action is continuing and therefore the Perfect is M " I necessary to signify despaired and still despair.
vail
(e)
am
Adversative Clauses
*#l^*'
^W)
When
tive,
a clause restricts the meaning of another, the relation is adversa" but in use are <^' llkin or ^Jl lakin ", and its
synonyms
amma,
*>
vail,
xCijf
^ juz
more
c
inki,
*u]
y ^i
'
magar. ghayr az mki, Balki aXlj has properly the enhansive sense of
etc.
'
perhaps').
Sometimes
balki *^b
'
or
'
ball
* Baz ham p&} * still, nevertheless/ are also adversative conjunctions. vaU ha, or the exclamation ^bU ha To in roduce an afterthought " or bash bash is
'
U^
** )
used,
u^o^
(m.c.)
stay, stay."
&i$ CJ^j! f* Examples ** Kif fj> j ??.** ^**^j ^^5 C.JAJ ki dam bar va suhbat-i va azlm bi'izzat-i Ali? qadlm nayaram ^iuc guftd ^^> sukhan shavad ki he I said na-ddram bar gufta (Sa'di) magar angdh qadam 8 ancient our I and not that will swear by the Great Glory friendship " draw breath nor move from this spot till I hear you speak
:
*>
**
<
&9 niebat
bi-shahzada
b
khanum
safir-i
mutavassiP-'l-hal va yak-l faqlr "all the girls bi-yak dlgar yak-l gianl, yakl the with Princess, but, compared with each other were poor in comparison
off,
J^
:
^ v*j&
e;U}
j
4^
*&jf
man
bi-shahr
naml-ravam juz
In-ki
(m.c.)
bi-yayld
Shusta budam *zy Aw^ would signify that at the time mentioned, i.e. a week hands of life the Preterite fixes the action at the ago, I had previous to that washed my time mentioned.
l
:
And
8 i.e.
^,13
God.
A common
m.c. expression
is
j*3U^xu^
\&A.
(^u
bi-haqq-i
*
6
Or Uf ammo,
^/J
likin or
^^J^
va-llkin.
Or
ba'z-l.'. budand.
Qbayr az mkl aioLjf y j* could be substituted for A&JfJa. juz could not be idiomatically used for &*3Uj bi-yayld.
Inki.
Bi-ravia
CO-OKD1NATE CLAUSES.
583
zamdn na-ndlida budam vi ruy az gardish-i dsmdn magar vaqt-i ki pdyam barahana bud va istitd'at-i paypushi nd-ddshtam (Gulistdn, Book 3, St. 19) "never had I grumbled at my ill-luck nor got upset by my ill-fortune, but once, when I had not the means
jj
%ar{72 az dawr-i
darham
na-kasliida
my feet
l
' '
:
(j**^
^U*
!;jt
*&* &*
^ er^
t^ A>
f
f
' '
Hasan nami-guyand balki urd Hdji Hasan mi-namand him by the bare name of Hasan but all call him Hajl Hasan U (^tjj CA^AJ *>b cu^ftJ c* ^)\ in sag nlst balki'2 pidar-i/st bard-yi shuma " (m.c.), .'* this is not a dog you keep, rather it's an intelligent human creature
^/o ism-i urd tanhd
calls
"
no one
>Jj^J
?ia
3
xJU^c^
(!)(&$
CUA^l^a^C
Jf
&
C)&^
i^JolAa.
A^L U-w
*^^|^) &>
rahat-i
shuma
munkasir
ast ki az musdhabat-i
your comfort, nay more, your safety depends on your 1*^ *>.*/o A^b by ^3U ^>f AJ ?^a dnki 'ildj withdrawing from their society karda-i balki mu'jiza namuda-i "it isn't a cure you have performed, it's
'
'
a miracle
"
:
" what do ddrad balki fi'l wdqi' 'amd nd-farmdni karda-l you mean by a misapprehension of orders? the plain fact is you have been guilty of wilful disobedience ": <^b Jtijy A^A ab y A> ) e/ & na man mi(
by ^UylS
t^^c gjjyi
^i
*^
^f^
^*^
a^.
Lxi^f
^^^
6t
it is
"
:
o^^j
\
\)
cj>- x) t^sjQy*
^ & o^
5
*&?
vs
*^^- -A)3
S-^AJ
^t^^
I
ziring chist
balki
chundn bi-gu
ki
nasb karda and " you may well call " o^f has an old head upon young shoulders (jll^o^i ^U &h u laij &'* j.iwAy na faqat md balki tamdm-i shalir mushtdy-i dmadan-i u hastand *'not we alone, the whole city, I may say, longs for his advent ": J^> ^>^ )*$ jl
bar dush-i javdn
:
ov-v-t^
j>^
JU
A*JJ*J jt
(*
A v^^^Us
31
ham
parvd*i nlst
there
is
is
really your oJJ^ ^1^ U ^a Ichayli x*Uiyij <5'V c$>i^ f* j^ p**/ o;^o y^ 6 vaqtdar in kdr mashvarat kardim, bdz ham tadbir-i muvdfiq bi-nazar na!< ydmad we had a long consultation on the matter but no suitable remedy
own "
:
his
money
is
^^
was arranged":
o*>t
or)
*~\
&*
\*
cu*-^.
U^
siydh chist
Or Hasan
Or
tanha.
*
3
Or omit 6a^H.
insert faqat after na,
and
mz
after tfm.
Or har kaski:
also a
could
good.
6
^
Or
words a^ jJo
or vail.
^jjia.
ki. or
Or
ttkin, or
amna,
584
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES,
l
g&ya
as
" my hat
call
him
**!
y^J-O^
*** j'
e>M
&l*>
p* $>
H^
.
black
liarchi
ml-khwahld bi-g&yid baz ham s jan-i insan az hama chlz 'azlz~tar ast "talk as much as you please, a man's life is the dearest of his possessions "
^8^,5
bi-'l-fi'l
.
^u
nami-rasad, hd ball
fihrist-i
mawjud
ast,
shdyad dar an yak-l dilkhwah-i man payda bi-shavad "I can't think of a good man just now but stay, the list of applicants is here perhaps a " suitable person may be found in it |^i <Jbb ^b U a*5ljo c>Jj ^J^A l^
:
4 fardd hamln vaqt bi-yayid, ha bash bash, farda ja*l va'da daram (*;!> " come to-morrow at this time but (m.c.) stay, no, I have an appointment " Ai cu^r vJ^ somewhere ^jA **tf j** e^Hj o^e ^^ JP)*
:
^U
v^
^^
5
lij^it^Af^x
|j
l^if
*$l'Cj&)^\ OM-jk^axi chunln kitab-l ndyab ast vail sabr kunld dar
u nahv
anha
khwaham
them."
1
talabld
t(
no such book
is
obtainable
;
works on grammar
for
in the
Government Library
if
but stay there are several you wish it, I will send
Orbalki.
'
** he's blacker than a blackey.' Or, o*t^> U* /A *U* j\ az siyah ham siyah tar ast ^ Or omit ^A ham. jb baz * Note the m.c. singular (j#b bash the plural &<">(j bashld would also be correct.
Or
iSjJjXi
)\*9
O^IM> ichjSl
cigar ray-i
mubarak qatar
bi-glrad.
CHAPTER
135.
XIX.
is
Persian or Arabic plural noun expressive of rational beings, ^ij^ fcU^b aj cu*to &^*jj* **V " the burdand cotton sellers carried their pamba-farushdn shikdyat bi-pddishdh
followed by the verb in the plural, as
*ii?
:
*if
Ua* hukamd
gufta
and
"the
philosophers have said ": *^, iff vs**^*^ &* O**AP ^>cf^ &&** v^JLci aghldb*i tuklda&tan ddmdn-i 'ismat bi-ma'siyat dldyand (Sa'di) cc most of the poor are
forced to do wrong " ou^l; j c&;Aj ai^ e^U*> (jiLo ^Ifjjj; ^ /aw-? cAarad az ravandagdn muttafiq-i siydhat budand va shank-i ranj
:
(ancient)
xl.
^u
(Sa di)
If the plural
it,
concord with
noun expresses irrational beings the verb is usually in as: ^XA*XXJ *A^k3 eA-JU oi? guft magasdn tashmsh-am
flies
are worrying
j>>j
me."
Remark.
Persian used after a plural irrational noun provided it has the plural termination IA Jid (and not in c/0, as r ) i**9f v>^ \**$ ( LS^^ asphd-yi l.Ju( but ast Vide oJ| <*>Uf aspdn-i injd khub and. (or bud) Injd khub
:
^^
0')
(18).
of rational beings take (c) Two or more nouns in the singular expressive the verb in the plural, as: <Jtj*j> L> j^ e!nStot>U j ti^b xi va rd bar shdhzdda khud chun havd labdda-yi garm shud, pddishah >>^l^ ^iu-wo when the day became hot, the king and the dftsh-i maskhara-i nihddand
^ ^^
' '
etf&iJ (*lj| ;^ *$ )\t> ^b prince gave their cloaks to a jester with them, to carry VI*AU^ ddram ki dar ayydm-i )* (-1^ y* j* eJf^ (^k*^ o* 2/^ ^o^f^ pishin man va dust-% chun du mag&z-i bdddm dar pust*i suhbat ddshtlm (Gul.,
:
' '
^^
Book V,
A^A
&*$}
**jj*
e>j
<Hvi
LT'!^'
-4
r56?
pwmrf
asked
A;i
zan va farzand va shutur-i man hama sdlim-andt his wife and son and camel were all well."
(d)
''the
Arab
if
more singular nouns expressive of irrational animals of dis<-> jf j**j tinct genera are followed by a plural verb, as: ^ii~> y^f " not of the same are the ass and the khar az nistand* horse u asp yak jins
or
Two
^^
Siyahat o-^lx*
as
686
^#
/^ LS^J
ass.
shudand
of things
Nouns
of
Collective
in
Nouns expressive
with
life,
follow
same
rule
Persian as in English,
and
take
;
a singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's mind vide 119 (a) to (d) ^J.x& B^f^J >ii^>? &? galla-yigusjand pardganda shudand
:
' '
:
cUf J
^)^
of
sahib-
bisyar-i
**a
many
1
^> c^3
jb
j* J
w^ /*
mansab u
and
sarbaz-i ziyad-l
' '
lot of officers
soldiers there.
Remark.
beings,
A
in
generic
noun
may v*
Mod.
v* ^"
3
Pers.
sahib
mamab-i
ziyad-i
(or
bud
better
raftand); but
(or
The
sahib-mansab va sarbaz-i ziyad-i budand (Shah's D.) plural verb gives an idea of greater plurality
or of scattered individuals; the singular verb gives a collective idea. take the (/) Though a noun preceded by a cardinal number does not
plural termination, yet, if it denotes rational beings, it usually requires a J plural verb, as Jsxsut ^+^91 jjl/i^ljj^ <xu~iu ^f+d$)b o j)* ** dah dantish dar va du dar padishah iqllm-l na-gunjand (Sa'di) '*ten gitim-l bi-khuspand
:
darvishes can sleep on one carpet, while two kings can't exist together in one
kingdom."
Remark. Occasionally the singular is used, especially with irrational animals and large numbers, as: sad hazar asp (or mard) kushta shud ;]> 4< Axi^r ( a hundred thousand horses were yo b ) *-**! (class, and m.c.)
killed":
*
Hazar u sad u
shast yurd-i
dilir
(Shah Nama,
(g) If
jildri
avval
Bi-yak zalchm shud kushta dar jang-i shir ; Razm-i Iraniyan hi Turkan va shikast-i Turkari).
the
noun
preceded
by the
cardinal
:
number
expresses
irra
Note the English phrases, all is well where all is singular. Also a thousand " Twelve years is as one day,' a thousand years here being taken as a unit of time. In, Nineteen twentieths of his fortune is derived from per cent is extortionate interest.' In 'Thine is the kingdom and coal,* the fraction being less than the whole is singular.
1
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
is, is
Jqlim
f^!
in
Mod. Pers.
is
is
'
is
*'
probably understood after each nominative. continent" and mamlakat a *' kingdom."
Sa'dl has Iqlim-i Pars.
By
&*
mar d-i
dilir.
587
&UAf
dam-saz budand
pigeons
1
vazir
gu/t
shunuda
am
ki
(Anvar-i
Suh.)
in
"the Vazir
one nest."
:
consorted
together
^ &*&'
vide
(/)
is
(1) LTt)* c&Jk j o**f j!Uj;i lj*j|j &f fciy" ^i jf 0*0 dast az in harakat kutdh kun ki vaqi'afia dar pish ast va dushmanan dar pas (Sa'di) '* dis-
o^
continue this (extravagance), for dangers are before you and enemies behind J t5^>* ;^T asar-i shukhi va you" ow*| W^D cuAAj J[>=^ o^sjka jf dilm az safahat-i ahval-i tu bi-g&ayat rawshan ast (Anvar-i Suh.) " the marks
:
cH^
of audacity
*$ *\* AjJ^ty J>-t ;^ l^f %** chub dad ki hama-yi anha dar tul barabar bud
(East Trans.)
of thy condition
' '
".
*jUs'f
Such neuter nouns may however be followed by the plural, as: j ^l^jfcxi^ +A &*&* v*>^ )* (^"^ badishah-i dar khivab did ki hama-yi
<
all his
teeth
had
*
vlr^ f*j* uty\** khdnaha-yi " ^xu> the houses of the people were destroyed :
:
out
'
'
&>*
mardum
kharab shudand
U^.
:
^lia^ c54-w>? ) khusha bi-hal-i chashman i shuma ki mi-binand va but blessed are your eyes, for they see gushha-yi shuma ki mi shinavand vide end of Remark to (e) jt &j*j dJUa, &$ and your ears for they hear
&$
'
U^
'
'
'
* l& ^S\A> j *A^-J; ki Ail.*^a.^^ &$ ^Ui.^. jumla-yi oJ:^A>^Ja>^ ^>j^,J ki dar chashm-khana khdk shuda chashman-ash u rikhta va magar vujud-i
^^
Tiami-gar<Edand
<{
that
all his
still
Remark
Remark.
to
(b).
f'
iiAJ JAJJ}
)jfyj* ** ^^>* of C5^ ^ jf to/ J 1 ^ dar bdz dil-am guzasht agar shakhha-yi an darakht ki dauraA;jf
l<
^^
am
*
3
of
&f
In
mod
tho dramatic Perfect for the English Pluperfect, and also the indirect Also u instead of khud. narration. * Shud *& would be used in mod. Pers. and would probably be better in classical
No t e
Persian.
5
ossibly the
Another reading
ast
the word gardld after this neuter plural in an. After rlW^a Also note the Imperfect haml-gardld or hami gardtdand,
in
instead of the
modern
Persian.
588
*uC&
na*shikanand
138 (m)
is
(8).
such neuter nouns representing distinct classes have a in the plural, a.s 3J|yt>^ j^j >J\> j <jfj u,f ab u atash common verb, u khak bar zidd-i yak dtgar and " water, fire and earth are enemies of each
it is
:
other/'
If
same quality
or class,
the verb is usually in the singular, as: J>1 j (j*^ j jW*\ ) )*\ lx> g^^ t5* t*$i v>^ c^ ^ar bagJt-i ma angur va anfir va gilas va shalUha-yi khub
paydd
trii-shavad*
'
"grapes,
figs,
cherries
in our garden
'
:
shaUlha
only, or
may
reconstructed to remove this ambiguity). as: (4) Several abstract nouns are followed by a singular verb,
baran
va taqa'ud-l ki dar muvazabat-i khidmat-i bargah-i khudavandi mwavad, bina the omission and negligence that I ast ki tayifa-yi hukama-yi
Hind"
show
what the Indian philosophers have ". shad* va marg va zindagi az Khuda <x*jj*o t^Ajf c^^J J ^f ) c5^ ) p* (fhftm va mi-rasad "grief, joy, death, and life (all) proceed from God"; but if A+A
in
hama
is
used, gfcam va
the plural verb is used, as: t*^ jf *.*.* <***) J marg va zindagi hama az Khuda mi-rasand.
^j*
) f*
Dawran-i baqa ehu bad-i sahra bi-guzasht Talkhl u Ichushl u zisht u zlba bi-guzasht (Sa'di)
c<
(j^j
yaksanast
*A*-H^ l f -\&*>
y
* *
A&a. )* v-* J
fool
!
the bitterness and joy, and the bad and good." a y ahniaq ruz u shab dar chashm-i tu fr*^
alike to thee
8
:
"
^^ ^^^^
^t&ab
j+* )t JU MO. &$ padishah-i az munajjim-l pursid ki chand sal az 'umr-i man baqi-st **a king asked an astrologer how many years he had to
live."
(i)
A plural
verb
:
express respect, as
1
sometimes used with a singular subject (rational), to &*)tf ^A> cUi vsy^*, Hazrat-i ajall tashrif dvardand
is
4
Even in m.c,, and and not ast would be used here. The plural would probably be used in classical Persian. % The person addressed was blind and carrying a lamp. * The plural of majesty a form of hyperbole. Similarly ishan taehrlf avardand " he has just arrived (lit. they have arrived)/*
2
:
JUtf
Hazrat-i Ajall, H.
title of
governors of large districts when not royal princes. In the o^u* Hazra',-i Vald, while ilfj w'y Navvab-i Fa/aisused
for princes not royal, or not nearly related to the reigning Shah.
589
Persians are somewhat slovenly in their concords, but (j) Modern mistakes in this respect should not be copied even in speaking. 1 Liberties " vide 136 (a), page 593. to be are especially taken with the verb (8) and The following examples are taken from modern colloquial:
* '
(1)
cu*of
jU-o ty
U^f
ast,
or
(2)
y$~j
l^j
laxij!
^ ^U ^U^f Uuuf
c$^<f
t^Ajf
Remark.
adjective,
it
It
"
^^
4"A!t
Inja
^^\
^^ ^^ es^^f
l
khub-i ast.
(3)
*>
L>-k
.
d*>*
ptf
*+*
t^K
kdliskahd
all
ki"
(railway) carriages
other so that"
(4)
kdliskahd-yi
in shahr va
asphd-yi
ntst
kdliskahd
bi-ziyddi
va
khubl-yi
kdliskahd ^yi
place,
4
(Shah's Diary) "the carriages of this aspKd-yi dnjd and the horses in the carriages, are not so numerous nor so beautiful
'
Rus va
'
as those in Russia.
B
^ c^l' ; c5*t*/ f ~*' aqsdm-i murghha-yi dbi dar darydchahd bud* (Shah's diary) " there were various species of waterfowl in the ponds."
(5)
l
^ ^^
(6)
**a#
^ (>i^ 3
j
6
1
*~ *^* f*
*1
^ -fi^ ^^ dw palang-isiydh
du shakhs dida shud
ki
6 a Afriq ki khayU ghanb va muhlb budand (Shah's D.) 7iam (Kda shud "also two black leopards from Africa were there, singular and terrific
to look
at"
&&#
j&j^ JU*^ A*
budand
(m.c.).
1*4*
^aiuw
mardum hama
dar
'
fikr
u MLayal-i
asayish-i
bhud
ast.
This
is
much
the same
says we."
Barra
Better
jj.J
properly a
"lamb."
aspha-yi kaliaka and not (^~J\ kalis ka ha. Birawaapha* * kaliaka ra kaliskaha biyar (not ra) go and bring the horses for the carriages aspha-yi yi kaUska ra would mean for one carriage ; but ^to^" <xJ|< aspha-yi Icaliska-yi
&<*)(
^f^l
^'^!
Kirman
(
(not plural)
*'
* i.e. of
Konigsberg.' A mistake ; should be i>3^ budand. In No. (6), note dlda shud the Passive
"
singular
followed by
JOt^J
budand
the plural, the subject to both being du palang; while in number No. (7), du ftl and si zarafa are followed by a singular verb. The plural dlda shudand would not be used but either bud or budani could be substituted
.
590
(7) 6j*
d^*^ du
:
bud (Shah's D.) " there were two elephants," (or not " there were three &# Afyj *- si garafa bud (Shah's D.)
fll
^
:
is
a single collection.
(j+>
v^^
**
& ^
l
;*
)^ f*j*&> v^?^
'ajlb-i
dtgar
ham an
" various kinds of swine and other strange in that an extent to couldn't be comcollected that creatures were place
puted
"
vide Remark to
(9).
(9)
If*/* j yf j
a*
v^i-iJ
c$y*ML^ l^lfcj
tfttiha
^^
L5J^3lVv J^*^
^jJO^u^**
khush-rang dar qafas-i bisyar buzurg mashyAul-i parvaz va bazi budand (Shah's
D.).
Remark.
is
singular
and one
;
plural.
The second
verb must be plural to give the idea of number anwfr-i murgihd bud is correct, e^!^ J>^*
thus, though
l^jyo etyt
murg&ha,
]
is
&>w
<3V/&"*J
' '
**
^ *^ ^>ii^
c^
l
incorrect
budand
is
necessary.
(f?rfa
^j
i/afc
galla-yi gusfandi
of)
^^
A;i
6i52/ar
which
"
(^i
t^^
chakushha-yi
like
ghanb-i
ast
misl-i
kuh
hammers
mountains."
is
cLv-o!
" he
workman"
jT
(specially
*w y^yj^ ^*J*^Jj**j(J*h**J
many small
*"
*fi>
y^j;b*M
(j^y&Xif
va chaqu va kard va miqraz va tabar va chtzha-yi angushtarha-yi d^nadar " there were rings with small mirrors, penknives, khurd khurd budand* (m.c.)
knives, scissors, axes and
(14)
(
articles."
(or
*>***
ax^or
**
j* jj& ** dah hazar fawj kushta shud thousand of the army were killed." ten
fj
*i^
*^ *^A u^y
*** ^^
gandum va jaw
ki bald-yi jahaz
*^
Note,
first
the sing,
and then the plural budand for the individuals. " a set Note the of unity with the plural noun,
of
hammers.*'
A,A*j'
Or
bud, but
the
pi.
budand here
is
better
but
if
&;
as vayhayrah
6
itself gives the idea of miscellany. This ought to be &ji bud singular after the generic noun ^Syo
mush
or
or
Aij^j *^j>y^
also
in
Mod.
Pers.
^.^.3
tu-yi
Jl^jo
I^M^C dar
jl^ ^JjU
bala-yi jahaz.
(co^d.)
left in
ERRORS IN CONCORDS,
ETC. 591
it all
"
;
vide
fly in
is
covies"
^^
*tf
<*1?
^^
1
kabk
mi-parand.
(17) tyfa<~->
c$V^*->
*t^J
bud " there were many gardens and houses and underground channels." aspan-i Kirmanl khub and ( not ast) (m.c.), or (18) *i| *-*>> c^K^ os*t vj^i. ijty* c^t***' aspha-yi kirmarii khub ast (m.c.) "the Kirman ^* c5 t$^ aspha-yi Kirmani khayU bar horses are good, but y <y/>
^^
^^
(b)
mt'barand (no$mi-barad).
(19)
Vide
Remark.
e>t*^
^^
;)> )&
JU
o;fc A^^l^b
^^> is>d*>\
faqat
p. 28)
;
yag^iha-i ki bi-taraf-i
budo,nd should be
'Abdu-1-Rahman,
bud?
136.
(continued).
(a)
When
the nominative
in
is
separated from
or clause
its
is
or clause,
some noun
phrase This error has been termed the " Error of Proximity."
is,
that
'His attempt to preach extempore, and the shame and pain to which his failure expose him, are in a small way really shame and pain which expose '). tragic (' Failure exposes ', not
English example
*
An
when
by a
singular noun, the error illustrated above cannot be repeated in translaUf aya Inch kudam-i-shan tion. Compare however <^| *t>jf tyl &\* f f*f
:
an ra karda and " has any one of them done that ast would rarely be used in modern Persian.
^A
"
common both
in
English and in
modern
Persian,
to
treat singular nominative and an objective after or 'with', as the joint subject of a plural verb. 8 Thus;
of his
' '
Vide
(h) (3).
qualify
all
three substantives
or
only
the
last.
*
nofc ^fiXiU
ta'dad for
'
number,'
but *b
8
"to count.
*
with
is
occasionally adopted
writers.
592
(COHtd.)
EKRORS
IN
CONCORDS, ETC.
(Gibbon's
***
Roman
JU~^ii;!>
j^
Magnas ba chahar hazar nafar bi-khayal-i Inki hamdast-i n hastand kushta man ba u raftim (m.c.) " I went with shudand (mod. Pers.) j^
:
p')
&
him":
(m,c.).
bi-ittifaq
bi-yan-yi
mi-guft!m ki bi-guzar biyayand bi-ghuda agar hazaran hazar bashand Imam Riza yak-i az Ishan sar-i zinda bi-gftr na-khipahand burd
all
exclaimed
let
them
[the
should there be thousands upon thousands of Riza not one of them would go to the grave Imam of the the them, by help u "I have with a whole head on his shoulders. p*to***jto*> ^ ^ (Prof. 8. T.). made some cAangal and will eat it with my husband.'
Turkomans] come.
By God
1 '
^ J^
1
The
error
is
'
Pharoali and
all
all his
host were
drowned
the
sea'
his
host
were
drowned in the
juncts of
sea,'
and
the verb.
discussion
is
modem
form
languages.
However,
occasionally preferable
to the correct
Sa'di
concord
nishasta
m the Gulistan, worthy of remark, often adheres to the correct **>>& f^ ^^ )* Jf& ^^ 4 65 tayifa-yi buzurgan dar Icashli
it is
budam* (Book
I,
' '
St. 35)
*'
was seated
in a boat in the
g^
c&lx> j! a party of great people >* c^U. jt *i* ^*3 ; &&**} AJ khassan az dar chand ba tan-1 shikargah-i bioliil ))$ e^U^ jt yak-l az muluk ct a certain king with his companions zamistanaz'imaratdur uftdd (Sa'di)
lj
^^
company of
was belated
in winter while
hunting."
"
A singular verb is correct after yak-l. A woman with a child in her arms
c^jjj
2j\&
is
+jy
'
Jj
Iw
zan-l ba
needs only one ticket" f^^Uj &su b ,J) bachcha-yi baghal-ash jaqat. yak billt lazim darad)
both
tickets
good grammar and good sense; but 'A woman with a man requires two is as faulty in sense as A woman with a man require two tickets,' is faulty in
*
is
signified (as in
the copulative
l
'
and
'
j must bo
* used both in English and in Persian, and not with ', or as well as.* s Apparent violations of this concord are frequent in the Gulistan, as
ij&bjf
diLt
be
,
*&*j%J)*
I, St. 4).
It will
found however that Sa'di prefers a plural verb after the collective noun A&U)
fiayifa, etc.
:
and that the intervening genitive ^Ujt awbaah does not here affect the concord ^) ) *>) ax^ o^^JuAx ^\ (jUsu va guruh-l bi~bhilaf-i In maslahat dida cmd (Gul., Bk. 8,
No.
52).
(CQUtd.)
" " The house and the goods were burnt <> Juu^- c^Uw! j ^^ khana va ashbdb-ash suTchta shud; but "The house with the goods was burnt" b aJU * AxL^M jjfyU*,) khana bd sbdb-ash sukhta shud : no difference in Persian in
1
the concord.
"The material and mental world have their points of union blending them together "(Read the material and mental worlds have, etc.) Vide also 123 (d). In, b*j ^^) 3 <,yU~^ (Jl* 'alam-i jismdm va ruham rabtri kulll bi-ham ddrad (mod. Pers.) the verb should be plural xij ^ darand, otherwise jjLc dlam may at first appear to be one singular noun qualified by the two adjectives ^U-^ jismani and ^5^,9) ruham it would 'dlam before however be much better to repeat the word ^U.^ ruham. the verb "to be " In modern the correct concord in the case of
'
^^^
Persian,
is
&l)
*M <*** j
4<
;ta
ax-*
)&
all
but unfortunately
my
druggists with an obstruction in their bowels, and every paper was not the wrapper that had contained an emetic." Vide (j) p. 589.
The
Vide
(c).
correct
number
of the relative
pronoun
is
frequently overlooked.
(b)
(1)
When
connected by the disjunctives 'or' or 'nor/ the verb, both in English and in Persian, should be in the Singular as " Either Muhammad or Hasan is come " o***f 8^f er*^ b ^:*uo b ya b o^*| jj*/of tj+ssue U yd better dmada Hasan Muhammad yd ast, (but er-^
:
' '
:
neither man,
*J
**
woman,
child,
* na mard ***& &\j^ to be seen ^3 _ ** *> u)j va na liayvdn d/ida shud (m.c.) better cjl^^ ( > ) *fJ marcZ rftrfa 5/m^Z, na zan, na bacficha (va) na hay van.
A ^ j *^v
;
*->* ^
na zan na .***.. ^
*^
>J^
na
(2) If
however one
of
is
plural it
should be placed last, the verb agreeing with it Neither the man nor the. woman nor the horses were there
' '
"
ai
&j* a>
na ward na zan na aspdn dnjd budand (or (* ^^ ***)*. " neither nor mice, are in the house" AJ^ *i *_&*, di dog, cat, asphdbud): a & &il^ o^l j6 u*^ jna sag na gurba vana mush* dar khana ast.
or )
e)^-t *J o>j
^T
the nominatives require different forms of the verb, it is in English generally more elegant to express the verb, or its auxiliary, with
(3)
When
each of them, as ''Neither were their number, nor was their destination known"; ** In Persian it is more elegant to express either thou art a knave or I am."
:
Not
The
were.'
plural lf&}*
it
38
(COntd.)
first
it
nominative and
rest,
as
^ ^dS>o
f\**l
e/
^ ya
man
in'dm ra
(4)
khwdham
girift
yd
Muhammad
(m.c,).
Vide also
(d).
There are
and
in
English grammarians are by no means agreed as to the correct forms of such sentences. One writer says that the verb must agree with the
nominative
placed
nearest
to
it,
and be understood
'to
'Neither he nor
cerned."
'
were there", "neither you nor I am conAnother writer states, "If the pronoun 'you' forms one of the
his brothers
'
and the first personal pronoun nominatives grammatically connected by or 4 1 is absent, the verb is in the plural form Either he or you were
,
'
playing.'
If,
is
one of a
'
series of singular
'
nominatives grammatically conjoined by or ', the pronoun I goes last in the One must not series, and the verb takes the form of the first person singular. say John, (or) James, or I is to win the prize,' but John, (or) James, or I
'
*
am
to
win the
"s
prize.'
Hodgson
writes,'*
when two
*
singular* pronouns
junctive, as to
what person and number the verb should stand in. Should one say Neither he nor I are wrong'; 'Neither he nor I am wrong' or " * Neither he nor I is wrong ?
;
'
Apparently,
^jyc
*j
"Whenever my
wife or I die
" should be
But
in Persian
5
;
J|3
(j
I*,*
(in
colloquial
^,j^
AJ
instead of >b j
man
aj
<^ $ jt p'^f
because of the copula (not disjunctive) va. +fA&> 12* wrong nor is he."
(5)
.
<u
na man 6 mtiqassir-am na u
(elegant)
" neither
am
&>
*
<u
na man va na u muqas$ir-lm
&>
(not elegant).
(^
aS
b jj
<>.i^J
3 (
For further Persian examples vide (5). *h um yu u bazi ml-kardld: better iXjj^^o <^$m k ^+** ^ y& shuma bazl u. mirkardld yu ya
.>jkXAx>
^ ^Jb
am
ra
l+
Cj
^ujJLxx)
|^
A*\
<X2cwo b
^x man ya Muhammad
nt i
ml girim
You
'
is
Or
^jj
by some English grammarians considered singular as well as plural. har vaqt man bi-miram ya zanam. /*^**J ^.^0 o^jj
j*
Aj ^
na ^xj A)
man
u.
na man muqassiram va na
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT,
riistim m.c.
;
ETC.
AND VERB
is
(COHtfl.)
(the grammatical
o~** mat
Persian).
u (elegant) "either y shumd bdzi ml-kar$id yd you were playing or he was/' jb y b U b 2/a shuma yd u bdzi ml-kardid (m.c.).
l
jt
1*
^jb
<in
*fj
u&y
^t
l>
U&
shuma, ya u yak
kuddm
^(i yfi
UM
U yd
shumd yd u
mod.
(elegant)
wcm
t/a
prize or
&*
rd mi-glrad
^^Jox)
(in
*^
a4.33.-o
i*
U ^.^
man
U]f
j*to.f
;
vX
*+:a./o
b ^yo
dm rd mi-giram yd Muhammad Muhammad/ Muhammad in'dm rd rni-girim (modern). man i/a Muhammad yak kuddm in dm
in
1
'
(class.)
f^
speaking
j>jlAi
^^
fUSf
mod. Pers. f.^Ax> mi-gmm. ^C j^o b ^^TL/o Muhammad yd man yak-l in*dm rd mi-glrad ml-gmm).
in
<!>^
ojUj
e>^f
f&b
M^
tj^l
(^-
f>^
d^(A>
**&
cjUjf
f^
^yo
kaniZ'l
maw kariiz-am va tu khdnum, yd tu B. H. (Tr. Chap, xxiv) "am I the slave and or are the slave and am I the mistress ? " the are you mistress, you
JIL
^.yo
^ <^j*&
lj
^^y j rh^ e^
vaman khdnum?
* Remark. In, +1^ %^ (&\b ^&h rafiq-i ddshtam ki sdlhd f*k (^^ (*> md liar du or bd-ham safar karda budlm (Sa*di), there is an ellipsis of "I a that had u friend after ki, (conj.) (we two) travelled y^^x) man va
^^
Vide also
(d).
(1)
When
the nominative
ing
,'
writes Hodgson,
"
is
common "
3
a relative pronoun, the antecedent " The followall ye that pass by.' error of one the most valuable books
'
{ :
(Right; but,
&\j>\
Compare t*f
AAJ
uXLo
&.?
^\
y
ast
^^
u
;
yak-i az
(wrong
^\ and).
^o
&'*
j c^wf -^jbojf
dS
na u muqassir-ast va
?wz
man
is
In
to.
English the speaker does not always put himself last though grammars U ^ ^^ z * ml-kard ya shuma. Similarly &j** C}^ ^ ^
&
him
ft
is
to use
4x
chi
Wwah
jft^L
596
ERRORS, ELLIPSIS.
"
I confess
am
'
am
who
and omit
"
^f nami-tavdnam qabul bt-kunam ki az an ashkhas hastam ki jumla-yi yak-i * AUI ki nami-tavanand (write J^AJ ^fyj^ qabul bi-kunand).
Jj*$ ^j**+>
{*****
Af
J&
*$
ucUfcuAf
(2)
By
is
am
(they)
do not see
' '
^tyo+J
s$
p~&
<^tJf jf
(^
er*
man
nami tavanam bayan-i chizha-yi na-dida bi-kunam (should be vi^ namttavanand bi-kunand)
.
man
az
anau
read
mstam
man
rasad bi-tu nar qalandar (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) ^U^l b ba whan.
instead of <>* b ba
man
CJ^JJj**^
lei
***i?*
^ o^
^' *j
bi-sukhanan-i
shuma
farifta
by your (read mt-shavad). Sometimes in a contracted (d) compound sentence, one predicate has two or more subjects, there being then an ellipsis of one or more verbs, as
;
sort of
man
to be deluded
&* man az an mard mstam u magjirur shavam (Mirkhond) " I'm not the " words
*$ f**** &J* vrty
3
heard, not a funeral note (was heard)." According to this the subjects in contraction admissible when is, Hodgson English, only are in the same number." The following are examples cited by him as
errors
:
"Not
drum was
" His 2 (Peter the Hermit's) diet was abstemious, his prayers (were ) long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed
with the other."
Gibbon.
In Persian, on the contrary, not only are ellipses like those just mentioned, considered grammatically correct, but also a species of ornament.
Examples
s
*j*- &\*fyjiy
^j A*
^ oW c%?y ^ <HJ/
ki
e>^
^^ 9u
8
ft %
n farzand-i tu$t,
;
yakri
az farzandan-i khud
(Sa'di)
(supply
ra tarbiyat mi-kum).
u^ii^ jafang
with
(lit.
(m.c.)
" bosh'
1 :
&&}
^(S
qalib zadan(m.c.)
make
to swallow,
**
stuff
to
in
a mould)
"
:
buck qalandar
*
'
"
(abusive).
jjJJU
riar-qalandar (m.c.)
you
true error
it
of the verb
to be.'
8
necessary in
is
perhaps a typographical
error.
The ra
IB
ERRORS, ETC.
597
Chi
Chu
(Sa*di).
qadd bud va haqir, va digar baradaran-ash buland-bala va khub-ruy (Sa'dl, B. L, St. 13) " I have heard of a certain prince who was diminutive in stature and mean in appearance, while his brothers
l
rd shunldam ki kutah
were
tall
and handsome."
va ma'lum* ki agar tanha bi-gurizam, manand-i bisyar-l az dUgaran, az sar-it naw giriftar, va azab-am yak bar hazdr shavad (Tr. H. B. Chap. V.) ;
(
though the verb expressed is 3rd pers. shavam) has to be supplied after ^U^J giriftar.
dar
liujra-i
(shavad),
the
1st pers.
kUchkak dar rakht-i khwab diraz kashida ast vanukaran-ash dar pay-
ramun-i u gird amada (Intro. Trans. Haji Baba) "there, on a bedspread " in the middle of a small room, surrounded by several of his servants, I
in the Persian there
is
an
ellipsis
of <M
is
and
after
&<>T
singular.
halat-i ba'is-i hayrat-i
Compare
hama,
balki
p& /*^
x
.j
(&* &
man
va hakim
all,
H.
B.,
astonishment of
not
excepting myself
Chap. 11) "when, to the and the doctor " (H. B.,
'
'
'
the pronominal adjectives each and s every should (e) In English be in the 3rd pers., sing., and when they are the leading words in their
clauses they require singular verbs
and pronouns to agree with them. a verb however each and every,' In Persian plural generally follows (J^A har yak and f\<^j&> har kudam) etc., not only in the modern but also
'
in the classical
<>j)l
language
f\*tj& or)
{Jf
^\
<c
^&jA har yak (or har kudam) asp-i darand (m.c.) For examples from Sa'di, vide 39 (j) (2).
ta har
kudam
dast-i
B
Suhayll, Chap.
I,
karra mnabanl Adam a 'taraqqi numayand (Anvar-i Intro.) "so that every one should place the hand of compli-
'
(/).
of unity
'
xvii. 72.
AND VERB
(COUtd.)
ERRORS, ETC.
to the
ance on the skirt of reason, and by the step of exaltation should be promoted " rank of, And now have we honoured the children of Adam.'
*
har yak az ishan sifat-i az sifdt-t hamtda va khaslat-i az rd ta'rif ml-kardand (Anv. Suh.).
Jchisal-i
pasancfida
Jb
g*Aj
jsAf^iu gfcyo
*^
ajjtf
a^t^L
ddbishUm farmud ki td khwdnda na-shavad shubha shud va hich yak az hdzirdn bar qd'ida-yi an hhatt murtafi' na-l&wahad " Dabishllm said that until vuquf na-dasfitand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) this should be read the doubt would not be removed and that as no one of
e>f t**l*
,
^f G
tf
^y
f*J&jfa
those present was acquainted with that character ." It is however more logical to use the singular verb.
hu? kas, however, even in slovenly modern Persian, is usually followed by the singular verb, but u**' &+& Jiama kas by a plural one. The Persian translator of Hafi Babd of Isfahan however uses a singular verb after
(2)
<jOA
a+A
hama
(*t)f
kas.
*^M
t^;^
ty* J^ t5^?"
(^ l
^3^ mulaziman-i
ju-*i dar saya-yi darakht-i dram ydftand (Anw. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) "the attendants of his auspicious retinue disposed themselves to rest under the shade of trees on the bank of a rivulet
and"
(East. Trans.).
it
In modern Persian
is
a**
hama
kas.
plural
if
pronoun are " He is not tied down to relate every minute passage or circumstance, " Each of they (it) be not absolutely necessary to the main story, etc."
'
* 2 ; separate rooms to rest and calm themselves " Ch. and GaskelPs Wives 42, ; (Mrs. p. 419) y iJ^/k Daughters (1867), oJ^A vs*x^ 0' oJ&) c>^ ^^. ^If^Usb har yak az dukhlardn bi-utdqha-yi Tchud-i
up into
their
'
^^
;
jt
U^
jf
*S*~#jK Idyiq-i In kdr m8tid\ $&\ ( c>^#! )l ) har inkdr kas kardand, etc., etc., are used both in speaking (az ishdn) *J&jf and in writing. The Persians will hardly acknowledge that these concords are incorrect.
ctfU Kick yak az
(4) "Every strong and every weak point of those who might probably "'Point' should follow be his rivals were laid down on the charts."
' strong' as well as weak,' but authorities differ as to the proper number of the verb. Crombie, in his Etymological Syntax of the English Language
shumd
Corrected
* ' ;
Each
of the girls
rest
and calm
*if herself.
ETC.
599
'
easier
',
Every officer and every soldier claims (2) Every officer and every soldier
,
'
though the latter is unquestionably more agreeable to analogy.' " Professor Bain too says (English Grammar, p. 175) Plurality is cera effect is there but by joining produced disagreeable tainly implied, under the take shelter with and we a elliptical might 'every' plural verb,
claim
:
"
" usage, and say, Every officer (claims), and every soldier claims dilemma might be solved by using all.' "
'
"
'.
The
:
tf
In Persian, the plural verb would be preferred for No. (1), as l *uT iddi'd* m/is>(e&] }\>j*) ^^A\X) cj^xU^A har sahib mansab va sarbdz
kunand
iS
ki
(2), as
jl{^
j*>
v*^ v^^ j*
K;
in
ai&x
**
leaf
the
verb
is
understood to the
first
subject.
are implied in
and according to Professor Bain the plural may then every, be used. 'Where everybody [all] can ride as soon as they are born.*' In Europe no one marries unless they have the certain means of supportMadame Bonaparte, Life and Letters (1879), Ch. 8, p. ing their children
each,
* '
:
135.
is
s Hodgson. people do not marry'.] As the pronouns in Persian have no distinction for gender, this error Thus the last example might be rendered practically absent. ^UU&y
[Read,
'
"
**^
>A dar
nami-kunad. s
*jU
own work";
bi-kunad.
*&
\)
(J^
^^
The
and
this
one,' is in Persian jof ddam, o> -^t insdn, etc., would naturally be followed by a singular pronoun and a singular
indefinite
pronoun
verb.
(/)
either
and
neither ,
should in English be followed by a singular verb. In modern Persian, however, not only are these distributive pronouns followed by a plural verb but, by a confusion of thought, their adjuncts 6 (if the
6 pronoun be the subject) affect the verb, as ajJuoJ^tf ^f <j^J| UL jf ^A " neither hichyak az shumdhd Idyiq-i in kar nistid (should be mat) (m.c.)
:
^
&
(or none) of
you
are
[is] fit
"
^ o**>y
<jh Jl
lAUfc jl
is
yL^a jj~$ j*
better
hama
3
kas, or else the verb in the singular. Note that in the Persian there are two negatives for one in English.
*
6 6
For eaoh and every vide ' (e). " vide " Error of Proximity (a).
*
This error
may
in
universal.
600
az
one
shumaha layiq-imarhamaiha-yi man nistid. (Vazlr-I (none) of you are (is) deserving of* my many
g*p bd in asp khar-davani bi-kuni hich yak sar-i salamat bi-manzil na-khwahid burd (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba of Isfahan) " Haji,ii you mean to play the fool like this with your horse neither of you will finish the day's march in
safety."
W A^tj^
<^*& <jb*j*>
^l
*&>
e*f k-aij
<J>*J
c**3U j*
j*
^^.
.y
^^
Some
noticed [vide (c) (2). An English blunder is to make them plural before the singular nouns kind and sort, as: "I always delight in overthrowing those [that] kind of schemes and cheating a person of their [his] premeditated contempt." (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. X.) " this kind " In Persian >H^t jur etc., is used before either a singular or a plural noun or verb, as vi^Ju^ oi^l j* ^T^xujf %n jur adam dar Iran
khayli-st
is
common
Ichayli
in
Persian" and
;* l^cdf j^apij!
ixUU* ^Lji.
(h)
in jur
hastand.
of x^rabic adjectives
and
may
the exception of the one or two points already referred to in 43 (n) (t) and footnote to (t) (1), questions of the concord of adjectives are not likely to arise.
(i)
a pronoun in the plural should not be a c>^t (j)j*$ ** *?*"*? <^3 *;# $&J singular collective noun. In: *^ *\j j<* *j* &*** (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXXIII), not only is ishan incorrect but the colloca" tion is faulty. Omit cA^i ishan, and after zan insert fj y jt> dar sar-i
in Persian, of
The antecedent,
rah-i Shah.
137.
(a)
Jl*il
oj^***
and Errors.
accusative case.
Transitive verbs govern, in English, the objective, and in Persian the * The following English errors are taken from Hodgson
:
"#e, who had always inspired in her a respect which almost overcame her affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. 61) [For he read him ] ".
'
'
'
This error can hardly be repeated in Persian. For one thing, the ' * the Persian pronoun in her could not in pronoun she, prose precede which is the subject of the principal clause. An kas-i ki hamisha Muhammad
' '
: 1
Hlch
kas
The
noun
[vide
43 (m)
need
not be considered.
GOVERNMENT.
bi-u ihtiram mi-hard hala
x>,> tofti|
601
&$
^^
e/f
asi/ax>
(jfjtuo j&
\)$ J|tx $
^o f\j*a*.\
j\*
&+suc &&*,**>
or
an
kas-i ra ki
hamisha
Muhammad
a&xua*
ejT, are (j>j**)* Jl^ if if* ffy^l j^auo *<**+*> a* |^ both incorrect; the subject to did is obscure, nor is it clear to whom ura refers in the first example. In, &u+* tf \j &f *+3**
itoKil
xa
^r
Muhammad an
kas-i ra ki
^^
^>
might be either Muhammad or an kas-i but omit bi-u and write, Muhammad an kas-i ra ki hamisha Ihtiram mi-hard hold dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftada did and the sense is clear, Muhammad being clearly the subject to both verbs.
(6)
nouns or pronouns
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case. Also in apposition must in English be in the same case.
The
Hodgson
(1)
God will send no sucli fools as / [me] upon His errands Westward Khuda hich ahmaq-l misl-i man-i ra bi-pay gJiambari intikhab namic
:
^v
^
Uuot ^57^*-*^
*! t>
!<*^ (rn.c.).
In this state Frank Churchill found her, she [her] trembling, they (2) [them] loud and insolent.' Miss Austen, Emma, Ch. 39." Fulan ura dar
in halat yaft-ura larzan va ishan ra gustdkh &\jj) In the Persian sentence if u larzan ^UU5 \Ji\Sv\
\\
'
j\
&fo oJU.
^^
\^\
^&*
cjfjy j(
pronoun u would
*
refer to Frank.
(c) Prepositions in English govern the objective case, and nouns and pronouns in apposition to a noun or pronoun so governed must be in the same
case.
"God
he [him]
forbid
my own son" c*^j~*i ftf 1 cs^ 5 ^ ^^ J>i -4 3 e^ ^ u hasha ki man az yak pul da dan bi-jaqir-i inkar bi-kunam va an ham pisar-i khud-am, or o^i ^w A^]f JU^ ^\ ^J&A*. ^^ J^j ^>c ^i *&* t^ Khuda na-kunad ki man pul dadan bi-faqir-1 inkar kunam va lial an ki pisar-*
penny
to
poor
man
?
and
l
^^1
^^
'
khud-am
ast.
Remark.
verb
is
Af ter
God
forbid
"
"God
forbid that I should not give, etc.," Hasha (or Khuda na-kunad) ki bi-faqw-i pul na-diham +*** J!^ tf ( ji& 1*5^ U ) UU. etc., is unusual.
correct; but
"God
cj^
* *
(e) One relative pronoun may do duty for more than one clause as, Muhammad who was born and buried in Tabriz Muhammad ki dar Tabriz
' '
mutawallid va madfun shud *& ^ jJ^j-j^i^^ AT ^+.x>. If however the relative pronoun is in different cases,
^^c
it
should be
Note accusative
of
man.
Or ahmaq-l
mi*l-i
602
GOVERNMENT.
An example
of
an error in Engl
upper part of the house of which I know nothing, and [which seen. A Life for a Life (1859), Vol. II, p. 65." I; *JUk ^J/U t never have vt>f **;l? j u-* tabaqa-yi bala-yi khana ra ki man p) ifcX^J^A^ fjf*>**3 ^A* bara-yi an hick nami-danam va hargiz na dZda am
"The
&
(/)
illustrate the
government
of
some verbs
they
prepositions
(1)
(class) )
(2)
Nizd-i shuma, iltimas mi-kunam ki * U^ t>y > besee f&**> efUUf ) Az shuma multimas-am ki s$ ^^JJ^o U* Jf you. Az shumd mamnun-am ^>x*x>U^3t )*'! am (much) obliged (3) amnun-i shumd hastam p&~* UA c^*^ you." (4) Muhtaj-i an (or muhtaj bi-an) mstam +*~*> ( o^ ^Uacvxi U ) ^f ^U " I am not in need of it." an ra lazim na-ddram
was him."
asked
as!
^UxJf
U y
"I
^^ ^ fyf
p*~~*
(5)
(C)
^\j&)* I'm thinking about it." J& ^j j* (class.) = bi-& nazar kardj&
y
" I'm much afraid of him.
ought
to
"
tjf (mod.)
(7)
(8)
Az u
<
Bayad
Bayad
khud
i'tiraf
kuni^
^Jty^i
You
\
confess
fault."
l^djt jl
(9)
" here to look for him (now or previously). Az 'aqab-i u anja raftam p&) J
am
ft
***$
s^oc
'*
jf
"I have
cc
^f
^^
jt
went there to
1<
after
him"
**
y v^3> (~
either
dmadan
or ra/^
(10)
Az mihmanl
mihmdm
here
may mean
being guests
cu*U> (in n pushamdand v*i>l^ ^TU. a dress of with was honour"; presented bi-hakim) governor or wyuU^j %&^1^ ^ ^U*. hakim ra khil'at pushanidand or kardand " " he finished his Az namaz
bar hakim
"The
^^
(12)
pardakht
Bi-namaz pardakht
ouk|^
jiwjf
prayers
'
Or dar
'aqab, or bi-'aqab.
or bi-'aqab.
is
tjff
of unity.
GOVERNMENT.
(13)
603
txbJljdl
f;
Az
"the
in
gift
J&
(14)
his fault," or
"he "he
etc.)."
Az u
by him."
i;
or)
o*tf y jt
(mod.)
he passed
Bar u khandidand &>*!<**** j\ji (modem); az U khantidand *>j\y AI>JAA^ harf-i u khandidand (mod.) also 6ar harf-i u
(15)
.
(class.)
Th
hed at him- M
(16)
(
/
) *^J
az
*/
or
maw ou^A (^
6f-w
(or
pish-i
u)
^
x
^^aj or)
hich
(17)
bar-tin
Az an sukhan
ittila*
na-yafta
am
f\
ii*U> A*iet
am
|*f
*>><&
5!^^ ^.^s^ ^f
"I know
CHAPTER
138.
(a)
XX.
The formal
subject, object or
complement,
*5)yLjy u bi-safar raft "he also a general principle that things to be thought of together
;
"
c*it>^>
ch^
j**
faqir
cluz-i
^k^tjo ol<H^
&+&)\
y&#
Ij
^^ v>^
o-j>
more than
is
part of a compound verb it does not always immediately precede the actual verb, as: f^-' !<^- <^M cu-J^f j& 1 dar an vaqt yad-i Khuda kardam (or Khuda ra yad kardam ). (p*j$ aU|^ |^ or)
Remark.
Even
if
the accusative
(b)
" bdz ra bi-u dadam forms part of a compound verb, as: ftf* fj 3L i+j y u bi-ma salam kard* him the female goshawk f
' '
accusative
I
gave
time, when they apply to the whole *t *i* as: sJiab-1 qazl-l sentence, >$ usually placed dar kitab-i did ki f( one night a Qazi read in a book that c5*>* c5-b; " one & A>J AJ^io ^A^U^O ruz-l mard-i dar masjid-i nishasta bud ki day a
(c)
^^
<&* ^^
' ' :
^
**
certain
man was
sitting (seated) in a
1
mosque when
"
<Jt5>a C5^t"*>)^
C5"3j;
***
oJ> ^Ifc eJ&>^ ruz-i dar shahr-l* darwsh-l dar-i dukan-i baqqal-l raft 4 " day, in a certain city, a darvish went to the shop of a green-grocer.
(d)
" one
When
:
is
it is
put
last, as
" the
man
^^ ^
*
enquired saying,
Do you
think
me
"
*^* dldam kidar miyan-i darya ckand kuhha-yi* dlgar ham p*j^*& <^^ bud (m.c.) ** I saw that there were several other rocks as well, in the middle
of the sea."
(e)
&
cjU*;*
as'
ffr^
When
the object
is
qualified
by a
may
t;
az in fa khalasi yajtan
ummld
The
nut, or
mja
nlst.
f^
^r
J&wandan
8
^m
"
orally, or
Afghans say
-^^^
*^
"
*&*'* darvlsh-^
dar shahr-l.
etc.
4
*
" a man who sells dried and fresh fruits, ghi, curds, Jl&j baqgal Note plural noun after chand. The singular could be used.
607
" bones of a wolf, attached to a boy's person, give him courage when the doctor departed $U*I U? ^ "tyakim chun raft
' '
^^
' '
^0
When a sentence consists (5) Subordinate before Principal Proposition. of two Propositions, a principal one and a subordinate, greater force ! is " obtained if the subordinate precedes the principal, as " If you stay I'll go a gar tu bi-mdrii man mi-ravam. fiifr er* cs^
:
!L
Remark.
(as
When
the inversion
it is
is
so violent as to confuse
the sense
sometimes in poetry)
(j)
called Synchysis.
*
When
in
a complex
sentence the qualifications of the subject or the modifications of the predicate are numerous, the most judicious course is to distribute them, placing
" At one 3 part before and part after the subject or predicate." Example " blow was his head severed from his body !**> eP $ u*r* **J" *"** bi-yak zarb sar-ash az tan juda shud. Here of the two modifications, at one blow
:
'
'
and from
'
his
'
body
one
is
circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital members; since, by such a proposition, it is doubtful to which it belongs,
(k)
"A
By
is
between parts of the member to which it belongs, ambiguity avoided, and the capital members are kept distinct. " By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage, you
placing
it
'
thousand pounds.' thus By the articles subsisting between us, you agree to pay down on the day of marriage, the sum of eighty thousand pounds."
agree to pay " Better
the
'
down
sum
of eight
For example vide (n) (1). The following sentence from Hafi Bdbd is not clear at first sight *CA*f **^> e/V^^^ ovusf *y** *> to| *tf $j9 &}** &xj j* y^f &A> *^jrHO cs^ ** witl other each to relation obvious When different things have an (1)
:
'
a corres respect to the order of time, place, cause and effect, or the like, in the ponding order should be observed in assigning them their position
sentence.
Better
^U j
'
'
than
***) ^
^L
1
ft
And
More
also
'
Suspense.'
forcible
than "I'll go
if
you stay
"
^>Uj
^ fjj*
agar tu bi-manl.
3
A semi-colon
required after *i na to
make
608
(m)
(1)
' '
JXo ^f
aUab padishah
guft
man-am
' '
sultan-i in
mulk
It is I
who am
U
^t-a^ ^Ui}
j ^a/^
'asd-t,
dalq-i
va amban-i va
darvish-i dar
dmad ba
habit,
his
staff."
y *&<>
o*of
buland-tar
(4)
& jf cVj> f**S ^tfJ>Uo saqha-yi gandum did az qadd-i adam ftf "he saw stalks of wheat, taller were they than a man's stature."
<J)y
is
city
sWjUJ^i yL. khud-i shalir tijaratgah-i buzurg-i ast (mod.) a large commercial place."
jk /^^<>^>U^ <^jf ^*^)'->^vj f |j ^^asuw &r o^of g(X& ^iXj) Lk;b bdrhd dida shuda ast ki shakhs-l ra ki bisyar sud dyad hamdn qadr Tiam-bi-u
(5) tXttf^o cAl)
ziyan mi-rasad.
(6)
^li^'f
^*^fl "
#
IxAftj
i^)j*.
)^. 0;Uc
laxjf
^xj
^^
l
&>
iXJ^y
0<Xw
&&&* &**)
*^
A-
^^i
j^j si
4< an the earth shook anja 'imarat-i bisyar buzurg-i agar mi-bud yaqm ml-uftdd three times with such violence that had there been a large building there, it
fallen'
'
.
cJ }^ <Jx^3 *Jl^ j^ o.^ ^^ dar j* a> ^t *J^ 2 bud dar chand khana-am zambil-sazan ki dar khurdsati anja khana-yi ja-l vaqt-i bud c< there were several houses of basket weavers near the home of my
1
^^ ^f
<^^
^U ^^
youth."
(8)
ct^UA
jl
Jl\ f\
1$ Jl^
*^^*
*JLL
^?Lv^
cs
I;
1
^l^U
A^Jl^;^ j\
&.f
O^^?
jii^fiJ
<J^3 c^ 5 ^
^W
(*)^^
-^y
^^
;^ )b
ki
am
agar az
hamdn darakht^ shakhha-yi kuchak bi-yaram shayad bi-vaqt-i bdftan-i zambll na-shikanand 'it then crossed my mind that if I were to bring some twigs
I had gathered the cuttings which I had the round house, perhaps, they would not break when weaving the planted
f^f f. u* v^*^ ^^
s<
f^1
c h un bi-aftab mi bar amadam (Afghan) when I went out in the sun (sunshine)." 4
(m.c.
Or
<y^
ci^xij
oUo. chunan
bi-ahiddat larzid.
:
Note
repetition of
noun
far 3n/S.
8
Also
jU
JUjJ} ^^ ^^
Note repetition
is
na-shikanand
darafcht being
*
Also that the plural verb sha&hha to avoid the possibility of the word
v^O
or
^ii;
wl^'f^^
niod.
" to
ORDER OF WORDS
(10)
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
609
ha*il
^ JjU ^y
certain king
*t
<x
^L^
was
(^
yok-i ral az
muluk maraz-i
bud
(Sa'di)
"a
afflicted
*
(11)
^^^
"he
j*z> \)
&&*
(Sa'di)
said
with
regard to
So-and-so
it's
a long
time since
z ^t. yak-i ra az hukama shumdam ki mt-guft men of the day, I heard him say that ".
\)
* '
ttjty*.
to
for a
better to be
c^^
ti^t jXjj
dar ust
(Sa'di)
o^^j A^J.A AJ na har ki bi-surat niku ast "not every one who has a pleasing exterior,
^iU^
(16)
*>k^
\)
(3^^ & * A
v)*
^-?
*^^-^
ei>(^^^
c^fl? *Xtj
ASjjjf ^j
^iu** &JS&
sukhan bi-andisha bayad guftan va harakat-i pasandida bayad fylALi.iU guft <4 he said, to speak after kardan hama fchalq ra, khassa padishan 6 ra (Sa'di)
consideration arid to act with propriety
is
proper for
all
kings."
(17) <xilA)fj
Ifij
<iUi*f
^jjQJu*^
**$-
<rLV
i'timad-i baqa ra nashdyad (Sa'di) even if a person's health be perfect, one cannot hope for everlasting life for him on that account."
(18)
<c
d)}^ p*j*
az In safar-i jafiaz
fta fty *t>j& j(f^ j*** w*y y**ty na karda budam dil-am barham khwurd
^^
raanki
<
pishtar
(m.c.)
who had
my
stomach
felt
sick."
^T (^ (*A^
banda hargiz In jur musafarat jj* "I never this like kind of travelling." nami-ayad (m.c.)
va^il-^o j^axijf
x^iu
More common
f^j
c^o )\ <^
az
yak-l az
muluk
ra.
*
5
of na-didi.
U^
^a^Jf
jf
^)
yak-l
hukama
ra
more usual
mi-guft.
order.
Also
&$ +*
shunldam
ki yak-l az
hukama
U&* jj
More
forcible
than
M>&3^J^ {j
\)
e)[>^
(^3^
pahlu nishinad, or
nishlnad.
6
***&
Jt\ agar
tlr-l
More
forcible
than o*~xJ
sirat-i
wku
dar
ra,
this
would be worded
hama
1
the subject to
<*jf
^^
nami-ayad
is
musafarat
'
:
vide
'
130 (a)
(2).
39
610
(20)
ORDER OF WORDS
*f ^5* (Jj4 *&*jf v^{
gir-ash
p*> )\
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
yak gusfand
mi-dmad
(m.c.)
*& <J*^ jf) agar tambal na-bud u ham " had he not been lazy, he too would have
l
o^j^
(^
w*^ ctff
ty f*!*^ p*
t* p~lj*&jfc
**
f*# **^
cfef
)j)
*&*
bdr-i digar ndm-i jahdz Bj^yf ^Uj <^ wan- W rfiz-i atwaZ $w/Ja budam ki ham na-khwdham burd In sukhan* rd dust-i man bi-yad dvarda guft ki " I who had formerly said that I would never even mention the word ship recollected what I had said, and said to me." my friend
&f oi?
(22)
JtiS
5
*jl$uj
&(#*!
^j* ji is&jt")*^
*#
e^ o^
**
^^
^
In-
Hatim-i Ta^l
ki biyaban-nishm
rfar
zumra-yi sahib-jamalan
mutajalll na-shavad
'alim-i 'adil-i
etc..
magar angah
3rd
line).
ki
mufahalK gardad
Muqaddama;
Remark and
(24)
(25)
Vide example in
129
(6),
footnote.
aiiU U| l*f ejUis <u &r ^Jlfex) j^ ^wj ^4/ f; if&Z^J c>^ jJ^i ammd mdnand-i radd-i mazalim, nima-yi biryan-i pishkashl ra, kamar " but 1 determined bastam ki bi-'Usman Agha firistam (Tr. H. B. Chap. IV) to send to Usman Ag^a as a reparation, half the roast (sheep's head) that
}
(
had been bestowed on me ": note position of *$ p~* j*f kamar bastam ki. or cjA^^Jf v-J^ tdKb hamdn khub ast ki (26) A*' <A^} *-^ he is rightly called a physician who 6?6 aw shakhs ast ki
J
^^
^^
l *
'
'
(27) C/f^*
3'
*j
A^'- O^
A^
^tx3
^T
^j
Jjy jf
A5
--^ Mu'tamad^d-Dawla ki az qulinj va sudda kam manda bud jtf olj^ ki kar-ash sakhta shavad az ta*sir-i an habb hayat-i taza yaft (Tr. H. B.,
in the intestines
(n)
(1)
Chap. XIX) *'the Mu'tamad^M-Dawla, who from colic and an obstruction had very nearly died, got from this pill a new lease of life."
The
her.'
^*
full
(^
girifta
pur az
Moor,
va khashm zan-ash rd khafa mi-kunad. Corrected, 'The of rage and jealousy, seizing a bolster, smothers her jf ^j ^j**
gjya>yz.
'
is
no verb
for u:
vide
'
note
7, p. 009.
off in
by a new
3
^Ifc
ORDER OF WORDS
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
611
keen eye and a graphic pen see and set down for us the both scenery and manners.' (Corrected by Hodgson en eye sees and a graphic pen sets down '). lie original collocation (apart from the error in the concord of the verb) not bo considered faulty in Persian, 2 as: >o a*CUx> j^o\ &+a> ty
*
"
I)
3teristic details of
*^
j
i
tlz
va
naqsh-band-ash mi-bmad va mi-nig ar ad (better J^> j *xio ^c <Jy i**^ 1* ow.*v <jS*aJ chashm-i tiz-ash ml-bmad va-qalam-i naqsh-band-ash miid).
"
5)
Though
J
all
j*
>>)|A> garchi hama-yi tukhmhd nishasta na-ddrand ] ar ba'zi payda ml-shavad] (m.c.). If all seeds do not contain albumen, s there no seed which contains albumen. Corrected " Though not all s
I^J c5^* j^ 3^
contain albumen
]ta
1)
[ Jk ] $y<^ *i**L^ ^^aaJ^A &*. J>\ agarchi har tukhm-i na-ddrad [bdz ]. " All who lay claim to these virtues, are not to be depended upon"
"
^UiLcf jjjjf
A*rt>
hama-yi ashkhas-i
((
ki idda a-yi
i-kunand
mstand.
Corrected,
Not
all
who*
lay claim to
***
virtues are to be
r fet
*xi,<xx oka*'
^U^f
5^^i>
A^
"
5)
He was
^ *^aJO^ ^}Jt ^^
f
j^
j\
u dar
Kerman"
fi
(1).
^>?j
**^lj
u&*
shud.
1)
Do you
U
wish
me
meat
"
^^
kunam?
(Better cx
^f
mi-kh,ivaliul ki gusht ra
biryan ya db-paz
^jiujj
lei
c^^J i^^^
az
yAayz ra
^
f>
*
bi-dahn-i
~i
Obscurity
r
fxs
collocation
^jiiXu
tlz-ash
\-i
ij&> ^Jj ^ jxiuj ^j c4)"6^ /*^Jt' U oXU>3 hama-yi umur-i mamlakat ra ml blnad va qalam-i naqsh-band ash ml-nlgarad.
is
unidiornatic.
** A^
is
unidiornatic.
612
ORDER OF WORDS
a) 1**?
t>
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
1
Ji vf ^ (&
or boil
(8)
it).
giiato
ra
birydn
Icunam yd db-paz
grill
the meat
*f
MJ*
<*&^
Mj)**\
J&J;;*
(%
v^ if (f*SJ
j jIAjb cAjjiko
&
^aaxix ^au ^asu* cs^ ^ Ij Ji^b OASBUO J+A ammd, mushtariyan-i va luqmaha-yi charb u shinn-i darwsh, andaruniydn-i pddshdhi budanp pdyddr lei hama mahabbat-i pddshdh rd bi-mru-yi sihr bi-khudmunhasir mi-khwastand
i>JJL[yiuuo
the ladies of the king's seraglio were his Chap. 11) most Their customers. urgent demand was some powerful charm principal to insure the attention of the king": (put bi-mru-yi sihr
(Tr.
H.
B.,
"but
^^
LSJJ&*.
cvf
na man na agar Bu 'AU ham az gur dar dyad, kar-i az u bar nami-dyad " otherwise not alone (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) I, why Avicenna himself could do were he to rise from the dead " make the sense clear
nothing,
:
^J
j\
j\
j\
p* J>*j>j>\
& v*
*>
j vagar
[to
insert,
in the Persian, a
comma
after each
na
i.e.
&\ti\
<x>Uj ^IkL* ^^Ujf \^A* &> ^b^j e;Ux 31 |j ^\^ j e)Uy 3*** i*^ ki mabddd Arsldn larzdn man tarsdn u lj j*\# (j^b^ f Sultan biydyad va ustukhwdn-i mundzi' fih rd az miydn bi-rubdyad Khudd
aJ ajU/o ^iuLwi ^
c)^J^
pidarash rd bi-ydmurzad, munajjim niz bi-miydn uftdd (Tr. H. B., Chap. IV) "I all the while in terror lest Arslan Sultan should arrive and bear off
God bless
his
'
and as there are no stops in the original, the phrase God bless his father, might, and does at first appear to, but place munajjim before Khudd and the ambiguity refer to Sultan Arslan
his refers
feo
As
astrologer following
it,
disappears.
(11)
*
f!
,
f&
l*T
jyi^i^
^ man
:
dukhtar-i
am
(Tr.
H. B. Chap. XXVI,
1st line)
l*f
ndm.
tlkuz
tlkuz
Re-constructed p*~& fb
j\
^^
ex*
^ man
man
dukhtar-i
Shaykh
or
^U Uf 3^1
f^H^T*^
no
dukhtar-i
Shaykh-am
Remark L
The order
of sentences is
less
words in a sentence.
birywn
biriahta k.
<4
&.
to roast or fry
(>&
to parch
"
;
also to
yojS qirmiz k. to fry in oil or butter bake 'bread in the Persian fashion; ^U?
:
kabab k.
k. or
*'
to
broil
k.
;
"
;
(to
is
either
coft'ee
^^
**jt
Urishta
&bj
*
s
cjU^ kabab
'
&*\& j) bu dadan
berries,
gram, melon
'
seeds, nuts).
.f*}\ JL*J
in poetry only.
of unity ehayftbrl
613
sequence of the sense of its preceding sentence, then are the two sentences in a proper order and the sense of each sentence should be carried a step further by the sentence following.
is
When
logical
When
a sentence refers
less
it is
not in
its
proper place.
Remark
II.
new
departure.
1
In Persian there are no paragraphs, but a chapter (bdb) is sometimes, in MSS., divided into sections (fast), each fasl having this word in red ink at
its
commencement.
Sometimes the
first
word
it.
Some-
times a
full
stop
is
two
of the centres
In modem Persian, a short dash is often while a full stop is indicated by the plus +
called in Persian chaprdst.
first
made
,
to represent a
comma,
Proper names
or the multiplication sign x have a red line over them like the
word
in a sentence.
Remark III. In a comprehensive composition, paragraphs related to each other, together form a chapter, and each chapter has usually an express heading of its own, stating the matter in it.
^b
CHAPTER
139.
(a)
XXI.
Apposition.
"Apposition
cases of
' '
is
or in
some
an adjective,
the relation to a noun or pronoun, of another noun, or a clause, added by way of explanation
or characterisation.
It is a rule that
l
etc., placed in apposition must be in noun or pronoun to which it is apposed. Arab grammarians enumerate * descriptions of what may be called apposition. For practical purposes there is but one apposition. A substantive or adjective in apposition is called g$ ( pi. ?!>> ) "the follower or appositive"; it follows the noun to which it refers, which is
a noun or pronoun,
as the
called
>OA>
"
that which
is
followed."
*
corrects a form of the Apposition of Substitution a statement respecting the whole of a thing, and states that a portion only was meant, as in 'I eat the loaf, the half of it.' This apposition is rare in
Badal-i ba'z,
'
^*j J<>J,
Persian.
Ex
c/T
vJuw
f;
^U (*^*^
is
"
half of it."
to state that
the substitution of a word or phrase to it is not the person himself or the thing
it.
The
first
example above
is
better example of JUI^f JAJ badal-i ishtimal than of u*** J^? badal-i ba'z.
very rare in Persian. Badal-i gholat iaJ^ J** is the substitution of a word or phrase to correct " I rode the horse the she-camel Savdr-i asp shudama lapsus lingua as This badal is rare in Persian. Possibly the na shutur y& <u ^^ ^^\ <>!>**
' '
!
an example ur^ * ^^> ^^j) (^ villagers are considered " to die " is dolts, j^ khar and the term &*> &*> saqat shudan applied to animals, not to human beings. Another explanation of the construction is
following
is
: : ,
that ^>
bud
is
understood after
^^jj rusta*-i.
last descriptions
It will
of J*v badal
The simple term J*? badal could with advantage be applied to all these descriptions of J*j badal and also to e>Uj uitu 'atf-i bayan for which vide (b) (4), Remarks I and II.
1
It
must be
jf&
<ts
fj
and one
without.
#s*
ss*
c,
-0O'
O '
Viz.
APPOSITION.
615
There
low fellows
(6)
is
meaningless
' '
.
" the a sixth form of apposition in Persian, called J+** gU, " as: M$E P%& "lutis and such like ^5* appositive
J
,
^V
Vide also
1 40 (a)
(1)
^iiu ^/o
maw
az nishana-yi
lutf-i
kad-banu
mi-pukhtam(TT. Haji Baba) "the mark of favour which I had just received had set my imagination to work, and", (lit. "I, hopeful from the mark of
favour of the chief wife,
k
")
(J-*
3
man&ndummidvar&rs
**&*
ts^T
^su
Jfc/of
in apposition
^^M jt*i&
j Jj>|
Jyfc
^l^J^U* j
bulandiha-yi sahm*amiz,
bi-chasm-i
manand-i man, adam-i nasht, dar nihayat-i vahshat u dahshat mi-namud (Tr. H. B., Chap. V) "the danger of the precipices and the steep ascents were something quite appalling to a young traveller like
me
"
is
no
izafat after
barahna (Sa'dl)
<c
a darvish. bare headed and footed, but aJuy ^jj** cAu>^ dar' 4
' '
:
JU
l^lji
make
vHs^ <*&/^ ^j; j* **$j*. (&&*$ j&*. zada bar ruy-i Jchirsak, 6 na-shikib bar* banu astin $j* *^ chashm bi-rah-i man* nisliasta bud (Tr. Haji Baba)" where I found the Banou seated on a carpet on the ground, waiting for me with great impatience." Here the adjective ^*& li na-shikib and the phrase t\j> chashm bi-rah-i man are both in apposition to the nominative Banu.
:
another
"
&l~& 6^>X3
^
:
^*
may
aa;
barik-qadd,
tiz-nigah,
dar pa,
khana
(Tr.
So
common
in
Urdu.
* 8
In Arabic ummldvar here would not be considered apposition! it would be hal. s sar u T barahna may be considered a compound adjective. Ef in the &iAjj ^vJ>jr*
'
accusative,
AXA^J
head:
and
darvlsh-i ra
"I saw
feet
"
bj^
dervish
4
"
^Jo^
f^
(^^j;^
**
darvish-i Bar
u pa barahna^ ra didam.
**Jj*- eJ-Js***f
5
asfinbar zada
jUoyk kMrsak, a
Buda understood.
coarse, rough,
The word
is
616
APPOSITION.
of
" one
thickly-bearded,
of fifty years, short, quick-sighted, rosy-cheeked, muslin under-drawers on his legs, and a Kashmir
Two
Indefinite
Nouns
in Accusative.
v*V>
L^L
jJ&**/
l
IJ
t*
^*&&
aUujjJ)(jJ shakhs-i dah id gusfand bi-tava$sut-i navkar-i ta* druf firistdd(m.c.) "a, person once sent by means of his servant ten head of sheep as a present
(to
some one)."
(4)
Two Nouns
in Nominative.
mi-guyad ki
"the boy Muhammad shumd dmad " Zaid your brother come," but better **$ AJ) (+ ;^ baradar-i shumd Zayd dmad, for *xf *a;afj? *?.) Zayd-i barddar-at dmad (vulg.) These are examples of J>j m.c. and incorrect] "your brother Zaid came."
:
*jj** &+*** a^J pisara Muhammad* " <>*>T (+> j^i * Zayd barddar-i says
&k* *-&* "Explanatory Apposition" defines more partiIt is also a form of J<x> or the cularly something that has gone before. * Apposition of Substitution." Ex. j+* &>} &U|*^, is &(*> cake, as the
I.
c
Remark
>G is
a better
(+
jdj**l),
is
J*V.
There
is,
however,
really
nom de plume', should grammatically speaking be in apposition: however, in Persia, but not in India, they are joined by an izdfat. In Persia, but not in India, a person's name and his trade also are joined by an izdfat.
Remark
poet's
name and
his
uaJU^ takhallus,
'
^^] (y~* ^\ oJ^xs c^^o e^. j ^ chun mi-raft mi-guft ay pisar-am va C*J* <j* J* LS^ c^* jJ&M &*S~* /^^ Abshdlum, ay pisar-am pisar-am Abshdlum / Kashki bi-jd-yi tu mi-murdam ay Abshdlum pisar-iman 8 " and as he went thus he said, Oh, my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would to God I had died for thee, O Absalom,
(5)
Nouns
[
in Vocative.
fj~* fo~j ^l
1
'
my
^yl
*
son,
(6)
my
son!
or
'
"
*.
Noun
te&o*j* cjti^*
^f^j &(** OJ|&A> &j <*? JaA|y^ Al*^ khivdhid gujt zan-i Hiddyat Khan bardy-i Simula ^iU.
Pronoun understood.
Khdnum
The wife
(c)
sawqdt* firistdda ast (Vazir-i Lankaran) "You'll say will you that ' " of Hidayat Khan has sent it 6 (or the jacket) as a present ?
Corroborative
Apposition
takes
place,
either
in
the
words,
be considered
Jl.a
hal, or aJ
is sifat;
but in
'
is 'ajtf-i "bay an 8
Also ay Abshalum-i pisar-i man. This izafat 4 An example of badal or 'atj-i bay an.
6
is
m.c.
and
is
incorrect.
Sawqat
is
and an ra understood,
maf'til
unbihi or
"
object."
An
ra or
mm tana ra understood.
APPOSITION.
rf
617
$ ta*lcid-i
of
lafzi,
or
in the
:
sense
^j**
*^
tcfl&d-i
ma'nam.
Examples
(1)
^^
jivAj
Muhammad
pj,sh-i
Muhammad, Muhammad, came to me" :y c^y to zad to thou struckest, " I saw j^-acuo Muhammad ra didam Muhammad ra thou *>+3vo
:
"
\)
f<>j
fj
Muhammad, Muhammad":
guzashtam* az bar-i tu
^LS4? or better
77^^^
<7^
"
yy
J
1
'
(&&
y>
jt
c^
man
jl
az bar-i tu
passed
^r-?l
#w
as &/-?/
tu,
y ^^^f y ^
amadl
" or
yy y y ^
/)ar^ zakat-i
dilii
Man
" You have such a store that you must give alms of beauty, and you know not to whom to give. I, / have claim on it, oh, Prince of Beauties."
" balay balay amadam,
(2) all right,
In the species of apposition called (^y^o **f^ the " Corroboration or Strengthening in Meaning," the appositive is any word that strengthens the
idea of the self or of the totality of the
ta^kid-i
ma'navi are:
"Zaid, he himself
kh
amad: "the people came all of them" *J*Wf ^^c mardum amadand, A*A e>U *+& htfma-shan " I met the army all together p*b I) ^^ ^ ^3 fawj radldamhama ra bdham : " the two parties agreed both of them"
:
Vide also
(/).
j<3
"
bring two
maunds
by
of
yhl"
man and
native gram-
marians: du
is called
(A).
man
"
is
called
Jjj+*>
tamyiz
specificative,"
mumayyaz "specified," and ^^ rughan or else, mumayyiz the specifier/ Vide also
'
Remark.
^ jl^
is
an example of
^.
Corroborative Apposition
<*jjy
),
in the words.
For Corrobo
and
(/).
Also t^A.
jjwJiiu
tX^
Zayd
t^jj
Zayd
bi-nafsih
**Zaid
or)
618
APPOSITION.
of
j*fti ta*kid-i lafzi ;
The following are further examples " or mar / " snake snake o**>U
!
y&to
)\**>
jU>
mar !
***>
ast
/.
*3U
*su
^x
aalacu
&&U* *
o**of J^(
Aj
j^&^ci+A
*XJ
(d)
When
definite
noun
to
it,
an adjective,
participle,
the noun requires the affix ra. (The affix \y rd can, however, be added at the end of the entire phrase without much
or phrase in apposition
alteration in meaning). If the noun is indefinite, the
tj
rd
is
noun, vide
(b) (3).
:
Examples
f*J&
tj
*&. ^ ^No
&ia*
fj(&
zdlim-i rd khufta
' '
didam,
tj
incorrect to place
rd after
2
ddshtam ahmaq
^xi
jj
li
had a servant, a fool" c^* ^ nawkar-i ahmaq ddshtam, or ^iAta (3*^1 c^^y (( I had a foolish servant." ^a^^f nawkar-i ahmaq-i ddshtam
I
<l
but
A
<J**
similar construction
a
is
ki
(a]
here
:
I)
wa
jall
tej*$
J^J
i^
^^axJ* sliakhs-l
"I
jj^ojf
^x^
^*n
is
shakhs-i
guftam (or
\j
idj*jfi
(^a^
separated from
' '
noun
bi-
by a verb, as:
asmdr-i bisydr
Vide also
}^^
' '
)^+*^*
e^w-k*
lot
(&*&
^^l^Jit ashjdr-i
didam mashhun
.
saw a
of
trees covered
with
fruits
118
(c) (9)
and
K&ufta
Sifat.
is hal.
a
3
Jumla-yi
sifat.
If ra
's-salatn.
APPOSITION.
619
(e)
Words connected by
*
grammarians
or
<~*jj*u Ji.kp
to be in apposition.
certain particles are also considered by Arab This is J&* or 'Simple Apposition,'
1
Examples
(1) j
"
and."
C(
Zayd va <Amr(u)
p*
t(
"
hattq
(2)^1^ hattq
even to/'
o^^j
J^
*J***v; J>3
wvvar rasidand
foot"
piyadagan ham*' 'the pilgrims arrived even to those on 8 * ^ o#iUj ^^ zuvvar hattq piyadagan ham rasidand)
:
(or jf^j
f;
^^ dilk*'
f*^
the
mz 8 "they
**>f
killed
(3)
j^ ^
f '
<*x>f <x>3
Zcw/d araad
:
?/a
'Amr*, or
?/a
Ainr
came"
j^** ^
?
:
*s*-^ ^ <^J
Lf
ya 'Amr kalam-ash
" Is Zaid or
Amr
5
f
'
with
dasht
you"
man
L)
va tura qasd
?/a
*s*\*
***
^j
J^^
o
L
>* dar
(4)
?/a
either
l '
^/ cfe-a^ c>*^
*&
t|
he has learnt either religious law or philo^a hikmat tahsU karda ast " or ss*+x c^>| ^j^r JU^asu Aai lj ^/a ^A tahsil karda ast ya hikmat. sophy Compare with No. (9).
;
(j
(5)
to
na
'
'
not."
j^**
<Jy
?ia
Amr
tl
'Amr."
amadna
(7) (8)
*)!*};+*'
&* - Axf ^* Ji**j jjj Za?/d ^A-i man -^ " " ** Zaid came to me nay, rather, 'Amr ( j^khayr 'Amr na-khayr is (3J cftiip atf-i nasaq, and ^4mr is badal-i ghalat).
(6)
j*>
&
na
Ichayr.
Mai/r
' '
no.
"
\)
j^j^
f;
fU
f;
y*|
^i^J j
a^
o^>f
5 &<V.j 'f
l;x^j-^ xut>^
^ ^A
o^L;i
*^^*^
tj
cu^i
xwf^f
haklm-i ra
chandln darakht-i namvar ki Khuday Ta'alq afanda ast va barumand 6 gardanlda ast hich yak-i, ra azad na khwanand magar sarv ra ki samar na" a certain philosopher was asked, why out of all the noteworthy darad (Gul.)
ki
and fruit-bearing trees created by God, none is called free except the Here ^ j^*> sarv ra may be considered in cypress, which does not bear." the ra is necessary, both because sarv ***> hich yak-l ra apposition to fj
*
'
J&.
it
2
3
Am r spelt jj+c
Better omit
This
is *atj-i
to distinguish
ham and
nasaq.
nlz here.
*
6
va
Or o*&fa j^aiix) maqsud daaht. In +J>*j*j* j &* (jtt *^a^ maqsud-ash budlm (mod. Pers.), the verb should of course be bud however most Persians say hfidim in this and like cases.
?/
;
man
tion
In Arabic, words connected by particles or nouns of exception are not in apposithese come under special rules.
620
is
APPOSITION.
definite
might at
first
be taken for a
^j&o
\j
"I
sent
all
pt&Mj* \) &*.* (x* man hama rd firistddam magar yak-l rd but one ". Compare with No. (4).
^ll
l
:
(10) (***^>
f~
*$j&
in
(mS
gliayr az
Zayd
kas-i ra*
na-didam
"I saw no
Apposition
:
Persian
occasionally
English, as
(or
<*l>
^1^1
^^>
fii
shakhs-i, Ibrahim
nam
named) Ibrahim";
*x3^o
^A**.**
shakhs-i
person called
(g)
Muhammad."
the other hand, in some cases where the English idiom requires l>p JkiJ lafz-i daryd apposition, the Persian idiom requires the izdfat, as: "the word sea" J*> ty rud-i Nil "the river Nile " ;U^ o^;j> darakht-i
:
:
On
the petunia": "the of Islam" Islam)": Sjf* (or religion ^AL| 5 "the melon": fruit kharbuza >j^ miva-yi ^'T J^ filizz-i dhan "the " " " metal iron Oh Abraham, the thou the slave 3 fJU ^p ^-?/^ gh/uldm
chindr
plane
(,5-JUbf
"the
tree":
gul-i
atlasl
<
t-ufcA/o
mazhab'i
Islam
* c
Friend of
God"
*U J^J^
"
^tHt ^t ay
^$\
(ra.c.)
"Oh,
:
fa
^U
^j
&>)
man, Zaid"
"I
***>
"
"I am
am
slave
Zaid" /*^
AJ)
ixU)
man-am zananda-yi
Zayd-i giuldm. If the Arabic interjection yd be used, it is better to employ the correct Arabic construction, as *iJ| JUU* ***>\j\ b yd Ibrahim" KhaKl* lldh* but such
' :
a construction
is
Remark.
It will
is
man
"oh
slave of
my son"
by a
or e^ j~$
fa
:
ay gbuldm
M
t>*=R.x5
pisar-i
slave
to his
son
^^J
^f
ay
Muhammad
&..x> ^f
pisar-ani
Muhammad my son"
mean
{
is
correct,
but
fj~$
ay
Muhammad-i
in the
to
my son".
In
fa
**.s^o
Muham-
*
3
Jumla-yi ietisnafi. In speaking, this ra miprht be omitted. g&U i>yo man-i banda is sometimes used
is
ia m.c.,
but
fc&jj
^o man
banda sounds
better than
man
bichara.
The Afghans
'Atf-i
bay an.
APPOSITION.
621
*+suo
mad-i ghulam
ghulam-i
t(
Muhammad
the slave", or in c^
'
f%*
Muhammad-i
following
*+^
slave
sifat',
'
,
the
word or words
but in
&*
f&*
*****
Muhammad
&*
gkulam-i
man
vf
*jj
Qualifying words used with numerals or signifying quantity [vide 47 (g)] are usually in Persian placed in apposition, as: " 1 ab " one and a half yards' depth of water jj? yak gazu
and
mm
' '
^x o&*
sang
in
<J.j> yak musht jaw a handful of barley maunds of barley " ty*#j* ^**~ at* jt>A *^j>/
:
"
^ &*
lift
to
( '
ten
c*it
in faru-maya hazar
t(
man
common
fellow can
a thousand maunds
four or
weight":
*^b
o-lft|
Ju ^l^
five finger's
breadth of cloth."
Remark.
The
words
U/o
c<
mablagk
sum"
and
c53!>*
muvazi
"equal
as:
to (parallel), to the
muvazi-yi panj jild kitab "five volumes": " to dah ** )\*&* nafar shutur "ten camels j& jib (sy? muvdzi-yi " wheat to the man dah gandum quantity of ten maunds." miqdar-i
:
amount of," etc., are followed by the izafat, " the sum of two hundred mablagh-i duvlst tuman
c^JLr"
apposition to a noun or to an adjective, seem either to take or omit the izafat. Modern Persians prefer the izafat
(i)
in
with the singular but not with the plural personal pronouns. According to Platts, man and ma may either be in apposition (without an izafat) to an adjective, or connected to an adjective by an izafat; but the other separate
pronouns cannot be joined by an izafat to a qualifying adjective. From the following examples, however, this does not appear to be correct: " I the man-i banda 8 (m.c.) slave," but man banda (m.c.) "I, that is
to say, the
slave"
p&*>
(****
(^
man-i ha/dm
c^ man-hakim.
man-i bichara
' '
^
fM
bichara.
f&i
gjiulam or
$;Uuj bichara man, are preferred to man " thou the slave " (also <^y tu-yi giulam
wT^f /^ >
iJJj y<*k
For things that oan be counted only. 8 Also, Ub e)f &J^?-Jrf bichara anha, but rarely fylsuj the latter ^(j^l^uj ^f an Ucharagan is used. * Better man ki Muhammad am, or +\ A?
*
C5^
+**>
<*nha~yi
bwhara
for
f&+as>
t$ (>*
man
ki
hakim-
am,
etc.
622
jito
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
both correct
;
tu
faqw or
j&
<^y
but in jA;
(*^T
tu.
:
The
izafat does
is
Khuda
not appear to be used after #, thus t<x&>^x&j! shir-i not to be correct: ^a* ^t w-^/z /##?/ does used, though appear
-ft
grammatically correct.
With the
pronouns by an
&\^> <^k> ma-yi nadan, or &^\& U ma nddanan ishan-i bichara, or <j(f)L.x> &\&t\ ishan bichdragdn (or vD^f fy^#
:
bichara Ishari)
i**>
f*^ e>^v
of
God,"
U wa
banda-yi Khuda ;
shuma-yi bichara,
when used
1 c>t;^ *
n modern Persian, colloquially admit of the plural termination ha in an extended sense; bute^;tf li? ^ljU mayan* (/unahgafan, or ^jU mayan-i gunahgar^ is Afghan, for ot;( *li? to Tna gunahkdran.
140.
Repetition of a
Word
or Phrase
Jingling Sounds
Alliteration.
(a)
The Persians
sometimes
Words
of the hurry-scurry
;
synonym
rhyme.
it is
type abound. Sometimes the second word is a a real word used merely for sound and not for
is
it
sake
of
" each " In fj^j <Jt>^ Minsk u khurram* pleased and cheerful adjective has a meaning by itself and the combination is more expressive than the single adjective. Similarly with the nouns <t^ J v-^ <^ hi shakk u shubha ^ *^
;
L^^O yir y a
masdar
is
tazagl "freshness," the^tx^ox: ^0 ya-yi c/3^ J y understood after tar which is an adjective this is an instance of
z r *"
In
tar
the Persian dislike to the repetition of the same sound but ^jfi j c$y tan u In J^^j J^ gal u qifil, a vulgarism for J^^ cU* qll u tazagl is also correct.
;
qal* ^chattering,
Jf*^ ^
In,
+J.U*
<&
Q
".
wrangling", the second word is meaningless. In jang u jadal the first word is Persian and the second Arabic. ) c-abJ }^y ura lakht u luch Jcardand "he was robbed of everyluch
thing",
the word
"
(properly
squint-eyed ")
is
vulgar for
htcli
" naked
Better
o^taJL .xA
&$ j| u ki shir-IChuda
'st.
The
is
in the plural.
*
muradif, synonymous.
a
ffiJ
From Arabic
it
qal"
he said."
In Arabic
JUJ j JU
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
623
In
Aacvxj
*acu
bachcha machcha
it
(or ***>
a,
word
plural idea.
is
*<*j
in Persia, as in India, fixed by usage to A*O bachcha wachcha* would raise a laugh.
In Persia, in words of the *.x> **u> bachcha machcha description, the second word generally begins with mim unless the first word begins with mim in this case the second word usually commences with p or " curds" ow*U> mast u mlz u biz " as ^x*b etc."
Remark
1.
6,
past
J-^jJ-**
table,
This
is
called
d^ y$
a;jT
139
(a).
&<$>
As a
rule,
but
^^ amad
u shud\ ty)
avard u burd,
"
Remark
is
II.
The use
of a
common
in
second meaningless word to rhyme with the Kirman. A new governor, struck with the
reply, Ufa
^x>
&u
luti
^o
U^fejj
^y ***j!
^f*>
^M^A
puti-ha mi-guyand.
(b)
as:
^
*j
-^
a stick apiece
^" ^
;
(1)
bi-h ar ^ as
baran
*tjtj
nam nam
mi-ay ad
" it
keeps on drizzling
"
;
*>fj**
'*
*m*
:
**
c**f;
^Ab
ai*f^
ij
j&
;!>*
' *
you keep straight on sometimes an intensive sense, as )\y*> * *xjb man bayad fikr-i hazar hazar nafar ra 4 dashta basham
if
"
(3)
^
zar
( Vazlr-i
Lankaran)
of people*
ll
' '
:
&tf**j$
&*> 1$^ parandagan juq juq $huda paridand (m.c.) 4xitX?^ f< in whole flocks" very quickly": ^j *j) zud zud
*<*
:
<c
girlstan
to
"
e^/
jlj jfj
weep very
bitterly
tt
Compare
48.
In some districts
in
is
carried to excess- pani tam< rasta masta (or wasta), etc. etc.- vide Hindustani
Manual,
'
Lesson
*
might and main Examples of dual phrases in English are wear and tear acknow'act and deed sum and substance.' In 'use and wont tooth and nail edge and confess ', Norman and Saxon are linked together.
'
'
'
.-
'
'
'
after a cardinal
number;
* '
it
does not
make
the
'
is,
as
many
as a thousand.
'
Or omit shuda.
^Vof
~y
Juq
collo-
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
sayl-i gar dad (Sa'dl)
"
" flood
many
mickles
Andak andak biham shavad bisydr, Dana ddna ast ghalla dar ambdr (Sa'di).
Remark.
(m.c.)
J*AX?
^
all
"give either
water, or
vf dbi db bi-dih yd shir-i ahir " milk fused literally) b **> <-*lA> ^(^
^
**> *-$
j
:
**>$
"
give
all
earth or
all
wheat."
(c)
is
*
followed by
'
\j&j&
faqir fuqard**
:
"
ministers, etc.'*
Uiif
shuraka " partners." 8 Uneducated people are specially fond of this kind of phrase, under the * impression that they are using different words.
:
"
((/*
-%^ shank
gjiam aghniyd
c<
Sometimes the repetition consists of two different measures from " the medical art": *>*&* the same root, as: c*->Ujb ^ w*.fc tibb u tibdbal ast. Here either alone word u saddqat mashhur o**jjjjj&A) oJJjiX^j bi-sidq
(d)
would be
(e)
In
JL ^I^IU
sdlhd-yi sal
"
long years,
"long ages."
are not used.
(/)
But |U
^UU
mdhd-yi
"
<>/>
^A
^^^
qarnha-yi qarn
^ </7V
xi/
to
f^p*
bihtar
mi-shavad (Prof. S. T.)'*by little and sS *>j ^Tt^ ^ ^j ***j raft ra fi raft 6
travelled on
h'ttle
and on
till
he reached a
(
city
where
**
* ' :
^m ^tf j*
jj>
ixjb
(ja,&
x^ ^IW
kunad
(g)
you must
'
The
repetition of the
also used for emphasis the example, there, " Thou struckest
pam
all
water ",
a
8
Vulgarly,
is
But
*JjflA)f
j*As
adjectives.
*
6
kam can be
Or four
raft.
BBPBTITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
<^j>j
625
also be expressed
* '
by ^dj (yoy
f^
y
'
tu
mard
zadl tu
* *
*aJa>
^ ^f
:
* *
The
Remark.
Compare j? ^A*
j<*->^
cr^
&as&
</az
dar
^aA
^as
"four
Hakim a fable of the dog and the wolves, as The dog makes up its mind to become
,
jj
&\
jt
J&# j *>
oJU
31
(1
>^
taraddud taqat-ash taq shud va blah az an tahammul-ash na-mand, bar an shud ki y ba mujahada-yi tamam, yd sag-i sag shavad yd gurg-i gurg (Trans. Haji <e when .... he (the dog) had no more power of endurance left, he Baba)
determined to do his best to become either a real dog or a real wolf." So also vjf wf U jUj ^x^x b ya shir-i shir biyar yd db-i db (m.c.), or more com-
shir-i
shm
"bring
illustrate the
signification
of
repetitions,
etc.
(1)
^U
&
p\4
-*>j
' '
accent he said
(2)
ftf
(3) \}f
)j**>
y
khwah ma-Uiwdh
(4)
and violence"
^v
ill?
*lj
gradually, step
by step."
In Arabic, the repetition of these particles would come under the head of CorroboIn the first example the same word is repeated; in the second the sense is repeated by a synonym. The Zardushtis use the phrase aray balay to signify the assent (=" I do '; by Muslims merely, balay) of a Zardushti bride, in reply to the questions of the Dastur.
I
rative Apposition.
'
The*
in
is
adjectival.
Compare
140
(6)
Remark.
40
626
(5)
REPETITION OF A
&*l*j& jjtfj)*
WOED OB PHRASE.
[
dawr-d
dawr-i
j**\f
ky
lake" sarapa, b tf
the
aar ta pa, etc.) "throughout, completely": v&**j ***o das/ bi-dast "hai in hand ; also from hand to hand."
heaped, to the fullest extent" bj> \bj> giro " U^ kam-a-bish " more or less." round <Ji**> right round, gird " of various kinds " brimful" &3 </wn-a grww (7) v^** lab-a-lab* " breast to breast ") level, opposite, equal to." jiji bardbar (lit. har kuddm yak yak bi-ravand " JL in-ha <Jlj (8) ^^3 p\<tf j* l^Jut
(6)
<Jk
K^>
mal-a-mal*
all
"
"
'
' '
them
all
go singly."
(9)
cJj w^?
(Shah's D.)
(10)
I asked the
sufara rd yak yak ahval-pursi kardc Ambassadors, each singly, the state of his health
Ij
l)&<
" by one
uJ3
or <J^.& yakayak,
:
U}<5 tij&
and two."
(11) &j
u*
t<xjkj
i;-?^
hubara
is
to be found here
li^ la^
and there."
khatt
(12) &ji
Q&^J badan-ash
bud "it
(the
zebra)
w
(1
marked
ratq
all
(13) &l)j>\
"
<3^
<jPj
closing a fissure,
^a^ w /a^-e umurat "ordering of affairs" " mending ", and fatq cleaving, rending ").
qdl
1).
(15)
^ mar " jumbled " ^Jry Ziirt puti "loose and k or <^j* ^o^luUmuti: &>? &*> j &jj^ M*wurd u murd ( people, etc.", " u kkamw) kardan to smash into bits." +*>J *j9** khurd
^ar
hawks " jU ^ jU
^^
(17)
(18)
ramified."
shdr "noise
(of
a waterfall, river; or of attacking soldiers entering a (19) $j*jjj* dur u dardz "far off."
(20)
jk Jj^ kar
ubar" business."
J**> L>J&
^?f^f
gird-a-gird, P.
This
alif
) *
<sf.
\j&
daw-a-daw
\Jtf
two imperative
'it
rool
Jtf
kusha-kush "killing
the
way."
If
however
joins
two
differe
words, as:
)j^
U&
*'
ear-<a-pa
*'head to foot
(6).
tak-arpu
s
searching ",
9
it is
vide
'
also
110
For Ar.
U&.
In falconers' parlance.
Mcdlja
is
a meaningless appositive.
REPETITION OF A
(21) Ai~o|$j
a*j,&
WORD OB
PHRASE.
627
cKda
u
:
"
open";
AXJJ
jW tyli*
(23)
(24)
oj>3
&
embezzled
(25)
" as l {s*jj* bi-zucR-yi zud (m.o.) quickly as possible." u^y* *f &j4 i&j)L Ichwurda bud ki khwurda bud (m.c.) "he ": *' cJ, raft ki raft (m.c.) " he went it clean **+ij right off."
L$*~ J
1
"*
*A5m u
shdb-l
i*
urd nazd-i hakim ejUtf kashdn kaahdn* (26) Aijy p*** ty \jj\ &ti> burdand " they carried him before the Governor dragging him all the way/* cr** kash-d-kash, or t^/o ^^ kash, ma-kash (subs.) "pulling and dragging
different
ways."
JWj
(27) **j }
(28)
f**?>>J
or
r5Aw raam,
* {3
or
l^*j
U^^
gljj j
a long continued
(29)
(30) i;l^J j &\ij*> juydn u puydn, or l^ j L>^- juya u puyd (m.c.) "seeking and searching " c>f>^ j o&l ^/ian ^ khlzdn " limping, staggering, tottering, in a broken- down condition": ^^} er* sarkan parkdn B (Afghan and Persian) "in great agitation."
:
"
<^Uj|jf
" fifty maunds I^^XAO j& j^b ^x? ^^ U ^a ^) ^] (Afghan) in a <3AT fj (^^3 ^f^f w?m mm ma7^, ya man man, bdrud dar f&jfj^ \*** (A*. rd kanda judd judd gor kardam (Afghan) 6 " I put zamm anddkhta sanduqhd from half a maund to a maund's weight of powder in all the boxes and then
"
each sack were
:
(32)
iSy u-"
*^i ^^ JL^^A j^
man bud
*# ti$ gdh
at
all
bi-gdh, or
(
cJ^u
:
of
^ ^
gdh gdh-l "occasionally": gdhnagdh-i &> yak-i na yak-% (m.c.) "one or the
4
8
The same as the classical bi-zudi-yi harchi tamam-tar. The Persians do not double the past participle in this
For
sense.
The
sar kanad par kanad; probably old Persian. ifjJ U^-wo Blaxu panjah would not be repeated in Persia.
man n m
*
b i^o ^x* **f lj^Udj^ *>jb zamln karda dar bwud man man V* man aanduqha
\j
ra kanda
dafn kardam.
In Mod. Pers.
4<
va>li>|
j]
^j
vaqt-i az
awqat; but
csiUjI
3'
u*^ gSW
rarely."
628
(34) JUx> j
(35) fi#
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
btnam (< I don't see him from year's end an interval of years." Similarly a**,
Tcagiaz-i az
JU
\jj\ I*?*
&j
^ JU
'*
man
&ra naml
to year's
fjt\jA jt
end
I only see
him
after
<^*&
from
4 '
my
(36)
my getting
e>
(
a letter
f^
my
/Juka.
' '
my
"
eyes"; e>^
^
'
jan-i jdn
life of
soul
(endearing epithets).
as,
(37)
<*y
bud ubash
(class.)
u shamd "controversy,
etc., vide
115
Under
Alliteration,
1
may
figure Tajruis
^y^*^
or Jinas u-U^.
etc.
comes under
CHAPTER
141.
(a)
XXII.
they are not intended to take the place of special treatises. It is hoped that they will explain some points that appear conflicting to the student
who
of
reading both English, and Arabic (or Persian) rhetoric. The question Prosody is not touched upon. Rhetoric originally meant the art of speaking well It taught Oratory
is
).
The
(2)
to please
The Ancients divided Style into three kinds, cor(3) to persuade. responding to three duties of the Orator: (1) the simple, to instruct (2) the medium or temperate, to please; and (3) the sublime, to rr\pve. As men may be informed, pleased, and persuaded by written as well
and
;
as
art
of
writing well
also.
discusses
Rhetoric therefore means the art of speaking and writing well. It and shows how language can be made effective, and it treats
Eloquence (<**^) is a faculty or natural gift. An uneducated man may be eloquent (*k) , though he will make mistakes; but a study of Rhetoric will help to banish those mistakes. The study of rhetoric cannot make
l
a man eloquent who is not naturally so, but it may give him a certain ease, and make him a correct and logical speaker and writer.
Oratory (&jU*LjJU)
of public speaking.
has
now
the art of public speaking, or the exercise was the same as Rhetoric, but the latter Originally a wider meaning. Oratory requires also, a knowledge of the people
signifies
it
i.e.
addressed,
Rhetoric
is
The Will
is
moved through
fk) appeals
As Logic
Rhetoric.
((jM*v*
connected with
There
Rhetoric.
,
is
to the English
word
or
Jb
is
applied to a
or speech,
but in Persian
applied to either.
i.e.
word
may
be
man, neither
can be used of
men.
630
Arabs have divided their Rhetoric into three parts, Ilm~ u *l-Ma'am <llm- 'l-Badi* (#&A\ pi*). (<^W| fU), <Ilm'l'Bayan (e>Udf pk), and terms have these Different writers, however, applied differently, thus while * one writer calls the whole of Rhetoric '//w I- Bay an (eA#Ji pl*)> another
1*
calls it
'
Ilm u
together in order (b) Literary composition (JAif) is putting words to convey our thought to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and
easily
remembered.
Style
(c)
(ci^U^JO
is
the particular
manner
in
his conceptions.
them
been
in sentences,
called
has
"the
There are
number of epithets to distinguish the various number of words determines whether it is diffuse The
large
(JolilJ'
^)
or terse
(J^^ d^j.
It
may
or
Ornate
1
(&*&));
It
or the
({VVi f.^),
that
It also
or Plain
(*>U).
may
be
named
after
any Figure
(ci**x^)
(a*JU*> _jj),
(d)
may be
Periodic, or Loose.
:
There
and Ornament.
the reader
stand."
two merits common to all styles, viz. Perspicuity The former means that "care is taken, not merely that
clearly understand,
may
To
construed
write with grammatical purity, (1) the words must be arranged and 8 according to the rules of Syntax (j 3^ ); and (2) they must
4 express the precise meaning that good usage has affixed to them.
An excess of elevated language is Bombast a deficiency Tameness. Arabs and Persians have divided Mubalaghah (A*JUx>) or Hyperbole into three or exaggeration that is possible to reason and experience ; kinds. viz (1) Tdbttgh ( jJU3) or (2) Ighrag exaggeration possible to reason but improbable; (3) Ghuluvv
1
:
(<3|^f)
or exaggeration that
3
is
impossible.
The
violation of (1)
is
Solecism, which
is
bad Syntax or
violation of
idiom
Also using such incorrect phrases as " the violation of (2) is Impropriety. ' " " the best of all ") , such errors as lays for ' lies ', and the use of best of all others (for
*
The
|rOTES
631
violations
of
Perspicuity includes,
Intelligibility.
(1)
Clearness or Precision,
and
(2)
Simplicity or
The
no
first,
Clearness (vr^y*),
(fl^O-
is
(*A3), or ambiguity
great obstacle to clearness (c*a.[^*), ia the ambiguity of language generally. When a word has a plurality of meanings it should be placed in such a connection as to exclude all meanings but the one intended.*
It is also desirable to avoid using the
One
same word
in
two
different senses
for
overcoming ambiguity
(fltft),
is
to
employ
Contrast (aUu) i.e. to state also the opposite of what is meant. If we write "light as opposed to darkness", there is no fear of this meaning being confused with light' as opposed to heavy.'
*
'
To prevent ambiguity,
it is
means being
and
is
opposed
Figures
(5*!<V g3U*o)
Figure
is
a departure
from the ordinary form of words (Figures of Etymology); or from their or from their literal signification regular construction (Figures of Syntax)
;
(Figures of Rhetoric).
6
jli*o)
and Figures
Thought
(^**
f5lLo).
Figures exist in all languages, though they may not be identical in Some Arabic and Persian Figures are confined classification or definition. to Poetry. It is impossible to find any exact English equivalent for many
of
is
overlapping
thus, while
the English
'
Simile
(
'
it is
also
more
it
includes a great
the
^ Persians
)&* e/
Majaz-i Mursal
1
(<J^ jl^)
<.
In Urdu
U^j> y>U
JUJ
).
lete
Unless, of course,
it is
*
*
Except
Tautology as a fault
^xwf jJ^&>.
'
632
would be considered,
Isti'Sra-yi
vary.
Variety requires that the length and structure of sentences should In English literature proper, easy short-cut sentences are the
like
rule; but
however,
there
is
they are relieved by long ones. Some good English writers, Macaulay, affect a succession of short sentences. In Gibbon
of the balanced period.
an excess
The
type of effective sentence that suits the subject. There must, too, be a relief from bold figures and brilliancy. Variety is obtained by passing from the Tragic to the Comic, from the Humorous to
the Pathetic.
(g)
Pathos
Examples
of pathos are
***
A^ *X)b
like her, O Saql, you shall pass the guests, star-scattered on the grass Amongst And in your joyous errand reach the spot
Where
made
one, turn
down an empty
glass."
(Fitzgerald's Trans.).
JUs^x> r *T), excites to laughter. It is for the most part based on the degradation of some person or interest that is associated with gravity, dignity, or power but it is necessary that the degradation should not be of a nature to produce any other
(h)
The Ludicrous
style
In
the degradation is softened or removed by kindly or tender feeling. Thus the combines Humour humorists. of masters are the great pathos greatest effects of wit and poetic beauty, with the ludicrous.
(?)
Wit
(cJijJi) is
a combination of ideas,
(
(1)
(3) consisting in
cr xx^3).
and
A Euphemism is often
/
a form of
Syndoche.
2
When
maudlin or
sentimental.
Innuendo or Insinuation is implying or suggesting, instead of stating plainly or Ax^y Under this head would be classed ^<XrfJ| <J+i often used in a bad sense.
f U^|, or &>)j"> tion of Innuendo.
r-to^i
-
Euphemism
is
a special applica-
633
The effect produced by double meanings (e>&*"> ji) including puns (<j"*M*3), and striking and ingenious metaphors, if they are unexpected, is
Wit,
The Melody or Harmony of language involves both the action of the voice and the sense of hearing. What is hard to pronounce is also dis(k)
agreeable to hear.
cJlfti
However, even difficult and hard combinations of letters be an ( ) may agreeable variety to monotony in sweetness. The alternative of vowel and consonant is agreeable. 2 The too frequent repeti-
tion of the
same
Occasionally there
Imitative
Harmony,
:
or
the
Harmony
of
Sound
and Sense
The
u#9-
The harshness
on Rustam's
fight
with Afrasiyab
The cry
"There comes across the waves' tumultuous roar The wolf's long howl from Oonalaska's shore."
Campbell.
In the following Urdu couplet on the birth of a child, dun " shall I " imitates the sound of I give ? the naqqdra
,
:
to
the treble
by way
of
good omen:
' ' '
why
Taste, or
of art.
from works
first susceptibility
to pleasure
Or
in rhetoric, Antiphrasis
their proper
***
humour.
includes
and
satire.
Hence
in English the
of
In English, when successive words begin with the same letter or syllable it is This is common in proverbs. Unless based on a plan, as in balanced composition and some poetry, it is objectionable. This
called Alliteration (or Homoeophrophe'ron).
remark applies
end
of words.
634
the greatest amount of pleasure to cultivated minds. As men do not all feel alike, ages, countries, and individuals differ in their sense of what is
excellent in
is
by education
more
may
The primary object of the first is (ffc). Each has many subdivisions. pleasure.
be divided into Prose f^&), and Poetry to instruct, of the second to give
Poetry will be treated of first. The earliest compositions in all languages were metrical. Poetry differs from prose in that the words in poetry are arranged upon a definite principle of order as to their sound. Amongst
the Greeks and
still is,
Romans
the time occupied in pronouncing syllables, taking up twice as much time as those that are
short.'
of accented
In English poetry, the principle of arrangement is the regular recurrence and unaccented syllables, the stress of the voice in uttering
the accented ones occurring with perfect arid anticipated regularity. The undulation of sound produced by a flow of accents and non-accents, and
the
symmetry produced by a methodical arrangement of words (according Persian and Urdu verse, their long and short their accented syllables, and according to English and Hindi verso and unaccented syllables and a recurrence of emphasis at intervals), is
to Greek, Latin, Arabic,
Rhythm.
If the
rhythm
If
has measure.
not regulated by fixed laws, it is prosaic. Tine prose the rhythm is reduced to law, it becomes metre.
is
English composition that has mstre, is Poetry. rhythm only, or not even rhythm, is Prose. Rhyme
in
and Alliteration
are not of are, English, embellishments of rhythm or of metre, but in achievements its essence. Some of the highest poetical English are in un-
rhymed
or blank verse.
is
and Romans on
quantity,
and there
is
also
rhyme
(***lf ).
There
is
no
though there
in Hindi.
few of
In this metre
is
the following
of inarticulate
consult a
work on Prosody.
635
<
Twinkle, twinkle
little star,"
resembleathe metre
*
'
comparison, however, between the two systems is difficult, Arabic and Persian verse composed on the English principle would not be recogis
nized as verse by Arabs or Persians, though owing to Hindi influence, it 2 The possible that Urdu verse so composed would be recognized as verse. " " of is translation a There land is missionary happy
"
Further, the style and diction of poetry differ from that of prose. Diction comprises the choice, arrangement, and connection of words. Poetic diction is archaic and averse from colloquial expressions.
Muslims divide poetry into Bazm (($*), and Razm ^J;). The first includes Love Songs (&*&&), Drinking Songs (<*/cU ^U), Odes (Jj*,), Ballads (^JuS^),
Stories (the
),
the pure
Elegy
(
(
1
&^j>
)
j*)
j *^'
The Marsiya
is
^y
),
or Elegy,
(2)
(3)
Lyric;
all
is represented by Songs, Hymns and Odes, , or Under emotion this head come the of feeling. expression being Hymns or Sacred Songs (^laLo o'^lixs), the War Song (>*; ), the Love
The
first,
the Lyric
Song (AxfiAc), the Drinking Song ( A^>ti Sentimental song, the Comic song ( Aili^ or Dirge (**S;*), and the Sonnet.
^L
p&
),
),
the
The Epic 4
outward events.
The author appears in his own person, introduces the actors, and narrates the event3. The Epic has the widest range and is the longest of poetical compositions. The Shdh-Ndma (&*b*^>) is an Epic.
In dramatic poetry, there
is
the
first
" Come
Ill
into the
\
|
the only principle, but in Arabic and Persian principle and the accent is a corollary which that
is
I
quantitative metre.
2 3
^Ja>.
^.
/*J|j.
636
sung.
(n)
(I)
that belong to Poetry. for sublime diction is pleasing and natural, only when the thought is sublime.
Prose avoids a large number of words Poetic diction without metre is usually unpleasing;
A
verb
(
Simple Sentence
&k~* &U+
is
subject
bjj ),
(^
)
it
contains
AM^y.
f
A Compound
Sentence
A-*f>
&+*>
is
<>
A
A3
),
Complex Sentence
*j* #U^
(
**A^f
l^i
),
as:
"I
will go,
whenever
you
are ready."
In a compound sentence, the component clauses or sentences are independent of each other, as: "The sun rose and the clouds disappeared"
(
iX
j &>f *>JU> ^r-^ ) either assertion can stand alone. In a subordinate clause ( a*jtf i/ai ), the construction and meaning are
lAjjf
:
wJU
"He
home
first."
(2)
When
are
made
He
but he
When
same idea
they should as far as possible be made parallel, i.e. the principal subject and the principal predicate should retain relative positions throughout, whether the words themselves are balanced or not.
(3)
In a Period, the
He speaks so clearly as always to be meaning is suspended till the close, understood." If the meaning is not so suspended, the sentence is Loose, as "He speaks clearly, so as always to be understood" here a full stop
: :
" as:
could be inserted after 'clearly.' Some sentences are better in loose form, others in periodic. The periodic keeps up attention. Loose sentences are not
common in
Persian, as they are in English. Instances of loose sentences that should be recast so as to make them periodic, will be found in the Persian trans-
is called
637
Sentences
may be
them
up them
into a
number
by recasting
(o)
The Arabs, and consequently the Persians and the Indian Muslims,
:
FIRST, Murajjaz
),
in
rhymed,' as:
This
is
the ordinary
or
{t
Balanced Structure
"
of English.
SECOND, Musajja*
there are four kinds:
^^
k f^-*^), i.e.
)
Rhymed Prose,
Jly
of
which
or ''Parallel ", in
:
which the
jf
;
of letters, as
^ ;^?yo cu-*>p
(ii)
Saj'-i
Mutarraf (o,k*>j.9
rhymed
b ^*.
letters,
;Ufj
The
following,
by Professor
E. G. Brown,
skilful
imitation, in
?u: seeing that to fail and fall is the fate of English, of o^-* all 9 and to claim exemption from the lot of humanity a proof of pride and
vanity,
"Now
and somewhat
and
of
therefore
let
such as read,
and
than
them''; (iii) Saj'-i the final words are the same measure, but are which Balanced," and jatis ( ) (such words are said to be ) unrhymed, as faqtr J xfUf or ^syntactical rhymes ", as opposed to <^*A i^(S or " poetical
reveal
"
in
:
(^
^^
rhymes")
& " t+j* ) or Jewelled only in that the balanced words are rhymed), as
;
(iv)
Murassa*
"
(which
differs
from
0|
This
is
"
of English, with
rhyme added.
From
rajaz the
name
of a particular
metre
it is
muataf'ilun
^^JUiiw^o
X
repeated
six times.
*
* If
8
'
t;?
"'
Uo > or the fourth variety o
rhymed,
it is
either
is
*;*
638
THIRD, 'An
without rhyme.
(
^;U
or "
Naked ",
i.e.
and
'Rhymed
poetry, for
it
Prose', though it possesses both rhythm and rhyme, is not cannot pass the test of any of the recognized metres (j^ ).
has rhythm and occasionally uses the diction of poetry. It canon while rarely trespassing poetic compounds,
Semark.
gau.
).
Balance in a sentence
'
assists
memory and
is
).
It is
frequently combined with Antithesis ( " and " Meddle is Muddle { OWM[ j j) ),
$& 3 ^A*
8
,
is
Right due to a
"
kind of
balance and
effect
surprise.
:
Note the
"And
sinning
caused by using the same words in an altered meaning in not a vanity is given in vain"*; " More sinned against than "* " The art of the science of sciences."
;
arts,
as: " We do not live to eat, but eat The balance may 99 "It was dangerous to trust 6 the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to live Gibbon: f&)) <J>jJU <J^JW| to distrust 6 it was still more dangerous.'
be inverted 6
" the words of e*>^r> ^Ltf cjf^jy *& (#+> ** Iji) kings are the kings of words " the children *^ *H^ ought not to lay up for the e>t*>jy L$\J* t^i^lj *^ 2 Cor. XII. 14. parents, but the parents for the children."
' '
it
)
.-J^
^^
*y
5^
carried to excess.
:
Persian
is
it is
the spoken language of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Bukhara, and Samarqand. * s The word Farisi for Farsl ( mn'arrab *) "Persian", is the
^)
v^
Shem 7 and
or Arabicized form of Parsi, a word derived from Pars the supposed son of the founder of the Persian kingdom.
George Eliot
This
is
is full
of beautiful examples.
2 B
on Arabic
5
a form
of
(
^ixu.
^jjrrj U
-H^
:
an
b verse
declaration,
the equivalent fact is stated for the opposite side, as *' Heat relaxes the system; cold braces it." For obverse iteration vide " Proverbs of Solomon", Chaps. 12, 13.
^LaJ U (5UI&I
1
o*L*.
is
another
639
The word
is
is
^U
from the Arabic ^3* faras, " mare", Pars the king of Persia were noted for their
horsemanship.
It
is
is the language of literature is larger therefore only natural to find wide differences in expressions and
In Persia
itself
The
principal of these were Parsi, the dialect of Persepolis or Istakhr; Pahlavi, the dialect of Ray 1 Isfahan, and Hamadan; and Dan (for Dam) the pure
,
speech unmixed with foreign words, spoken in the mountains and villages.* Pirdawsl is famous for the amount of his Pahlavl and Dan. He claimed, in
fact, to
have omitted
all
:
When
confronted
Qazd he
'
guft
'
dih,
Malak guft dhsant falak guft 'zih' replied that he hadn't saidcJu^ dhsant, but that the angel had
,
'
The poet Nizaml is noted for his Dan. The two most important countries where Persian is the language of s Even to-day literature but not of everyday life, are Turan and Hindustan.* the Indian Persian is taught in most Muslim schools throughout Empire,
while Indian gentlemen frequently write to each other
preference to Urdu. Some of the most interesting prose works
in
Persian,
in
us his
Akbar, the great contemporary of Elizabeth, has Akbar-Nama; while every Indian student knows the intricate
of Delhi.
Turanian
Muslims kept
it
fresh.
Hence the
peculiarities of
Turanian Persian.
many
expressions and
8 certain pronunciations peculiar to itself, practically, as Dr. Rosen " a petrifaction of the old classical language ", for Indian studescribes it,
Old Tihran. Bahman son of Isfandiyar is said to have made this the court language, so as to have one language for general intercourse. 8 Turkistan, Transoxiana. Said to be derived from Tur a son of Faridun.
1
4 Indian writers have applied the term Mughul or Mongol to all Persian-speaking immigrants other than Afghans, and not merely to the Emperor Babur and his followers and their descendants. The term Mughul is therefore vague and includes Turanis
and Iranls. At the present day in Bombay, a modern Persian and the Persian language Mughuli.
*
is
By
itself pronounced abu but in construction abft *l In his " Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar/'
640
dents confine themselves to a study of the classics, which they imitate, and to poetic exercises. In the Persian of India, as well as in that of or " unknown" sound of the vowels Afghanistan, the J^p.** majhftl is retained, and the izdfat has a pronunciation quite distinct from its pro1
of
made a considerable addition to the ancient vocabulary. A large portion of the population of Persia is Turkish, speaking Turkish* as its mother tongue, and Persian with a foreign accent. The reigning family too is Turkish. It is therefore only natural that an increasing number of Turkish words and
phrases should find their
lesser degree English,
way
into
modern Persian.
modern
vocabulary.
(q)
The
history
of
literature in every
to
more marked in prose than in poetry. Poetry is an earlier culture than prose, and this ia the reason given why the Elizabethan prose with its long sentences is inferior to the Elizabethan poetry. France had the start of
is
modern Europe in the cultivation of letters, and her prose is in consequence distinguished by an ease and brevity that are said to surpass those of any
other country.
8 it is at the Though modern Persian prose tends towards simplicity same time characterized by laxity of expression and grammatical inaccuracy. Persians deem the study of Persian Syntax beneath them, and there are no
(r)
prose writers of sufficient note to check the increasing corruption of the language. Many of the inaccuracies of the spoken language have found
their
way
of thought slovenly.
" Dr. Rosen in his " Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar says " Unfortunately the inclination towards laxity of expression has proved stronger in the development of modern Persian than the tendency towards
:
lucidity.
So called by the invading Arabs because their sounds were unknown to them. There are several Turkish dialects in Persia, the most widely known is that These dialects of course differ widely from the western Turkish of Constantiof Tabriz. nople. Most of the Turks in Persia can speak Persian, but few Persians can speak
t
Turkish.
rhetorical forms
Modern Persian letters are usually marked by great simplicity, while the ancient and addresses are still preserved in India. There is also a tendency towards simplicity in court forms and ceremonies. Should it be necessary to write a formal letter, say to a royal personage, a modern Persian has to call in the aid of a
*
is
now known
641
of the
arbitrariness
and inconsistency
language, which renders the use of some parts of speech, specially the conAlso junctions and prepositions, a difficulty for the pupil and the teacher. the inflection of the verb has lost some of its clearness anl simplicity, by the
1
various forms being now frequently interchangeable, whereas in the classical language they are distinctly differentiated.
"But vanity and love of effect, which, from the earliest days, have been weak points in the Persian character, have done even more harm to the language than inaccuracy of expression. It is owing to this love of display
that the simplest subjects are mostly expressed in bombastic style, and that quaint turns of speech are constantly drawn from the archaic or classical It is therefore, in dealing with the vocabulary and language, and from Arabic. with grammar, only possible to form a general distinction between the
language and that of our own day. But such a distinction will not hold good in each particular case. Modern Persian mu4 therefore to some
classical
extent be regarded as a mixture of strictly modern Persian and classical Persian. It is left to the taHe of the individual to adopt whichever style he likes,
the classical, the bombastic, or the colloquial modern Persian, but it is always necessary to distinguish the language of Iran from the Persian which
is still in
(s)
use in India.'
is
As quality
As regards the length of sentences, the long has each its advantages and its disadvantages: a succession of long sentences Some nations prefer wearies, a succession of short sentences distracts.
long, others short sentences.
Some
sentences.
Wit
for instance
not
English literature proper, short sentences are the rule but they are relieved
4 long ones. A long sentence, well expressed and well arranged, hence long periods are often feeble and obscure. difficult to construct
by
reader reading aloud will find that the long but well constructed sentences of George Eliot will present much less difficulty than the short frippery sentences of so many inferior modern novels.
I
in
modern
is,
frequently omitted.
*
"The law
of literary culture
vital."
Originally an English Act of Parliament consisted of a single sentence. special Act was passed to authorize the insertion of full stops.
*
In 1860 a
and only
relieve
sentence should, as a rule, keep the reader in suspense throughout its course him at its close. This is called the ' Rule of Swpence.' This rule is
of
41
642
The
"Lights of Canopus" by Husayn Fa't'g read and admired in Persia and in India. Eastwick, in the preface of his scholarly translation, quotes some remarks by Sir William Jones "The most excellent book in the language is in my opinion the
,
:
must be judged by a standard The <^lj^ j|yf Anvar-i SukayR or is a work once largely 'LKSthifi
1
collection of tales
Anvar-i Suhaill by Husayn Va' 13, surnamed Kashifl, who took the celebrated work of Bidpai or Pilpay for his text and has comprised all the wisdom of the Eastern nations in fourteen
and
fables
called
'
beautiful chapters."
book, from an
One more extract however from the same preface student some idea of the view that will probably be taken by most beginners. Mr. Eastwick says
:
is
offered
with
far
more confidence
than to the English public, for it is impossible not to perceive that those very characteristics of style, which form its chiefest beauties in the eye of
Persian taste, will appear to the European reader as ridiculous blemishes.
The undeviating equipoise of bi-propositional sentences, and oftentimes their length and intricacy; the hyperbole and sameness of metaphor, and the rudeness and unskilfulness of the plots of some of the stories, cannot but be
wearisome and repulsive to the better and simpler judgment of the West. Bangs always sit on thrones stable as the firmanent, rub the stars with their heads, have all other kings to serve them, and are most just, wise,
valiant,
and
beneficent.
adorn the whole world, and are so sagacious that they can unravel all difficulties with a single thought. Mountains constantly race with the sun
in height, all gardens are the
envy
of Paradise,
Heaven
is
scared
away
in turn
by some
upon Earth.
These absurdities are so prominent that they would probably induce the generality of readers to close the book in disgust. Those, however, who have
patience enough to proceed with the perusal will not fail to discover many beautiful thoughts, many striking and original ideas, forcibly expressed;
first
beauty cannot but have suffered very considerably enough will remain to justify, in some degree, to all
translation.
ft
* i.e.
Baron de Sacy also praises this work. "those who desire to qualify themselves
for
territories."
643
"
It
may
book which are generally considered the best. The whole work consists of an elaborate Preface and Introduction by Husain Va'iz, and of 14 chapters or books, with a very brief Conclusion. The Preface may be dismissed from consideration at once, as being a turgid specimen of the obscure and repulsive preludes with which Persian writers think fit to commence their
compositions. A few helpless infantine ideas struggle in the gigantic coils of an endless prolixity and verboseness, which it would require a Hercules
Nevertheless this Preface may be read by those who wish a model of such compositions in Persian. The arrangement is the same in all. There is first an address to the one God secondly, a lengthy eulogy
to disentangle.
for
;
of his Prophet,
on the High Personage to a with dedicated, meagre explanation of the reasons which the author to induced commence his undertaking. The whole is thickly
Muhammad;
is
thirdly, -a panegyric
whom
the work
larded with quotations from the Kur'an, and with difficult and unusual words; so that it would really seem as if a preface were intended, like a thorny hedge, to repel all intruders, and to preserve the fruit within from
" In the Introduction, Husain Va'ig is at once simple and more agreeable. The description of the Bees and their habits is prettily given. The
story of the Pigeon,
woman's
cat,
who left his quiet home to travel and of the old who was discontented with his meagre fare and safe seclusion,
;
be as well to quote one single sentence from the Preface of Husayn Va'iz's Anvar-i Suhaili and leave the reader to judge whether Eastwick was justified in the severity of his remarks
Perhaps
it will
y
cU*acU j
(JjjdbJ
c^iK
})
what is advantageous to mankind, and the multiplying what is beneficial to high and low, he condescended to favour me with an intimation of his will that this humble
to the universal diffusion of
individual devoid of ability, and this insignificant person of small capital, Husain-bin 'AH-u-'l-Wa<i3, known by the name of Kashifl (May God Most
"With a view
High strengthen him with His hidden favours), should be bold enough book in anew dress, and bestow fresh adornment on the of its tales of esoteric meaning, which were veiled and concealed by beauty
to clothe the said
644
ETC.
tho curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions, by presenting them on the stages of lucid style and the upper chambers of
becoming metaphors, after a fashion that the eye of every examiner, without a glance of penetration or penetration of vision, may enjoy a share of the loveliness of those beauties of the ornamental bridal chamber of narrative,
trouble
may
without the trouble of imagining or the obtain the fruition of union with those delicately
'
East. Tra.is.
is
The student
*
of classical Persian
recommended
to
compare the
rhymed prose
of Sa'di,
Anvar-i Suhayll* of Husayn Va/iz 8 while for modern Persian he can not do better than copy Akhlaq-i Jalatt Mirza Hayrat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia, or the
;
bombastic style of the and the simpl or and terser style of the
simpler colloquial style of the Diaries of Ndsir"''d-Din* Shah, and the travels
of
Ibrahim Beg.
142.
Number
of
of Abbreviation, etc.
(a)
Language should be
effects are,
(^Lk/c&
),
i.e.
does not add either to the sense or the beauty of the sentence.
however, often brought about by Diffuseness would require that the shorter of two synonymous words Brevity ( J^k* ). be should or expressions chosen, but emphasis or dignity might require the
Important
longer.
(6)
J^JaS
(1)
Tautology
The
'
Theae intolerable
beauties of style
2
8
"
Both are admired and copied in Persia. The author was a Persia " are the best and truest * Dr. Rosen says these diaries specimens of the modern Also that it is only the colloquial language spoken at the Persian court and capital.'* uneducated who use the style which Nasir^d-Dm Shah has now raised to the dignity Educated people do not adopt this style. The style of the of a written language.'
>.
Diary when
l
first
Opposed to JJa*3.
Brevity
is
a general term.
(
A statement maybe
brief
because
style expresses
it
much
a few words.
regards length :
may
J*
contain
precision.
Terse
( Jj>
JL? )
concise.
^j
is
ETC.
l
645
(3)
Pleonism
^jJU^ic^
),
or
Redundancy (k-^^k*
other"
Circum-
locution
v^'
"They came
jZj* ***
^
(
3J*x>f
ji
1
Tautology *&* j-k* ) ^& ^^r? "I saw it with my eyes" f*j& p&*u is Redundancy ( " " I saw it with my OMW eyes er**^ ^su is Pleonism
or ) c$>AM o^u,
is
^^
The
if
<y^} j**>
not kept within limits, they constitute the vice of style called Turgidity.
Tautology
f#*j^
is
or phrases
same grammatical
Tautology
is
generally due
',
an error
').
universal panacea
or
'
a single
unique
(c)
Tautology, is justified if the sense is not a common single term, as poor and needy ', or satisfactorily expressed by ' and vulgar i.e. when the two words mutually help each other.
' '
,
ly
Legal documents have to guard against attempted evasion; consequent"Tell the repetition and synonyms (this is -*lx> y^. ) are necessary:
In a Persian deed of
*
x^Ki &)&
c^y
.
e4' &*>
va
'l-ijbar
(d)
*
^J
*J
^^i^
'
'r-ragjibat*
dun^l-ikrdh 1
(1)
styled A^ii^Lc^^. In girya 14 zarl * and "what we have seen with our eyes ^;fj ^ A and heard with our ears" fi\ 1&&& u*^j ^! *^-> ^fV ^r > the pleonisms are ta^d &*<ti or emphasis, and constitute also section Vide ^JU> j^^. on " Errors in Rhetoric."
(2)
Certain dual and tautological expressions as " null and void, ** ^, are justifiable by use, being almost regarded as one word,
"
of
redundancy:
"Not
one
man
of
you"
U-&
jt
without exception" *Uii-ot 3b A+A hama bi-ld " ^ vi^oJ that doeth good, no not one p* ^&
"
na.
^^ ^ ^
The
distinction
in
English
Mutaradif o^t;-^
"
ham nay
646
ETC.
of connectives (Poly-
syndeton), vide
(3)
140.
The
refrain or
burden
of a song or
of
an emotional speech,
is
justifiable repetition.
(e)
So too
Emotion
of
any kind
often expressed
by
repetition, that is
by
(/)
CIRCUMLOCUTION
v ^'
1
is
a roundabout
way
of speaking.
It is
usually a defect.
tutes a Figure 8
.
But it can be used for rhetorical effect, and then constiAs a defect, it is a form of diffuseness ( ) that cannot
d^
be remedied by the omission of superfluous words the whole sentence must be recast in terser language. Under Circumlocution (v^0> ma y be included
:
digressions
cifysxi ),
of irrelevant matter
The
a
following
are
Figure:
"Brain
English examples of Circumlocution ( ^Uki ) as preserved in ink" (for 'a book'); "An honest
lie
gentleman sent
ambassador);
(a fisherman).
abroad to
for
country"
fool at the
(i.e.
an
"A
(
rod with a
worm
is
and a
other"
Euphemism
as
J*A*>
er*^
often expressed
"
:
Terminological inexactitude
is
"
(a lie)
Circumlocution
(g)
VERBOSITY
^^
an excessive use
of words,
and
arises
from
a natural
(h)
gift of fluent
and
PROLIXITY ( J5U> if Jj^h?) is the tedious accumulation of circumstances needless particulars, so as to encumber the meaning.
Remark.
In
many
and Persian
writers, Tautology
of diffuseness are
common.
Tarjl*
band &xj
JJ^y
is
astonished, I
never, never"
am
"
;
poor, infirm, weak, and despis'd old shocked, to hear that "; "I would never lay down
"A
man
"
;
"I am
never,
my arms,
O Absalom, my son, my
" Alone,
son"
and
^*JU j&*>
Sometimes
called Periphrasis.
Commentators ( _Jlo ) often carry the practice to sermon of " Old Mother Hubbard" is in ridicule of this.
excess.
ETC.
647
The
chief sources of brevity are the selection of the aptest words, 1 the
The following are some of the methods of abbreviation ONE PREDICATE FOR SEVERAL SUBJECTS (or one subject
:
for several
verbs).
In a
with the same verb, the verb need in English be mentioned only once, as: "Reading maketh a full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready man." In Persian this non- repetition of the verb is very common. Examples:
(a)
v^
j*&*>
e>J>3
*x c*>ifj>
(b) ejUj
*?
khwandan
L)
cJt^
Jijtf
(Tr.
H.B. Chap.
esteem of
III).
Compare
all
for
many
years,
and
after
he'
Examples: Participles present or past. OASUO aia jd t; j jlj ij>**& tkji jj^y sar-i-an Zlba Khartum zud an* darb-i utdq rd du-dastl* sakht bdz karda,
(/)
(1)
PARTICIPLES.
A^&&
cU.i^
ejltf
dad u faryad kun'in, ddkhil mi-shavad (Vaztr-i Lankaran) (( when his back is 8 turned, Zlba Kb "mum, suddenly and with both hands, throws open the other
door of the room, and comes in crying and screaming'*: *U *U ) ^3 mizw-ilab lund kundn Ziba Khanum &^ rafta (Lund AJ^? ^o wJ^) ***)
f^
muttering, says under her breath) ." This construction, especially in modern Persian, is often carried to excess. 8 In a sentence of eight or nine lines there may be but one principal
guyad
'*
off
clauses.
recollected that
For tho selection of words, precise rules cannot be laid down. It should be words have both a denotation ( <^yJ t^*" ) an(* a connotat i n
the
* In English, especially the following Figures: Comparison and Transferred Epithet, Antithesis, Epigram, and Ellipsis.
^
Metaphor,
For
if
inserted
it
*
6
An " the
other
"
' 1 8
anfory
so
The g
becomes k in Turanian
Bu dadan " to
648
ETC.
an va 1 ba'd hama-yi ajzd ra fard fard** scfida az alak yd pdrcha birun karda ' namak sd*ida makhlut namuda dar mutdbiq-i vazn namuda nim paund
'
shtsha
('
karda
9
sar-i
an ra muhkam
ij,y
\* i
}
bi-girand ki hard
\
tasarruf
na-kunad
Paund
-i
} /.*.
&+* *AJ
w&j*
X<*lj
L>
**
all
ly
and pass them through a hair-seive or through cloth ; the weights (given above): mix in half a pound of
bottles.
make them up
pounded
'
to
salt
and
(An English
'
pound
equals a hundred
Cookery Receipt.
phrases
and participial adjectives may be used as equivalents for for the containing the relative, as: "The never-ceasing wind " wind that never ceases." This construction is to suitable Persian, specially
(2) Participles
which abounds with compound epithets. In e'-^ s-*^* *-$ *-~&j**t gawhar-i " a shab-lab-i shab-chira^& "a carbuncle," or firefly," the second epithet would in English have to be rendered by a relative clause, or else rendered
of Arabic past participles: Maktub-i u muvarrakha-yi ghurra yi Rajab 'l-Murajjab-i surkar* mashub-i "pust" mutazammin bi-mazamin-i mahabbatana va mundanj bi-mardtib-i
muwddatdna
AJ^?
ziydrat gardid
w-^i^-j
v> ax^*
J
^^
v^v^'
*-**>}
&
&c*)}*
^^ V>I^
*'
^^La^j er^>^o vju^.j your letter written and dated the first of Rajab, and sent by post and expressing your friendship (etc., etc ) reached me." Modern letter.
c^lj) ^Jl^yo
rj^-^
ilx>aa>o
(3) Participles
The
for
make
it
ambiguous, as the writer clear by the context whether the participle is used
a causal, a temporal, a concessive, or a relative clause. The same obscurity can occur in Persian. Thus in Jlax^^i. oJj -x* U^ ^f .~Jl.k j>yo
^f+>
&j~*
mard"i
tdlib-i
seeking this life is " the man while he seeks, or because he seeks, or the
" man dunyd hick vaqt khush-hdl namt-shavad never happy", it is not clear whether the sense is
in
man
that seeks."
Va should be
Note
this
omitted.
faulty collocation.
common but
Read
*&*)j*
&?
*&&*
maktub-i
sarkar vnuvarrijha-yi.
And
"Drive it into his stupid head"; "The " War was mountaineers preferred by the hardy 99 651 Vide p. were mountaineers and hardy]. (p).
"
;
ETC.
649
(n).
known
as the
misrelated participle,'
vide
125
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted, as: "France at our " or " " France doors, he sees no danger nigh ", for being though France
is
".
hand he
(k)
"2
etc.
The verb
lx>
expressed, as
giriftdr
tjto
d<*> r inguftdr va har du bd-ham j^i/ p*^ j*s*> u>0^ l~j l?uJ| St. about Sa'di's 19, Quarrel): (Gul., Chap. VII., fi^K
;^
4
m^
1
**
w*
)j+* _>*
04AJ
^f~
jZ* &$
ki
V^ ^
**.
ftjf LSjty* Id
sdya-yi
divdr-l
kardam mutaraqqib
magar
man bi-barad
(Gul.,
Book V, "
;
St. 8)
^jl ^AJ
e>H?^
j~*>
e^3
^^ ty^f y
az iu ishdra kardan*
;
zi'man bi-sar davldan " you have merely to indicate an order and I obey" <>J^XA> &*. i^\^L& ;U> j\ u bi-kindr, digardn rd chi mi-guyid (m.c.) Cleaving
him out
ample
&A.
In the
frequently omitted.
cut^f
Ex-
*_&^
eA/ct*.
j y#
^
1
^xj
yjlJ
^ ^jj*
t$ oli^
'
(jwj,^ )&*
pidar puzish kundn ki in awqdt arusl rd najang darmiyan, bd %n 'arasdt-i 'arusl ya'm
XXXVII)
va
**4jt
^^ ^x
^^ j$* jliiib
Hamgindn
(Chap.
^IJJ^A
f*(*k u^j+> )
and made the
^A'
If&jt j
bi-mariz
bal'dntdam.
II)
"
my
charm
"
tion)
:
^aao/o ^^l*^
3' J 3^ ^^ v^^" 3' *j* ammd chun na bi-kh%ma-yi u rdh-i ;^3' fV^3^^- e^ ddshtam va na bi-khimayi sa*ir-i zandn, payvandi dusii munhasir bud az jdnib-i u bi-ndz, va az jdnib-i man bi-niydz ; an ham az dur (Chap. 14)
:
t
^^
y
^^
e^^3
e^
&***u
*->^
^t> ^) )\
&+**v
*J
&}<*> to|
az altdf-i
yazddm inki
^*^
&&
agar
gu/ti,
all
rish-at
robbers)
exclaimed,
if
'Oh
you'll be spared;
134
(6).
Abbreviations of construction consist in omitting certain (1) ELLIPSIS. words, but these omissions should be of such a nature as can be supplied
1
Obscurity can also occur from a careless use of the Persian Present and Past
Participles.
* 8 4
5
For other kinds of participial obscurity, vide 125 (n), (p. 531). The Persians feel the heat much more than do the Indians.
The
Man refers
to the father
who
is
speaking.
650
ETC.
Baytdr az
dnchi dar
chashm-i
ft
kashld )* afvify
;Uy
**&j
of
l*t*
^/
**&
p*+
stuff
animals":
\>
uAj<* J^
put he was accustomed to put into the eyes ;l\^ ou*;j> j*. j\f ^.)^ guftdr-i K(Sa'di)
fit
"the
for
"Who Wrote this In *& letter Muhammad [wrote it] c^y ^ kdphaz rd ki navisht? [oMy t^f] *+:* Muhammad[dn rd navisht] 1^^ j c^^^^l <*Qar sbd'ir-i va ti-chdra (Trans. Haji Baba) "if you are a poet and poor" -&b)&(&>\ ^.
OMISSION " * ?
c
I;
jl
jl*f
e>^ cu>U* ^
Chap.
I).
"From
'Could
and cried
I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mice and the old wowan's cell/
*' *
(East. Trans.)
(m)
phrases of comparison (such as like,' 'as,' not disturb the structure of the sentence
:
etc.),
Metaphor
is brief,
"All
able
flesh is grass
"
as
grass": dar
9 '
jang shir
bud &>
is
as perishlion
J^^
j*
"he was a
in
combat.
For examples of
ellipses, correct
is
and otherwise,
vide
136
(d).
The
object (cMz-t)
understood.
Note jl&f kirdar, from && kardan, when ;|^ kardar might be expected. (1) For the ellipsis of a verb in a contracted compound sentence and the difference
136
(d).
between English and Persian in such a construction, vide 121 (/). (2) For the non-repetition of a noun, vide
(3)
For the repetition of a noun, necessary for clearness, vide For the non-repetition of an adjective or participle, vide
For the non-repetition of an adverb, vide f 122 (e). For the non-repetition of a conjunction, vide 123 (d).
for the non-repetition of, vide
120 (h)
121 (k).
Remark.
(4)
(5)
(6) Prepositions
124
(6).
ETC.
651
GENERAL TERMS
ARE BRIEFER THAN PARTICULAR TERMS, "He *^~*j* ;^ jt u shikar dftst nti-ddrad, is shorter than
1
**x&x>
yt ^jU ^
a^j, j ^fiLi; ^ jU
by
ii
bd bSz
shikar mi-kunad.
A
of
book
is
PHRASE MAY BE EXPRESSED BY A WORD. "The style of this such an obscure nature that it cannot be understood" ^t ^;lf
t
'ibdrat-i In kitdb an tawr i^axxA &f o**i pt** j cM*-* Jj-k ert mubham ast ki hich kas nami-tavdnad bi-fahmad, is expressed better
v^
by,
this
book
is unintelligible
"
'ibarat-i in kitdb Id
I, is
yutham
ast.
"
mere
"
^^ cH' ^^
pisar-i nd>
taklif
stripling,
briefer
and more
' '
age of
manhood
cu^*t
ki bi-hadd-i
na-rasida ast.
STATEMENT MAY SOMETIMES BE BRIEFLY IMPLIED instead of being " The expressed at length, thus: conqueror of Austerlitz might be expected
(p)
when
by
from the prisoner of St. Helena," elated by the victory of Austerlitz" and "Napoleon
his
Thus
preferred war,"
brave.'
(q)
'preferred
Example:
"You
assert
deny
:
it."
In-
134
(6).
9
The omission
of connectives
ij
is
called
Asyndeton,
as in
&
I;
etfj^
y*Us \) c>l^i >JA^ cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils." Mat. x.
ejji^j
t>
^Ui
^Ifcyo
xjjU>
^U ^axa^S
khidmat
THE IMPERATIVE MAY BE USED FOR "IF." Thus, biyd td kunam 4 ptf *+***> ty lu Come (for If you come) and I will
turd-
serve
you."
hound (Arab) ", and sag " the pariah dog" (and
8 It is
1 General terms are however not so forcible. General or abstract terms are less simple to conceive than particular or concrete terms. 2 Tula is 'a pointer' and perhaps any " small dog'* as opposed to tazl " the grey-
of
a command."
652
(s)
brief
^i :
y *i^^(lqbal-Nama-yi
sabz
Jahangiri,p. 241, Ed. Bib. Ind. Bengal As. Soc.). a^ ki mushrif bar ab va briefer than <>y ^^ j _}** j vt
^ o^U
bud
(
PARBNTHESIS'Z
o^
flj
commoner
in
is
modern than
in classical
Persian.
In
classical
(^ j
1
?uUu0f )
^ ^ j **^
*Ut
^Lo
the meaning.
In along sentence, English or Persian, parentheses are liable to obscure Though conducive to brevity, they must be sparingly used.
>
Jj *<
Guitar II)
*f ^y "
>
^3 j*>
c5";
<i*a' 3'
^ *>*/
';
Baba
he
was
a character well
known on
Meshed, and enjoyed a great reputation for courage, which he had acquired Turcoman's head whom he had once found dead on the " road "But in vain I endeavoured to cheer up his (Haj! Baba, Chap II).
spirits
by saying
"
aT (-J^JA*
(*^X
be the
^
first
)j' isj*
J^
CS'Lr?
u^
(Pers.
Trans.,
H aft Baba,
Guflar-i Sivum).
consideration.
Some
of
the
143.
(a)
<e
" Other things baing equal", says a writer on English composition, a better-known word is to be preferred to a less known, a native or
thoroughly naturalized and appropriated word to a word of outlandish origin and habit, a concrete to an abstract word, a specific to a general, a homely to a technical." *
Persians are fond of obsolete Persian, and out-of-the-way Arabic words
and expressions. Arabic phrases and quotations from the Quran are dragged in wholesale, and sometimes Arabic idioms too, literally translated into
vide
91
(6) (10).
*
8
"a sergeant." A
leader
and guide
of
a pilgrim-caravan, whose
etc., etc.
duty
4
to
make arrangements
hour of march,
653
to the
Anjuman
search the dictionary for obsolete words with which to adorn the 8 As an example of ambiguity, the following quotation from the composition.
suffice
_.j
)
)}<&*
j Oo;f } j\jLc(J J^A jf^cf jt jt> Z>j> C^l^ baz ki vahshi u gharib ast chun az u manfa at-i tasavvur milavdn kard va bi-i'zdz-i harchi tamdmtar urd bi-dast mt-drand va bar sd'id-i
\
**U
^x*iix>
jt
^^
o**t WAJ J )
^^
to )
tf
jt ^
CU^J
ndz az ruy-l i'zdz bi-ihtizdz mi-par vardnand " while the 4 which is wild and
sort of
hawk, strange they 4 kindness and bring him up on the wrist of favour, indulgently In a footnote Eastwick remarks, "The and proudly." (East. Trans.).
MSS. I have consulted, omit the sentence after **j1 is found in the printed and lithographed editions.
baihtizdz
tation.'
^ mi-drani,
Keene
mean,
of
its
*
which
translates
'to
exercise.'
is
It
may
bear that
s;>nse,
or
with exul-
ambiguity, such a source of delight to the Persian author, and of despair to the translator." [This )\j* & bi-ihtizdz according to one or two learned
The word
which
is
understood by the few only. reading and enjoying the rhyme of the word.] The following sentence from the Persian translation of
(end of Chap. II) defeated
f allii dy>
till
means "exercise", but the word would be Most Persians would be contented by merely
Hdjl
Bdbd
<bL
many
Persians
J
f
f
*>
was * r* t/^ vx^ ; <Jtk d'^ *^3* c5 the discovery was made that J ? j was not the Arabic word qawl, but the Turkish word qul " a slave ", 7 that the obscurity was removed.
6 5
6
1
'
e^ k
^^
l
<&** ^5UI*[
^j
^* ^
l
not
1 A Paraee committee (in Kerman, twelve members) that meets every Friday and on other necessary occasions to discuss matters concerning the Parsees and to settle small disputes and religious matters. The Persian Anjumans are under the Bombay
Anjuman.
2
3
This
first
mouth a
sentence in Arabic (though perhaps only two or three of the congregation are acquainted with Arabic), and then repeat it in Persian. If asked the reason, the reply is To display
his knowledge.'
preacher
who
didn*t
would be held in
little
esteem.
*
*
QwiWbh, a
signify
term often applied to Persians generally, just as Baluchis will use the any Persian. (Qajar, Qajar, is the Turkish tribe to which the
which sect the 9 RfifUi, i.e. ShVah, a term applied to the Shi'ahs by the Sunnis, to robber Turkomans belonged. The author 1 It is doubtful whether the word qul is used by any but the Turks. should have used the common word banda.
654
the
same
translation,
is
relating his
adventures to Hajl Baba (Chap. VII), takes the opportunity in the translation of reciting a ridiculous couplet of his own:
Now JHi
is
in classical
ku-kft
a "dove" and also the murmuring of the dove. More than one Persian Several P rsians who were poet has played on these different meanings.
consulted, exhausted their ingenuity in trying to apply these meanings to the lines in question, but it was only when a Zardushti suggested that the reading
" which was veiled and obscured should be gav and not ku that the meaning, by the curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions
appeared on the stage
of lucid style
of
becoming
metaphors."
(6) (1)
when
that flood in
it false
its
own
It left behind
first of
Dry den.
in plain
these
lines is
nonsensical.
* language, is apparently no more than when the waters of the deluge had subsided."* Extravagant as is this idea it is not too extravagant for a Persian, rather in its extravagance would lie its excellence.
(2) It
is
different interpretations,
'He aimed
J>+f j*+
***>
c^ioJ
^fei
^x>
o.>tL-
nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown', or, 'nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy him.' In chapter 5* of Haji Baba, the Persian translator describing the faded charms of the candidates for temporary wifehood,
y may
denote either
CLI
l^f
jtj9>
31
^U
SJy
x^
chimgi-i
It requires considerable
is
thought on the part of a European to solve this passage. Lala in Persian "a tulip, or a poppy ", and hence the cheek of a mistress ", but in m.o.
'
it
is also
On
fb* chirag&ia here incorrectly used in the sense of "light." A cold breath (dam-i sard) might extinguish a candle: lastly l^'f afatha must be considered equal to !>?**<* andmahd. Persians consider that this kind of
fog*
Examples
of tajnis.
Vide also
(4).
655
By
point
is
the skilful use, however, of the same word in two senses, force and " If the loss of temporal gain be the gain of eternal good, obtained, as
:
is
Here 'gain'
first
is
used in two somewhat different senses, while 'reverse' in the means * revolution ' in the second opposite.'
'
case
The Persians
delight in plays
v^ crij) v^3l
The
first
wan
tab
signifies
Chu bar mazar-i man uftad guzar-at az pas-t marg Ma-shaw bi-g&ussa-yi man zar u bar mazdr ma-zar.
Mazar )]}*>
This
(3)
is
c<
tomb",
zar y)
is
is
a good example
of the Figure
o^^
life'
Spectator.
'
*
that I ever spoke three sentences together in my Instead of together, the writer should have said
successively
or,
in succession.'
is
"
common
in Persian.
**&$
am
(m.c.), is
jumla ba-ham gufta basham pL> a sentenne that would pass unchallenged by moat modern Persians. A For baham, substitute pay-i ham or ^ ^* ^*ty pusht-i sar-i ham.
si
|*A
Hick yad-am nist lei fti-'wrnra^ *& ^~~^? c*t *& (r+*> ^*L *1*^
(4)
'
One source
:
of obscurity
is
'
fine
writing
acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning their eyes inwards in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the
"'Men must
wastes and wilderness, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of
this obscure climate.'
Characteristics.
of telling us
that
.
it is
difficult to trace
is
mind
' '
!
The following
" This
is
not an event
ing
down the
it
humanity."
Neither of these quotations
wepfc after the festival of the
like
this
is
In chapter
ready to depart a
simple statement
writes >)
'
<jkjj
3'
U^
^
1
jbui JbDji
*&*
The
Vide also
146
{').
656
j ***/
Ji <jWj
kamablsh da hafta az Nawruz-i firuz rafta (Rahm*'llah !) Mirza MahcR Khan-i naslm-i 'arnbar-skamlm-i Bahar az farr-i Farwardln muzhda-yi rangindvard. Baqiyyat* 's-sayf-i Bahman* va Shita gurisna va ndshitd ruy bi-hazimat niJidd.
}
Turan-zamin-i chamzn bi-Turk-tdzi yi junud-i quvd-yi ndmiya bi-tasarruf-i Gh'iral gardn-i sahn-i chaman va yaykma^iydn-i Qizl-Bdsh'i gul dar dmad.
ddr** l-muUc*i gulshan sar bi-pustin kashidand.
Bahar
Turkamdndn-i
*
kuldgJi
pisa
mdnind
bddrisa bi-firdz-i
l
hdzir-yardq gashtand.
Bard*'i-*ajuz-i
Day
radd^l-'ajz-* 'ala
Arab nayza rdanddlcht. Chd^ushdn-i chakdvak & 1 bdzdr-i vahazdrf dar rdxtabdp& u gulzdr bd dvdz-i buland sald-yi khush.
(t
The reader
(c)
is
(1)
visits
" The firmament possesses but one sun, and the land of 'Iraq but one
king.
Life, light, joy
Name of
Bahman
Bad-risa
*
3
piebald.'
It
pita.
i
Chakavak
air.
*;&. a
;!
in the
<
1
For v^Uw^
JA hazar
is
dfotan.
is
It
very unlike a
657
is
medicine
?
equal to a
What
is
spikenard
what mumiyafi
'
!
what pdd-zahr a
compared
This
is
MM)
&Jf
mihr-i munavvar sipihr-i gar dun ra Bi-din dalil ki yak Shah hast Iran ra *
!
Haydt u parvarish-i kd*indt u partav-i aysh Buvad muffi u mutdbi' ham in u ham an ra
(
*****
m. 5
:
Bardy-i an ki rasad dast-i Mirzd Ahmaq Bi-nabz, flaqq harakat bar-nihdd shirydn
is
^ JU
CAw
Fikandl
13
Jl^
;fi?
t^-Ai
f jX{
jf
iS
Bar an
rdh-i ki
u yakdam nishastl
I, St. 5.)
1 The mumiya^l of Eastern bazars is described as being the product of a mine, but it was formerly believed to be extracted from the skulls of living victims suspended head downwards over a fire. It is probably connected with and confused with bits
.
.f
mummy anciently
2
The
to
be an antidote to poison. 8 These lines are said to survive in a book of poems by Fath *A1I Kh5n-i aba-yi Kashi, Malik" 'sh-Shu'dra^'m the time of Fath *Ali Shah. Whether the poet considered
these lines poetry, or whether ho recited
his sleeve the while, is doubtful.
4
them
:
thore
R
is
as there is only one Shah, so by analogy line is to be translated first only one sun and life, and all these depend both on the former and on the latter i.e. God made blood to flow in the arteries, solely that the physician Mirza Ahmaq
!
The second
might
*
feel
the pulse.
'tiger' of the story.
The
42
668
his
tail
dropped his talons at the shook. And where he but for one short instant paused A long year's stoppage to that road he caused."
lion
(East Trans.).
" One form of (2) impropriety is the lack of sufficient precision. By that the words and phrases employed express understood 'precision,' it is
the writer's meaning, and nothing more." Lack of precision to be one of the characteristics of Persians and Persian writings.
may
be said
Hajl Baba, replying to the questions of the Sardar as to the numbers * and dispositions of the Russians 2 says:
,
lflj*c
o-**J *o *
si
I*
Jo
Ifi'
3 <J^J AoJf
*.A^
<*i
Rus
khayli
du,
shdyad hazdr; na
$ kam
Dah
bist,
muntaha
chihil
(d)
extended
beyond
'
what seems
Rule
their
natural close."
To do so without some
special reason
is
to vioLate the
of Suspence.'
The principle of suspence is so to write he comes to the full stop, feels the sentence The
to be incomplete.
example:
b
p*>
ey
"I putting ^. (H. B. Chap. XI). ever are the whose answered, with on saintly appearance of one prayers ' the air of authority an 1 a clergyman's voice demanded pen and paper although in my whole life I had never held pen in my hand."
*
of
this
*^*#)\ ) (i?^*
^^^ ) ^'^ )
An jdh,
r
U^T
}t
^^^
j>*
&f
dar an diydr-i g&urbat, az dshna u Vigana u duit mahrum, va az dast-i a/raz bl-bahra, d madam bar-sar-i mayamhk-i khud. Haji Haba, Chap IX. In Persian, the absence of punctuac^Uj
^^
U^y prf ^j ^
y^'
tion
particularly difficult.
Though the
rule
is
:
conduce to weakness
e5*^ v-^/
c^T
^^^
;'
'/
oj ift
(e)
tive language
The strength and beauty of a sentence may be promoted by and the use of figures.
An example
Chapter XL.
of that variety of
Hyperbole
AAJU
VSA*JU>
known
as
659
144.
(a]
Examples of Errors
in Rhetoric.
some
In the sections on the Relative, on the Participle, and on Collocation, instances of obscurity have been given. Those errors could, however, be traced to a definite source. The following are instances l of incoherence,
:
" The riches of the temple gradually disappeared but by whom or when is not known.' ( Read 'how or when* )." This error can hardly be repeated in Persian still in the following translation it would be better to
;
substitutes^
c^~Ai
f>JU/o ij! )
*<*-
oo
^^
oJj^>
*'!* Jo
c>^) c^**
pf ff
davlat
sarvat-i
but-kada
kam
kam
az
miyan
"The
who
ki
philosophers
who
that')."
belief of the philosophers Faylasufdn-i ki rdy~i shdn bar In qarar giri/ta buddlam Ichwdb u khaydl ast, 'aqida-yi shan ibdrat ast s az
(Read
The
jf 3'
cu^}
ei>;Up.
(This
is
*?
^ ^^
'
J^ J
^ ^ ^ %+*
&l>2
^;
^^li^-Jlxf
lc
u
**
N ->
^'/ ;y ery
'aqida-yi faylasu-
fan-iki ray-i shan bar in qarar giri/ta bud ki hama-yi khayal ast ibarat bud az ).
in 'alarn khwdb
(b) Great length is one cause of obscurity, while brevity is another. In the following English passages, the ambiguity is due to the ellipsis of four words at most
:
"
officers,
Antony was not less desirous of destroying the conspirators than his buthe .' [Head* than were his officers,' other wise the meaning might
'than he was desirous of destroying his Fuidn khwahan-i officers.']" mufsidln kamtar az sahib-manasiban-ash na-bud J^X-ot J&+^ e>^ *& 4>-U^x< c^^U y j>+t ^cx-i/o. (Read f uldn kamtar azsahiban ashkhwahan-i istlsal-i mujsidin na-bud ***> ^j-JU jLaxL, &(&\ja* ^U^'^p y ji.f c^')
be,
il-i istis r
<4<
less
than do
do
'
is
Faqir hich kamtar az an ki najlb u tarbiyat-ydfta magirur-i davlat rd haqlr mi-shumdrand, naml-shumdrad ;^AX AAI o^y ^ -rH^ ^^- 3 j*^ f**s& >;U iXjjl^A ^/o ^ia. t^is clear and can have but the one construction put on it bub the following exhibits the same that would be found
^
;
^^
obscurity
'
in
do
omitted:
\j
oJ^
))j
Taken from Hodgson either directly or Or bi-tavassufr-i ki va dar chi vaqt oJj
indirectly.
A^ ^ j
Or bud
660
davlat ra
htch
kamtar az najibu tarbiyat yafta haqir namt-shumarad. Insert the affix ra after tarbiyat yafta && ^*?,A an(^ ambiguity is removed, but the mean\) ing is not the meaning of the English.
'"The
*
Persians rate
him not less than Sa'di and FirdausL' (Read and Firdausi,' or else than they rate Sa'di and Firdausi ')."
'
j*+t
\)j\
*8
ambiguous.
:
cr-py j
&y*&*
^^^
^'y
>
liramha ura kamtar dust nami-darand chunanki Sa'di va Firdawsi ura dust
mi-darand ^j*^*
*'
*jz~j$ \jj
is
\^\ l^t^Jf.
an able summary of the history of this remarkable man, who rose to the highest dignities, and deserves to be widely distributed. ' it deserves otherwise who before may seem to be subject [Insert
The
*
lecture
'
'
'
of 'deserves.']"
In
j
^j**
** <-U* &s*
^
etff
J ^ &fi
1
;'
^^^J
L*&
^Jk]
of
o*U5^
^^
)^i]
*st
^lJo|
^^JL-./o
ty
i$j$
^jljl
aJljs
an nutq khulasa-yi
az tarikh-i kali In mard-i qabil ki bi-maratib-i 'aliya taragqt karda bud va mustahiqq-i intishar va ishtihar dar dunya *st> the English error
kuttiya-'i
is
repeated;
1
but
insert
<3& ^f an nutq
2 died, the Cardinal
after
va,
disappears.
spoke fifty languages.' [This reads as though the cardinal died babbling in fifty languages Substitute, 'before his death was master of at least', etc., or something of the sort."
8 >;^ Mi-guyand Kdrdinal Fulan ki murd panjah zaban mi-danist c>^ OW~S!*H* otij lJ^ *s ** s clear enough but write c^ot^^o ^lj l^x^ c>^' J^ ts* ** Kdrdinal Fuldn pinjdh zabdn ml-danist ki murd and the sense
^ ;
" 'It
is
said,
when he
&
^^ ^
aqatt*"
fifty
languages.
vaqt-i ki
Better
Uuj
X?i
,^0
Ji^
ml-guyand
Kdrdinal murd
Read
^b
11
lJtfl
j|i>^
ast ki
(3^>
as the
pronoun an ^\ can
4
3
refer to
Cardinal Mezzofanti.
Or ml-danista
oat
c^|
called
by the French
construction louche or
squinting construction.'
661
form, 1 in which some part of speech not expressed has to be inferred from the context, is comon in modern Persian. 2
Our climate is mild and somewhat moist, and except when covered ' once in a year by snow, always presents a green surface.' [ The country Ab u havd-yi ma muldyim vd bdrutubat is the implied subject to presents'].' ast va ghayr az sdl-l yak dap a ki zir-i barf ast dar sd*ir-i awqdt sabz va Ichurram nfi-numayad 3 **io? y j$* j vs~*f &jj) b ) fi&* U
'
"
'
'
^U
'
The tobacco monopoly was broken down in such and such a year and may be included among the benefits owed to the Mujtahids." Inhisar-i tutun-jarushi dar sana-yi fuldn mawquf shud va ml-tavdn jahmil ki in yak-l az i' st ki az mujtahidin randa* ast *~ Jj*y eJ^5 &* )* \j")j* &y*5* j^*% It was not the ^axx) jt * o-o^i^Jt ^j ^i t$ &*& &[)*#*} Insert a was benefit.' that thereof monopoly but the breaking down
' '
*
'
'
between In and
yak-%.
skeleton [a whale's] was thirty-one tons and was Vazn-i ustukhwdnhd~yi badan afterwards exhibited in London and Paris."
*'The weight of
its
si
va yak 'tan'-i Inglisi bud va dar Landan va Paris bardy-i tamdshd bi-mardum nishdn ddda mi-shud &&J j& j d>j ^^uiii u ^' cX j A^ &*> C5 lt>^ia-.| &\j ^ e$i^ cr^;^ J (Add the words l^|>3x3L,| e>T an ustukhwdn *&** i^to e; (*^-*J
1
hd before dar Landan e^jJ^^ ). "They both speak a little Persian though
left
6
it is ten years since they da-yi Ishdn* qadr-i Fdrsi mi-tavdnand harf bi-zanand bd-vujud-i ki dah sal pish az in az anjd rafiand ^ii|^x> ^*)U ^;w *j^' ^5"^-^ ^ *>> ^!^>^j^ o^. Instead of ^Tjf 02 aw /a, xui; laLjfjt ^f Jt cr-y J 1
it
(Persia)/'
Har
>^
write e^jt
'
j>
a^ /raw.
in
" In Great Britain and Ireland there are more females than males, and France the excess of women is still greater but in Spain nearly equal and
;
Pros
to
s&Hiainomenon
'
'
',
'
accord-
be used sparingly.
2
*
were, in
4 *
'
The
guilelessness of his
not guilelessnoss \
own heart led him to suspect none in others.' (' Guile,' the intended antecedent of *none'. Read * no guile')." Vide
Note
*
5.
Insert
(^^
zatnln before
y^*
'jh^y r
<*<
If
in
Or
rasld.
Ihtikar
:
^L*f
is
hoarding up grain
'
till
it
at a high price)
6
it
does not
mean monopoly.'
this construction correct as it is admissible in
'
.
the
authority
the
Quran
i'dilu
huv a
aqrab" Wt-taqvq,
it (i.e. justice) is
^A ^U^t
662
the excess
is
should
etc.]."
be,
the numbers
[
in the
Dar Landau
az in
ham
kasrat-i
mard
^)
^vjj
o) e^-ir
a~Ji^i
l
^ cu*f ty
(J^^ o)
:
0^4 &j* &j c^j^f )& j ^*f j>^ J \*>j& *J^f )* fc>J j OML Corrected Dar Landan zan bish az mard ast va dar Fransa zan az dnjd ham blshtar ast va an musdm st va dar ltdzum kasrat-i mard llkin dar Ispaniya zan u mard taqrib
9
ast k*U
u< It Whatman of [the Edinburgh Review] could agree with nobody. in the Church strife ? of with sense could parties [He speaks agree anybody " An ruz-nama ba hlch yak-i shan durust namiis required in the last sentence.]
'
'
dmad-kudam
**
shakhs-i
'aqil mi-tavanist
town"
(j*\*jf
&*
&*
<*$&*>
Jy
jj
*$
cr
*****
urf j^ *$ (yj
zirdki dar
an shahr
A somewhat
(^
Jf'f f
>
^ fU
*
jt
f^**^ ^ fbf
;'*^
&**
khud-at
yo 0.5^ tamalluq-i bisyar kardam *:a pursidam Id az nam u nasab-i mard dgah kun: pursidan is to ask ' and not 'to say,' and should
'
be followed by a question. *' His name is among the most distinguished of painters" ism-i u dar
miyan-i musavvirin-i mashhur-i dunyd
Insert
'st
'
ju~UJ,> )ffi'
&4)r**
^yj^
jt
/**f.
^^ sabt before
Agarchi
"
asdmi-yi\ after &(**> 'miydn-iS bi-lashkar-i pddshdhl ki bd-karrdt u marrdt bar sar-i man
ast,
o*f
and
^Ui
firistdd,
muqdvamat na-tavdnistam,
ammd
oy j e>iy b tf ^AU^U^iii
*<^/f
$ jJUltyj
my sacred
^ j^
arms of the Shah, yet.' Here the subject of firistdd is pddshdh, understood from the adjective pddshdKi; read firistdda shud or firistddand, or else mention
the subject of firistdd in the relative clause. "The name of our present cook is
when he
1
likes."
Geography
French
is
2
8
ttats Unis.
fern.,
Haliyya,
663
ham
^^
j o~*l *+***
This might not be considered incorrect in modern Persian, though incorrect it is, since 'he' is understood in Persian as the subject to hast: write o^jj^j^T v>5 JbJL j va khayK dshpaz-i khub-i 'st.
V .A. t^iu^i
C~*A ^A
v^.
" 'Amen!
'
said Yeo,
it
too like
men?
'
Kingsley,
'
Westward Ho!
'
(Ed. 1879,
XXV,
(
"
"
p. 401).
Ouft
dmin
o
va
u ma*
^AJUj ^Ub
(d)
AJ
(^
tjs*
^^nx^
^Jo-Ji
jt
IjjJ
insert after
^U~j va
sahibdn-i sadd.
Bi
vdsita-yi
l
<>3>.x-&&x
A^S* tf
uldjhhd va cha*-pdydn va aspha lei sltayha mi-kashidand on account of the asses and other ^ ^^1 &*a\f* ti^ ^ ^^i
!
^W
all
of
" here
;
jJ^^Cx-o *^*>
all
shayha mi-kashidand does not refer to l^f asphd alone, but to animals this is not considered incorrect in Persian.
:
the
Zeugma
a
is
a figure in
grammar
in
which
tivo
verb or to an adjective suitable to one only, the missing verb In English, Zeugma is usually a blunder. adjective being suggested.
Instances of
scenes or incidents
Zeugma
in
Examples
are:
"
Many
other travellers.'
cui>
j'j
ij
which are graphically narrated, are told as well, or better, by [One cannot narrate a scene]." Compare 8>J^ ^ (AJ^>
8 j^.L
5
^^L ^(A
guft.
"'He
my
long absence,
accounted, handsomely enough, for the delay by saying that and the recent loss in my family, prevented him from
applying to me immediately on my return.' [This holds good of the second reason but hardly of the first]," U ma'zarat khwast ki g&iybat-i shumd va
fawt-i
pidar-am mdni
bi-rasam
&
-i
all
bi-khidmat
&
*{*
i>J
&j*
U
' '
However
in,
'
(for
the bees
hummed
and the birds sang sweetly'), the Zeugma is hardly a blunder; it is a meta'Sang in gladness/ however, would be better than 'sang sweetly.' phor. This may be called c r}^'
are a source of error. Amongst (e) Too many negatives must be included such words as scarcely/ seldom,' 'few,' etc.
'
negatives
'
He thought the wealth and honours of this world poor compensation for a quiet conscience and a healty frame.' [It should be, compensation for the
c
'
"
want
of
'
etc.]."
In, <^!>-^
L>
^ ^)*>)
last
*&j
Compare
example in
(c
664
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
'arza-yi pddishdh rd qdbul na-kard rd chunki 'izzat u davlat-i dunya jazd-yi kam-i bar ay- i drdmi-yi zamlr va quvva-yi bunya pindasht read AAX* ly> f*& i^**** (j*tf (*** C5^ baray-i adam-i drdmi-yi zamlr va 'adam-i quvva-yi bunya; or else after j UJa dunya ra, write
|pl
?
^+* ^fjf
9
u-t/j
^^ zdhid
'
Mk' <x
V
'
<-$*^
c^D^ **^
*** ^
^-^
c?
A5
l>1'
(u^*
r ) *^
{
^*>
nisbat
bi-
(or
iwaz-i)
pindasht.
'
Few
;
[This
is like
'
saying,
have
*
little
'none
'alava
or for 'except,'
besides
kingdom/ money except a penny.' For few read " and " except ']." Ohayraz y j& means
*
knew
*To~J
kas-lazdustdn-ash mi-danisl* ki
or *$
*~*\**
:
^^; $
j** g&ayr az
man
use in
modern Persian
of } *e yhayr
and
fy&&
^IJUj^ examples faulty. Corrected: <^* jl ki man namt-danist* az dustan-ash kuddm az hich ^cu*Jt>j^ ghayr ." his friends except myself knew
sider either of the
(/)
' :
jt
p\*
" none of
The foregoing examples are partly right and partly wrong. The fol" The unwary traveller stumbles to rise no more.' lowing are wholly wrong after falls' must be inserted stumbles,' stumbling, neither being ['And
*
possible to one
on the ground, nor necessarily implying a fall.] Agar musdfir az ruy-i graftal dardn part-gdh sikandan bi-khurad hargiz na *!f khwdhad bar kk-dst j>j*> j>;^*u ;t e^> ^f; ^ c^i^ ^^ )\ yUx>^f
who
"
lies
^ u^
o^olAy
afloat.'
jAj^aciJ.
Insert
*&# ^ va biyuftad,
is
after
is
"'The 'Queen,'
[This phrase
the best, vs^f &\jt\
without exception,
said to be not
but one
^ ^~t &
3
j\
billd istisnd
"The
3urat-hd-yi
sad
faces
formed
an incongruous
"
sight
mutribdn tamdshd*-t ($amgin-i ndzirdn va musiqi-yi tarab-angiz-i bud ki bdham vifq na-ddsht &\.>^* v^3 ^i-r* 5 &jF& &*?+* c^Vi^ W+* tamdshd kardan and &*** didan oi|jj m.c. In ) c^^/
>^
^Ab A^^J
^^IJ.
are frequently used in the sense of hearing, as: fuldn kas dvdz mi-khwanad, e4 biydytd biravim tamdshd kunim, bi-bmlm chi tawr mi-khwdnad }\$
iju
^uLjj
*u>
it
Ul^
+)jj)
^5U>
<iof^ivAx>
(m.c.).
'
'The occurrence,
unprece-
Or
better
j<Ju-J Ji^-
chiz-i pasl-l.
2
3
In modern Persian the pkiral OAuJ|>j;A3 ml-ddniatand is often (incorrectly) used. This is not exactly Zeugma, vide* (d), as the error lies in a noun, and not in an
adjective or verb.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
665
;
dented in the history of Scotland.' We have no doubt of it and we trust it will always remain so.' Times, 23rd October 1866." In vdqi'a dar tavdrikh-i Askdtland bi-sdbiqa ast va ummid ddnm ki hamisha chunm bdshad (orkhwdhad
'
'
is
a more favourable season has never been surpassed.'] Fasl-i bardy-i gulhd mufidtar az in fasl tasavvur nami-tavdn kdrd va yaqinan
nonsense to say
'
"
hich vaqtbihtar
ham na-buda
^
ast
&\j**!+> jp**
clai ^jf
^A/O
l^i?
^^
{J
Lnf
o~(
**)**
*
f* j^. oJ^
it
The dance roused the Kirmani audience to applause but I do not think would do so in London.' [It is not likely that a Kirmani audience would be
to
applause in England. do not listen to a dance.'] people an ddsht ki shdbdsh bi-guyand vali
roused
For
audience
'
substitute
spectators:
in tawr
bdshad.
(Say
txiiCj
Landan m tawr
bi-kunand).
(g) (1) A metaphor is an implied simile and unless an intelligible simile can be evolved from the metaphor, the metaphor is false. In the writings of even good Persian authors, metaphors abound that
JlAf
o**fj
(.^A/oK
j*H>
3'
u jdmayi majd u sa' ddat rd tardz Ma'ni-yi u khdlim-i iqbdl-i dawlat rd nigin
l
hama g&anj u jarib mushkin-i alfdz-ash sar-d-sar tab u chin Turra-yi Az kaldm-i kdmil-ash anvdr~i ddnish shu la~zan
Ariz-i rangin-i ash dr-ash
(
"
Its
and happiness, of the fortune that and success decks ring gem While from its verses' tinted cheek love's wiles and witchcrafts
is
form
beam,
Its diction's labyrinthine curls like
musky
ringlets
seem."
)
(East. Trans.
The form
of the
book
is like
666
it
Intro. Epis.)
c *
were
" 'The passions may be humoured till they become our master, as a horse may be pamporei till he gets the better of his rider; but early discipline will prevent mutiny, and keep the helm in the hands of reason.'
[The metaphor,
if
is
Tan dadan
bi-nafs-i
am^ra
;
bfris-i
^alaba-yl
asp ra agar bisyar tavajjuh va navdzish kunand digar savari na-khwahad dad va sar-kashi khwahad kard amma ajar az avval nafs va asp ra jalaw-gin va
la*dib
larbiyat
numzyand az zahmat-i
'aql
sar-kashi-yi
dnha
riha*i
*<
mi yaband va
mi-manad
'U).
<
'
,
read
^na?^
'
rein],
"'One
of usefulness
of
which he has
[
the sources from which has sprung that abundant harvest scattered broad-cast through the length and breadth
I,
broad cast, which applies to In asl yak-i az sar-chitfimi-ha^i ki az an^ia h~isil-i vdfir-i seed, not crop]." ^ xf I u u tul-i zdd u bum-i 2 khud pashida sar zada ast Jf ki dar arz mufid
of his native land.'
Source;
2,
harvest;
3,
^}.
[For
V)
1
az anha,
AjasA^a].
rwd^ *&*>.
bi-vasita>yi
^^U
"We
see
how
difficult it is
mother
puts upon her child." Az in masal mi-blnim ki istisal-i minqush-l ki mddar *^ bar farzand-i khud mi-numdyad chi qadr mushkil ast f&& ^j* <-k*ejO*
J^^
o^-ot
&}*>
vjy
^>
^>dt>
^*^fti>o.
[Instead of
J^^t
istisal,
read
^^^^uc mahv
The
following,
fear dan].
an instance
of confusion of
inelegant in
modern Persian: ^t ) ^*t ^.U^f c^ l+* &+*<?<> i*r*\* daman-i marhamat-i shuma chun abr saya afkand va musmir-i $amar shud. In a work on Persian Grammar, occurs this sentence, "This glare of
^^
metaphors,
is
not considered
is
fjJ
8
z<*d
if3
u bum, m.c.
^y
am
667
asar-i
<
ashpaida amad." The English and Persian are equally objectionable. " Akin to confusion of metaphors, are incongruities of speech and (2) Irish Bulls/ A medical student, when asked what progress he had made
*
hope
I shall
child.
lial
duktur-i kamii-i
mi-tavanam
atfal ra
mu'alaja
kunam
In Mirza Hairat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia Just when the key of occurs an intricate passage to the following effect of those his in one ..... snatched the was events hand, extraordinary victory
'
:
lips.'
is
not con-
"
:
We
we
see the
hand
in
of
democracy.
*\j*
(Exorjl
dium
of
(
an
English
Politician)."
^(f+tLi*.
o*f
0~JO
^\^
^AU j
*
y*
Jf
fj
^^A
^l^T
>
jf
^JjA ^(jjjj
^f tf *>j>\ ^<jt *
"xSj->j|
XXIV).
is
(h)
another source of
error.
cause too have you for thankfulness on account of the many which you are preserved.' [The true construction is, from temptations of your preservation from many temptations.' The relative clause is here " Az afmal-i shahr ki shuma qabiha-yi mah/uzml-mamd bayad inseparable]."
6
"'Much
khayli shukr-i
Khuda rd
bi-ja
dvand
jf
cXiU
U^ A^^
AacujxJ Jt^ci J|
].
jj^f l^u
[;
\*Lj&>
^^.
[Read
*'*The skirt of her dress, which was on fire, was put out by Mrs. .' [Read the fire which had caught the shirt of her dress, etc."]. Daman-i qdba,
yiura, ki atashgitifta bud,khamush kardand<Jj*^ty Alj^^f M\)$ ^Ui^^ob A>^. In Persian this is said to be no mistake, as daman is considered
to
be a JU. ^*b cUvc Jlmx majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hdl s 'the use of the
is
in
it.'
This Persian sentence has been submitted to the judgment of many Persians, whom prided themselves on their proficiency in Arabic. All of them failed to see the incongruity, even when it was
1
several of
carefully explained.
of the future we can see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand." A Eurasian father was heard to say to his son " You have buttered your bread and now you must lie on it."
is:
Another bull
Example 4* ^;U>
i.e.
flow,"
668
143 (6), force and point are derived from (1) (1) As already stated in the skilful use of the same word in different senses. 1 Persians are fond of
this figure.
(Tr.
Example:
H.
B., Chap.
XXXVII),
ftt
&>&& J*j j& ^ Lyi>*> Oj*(when 'shecame to her senses) and saw herself
jf
**>.&
in the
is
arms
of a stranger she
tarn
' '
:
Tajms-i
u*^^
o-fciaij/wO
Remark. 'The unskilful use of the same word in the same sentence, with different meanings, or (ii) as different parts of speech, is an awkward(i) ness to be carefully avoided in English.' Examples: (i) 'The terrible
War of Succession had now arrived at such a point that the royal authority seemed on the point of being destroyed.' (ii) 'The guinea places were better filled than the half-guinea, and not a jot better. (' Better' used as
9
But the
repetition of the
same meaning
in slightly different
words
a fault even worse than the repetition of the same word. To say the same thing twice over in different ways in the same context, or to repeat unnecessarily the same word several times (that is the useless repetition
of the
same
thing),
if
In Persian,
Persian ear,
is
is
pleasing to the
of tautology
it is
Examples
are:
Portuguese law, every person is legally obliged to join the battalions arranged in defence of the country." Compare &+& e^t oyU^d <>ib a^i <x>k <kli *afc, dar Iran UUj hama-yi ra'aya bdyad az qdnun-i ^)) j! gfjb,*
"
By
the
ruy-i
hukm-nama muti
-i
shar* bashand.
still
"In
**
'
more
fatal
and
*>3U
Compare >^>
^ ^j*j
oy ^r^Uo &(^.& j
ham mazid
and
in the
bar an shud.
most
&+*>
jlvaia.bj l.^tj
(
f;
&J&J
bi-ikhtisar-i harchi
(j)
^L*U *^A hama-yi dastur^l- amal-i kh,ud ra vazih tamdmtar bi-dun-i 5 ibham bayan ml-kard.
an
va
It
dancy.
not always easy to distinguish between Tautology and Redun" the reason In, why Socrates was condemned to death was on account
is
*
3
*
5
For the three kinds of Hashv or ' stuffing in Persian, vide Wl cy** bidun-i ibham is .-jjAJf^.^A. hashv-i qablh.
'
142 Bhetoric.
'
'
qatl-i
u az 656 '-t
*
'
adam-i
rizayat-i
mardum
bud.
English redundancies sanctioned by good usage are, from hence', 'from ' thence from whence.' In modern Persian a preposition is as a rule prefixed
* ,
sel-
dom
^^
A+A
jf,
bi-gjiayr, j***
bi-juz^*u.
This redun-
dancy
b,4jl* j&s*.
of
;
"
UjuUf
&
hama
bi-ld istisna
single
man
is
of
you" U
AJ na-yak nafar-i vahid az shuma; "there jt <>^yiJ -j " hick Ifas nikukar mat that doetli good, no not one yak-l ham na *j A& Pleonasm is This V^MOJ j(jjj ^C
.
none
*&>
\j
^xJLo^a..
(^)
4i
A new
Write
aiding or
walking" or
:
"on
riding."
Compare
khud
zahir-sazi az qabtl-i bi-zamin nigaristan^
mz
dar
taqaddus-farushi
va
bi-gard-am naml-rasul.
(Trans.
"HajlBaba," Chap.
45)
"No
face wore a
more mortified appearance than mine: even the dervish, who was the best mimic possible, could not beat me in the downcast eye, the hypocritical ejaculations, the affected taciturnity of the sour, proud, and bigoted man of
the law."
9
Compare
cJJL^
-,
jj(f
vide
'
l-Adab t Vol.
I,
of subject in:
^U
^Kjl^
Substitute
is
common
in
is
of subject
In the following "The detectives were baffled by the many complications, and had it not been for outside help, the murders would not have
day", though
and the
;
there
is
no actual
fault,
of subject is unnecessary
(^Lu*>).
should be the subject throughout also the co-ordination is slovenly. Reconstructed: "The Detectives were 50 baffled by the many complications that
had
".
(Tr.
Compare: H. B.
670
Chap.
XXXII,
*;+>
p. 259)
the subject to
oJ/
1
gin ft
is
^Cy
subject to
(1)
bi-murd
is
^*&'~ nasaqchi.
(1)
is
An
"
'
Antithesis
2
may
be faulty or
it
may
be incomplete.
An
antithesis
faulty
Example
1
Roman
writers.'
Least
'
requires
;
*
most
',
as
best would require Compare f; j&\& f^M> ' rd mi-n gdrim va shumd zahir ra. 8 [* Darun &jj& requires
worst ']."
'
U>
&*>&
U>
ma damn
'
jAU
zahir
'
requires ^tlj
uldyjjt
;
bdtin
i
Jlf
'
].
eSlf Ji**
j ^il^ Ji*
e>*>
am
va u misl-i
for
ulagh read
c>!>*^
hayvan].
incomplete* "when much of its possible effect is lost through non-preservation of consonance of the terminations," i.e. when it "'The idea which under, is unbalanced ( ^;^ gjtayr-i mutavazin).
An
antithesis
is
&
lies
most
by
external or inward
temptations.'
[This should
be
'outward
or
inward',
or
'external or
internal.']"
6 (m) (1) Climax (a ladder) "is
an ascending scale",
is
i.e.
a rhetorical
arrangement
**
of clauses in
which there
We glory in
tribulations also,
;
knowing that tribulation worketh patience and " and experience hope and hope niaketh not ashamed
;
iXxx>
A>^ ^xi^vo /.
^l^aJxi^
f^
p*> l^i'^fl.*^^
AL
j^i ^ J ^^l^^c^i
sabr rd
s*.^U
.>AX:(
i^
>ACI
^IsuM
l^u
^t
ai j
) ^vCjjxs I^AJ
va
na
ham
mi-damm
ki musibat
IJabib-i
man qamar
lust
ast balki
shams
^^ *^
it
*^^*f
j**
in Arabic Gram.).
"Then when
hath conceived,
& ^x
it is
^ pas shahvat dbistan shuda gundh rd mi-zdyad va gundh bi-anjam rasida mawt rd taulid mi-kunad.
>J^5
t
tj
death" *M j ^^'
t
(James
15) *U?
>
^~>1
^^ ^
opposed to Climax and is, unless used for a special purpose, a fault in style; it consists in an abrupt descent from stronger to weaker expressions. Examples:
(2)
Anti^clima^c
is
xJO b'ichara
nasaqchi,
or
in m.c. of subject
^w.a J
is
Both
ft
in English
and
in
bad.
.4.1*.*
^^
*
6 6
Incomplete Antithesis might be called regular name in Persian but taraqql or tadrij might be coined for Trans, revised by Rev. R. Bruce, D.D. TanazztU or infyi^ ; coined term.
Nu
this.
671
^J
'ilm,
bd
/a?Z,
bd tadayyun\ raqs ham /chub mi-kunid j*&>^}$ u^T^ ^^^^;^ 9 ^)h* )* j\ u dar savdri va shikar va munshi-gari va dsh-pazi na$r na-ddrad:
'
^
;
jj
^xj
%,
shumd
kitab-i Sa*di rd
khwdnda
id
qumdn mi-baram
ki dar
mst
lei
He was eminently truthful in all things. I do not believe he would have told a falsehood, even on his oath " &**>& }\ ^-^\ ^t j g**> ) *f &*$)^> )* ^isw ^*;^J-^ 2j2*$+> u hamisha rast-gu buda ast va hlch
'
"
^^
^
is
^b
o^
riiz
darug^-i bi-guyad.
Where
'
the
is
man
if
or minister either
who
as
m in.
a^j'5lx>
Kujd
ast
dnddam yd
xif
(orbdshad)
bdshad
(n)
ddam
ki
m kitdb
V U"
^Ji
U r ^f
^ 0^*1 t^.
mulla
rd
na-khwdnda
ast agarchi
ham
It is
"
to introduce unexpected-
ly, at the
end
such a clause
some short and unemphatic clause (unless purposely so introduced for the sake of effect). In, jj>
Aapjf
^xiKjjo
>-T ^<5
e; 1
^*^
It
is
(
(Tr.
an ill-constructed
lj
loose sentence.'
Coherence
Jk'-jjy
(
J=j;
is
).
y*u
and
(jf-kv
Avoid
illogical
compound
sentences.
one main part, and that part must be expressed as the main clause. The " Avoid danger. Keep your seats following therefore are both illogical: (i)
till
"
*o2
l>
Ai~^
c5
^^
LJ
and
(ii)
An
English
example of
this
error is:
countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness" Corrected: " and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us, not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence and frugality."
beneficial to all classes of our
*
The same
Urdu
672
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
The sentence should
logically be:
IN RHETORIC.
"To
till
' '
aCJfc *$
^j ^b
U
^L. y vUi^f
Connecting, by the co-ordinating conjunction and, two statements that Other is one common instance of incoherence ( -kW) ^e )
1
want
of
of unity
and lack
of coherence are,
undue
ellipsis,
the faulty
phrases
^5**** *****
in:
is
no ambiguity:
In Urdu
3^
way with a
|~J
^^ U(ly a ^ so
^^1O
Urdu
sentences
"
"
(a) Illogicali
turned to reply,
w^en
crash
t$3
\ytf
^yo jj
^^ ^^^- V^
is
the platform on which I was standing gave eH^ ^^i *^* &J ^- <&*
V^
<.
^i
This sentence
In Urdu job in such a the main thought is expressed as subordinate and vice versa. tab If for ki then and stands be and then &t means substituted w*3. only' position for jab *-*o^, it will denote simultaneous action and the Urdu idiom will be correct (as it
^^
would be
Logical:
" When
^x> ^j
^^
^j**-
\j**$
<H^
^XJ
*t>
*->\f>
L.
&**
" When the (c) If you write, platform on which I was standing gave way with a crash, I turned to reply " L. ^. \5^ e^*_*i cr^ !/^^ V*^ 5i J* j**^ |k^J A^LS JkJ ^. ^JJ^, the idea is that the writer remained unmoved in the midst of
^*
the crash.
2
lf
or
THE END.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
PART
I.
I.
ACCIDENCE.
.
. .
II.
III.
Arabic Forms and Measures On the Stems of the Verb, etc. The Fourteen 'Conjugations' (Stems, Participles, and
.
.
Infinitives)
IV. V.
VI.
..
.
..
. .
..696
. .
698
VII.
VIII.
&+J\ )&**l\
.
.
700
. .
IX. X.
XI.
701
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
. .
703 704
706
^]
Concrete Noun)
.
XII. XIII.
706 706
708 712
XIV.
etc.
'**
*~<,
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
Intensive Adjective or Intensive Agent (&JUJJ J^UJf *~J). * * * " Z The Relative (Denominative) Adjective, and its Abstract Noun and Collective Plural
.
,
714 718
,$*/
<,
. . .
*>[
XIX.
XX.
XXI. XXII. XXIll.
.. .. Gender .. .. Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine Note on iinal Declension of Nouns, and Regular Plurals
, . .
.
..720
.
.
Diptotes
..
..
..
..732
.
.
Broken, Inner, or Irregular Plurals, and Plurals of Paucity 734 and Multitude
.
.
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns (gH^f
p*\),
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb, Active and Passive (Tenses and Moods)
.
.
Pronouns
..
..
..
..
..750
. .
Numerals
)Cardinals
..
..
..
. .
759
The Ordinals..
Other Classes
of the
of
..
.
..763
.
XXIX.
Numerals
..
766
XXX. Days
Week
..
..
..768
676
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Page 768
769
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
The Year
Prepositions (jSfJ\
Jj^
),
Exceptive Particles,
.. ..
etc.
Conjunctions
..
..774
. .
XXXIV.
a(fl
779
XXXV.
..785
PART
II.
SYNTAX.
.. .. XXXVI. Nouns Definite and Indefinite XXXVII. The Copula " Is," etc. XXXVIII. The Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns
. .
.
..788
.
789 790
797 798
XXXIX.
XL. XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
.. .. Order of Sentence Interrogative and Relative Pronouns Cases of Nouns, and Kan* and its Sisters.'
*
..
. .
..796
.
Government
of
U
a
and
31
like
. .
Verbs (or Inn and its Sisters) The Negatives and Interrogative Negatives, and Particles
Incitement and Reproof .. Tenses ..
Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.,
.
805
of
809
XLIV.
..
-.
-.810
-
XLV.
Moods
..
(after
y*>*J
.-
ji
.^ij)
..
..815 -.818
.
.
.
.
XLVI.
XL VII. XL VIII.
XLIX.
L.
Optative
Mood
..
.
.
..
. .
..
. .
(and
Aorist)
. .
.
and
the
. . . .
Infinitive,
.
.
and
their
To Have..
..
..
..
..832
832
LIV.
LV. LVI.
LVII. LVIII.
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive, and Sentences Relative Clauses .. .. Conditional and Concessional Sentences .. Temporal Clauses Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition
.
.
Interrogative
. -
..
. .
..836
.
841
.*
.
LIX.
XiX.
....
^^l
>
844 347
849
..
..849
..
,.
LXI
,
*Jt JlaM
),
Approximate
. .
851
LXII.
LXIII.
Apposition
J^j
etc..
853
857
Emphasis or Corroborate on
Paradigms
..
**fti)f
LXIV.
or *$)&\ "
'.
.
.
..
..
.,859
APPENDIX
I.
A.
(a) Arabic words abound in even the daily vocabulary of the Persians, while Arabic phrases and quotations are not uncommon in their writings. Not only is a knowledge of Arabic roots indispensable for the advanced
student of Persian, but also some acquaintance, at least, with the elements of Arabic grammar.
1
(b)
\fJ
Nearly every
9 S i,'^
'
Jrf'H*
be
9 *
o-'fc''
traced
to
tri literal
root
f*.
Quadriliteral roots
is
(^Lyf JLoJP)
are rare.
few nouns*
:
^/^
"horse";
two
f*)t
J^yU
of the
"quince."
some
pronouns and
-C"
;
The verb
tion
"he accepted"
JUj
is
virtually a preposi-
"before";
is
able
8
;
to
-
receive; capable,
^ *
is
fit": J>*&*
is
the passive
* 'O O
is
participle
"accepted
of
ibt&e
"going out
the
city
some
person," from ciu, the three radical letters occur somewhere in the word, and that the idea "accept or receive"
be seen that, in
all
distance,
meet
friend
or
receive a great
It will
these derivatives
is
more or
less
concealed in each.
er,
Supposing laugh to be an English root, the agent is formed by adding the participle or the gerund by adding ing, and the past participle by
ed.
adding
letters,
by
suffixing
by a
Some knowledge
**>
of Arabic roots
is
knowledge of Urdu.
In Persian, la Lo
In Persian, j^Lo
tions,
Under Nouns ', Arabs include Adjectives and Pronouns, and Adverbs, and Interjections. Nouns are either primitive (
*
or derived
'
)-
There are only a few quinqueliteral primitive nouns. Hence "acceptable to the heart ", and in Modern Persian,
pretty."
678
$~
*
* t
<*,
*3>
The
8*il)Jf
Ju^aJf , or *$\l\ *
<.?+*,"
used to expand a
>^x..'u
According to Arab grammarians there are ten *3fjj zawcfid^ contained in the Arabic words l^JJU. *'you asked me about her." In this phrase, hamzah and alif are both given as it is added to some infinitives,
;
,
to
prefixed to the
of unity, etc., and to form the feminine and J,as it is and third persons of the Aorist Active (and in the Passive to the second persons also) to form the Imperative, " Let me, let them, etc."
;
o-c"* 9 9 * <s
),
(d)
The
are twenty-one.
(e)
At
first
sight
it
may
all
is
;
that
is
necessary is to strip it of all servile letters. This, however, the case, for the servile letters are not used for augmentation only
roots themselves contain one
not
some
all
were
serviles eliminated
from
augmentation might disappear. It is therefore necessary to know the form of a word, i.e. in what order or position the letters of augmentation occur in each form of derivative.
(/)
as the letters of
is
considered as the
It supplies
is,
wanting in Arabic.
it
This noun
how-
therefore found
all
words
as though derived from the third person singular masculine of the Preterite Tense, Indicative Mood, Active Voice ; so, in Arabic dictionaries, all derivatives (except
),
and
must be looked
(g)
word cU*
*
\<
( u* fi l
signifying ac&'on,
in every possible
way
to
form paradigms of every part of speech that could possibly be derived from a root, and the formulae so obtained are called " forms, or measures, of words." Just as all the tenses of the Greek verb tupto do not exist in
forms and
roots, for
From some
These must
foe
i.e.
infinitive.
679
is
exist.
of the properly denotes the outward appearance del on which a word is formed, i.e. the model unpointed by vowels,
The term
'
'
Form
'
ile
Measure
Form
fully pointed.
The
distinction
is
3n ignored.
In grammatical language, the three root-letters of any word are not led the first, second, or third but the fa, ayn, lam. Each derived form
(')
(
; **
The symbols X, Y, Z could be substituted as for each form by the serviles suitable for
form.
(j)
As an English beginner usually experiences much difficulty in " measure " or wazn of an Arabic word means, ( c>j> ) aping what the him the following unscientific explanation is given
:
**' The measure of the passive participle is J>i*> maf'ul, and of this above the isure are (>!**> - Jy*> - fjt*I*> f r instance, *jA** be written isure Jy*i*, it will be seen that the words have certain letters in common
fi
occur in corresponding positions, and that these letters are also from 'servile lisfc. Each of the two words commences with the same servile
'
er
letter (j m) and each word has the same servile letter as a fourth short same vowels). the both words have the same number of letters (and y) the first for m >ther words, every Arabic derivative of five letters that has
(f
:
er
will
be of the
'
measure
'
sive
participle.
f * cUtf
its
*'
Conversely,
v,
qatil*"
killer''
is
an active
It
participle
or
agent.
what
is
root
and
its
measure?
letter,
the
must be J& (=
get the
Expand cUf
".
(alif),
and you
Form
/
with the same short vowels, and you get the Measure J*l*.
to be adopted with all derivatives
of
This
is
the
of
iciple
and
all roots.
A knowledge
correct measure
word
is
guard
against
mispronunciation
nans and Indians, for example, usually say munhasar and muttaham, but Arabic measures are munhasir and muttahim.
Some
' '
"
:
u>y&*
written, ateo*
ter
tftJlLo
680
.
.
(b)i
Euphonic
difficulties arise
when the
&
consonants or semi- vowels
palatal
<*
(A!**!
o^
99
root contains
any
of the
weak
or
come together;
or
when
come
together without the intervention of a long vowel. The three weak consonants are homogeneous to the three short vowels
(
o(^
>
When,
would
changes the weak consonant into that weak consonant that is analogous to These changes are called the Permutations of Weak Consonants itself.
(
JjJjti
j.
of promise; trysting
s s *
(t
and trysting-
time,"*
is
from A*J
***
is
measure
for the
Noun
which
Instrument 8
JUi*
mif'al
"
and
this
would give
un ^Uy* miw'ad
is
uneuphonic
(j
it
it
conquers the
maw
$
,<,
and changes
it
into yd
).
So, too,
f<
"
depositing
is
(I)
of
if
the soft
follows
dental
Jfc,
follows
u^
or
J=, it
if it
changes into J, or else both letters become k; if changes into a; and if t, it either changes into
js
:
come
if it
followsj,
C
it
becomes
^.
Examples
*
'
;
from J-*
' u
we would
get ^-XL^t
immediately after
*'
^,
l(
becomes
'
^-*J
idiom
' '
,
"
;
~*
fU>t
S* *
to overlook, look
* '
down upon,
S
' *
' *
(and hence)
*
\>i
^o know, be informed
sr3*
from gU>
' '
:
^JLfe
to oppress
' '
,
iif
s
or
^Ubf
^f;
'*he married,"
we get on
to
meet various
cases.
of
Though formed on the measure of the Noun of Instrument, a Noun of Time and Place vide VIII (b). And from a few verbs, of the Noun of Time and Place also.
*,
it
681
O
X X xG
.x*
the measure
^
t
Jl**ij (infinitive
of
cl*ii],
VIII Stem)
!>!)!>
which
in
an Arab's
/x
to
mouth changes
(w)
^tjdjt.
The weak
"
root,
(n)
is
ASSIMILATION
f^J
}.
When two
is
identical
or
two
letters
is
of a similar kind,
come
together, one
the root
^^
In the
he became special
8th
" was
of
verbs beginning with !, ^ (o) Conjugation these weak letters are assimilated to the o characteristic of that conjugation, ' ',' $ '.** XXX jf X JW X ' " $ '** itiuf from i*.f. as JjUb! from &j ^UjJ from j~*
:
Remark,
(
In extracting the root of a word with a doubled t ( j, one should be considered servile and eliminated, while the other should be
f :~
<j*
tf
o^l
root
"accident,
X^x
.Pxj*
chance," root
united
*'it
happened";
JWj XX
"junction",
J^
xxx
''he
"
;
j-
^^| XX
*'
*M
j,
A
root
servile
coming
his
after j
is
**
^.3
ne forced
way through
after u^, is
(a
servile
e coming
crowd, or forest)." f ,
A, as
:
o
'
changed into
X
;
vLr^J
agitation (of
mind, sea,
air, etc.),"
root
"
)\j**\
ix
gion ," root
j*
" he harmed.'
is
There
a root ^^Cc,
bufc
682
(p)
for]
The
serviles
/" *
and e
C
-
may
x x G
'
/x
$ *
C*
end
of
a word, as
JUsf
f\f\
(2)
is
The
or *, and followed
by a
servile
ou,
as:
o ^
(3)
(4)
1
The The
servile
f occurs only as a
first letter,
as
serviles
-
& and
-
^ occur either in
ol
stem, as:
JUiSj
^^A*
^^
(5)
te
The
"
known"
placing
;.
<>>=?.-*
prostrating
oneself,
on
II.
On
(a)
The simple
called
triliteral
by
so
grammarians
the
'First
meaning may
be extended
modified by the addition of one or more letters, and the fresh stems tl obtained are usually referred to by their numbers, thus c< Fifth Stem
etc.,
etc,).
which
by a simple
stems
Rom
(V
X,
By some
writers,
these derived
are tern:
Conjugations.
(b)
There are
in all
ii
(1) Adding one letter to the simple stem: this makes a neuter transitive, or a transitive stem strong or intense in action.
(2)
Prefixing a
ci>
this implies a
letters:
consequence or
effect.
(3)
meaning.
:
Distorting the original form as well as adding letters to it t implies distortion of meaning and indicates colour, defect, or intensity. are rarer s Stem XI is rare even in Arabic, while stems XII to
(4)
XV
no\
But
& and ^
first letters in
tho Aorist,
^ for the
1st pers.pl.,
pi. fern.
683
and
' *
of No.
X, are
really necessary.
Conjugations
!
' *
',
(or
infinitives
a neuter sense, as
j>>*j
"existence
"
O
;
[trans. ejia^j]
/u-?>
being
b'
common";
_s+>
means " helping another" or " being helped/' The verbal nouns and participles of the derived forms are fixed on measures. The Participles of the First Stem or Triliterai are also regular, but the measure
of its
in
verbal nouns
use.
are numerous,
five
forms are
common
(d)
The following
are
the Stems.
The
force
of
JU
fa'al*.
IV.
J*if
af'al*.
VII.
JUiij
infa'al".
X.
istafal*.
II.
&
/a"K
JULfa'al*.
V.
JUtf
(l
VIII.
ala .
JUtij
ifta'al*.
XL
ju5j
if all*.
tafa
III.
VI.
L&tt
tafa'al*.
[IX.
j2j
ifa'att*}.
.
[XII to XV.
1.
* s *
:
<
Remark
killed
I.
Stem
4
I is usually of the
measure JU, as
is
cU*
eiV^
qatal*
4
"he
"
;
but
<J*-*
(generally intransitive)
also found, as
**he was
sad
' '
(intr.)
J**
* *
he did
' '
(trans.)
s* *
" to
9^
<
to be flourishing/
according to the
'
1
O '
'
'
Masdarun )&>&c
"place of
issuing,*'
i.e.
"source."
is
serial
number only
quoted.
The Arabs
Not found
it,
in Persian.
Kaarah under the second radical often indicates temporary condition, while
continuous condition.
zammah over
684
, .
Remark
II.
making
its
Aorist cU&>,have
,
^,
or
*.
The Arabic
S>
participles
4
do not
in themselves
killed
time
hence
'
Jtftf
may mean
one
as
well as
'
one who
ie
killing
Jy&c
who ought
to be killed
'
as well as
'
one
killed.'
The Passive
regularly
Participles (with the exception of the simple triliteral) are formed by changing the kasrah ( ~7~) of the last syllable of
(
_^J, as
sender,
(/) The Infinitive of Stem I is of varying form, and is therefore specially noted in the dictionaries, under each verb. The same verb has often more
<3A5
" intention"
f
i <
^,9
$*
*'
'
' '
and
' '
*A<aftxj
object
^>
*
,
nearness
:
' *
and
&fyi
relationship."
One of the
is
J*?, as
cUji
*'
killing."
f -*
:
The
^^
t
S>
'
<c
being angry."
9 ,,
Other
*
* 9
99
measures, from usually intransitive verbs, are: Jyw, and Jli, as: ^f^ $?? *-' "sitting," (*1U "being in a perfect state, health," Jyio "entering."
Note that
Infinitive
all
the
or
form
the
by inserting an alif before their last radical. In the longer forms, too, the second consonant after the hamzah takes a kasrah.
Remark L
unchanged; the
able
letters
There
is
a passive voice of all transitive verbs, which is formed The last short vowel remains of the active.
an d
cU-*
all
other move-
must have
~c,9^
zammah
9
(
),
as:
Ji
,
Act.,
Pass.;
wtaf'al* Act.,
Jnx*f
II.
ustuf'il* Pass.
JUli Act.,
tUy
Pass.
Remark
The
active
and
passive
participles
are
also
used
as
1 The same measure as the noun of place, as: ^J& maktab un (place of writing) " a or primary preparatory school.'* 9 The same verb may have different meanings, and then has a different noun of
685
STEM
(i.e.
the
triliteral)
Ex.
JJll
< <
he swore
J ' ;
"he
experienced, tested":
'
J^ "he knew"; +
8
f
ci>>=*
x-?x
;
j*u*
" to be bright
s> -
(of
Active Part.
JU*
/a'tf"*.
Ex.
^U
adviser ";
JU
'
"
s
;
,
(t
^Jl
la^iq
(for
un
.
having capacity,
fit."
/ ^O"
/W> Gx
J>*A^
ma^ul
jy*^
"
blessed, late
(i.e.
dead, of
Muslims)";
f<
;^U
J*
^^6
f|j*i
;
"understood "
mad"
flit,
6 possessed by a Jinn).
Infinitives
-i-"0x
cUu
6 .
JUi
>
Jj**
and
J>0^
JUi and
J5
;m*
C"
UUMIM
or
*iU
6
(
'
*
(and
many
' '
other forms),
;
l&x.:
^^
' '
being kind
J*c
working
/ >x
doing
pk*
/*U
J^
"to
accept,
accepting";
)^^
"being
Transitive or intransitive.
f
Always intransitive.
'.
all
auch
,9,
verbs
x/x
,p*j;
^^
(JU*'),
as:
'
if
^^^
"beautiful,**
*>
"kind."
MJ "ugly." from ^y
'
t*
vide
&
XV
x
*
(4).
**
But
Also
(^))rw tr
^>o
AJ
vide
For Passive,
J*o<
Remark
I to
II
(/),
and
'*
XXV (a)
x
and
(6),
and Table
II, foot-
note 2 of Paradigms.
x ^
X
f""
* '
transitives
(J*i generally
*>'
is
intransitive.
^j$
from
/ //
^
^.
^-
>"^
from JUf when intransitive.
ma/*a^
'
"
and
is
/"
"
from
'
"^.
J*^*,
(J^ni
A)JAJ
afJUi
intransitive.
'
/xO^
8
'"
cWu
ttB
,
uncommon
as an Infin.,
also the
/^O"
as
:
wJ&o
mafc^o6<1 1
*'
686
t .,
'
present, presence
f^f
to speak, speech
(also
'
' ;
JUS*
tion";
die,
'
j*^
"going out,
place
of
oU* "to
becomes
death,"
);
(from
oU, we
get &>j+*>
which by permutation
benefited, benefit."
c
oU*>
Alas^c
preaching";
&iLo "to be
J?
'
^4^
"
/ 'C
' '
being deprived
*t*>
*
^e^>
to
have power, also one having power, i.e. sovereign "; *6* " etc., etc.
regret"
II
;
" to regret,
cj>*>
STEM
is
(i.e. first
/aJa
formed by doubling the second letter of the primary the original 8 or (2) it makes a neuter transitive, or a meaning of which it (1) intensifies or (4) it is denominative*; or (5) transitive causal; or (3) it is declarative
This
,
it signifies to
or
(6) it indicates
a phrase
or (7)
it
indicates
movement towards.
" he struck ")
pieces"
r
:
Ex.
(1)
<3x5
" he
killed ")
c& "
he massacred
"
;
^j*
^^
($&
(2) (J
down"
(^
JU
(
* 4
he taught
'
;
' *
(*-+*?
*
he wrote
**
' '
w^
**+
' '
' '
&
J^si
(yfr
( '
"it was
&,
many ") j&
him
tr.
' *
he increased
"
;
(3)
v&
him
' *
he told a lie
"
)
rll**
J&
/"
he believed
to be lying, took
him
or declared
to be a liar
"
;
<f
o*-*
(4)
" he was
$
<4S
' *
truthful
"
)
J^
"to
,
an
army")
^^
:
,$'
*&'
"he
'3
collected
an
army"
(oJU
*
"a
skin"
),
>J^
skin,
bind books*"
(5)^-i
*$**
;
o^""*
" to convert
a^oZ*",
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
also the
of place,
Indians and Persians nidamat, ) ; incorrectly amongst a letter in Arabic has Doubling generally an intensive effect. * The Denominative forms of II Stem correspond to the English verb formed from a noun, as " to skin " <4 to water " etc.
(
Nadamatun
" UUi
6&7
fire-
make
Arabicize
* '
:
(6)
^"
say^f
"he
aUf
'
(Infin.
jV&) ji*
;
'
to say a^t
9
Iff
A^l
"
31 **
x*
^
)
:
(Infin.
4 '
J^i)); f-U
^JU=
greeted
him"
(i.e.
said
-***
f*Jf
(7) <j>y
to go East."
Active Part.
Jx.
/4*-
" teacher
' '
;
"
^^ax> ^
-
corrector,
proof-reader
"
;
^AM>
Passive Part.
v^/ "compounded;
a mixture;
ink"
Infinitive
d^ii,
^
to/
*/ ",
c
:
^xUi x
teaching ";
^t>
,-
>5^
0<
"affecting,
!'
effect
u ^
4<
of":
testimonial;
pass-
port"
A^3
experience;
trial,
essay."
J>
x, X
are JUi>
X5
X-^,
J '
:
'*
to repeat
o^ from ^
of all the
X JJX'
<f
to explain."
Remark
j?
II.
plurals in of
also the
*
(= sound
^O*"
broken plural
t
( * <>'
' *
xx
<Jj^li,
as:
^jtt"a commentary
etc.," pi.
"
=
iJ^jf
false news.'
'
^
,
III
i.e.
STEM
JUli /a*oZa
is
formed by inserting an
alif after
the
first
radical
by lengthening the
first
This stem adds to the primary, the sense of striving, thus: (cU* "to
kill
") but
cjili
"
"
;
(^
the
to write),
v^
x
>
,
'*
to
correspond
with"
^ ^ "
1
(with
the
accusative
of
person);
wJi "to
is
")^ *
"to try
to overcome."
Hence a sense
of reciprocity
(>88
often
implied,*
1
;
(^y*
he struck
(
and
he
fought
with'
(J
d^
was the
partner of So-and-so)
JjU
with."
This stem
or thing, as
:
may
S S
also
mean
to exercise
u#
' '
" to be
*, *
soft, gentle
' *
")
^
S
' *
:
yL he journeyed alone " he or the either ) with some one else.* alone, (with preposition journeyed
some one kindly
:
^1V
to caress , etc.
^ ' -
' '
^^
"
"^
^Ife
^* ^
' '
;
ojU
" to return
*'
"
;
* *
<
^ti
*'to hire
^U
$*
*"***
to hire
for the
XX ^
4 *
summer
"
JO*
*+ *
(from
^lip");
(3^U
to
" embrace
Part.
//^
4i
neck ").
n
.~
Active
..
dUli/o wtt/a'*7"
Ex.
,?
/
(
,fi,
'
$
)
>Ux>
jJiiJf
"contradictory'
"
(**>&*
Passive Part.
J*fo* mufa'al** 8
Ex.
^;Ux>
un
"
blesssed, auspicious."
Infinitive.
fi'5l
*.
Ex.
iLtac
' '
opposition
* l
'
dialogue
*J*.Ux>
' '
:
JUJ
"
slaughter
also
iblft-*));
*\y
*'
quarrel."
IV STEM cU^'f af'al*, is formed by prefixing to the root and suppressvowel of the first radical ( J ). With a few exceptions, it is transithe ing tive (taking the object in the accusative), and gives a causal signification to
I
prefixing
cates reciprocity.
2
*>
So too
A/ *-+*
6*x> ,j<*i^
becomes
&*J(s*>
rare in Persian.
:
Some
^lif
"book";
'<
stirrup-iron*';
WU*
-*
^account,"
etc.
etc.
689
the primary, as
4-tf f xx&*
Jjif
" he caused
to
write"; JH'f
" to do good
:
t/*M " to
" he bid
(
to sit
down "
fit
JU" to be
"
;
for"
"
" condition
^
x,o
'
cU^T " to
< x ox
cause to enter
"
;
^/^-f
"
;
"lie found
him
praise-
worthy.
"
-
G~
It of ten
"
' " to receive Islam, become a Muslism.' Frequently it has the sense of beginning a gradual movement xx o* x^' xxO x ' ' <c to go westwards Sham to went he Uf ; (Syria) o^f f
XG '
^>f "to do
in the
morning";
as:
^f
(intr.),
*
'
^\
' *
'
to reach
the
downwards
witli
;
on,
overlook";
(ftf
"to stand,
*"
to rise
up ")
(*^f
also to
make
to stand."
Remark.
*&*
II
'
thus ^*^
:
to inform.'
*""
*
a difference
in meaning; thus
5^
^JLcf
"to inform."
* xc^cx-'O^
;
u^
"
;
oi^fljf
>*
*Ul <^f
jJ-o
xx o x
^;^f
<XA=wf
fit
for harvest -
ing"
Jikll
^Jaif
fit
*
;
$>
Active Part.
uUa/o muf'il un
u^J*x>
poly-
/
theist,
o /
implying partnership
jf^
1
(to
God)"
^**>.<o
^^o
>
" benefactor."
>*
"
;
/^o 9
^^
* c
made am-
biguous, ambiguous"; ^i^/ "forced into another, assimilated." / -O ^ O " ( un Ex. fiUj (intr.) Infinitive JU^'f %f al yielding obedience,
<e
Islam";
halves
/xc,
cc
>
(tr.)
;l4Je]
into
When
the IV
Stem
is
intransitive,
as
JLwf
is
44
690
Remark
II,
Stem
II)
is
rarely
x,
fcl,
/ <o
^o
ffc
'+
as:
flfJl, pi.
A kf.
plural is
commoner.
V STEM
may
reflect the
J*&> taftf'al*,
is
formed by prefixing a
:
o to No. II,
"
of
which
aJj
it
consequence, as
;
*Jj
to, to beget
" to
" " he was born.' * being the cause of ) *Jj* into a reflexive, or gives the idea of doing a thing by degrees,
also
fig.
(
and hence
is
a^.
to drink"
^"
(^
;
to
make
to drink ")
to
j^>
" to
"
sip
:
(*+**
&+**
"to cause
freeze' *) <*+apJ
it
^
"
"to
j~Z
^ "he
still
cooled himself
by degrees"
(j~$
(
he broke
jJU
" he
knew"
flc
(
"he
<c
taught, he caused to
;
know")
^W
"
cfljj
to stand
to
be acquainted
still,
to
stop")
U^y " he
hesitated, he delayed."
Sometimes,
1
it signifies
pretending,
as:
common Uu
to be
ill,
"to
to feign sickness
";
a*)3
"to pretend
frs
^3
lion
"to become a Nasraniyy** (Christian)"; "I" "to become a Yah&diyy** (Jew); i^ "to become bold or fierce as a
become,"
as:
^-aiS
"
(
jss
+&'*>
;
Af)
&**9*
/^-;>
Present Part.
<J*iIx>
Ex.
:y&o
/^-' "
f^f
ing anxious"; (j*i^
1st person in
*>*
"pretending to be a prophet"; (J&* "speaker, the
** **
grammar"
pl&*
" a student."
But
691
/tffx
j& *,9
o" expected."
O
O
<
Ex. jSS&
:
"
thinking
;
alb
<
* '
taking warning
"reflecting."
VI STEM,
U3 tafa'al*, is formed
by prefixing
o to No.
to
Ill, to
which
it
gives a reflexive, or a reciprocal meaning, and the subject in the latter case
must be
noun 9
as
l
:
"
v5*fy
at full length
'
"
;
*i AU-O
^/
*W ^Jbu =
"
VJU
' *
;
'
<^;l<a)
to give
and
" he wrote
respond with."
to ")
^Jto
<
to write to
and receive
letters
from, to cor-
may
then be singular, as
*
(j~**" to be bold
"
** *
+ S *
o^US
"feigning sickness";
*
*
' *
pretend to be a Christian."
' '
*.
Ex. o^|y^o
:
<c
being synonymous
"
;
^/
*s9
Passive Participle JatitiAmutafa'al**. Ex.: This form is not used in Persian. panion.'
'
as a com-
jts
~
.
Ex.
jj*^
:
ijoSte
"being contradictory";
' '
;
; <>jU3 clashing together feigning sickness " (but in Persian bravery ").
"
$9
^-l3
*'
' '
feigning bravery
**
*r,
VII STEM,
Jkiij, is
,
formed by prefixing
e>J
in
to No* I, of which it
ia
'
is possible
in No.
VI
the reciprocity
is
necesary.
V.
692
j&l +
it
was broken
"
;
&fif
*
" he showed
this
The original sense was a reflexive of No. I, as " it broke itself"; but and other derivative forms have become so habitually used in a
*
+(/
passive sense, that the true passives of those verbs in which the form cU&t 1 One of the meanings of this form is is in use, have fallen into disuse.
*
*Oj~CU* l*y?
" I broke
it
and so
9 O *
"
it
was broken
''; jpi&k'
v Uf
vs*I*
"I opened
it
became
open."
It
& sb uj"to
"O
let oneself
let oneself
be put to
flight, to
distinguished from VIII in that the reflexive pronoun contained in it is never the indirect, but always the direct, object, and also in that this Stem never has a reciprocal signification.
Remark
This Stem
is
Remark
this
II.
When
:
the
first
radical
'(' ^
is^-^-f-evo-J-;
its place.
or hamzah,
form
is
not used
form VIII
$
,b 9
eWif ) takes
*
<s
(Active
<c
Participle cUALo
munfa'tt.
'<**
t <n,9
3
";
,>yu
"
being lonely
Passive Participle
/
x
None.
, Ex ff^J " being thrown down,
<,
:
.o
Infimtive Jktiiinfi'al**.
demolition ";
of + *
et
"
JUftij
' s
shame."
Supposing from
tf/
^J
the stem
^jf ^
x^o "to
backbite* ', on the form cUul.
X
^ Fa-nkasarat.
8
The
of the Infinitive in
a hamzaV'l wasl.
meaning.
IV and
VIII.
693
STEM, cUSj
which then
ifta'al*, is
first
radical
and by inserting ta ( * ) before the second radical. This form resembles No. VII in expressing the result of the action of the primary, and it also expresses the idea of such result after It has generally a reflexive, less frequently a reciprocal or passive, effort.
No.
I,
signification, as
wA-tff
" to acquire
tried
one's
,,
;
living
*&*>l
himself,
was busy
***<,
"
UU*J *
" he borrowed
(a
thing ")
J*if
^
*,***,<,
;
"
-""
felt
'
^y*
*-^XO
c^la-*]
he touched")
s ' "^
<j&\
(^
1
;
he helped)
O
j&l
^
*'"
full
"
(
*f+ O
9
<(
(J**
^J^t
+
he beat in a
race,
'
etc."
f^Ai^|
"O
"
to be collected"
;
sb
<e
^*i^r
*
J*l
*
to be or get
mixed with."
$
*<,
<n*9
9
<e
Active
Participle
JAJ&O
/ ^o/
mufta'il.
"
Ex.
"
striving
;
^ X, ?
<Hfcux>
ffci*
<c
shunning."
Participle
mufta'al
un .
^^"O /
Ex.: jft^
^elevated, high";
*"<j9
*Jji2o "shared, in
J?"xO
$"<*?
common
un
ifti'al
.
' '
;
Infinitive
J^| X
>
Ex.
"
;
^'O
jly^J
X
u^tr^I *
*
'
"
' '
avoiding
Verbs with
I
(o).
have
this form.
Vide Assimila-
tion,
2
When
this
VIII Stem
is intransitive,
as:
~tf
"to be accused,"
the
* '
Active
'
accused.'
to
3 to
VII Stem.
694
IX STEM
suppressing the
This
is
triliteral
by prefixing];
+
radical.
It expresses the
+^ *
:
(j&*>
" he
had a
bilious
complexion
"
;
"
'
to be or
become
yellow, to yellow
"
;
'
(
'
v***
*
O/* O*M
hunch-backed ")
S't *
&"<*
&* o
()**
to be one-eyed",
^y^f, adj.)
cj
this form,
Ex.^+*u
"
becoming very
red.
Passive Participle.
None.
Ex.
a
Infinitive
J**il
if'ilal*".
'
^j^]
"becoming crooked";
"becoming
squint-eyed.'
X STEM cUiu!
xxo-o
a istaf al .
(
vCwO
fl***l
'
" he
'
x^o
&
j*&*[
"O
' '
;
^.^-snJu-f
he
thought
it
beautiful"; ^JUJUt
Sometimes it
ter
is
merely causal, as
*'<*'</
an oath
" =
'?'
cila..
xxO
x'feoO
*'
:
of No. I V, as
(^JUf
he taught
"<*
'<*
' '
^J^J
*
" he
taught himself"
^^yu-f
"
"
;
jJUJu>j
" to surrender."
This form
is
final
vide
XIV (6).
This word
3
* &
is is
used in Persian.
This word
Originally also
"
to ask or
command
to be sworn."
is
And sometimes,
therefore, the
meaning
apparently neuter.
695
frequently denominative
like,
and
as:
may
X^
<*
signify
summoning
for
' O
f**i
"to
call
one to act as
pd*>. '
X
"and
servant";
A$If' (tr.
and
intr.)
and "to
testify to, to
become a Muslim
"
>J!jf
Ex.
cis**i~*
"
f <
wanting to be in a
<
<,<,*
&"0^
*
hurry",
i.e.)
"hastening";
<JUftx~x>
"
"
;
hires or
rents, a lessee."
Ex:
<JU*I~*
*'
used
' * ;
f'^,^9
"
yxll~x>
hire*d,
rented."
o
^x ^ O
n
.
^ ^O O
c
Infinitive ($*&\istii'dl*
Ex.: JUiuu*t
using"; jWAlt
<c
asking for
pardon
"
;
*.U*x.f
"
[XI STEM,
Jtiij if'all*, is
IX by
inserting
an
alif after
It intensifies
IX
indicates
permanent colours or
No.
X those that
is
fn
\ti
This form
and
fn
is
\MS O 9
Passive Participle.
None.
i.e.
one
who has
under
<4*
o9
resigned."
The
of the dots
^)
weak
signifies
in Arabic
"pardoned";
4 It is
letter
a rule in e>fjJ, that when a hamzah follows a weak letter that is aakin* the has a maddah (written or understood); or in other words the long vowel is
j^iui
ghanq,
ghinaa***
(measure
JU) *
U.
696
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
^'
o
1
/ ^
"1 .
c,
Infinitive JM^'ri/'tfiB
Ex:
te
jj*+**l
".-'G-'
[XII
STEM,
is
J*j*it if'aw'al:
s
This form
is
It does
[XIII
STEM
is
Jj*if if'awwal*.
This form
is
It does not
if'anlal* is practically
not used.]
[XV STEM,
^^l if'anlq is
IV.
Quadriliteral Verbs
^}
A
).
formed as follows:
(1)
biliteral
root expressing
* *<**
sound or movement
cause to shake, to
p3***>
may
make
(2)
**
whisper ";
"to neigh"
letter,
To
a fourth
"to
raise
+
up
usually a liquid or a sibilant, may be added, as:y*j ^ < o' "V "to be proud (dust, or from the dead; from ^i*);
j*
(from
"to be high"):
letters,
(3)
of
more
than three
*& *
some
form
of
them
Co>>
*S<jS
(from v>*^
Ar.
of Pers. *-*)j)\
x*ij"to become a
**&
(4)
They
U.?>^
" to say
tj*
j(j
J^l
j|
"
;
J-^^
*'
to say praise be to
God."
There " to
Remark.
in Persian.
' '
;
ox
<**
**
"
* *o+
to gargle
^rr*^
whisper."
QUADBILITBRAL VERBS.
697
STEM
of the Trilateral
it
is
Example
v*#
J5
'fi
mufa'lil.
Ex.:
J&>
"quivering";
*-*!**.
$ 'XOx fiUUi
f
fa'lalat
xO
,
'(j
or
J&*
-^
fi'lal.
Ex.
%Jj
"
quivering,
an
earthquake
II
"
;
^ x ^ Ox
:
x O
also Jlpj
i->^
or
^-^j
"
STEM
LWUi5 tafa'lal*: in
*
T"
Vof
'.S
S<J' "
*
''f
to hesitate
' '
;
the Triliteral.
Example
v *j&
3^
/
c ,^/
" to quiver
^
' '
;
^^
'
"to
act like a
Jlk^."
(
lil
un
.
Ex.: Jjrb&>
"shaking, fanciful,
volatile";
^>&*
"
"
hesitating.
Infinitive,
Ji*&
03 - x
tafa'
c,
/ 9 <"'
un
.
Ex.:
J)J>3
"quivering; an earthquake."
di"
III
STEM
This form
is
intransitive,
as:
j-*5j
"to
creep with terror (of a person, the skin, or the heart)." to VII of the triliteral.
xo^
.4c^'ve Participle,
It corresponds
i
muf'a'ill*".
c^
'*
' '
JU*jU
Ex.
eA^1
' '
[from
or on a pillow)]
d^^x)
<
withering."
J&**i]
X
if'i'lal.
in
mind";
"withering, vanishing."
[IV
STEM
if'anlal*. u*J X
This form
is
is
not
found in Persian.]
This
is also fche
698
IRBBGULAB VERBS.
VI.
Irregular Verbs.
Verbs vide Paradigms at the end.
xx*
(
of all Irregular
They
are classed as
f
1.
*>
&*
**>
f or
&'
)
Doubled
" to
utcl^c), as:
&**
"to extend,
to
help"; j*
flee."
>'c2.
"to order";
JU
"to
ask"
(Im-
"O
;
<**
perative
cU and JUj
or
Jut)
fyf
firstradical is
hamzah, as in o^' +
o*^
*
IV Stems
become
at
will
be identical in form, as
^f
(III)
" to become
familiar
,
to
one's
(IV)
"to make
Remark
read";
II.
hamzah
-
(or
fA
'
blind"; j**J
>
-
(3rdradical
'^togobe-
ox
yond," the
3.
Stem
is <&*>.
Assimilated or
PF&
o/
^e Fa*
Jlto U
X
^t JlL
),
as: **j
c<
to
promise
"
;
^^
7.
to be dry."
Remark
f
A
'
alif.
is
first
radical
tive, as
*e
'*
promise
"
:
is <JU.
Such verbs
^ OX
^ ''
Infinitive of
Stem
"
;
*?**''
^jL?
or uA-oj,from
*-ft^^,
^
is
as: &**>[
rom ^j
^
(
characteristics of
x*
XXX
from JUj
),
Jfxjrf
XXX
(
this
Stem, as
JUJJ
and
;U5J
from^
The
and of IV ^iLf.
INDECLINABLE VEKBS.
699
4.
Hollow, or
Weak
of the
Ayn
o^f b ^ i*#d\
<JL***), i.e.
which have
weak
letters ^ or
as the second
as:
(from J^J
"saying");
*0
*
(UA*
" to
sell"
(#" selling").
of the Imperative
is
The measure
"sell"
cU, or
cli,
or eU, as
of
-^
Stems IV and
"*
X add S
radical, as:
s
lJj
and
ss o Ax)l5xMt
from fU
).
5.
Defective, or
weak of
-
the
o^
Lam
**
o*Jtt
X
^ ^^t
^
^ x
J^
o"
),
as:
1>*
^3^
x
x
c^;
o-^
to call";
4^-^^"
to throw;
These have j or
^ for their
3rd radical.
,as:
#
^
)
for^b
and
g
(
for
^1;
).
For the
Remark
II
to (2)
above.
changed
into alif,
^Sl).
O
In the
Infinitives of
alif,
and X,
the
O
(
'
**'
(f
as
*ULM
from
^\
^iA*i^|
from ^5^^!
etc.
(6)
Combinations of these
may
occur.
letters follow
Remark
I.
3rd radical
is
Remark
II)
uf}'
^. x
tr.
is
a "Strong or
(3) to (5)
Sound"
are
verb
JU JkX X
* x /O.
and
(6)
VI.
Indeclinable Verbs.
5*
These are: (a)(j*V "he is not," and t^*" perhaps, which have a Preterite (From only. Both are conjugated in all persons, numbers and genders.
700
'am
I not
If
^
JW
in the
singular,
dual,
and plural:
oU
"give";
"come."
(c)
To
these
may
it
singular
* * \j&>
and plural
* *
&, *U =
prolong
"bring" (Imperative); found in the masculine, and the singular feminine. The expression 99v* "
be added
(S*>
*j$*j, etc.
In the same numbers and genders haste." This occurs in the Azan.
VII.
(a)
is
found
(Imperative)
"come
on,
(i^Jf ;x*Jf
*).
Infinitives
'
some
same meaning.
:
They are
I.
'
(
of the
J*J
JUixj or cJ*JU
Ex.
o*
v^^
"
' '
striking
$'**<
"
sitting"
i**j**
doing kindness
?
"
;
4+
<f
^^. 4
,,
The broken
*
'
plural of
*,
-
*,+
'
'^'
these
is
regular,
'
*j*'
^f^; *
vjtA/c,
*
II.
J*i), JU&c.
Ex.:
Ex.
Ex.:
"*
III.
(
v^> = v^) s
(
f&*9
"mixing."
*.'"*
<*B&x>
).
f fi,' f
:
fi,*9
J*tf )-cUiU.
,
'<**
<,
IV.
V.
J*jf)-J*ix>.
c^C "honouring."
&,,?
$&,*
(
^C^^ ( cUtf )
^ r
(,
^35^^
.
J*x>.
-
Ex.
,3Ali>c
= d j^J)
*,9
J J
' '
being tight.
'
*x
)
j,*+9
JUlix>.
,*
VI.
j*li>
Ex.
JUlJ>o
= JUUxj) (
In Persian and Urdu, pronounced as the accusative case, wa gliayr a-h u . the word has the three cases.
1
These
infinitives in
M
is
of time
and
as
its
second
vowel.
*
&
701
/x c ^
Ex.:
VII.
(JUiit).JUiixj.
x xx
/*XG*
/x
/^c^
)
-
'0*
(
VIII.
/
x G
'
cU&J
cJUiic.
Ex.
^Okc
= *l&t)
4-'
,,
;
''complaining
<->j
v ySf)
IX.
(
drawing near.
XG
XG^
(
/xxo*
for Jl***
.P
xC>
).
:
*'
J~'t) -<>**
-
red.
x Ox
.0
x Cx o *
x G xG
2*^"*'
X.
XI.
J^iS^t)-^*^*'
JUfJ)
^ x:
"ti16 deducing,"
used.
$
(b) If
<*
the
'
triliteral
wdw
the measure
is cUftx,
as
'
<
promising
&j*
"
'
returning
' '
';
j^c(^
u
- to be easy "
(c)
"
being easy
;
fa
tl
being an orphan.
also, the
al-masdar
X^GX
'l-mimiyy
$
:
xGxx
is
on the measure
(d)
derived
al-masadir* 'l-mimiyyah, and the nouns of time and place of all as also of the simple forms from verbs of three or of four radicals,
The
quadriliteral root,
Noun
of
&\*>j*\
d&\
*U-f
).
triliteral is
the
same
:
as for the
alma8dar>l mimiyy",
of slaughter,
or
J**
"
!
,
and a*ix> or
<SUi*, as
di&*>
a place
a vital spot";
cU
place of
alighting,
-
stage,
place"*;
f'f
-
A*
l
maqam
un
"place of
ftf
"to stand"; fy
maqburah.
these forms
mahlakah or mahlikah ; maqbarah or is not constant, thus In a few cases only are two such measures found for one word. The pL of
:
s s
'
is
jUUuo
as
>
*Jfco x
*
pi. of
*"<'
'
vide
IX (d).
of
In Persian also
apalace
J[i^
a town."
702
jJx/o "
Jf"<,
j+s
to
fi*
6x
(t
"graveyard"
(also
*j&,
Xj***
and
"<*
^&<*);
*
<xl* or *&%*
place of destruc-
*;*x> place
of study, a college";
"
&*
or a^t/o
"printing-office."
x "*
:
The
addition of the
"
iiXl
"a place
abounding in lions."
For verbs commencing with ^ or <_$, the measure is J*i* and / /xO / a c< 3 time sometimes JUix), 1 as &Pjx> place or time of promise ", and ^Uyo '
(b)
(I)
";
/ i^U*
X
^"O
(
for ^Jfr
X
"
)
place or
/Ox-
* ' ;
^>
"
>" O^-
watering-place," etc.
j**#
"a
betting
(2)
game
at archery
"
(from j*
(t
commence with
),
as
/*-
^o*
;
J^O^
u^uo
wes t sunset
f
'
'
;
vr**
"
place of striking
"
;
f Ox
J^i*
(3)
radical
for
is
is
always pointed
(for
with jathah, as
^j*
^j*
' J
from
"
to graze
"
;
^^
J^U
from ^jf
(c)
*'
of the
From the derived stems and from quadriliterals, these nouns are same measure as the Passive Participle (and consequently of the
also), as:
II.
al-ma8dar u 'l-mimiyy*
JL**
(for
>t^o
"
)
prayer carpet";
is
for the
noun
s*
scales
";
^UiU "key."
/,o-
>
Plural
From Stem
I,
^f^*.
* o x^
Plural
A^l^o.
From Stem I, on
the measure
^x JUlU.
NOUN OF INSTRUMENT.
703
fi ~9 f, +** V. U>xx> "place of ablution"; VII. ;**uu> " place of descent"; VIII. i &9 ,& 9
kxx>
for i/*?*
I.
"
)
pillow."
Remark
participle
Though neuter verbs have no passive (only the active) form, yet for the al-masdar" l-mimiyy", and the noun of time and
measure of their past participles
is
observed.
Remark II. It will thus be seen that a word like fj* have four meanings, (1) " treated kindly (past partic.) (2)
' '
;
(
' *
from
^
:
may
kindly",
of
"; or
(4)
"time
of kind treatment
"
(i.e.
noun
of place or of time)
while
being from a neuter verb will have but three, (1) "changing** (intr. " time of infin.); (2) change "; and (3) "place of change." From Stem I,
*-*iaxx>
there
can be
:
four
active
measure)
i.e.
meanings (the passive participle having a different and passive infinitive and time or place of killing.
;
IX.
Noun
of Instrument.
(a) (1)
There
is
XI
(a).
The
&AJU;
uU.
Examples
' '
*;**
file
< ;
^kLo
butcher' s
' '
chopper
Ci
a strainer (metal)":
&~&o "broom";
X"
&*
"fan"
<&ku>
<c
(from
^
(t
"blowing pleasantly");
x(k**>
*fy>
(for
<e
i)fjx>
a mirror";
girdle,
(for AA<AXJ
" strainer
"( = the
commoner form
(3)
*A*>).
verbs with ^ or
:
^ as the medial
(from
radi-
cal, the
remains unchanged, as
^ft
"to
lust*
"to sew
of
").
These nouns are readily distinguishable from the Nouns kasrah with which the prefixed mlm is pointed.
l
704
/*
(6)
JUix> of the
noun
of instrument are
/-o machine and hence sometimes habitually, as: Jl*-** " coughing habitually"; >*0 " coming towards one with boldness." Vide also XV (5) Remark III. f(*5x>
Remark.
f
'<,
last
measure and
meaning
is ;U**>
(c)
The noun
is
of
*x O
'
O
<
something
pail."
"a
brazier"; *-*l/o
a milk-
t xo
(d)
The measure
/
Jkiu and
j'xo Ui}* is
x x
:
'
cMa*, as
j>;U>c
/x^
it
jfxo
as:
' c
files
',
^t^
"girdles": of JUi*
is
JUUU,
vUavo ^arch",
"
pi.
X.
--
-^i/
(a)
^i-
-*
^x o ).
or
^
jJl ;^ax>
done.
2.
It
is
formed by
It is
a form of
the
Noun
XII.
The measure
promise"; &/
standing."
Stem
is
&*5, as:
* >^
:
"one blow"
**j
AxjjJ
"one "one
" one
draught"; <LJ^
"one sitting";
Examples
&^
au^c
,,<,*
"
(but
9,,
[>~JU>
*<.,?'
|^ol>
"they
ti^x:
s
The
plural of this
the
and
'*
several times."
Make no change
for gender.
CONCRETE NOUN.
3
705
II
Quadriliteral,
is selected.
,
When
is
a word to limit
its
meaning
Vide
placed after
as
x***)j
s
&*W *WF
"
raised
<
(b)
^t
X
p*>[
X
or
*
X
>JJi
)***
).
This
indi*.'*.
cates the
S>,
doing an act.
From
the
triliteral
x ? *
it is
of the
* ^,,
measure
<&**,
as: AM*'
"mode
If
of
&&
xxc,
<z*&
"I
.
wrote like
Yusuf)."
the
verbal
noun
is
<*'Jki
(as
&A^
),
From
number
does."
is
"
the
'<J
i
same
x
as the
<c
G-
>
of times
vide' a), as
^^M'
**
j>
^y
he mixed
as a doctor
3> "
^ o
XL
(a)
Concrete Noun).
PRIMITIVE NOUNS
be
referred
not properly
any verbal
.00
They may be
^-J
triliteral,
' '
/
<
quadriliteral or quinqueliteral
*'
as
' *
:
JbJ
camel
^Lo*
saffron in flower
quince." They exist in varying measures of all three forms. They have no fixed forms or measures. They are always concrete and are not derived from verbs. Still, in dictionaries, they must be looked for under the form that might be that of their root.
From
may be
formed, as:
'
Infinitives
(JjjUiii.
and
^JlnAJ
* Infinitives
JUj and
JiU^ and
AJLclA*).
<
Infinitives
a(lJUf (
45
706
NOUN OF UNITY.
" " horse or " a " mare," <j^U "horseman, good rider"; ^*u* stone, 7 apuRJ
"
Petrify
;
to
JV
*>~*f
/x
;
i^^
(
'
1
<
a place
full of lions.'
'
(6)
DERIVATIVE NOUNS
J^Ltx* ^*t
m ay
be derived
from nouns or
from verbs.
XII.
+ O
"
Noun
^ O
l
of Unity.
<*
NOUNS OF UNITY
a species, as:
j
'*
iXa.yf
indicate
^U^
* s
pigeon-kind"
is
or
<l
doves,"
i'/oU^
t(
pigeon or
a cock
$'
t
'
'
and= "
pigeon"): *xAi
The
"a gold coin" or "a piece of gold," from the plural, regular feminine plural, is a plural of paucity.
XIIL
v^^ "gold."
Some Forms
of Verbal Nouns.
*'
The
1.
principal are
f".
'
;l^ "trading,"
*&
"
clerkship/'
is
Remark
Remark
under
51
/.The
II.
plural
on a trade
is,
as stated
'
Intensive
XV),
.
the measure
J^,
as:
v ^*
butcher."
2.
for sound),
Jl**'
,9
f ,*
headache";
ftfj
<j}lk^
"
quinsy."
3.
(i)
JU*
fu'al** (also
used
for
some pains
etc.), as
of the body), or
cU*i
t
,
*
c
/a'?/** (also
s *s
motion,
f^*
"a cry
"
;
"
whistling
(
j&+
j>jt>*
feminine plural in
1
is
used.
Vide end of
2
VIII
(a), p. 652.
<4
*>*%*'
But jj;^ or
,
...
707
(ii)
BROKEN SOUNDS
sound
are
<*U*i,
and sometimes
/XX G'
' '
*U*i, as:
*^V
' ' ;
" oaohinnafS
*
<J
'
of loud laughter
"
;
ijiji
gurgling
f.W
sing the
mouth
' '
xiflL>
' '
For these
'
/
:
x x c
' '
elA*a*> or
4.
n e>^*i fa alan*
l
and
/
less
x ^
/
commonly
/a*^
(which
is
also
fast; ofao
flowing":
fO '
c)^A&.
heart":
;
JU^
"marching,
fast-galloper (horse)
traveller."
5.
FLIGHT OR AVOIDANCE,
as
JW
X
fi
al un
(which
is
triliteral
Infinitive),
;y
'
'
"
flight
:
"
;lii
drawing back
X
aversion
/
X
"
^iy
bolt-
$X
ing,
running
away ":
*bt
XX
f
(
for c5^t
"refusal":
v^?^
"*
"veiling," and
veil or screen
"
:
^l&i
X
"
encountering unexpected-
"
:
J*tf
'*
a sheath."
Remark.
>
T)l
Most nouns
of the
$99
*-_-*"^,
v_Uy
X
6.
(i)
A SMALL BIT
";
**ii5
X
& frlat, as
' *
S>1^
piece of anything
/K?ra$ or vertebrae of
the back.
XX
;
:
also a
broken
"one
of the
else JUi, as
x
el Ju or gfci
^
FtWe
Nouns
(e).
(ii)
ftfdlat**,
as:
foij?
"filings";
j^Lfc]
^saw-dust"; *^^5
''clippings,
potsherds";
<t*sUf
^sweepings."
These
708
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(in)
fu'lat,
(also the
LJa.
4*j
&5
also
' ' ;
"
(this
may
of unity).
pi.
A*U*>
" a copy,"
7.
COLOUR
IN THE
ABSTRACT
<*JUi
fu'lat
un
(also the
quantity), as:
"
*?**>
redness";
' *
ij*&>
<j^Uj
,
greenness ";
i^*-*
sun-burntness,
brunetteness
8.
41
"
;
^^
4 '
ftal"
n
,
as:
<->&* '
"milk-pail";
^(^s
throng."
9.
AN
ai>JU.
office of
KhdRfah"
ci
10.
is
OBTAINED $Ui
fa
alat un ,
as:
AjlljA.
chalk- pit."
vide
11.
XIV
(a) (2).
XIV.
(a)
Verbal Adjectives.
SIMPLE ADJECTIVES denoting an inherent quality are derived from the simple triliteral (generally of neuter verbs), but are irregular in form and
f
"handsome"
'
((j>~>*>
"to be handsome");
o
) ;
^y
,
(also
*
s
* *
"
' '
happy
(from
~f "
"
to be
happy
(JUii
9
it*
"
;^
S
cautious
' '
" to be
cautious ")
+
s
<**
&&&
"
thirsty
J+j*
f
;
naked
"
(from
' '
to be naked
"
)
;
+ *
* '
yu
'
'
empty
(from j&x>)
v^
gd
* '
(from
Alif maqtuiah
for
or
is
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
709
(2)
The
participles
are also
,<,*
'
"
temperate"
j~i* *
humble";
f
cU>l*
*
*
''accomplished
*
cX^i
"to
excel;
f
*
also to
remain over");
^
3
"learned"
(from
fJU
/G/C,x
"to know");
'
"
writing, a scribe
-X
"
;
/C/Ox
v^"
<J?
<S
"
written, a letter
"
;
<*^x
existing
of <x^
"
'
to find");
e^*^ "mad."
transitive <J*i,
Remark.
is
not only a real participle indicating temporary state, but also a substantive
j?
.
f^
x
etc.
intransitive J**,
and from
as:
JU*'
(always intransitive),
t
'
*;lj
"rejoicing";
'
(^^
*
:
being cowardly"
(from
^^
* >*'
)
;
(>H^;
:
<f
being
5
,
narrow"
$*.
(from
^U)
IT
as:
f'$SS**S
r-r ** s
^Ua.
'
of the
measure
*
cl*if,
^*^f "red"
* f o ^
j-*^
J*<*\
9s
t-
"
^
yellow'
(^^
9,
" to be green")
>j*\
" black-
+<*'
*
f
,
' {
*
-
eyed
J^
' '
squint-eyed
<
JLv
JJBJ
to be changed, etc.
(also in
to be squint
of
eyed");
"
v-ftjjAf
to be thin in the
\
stomach"
" deaf "
;
good sense
(for
f)
a man,
to be lean in
J2*1 a'mq
" blind."
u^f
$
u
and
Remark
'is
*
8
,
1.
The feminine
*
of this
?-' *
measure, when
it signifies
>^
*U*
deaf";
But
*
fi*
to whistle."
of
Alsojl*
(q.v.)
is
'*
zero."
final
Stem
IX
the Verb
radica
rnushaddad.
8
The
servile
hamzah changes
to j in the dual
XXI
(i).
710
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
found
" blind."
"desert."
The termination
Vide
is
also
in
substantives, as:
V* *T>M*
'
XVIII
(6) 3.
defect (not
elative),
of the broken plural for the adjective of colour *<,> /o > 6 masculine or feminine, is cW, as j+* JU> and
:
*<>*
'
U^ and
(c)
THE ELATIVE
(i.e.
JU*ftjJf ***f
).
cUjf
9 s o x
gives
the
masculine elative
\U
*,
best"
high";
cl*f
^
x
"more
or
^M
c<
more
or
most
Ox
<_!**{
"more
is
or
c<
more or most
naked."
When
the positive
^
\u
* *
<(
Uijj
c*f
more intense
as to white-
ness
1 '
;
* w xx x t5f>^ xAJI]
'</ie
most intense as
to black.'
(d)
When
the elative
is
followed
by the preposition
"than" (),
^XOX
:
it is
* o
yf\
<j
^
x
x
9+
Ai*
c<
"she
is
greater than
(of
he";
"
all)
;
otherwise
'
it
is
this is
^grandest
(of all
J
^K
Slf
JfewJIf |4>A
"God
ia
most Great
"
)
;
Jt^l
o^f "the
men";
" the
Remark
If
is
not
simple
an appropriate pronoun
> x O'
^
x.
is
suffixed to
^
X
as
/C
^
"
s '
&
Ux>
xC-xOx
Ox
fj|lf
diklf ^J^f
u the weather
o /
is
't
it
was yesterday
^\j*u
^
*l
UU'O
a^l J^-;
^^
W XX
f**^
x^X X
Wj **and verily I wa
Ox
i.e.
$oi
.*
t(
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
more concerned about the wounds my own wounds."
of the Apostle of
711
God than
was about
Remark IL
-*
The
X
article Ji
'
is
U/XX s
1
*(jf
XO
*fc
f\j
as:
J|>*lj
When, however,
Elative
is
defined by
it is
always
The masculine
elative can
bo
Triliterals.
As
no feminine and
Remark.
Elatives are naturally not used from roots which express ideas
oU
" to die."
''*:
measure
cUif.
is
'
O
'
^
;
C
'
UJ
X"
(
$*U**'<^
t^*,
* s
^f,
or better tyj*>
w* ' *&i
\U '
=>*f.
(g)
when when
of
it
a qualifying epithet or
<j
when
9
,
it
9 s C"o'
it
is
a predicate), as:
God"
she
^^1
-
j^sJt
largest
'
*U*}ff
"the
of
<{
w the handsomest of my
txx>
*
^^ ^\
-
"
Zaynab
is
tri literal
thus
^f
pjS\
-y^f
9
cU^
etc.
have
no
is
The
superlative
is cUl*'f,
and
of
the feminine
cU\ or
(rarely) ^tjJUi, as
j$\,
f pi. ^?tf
birf', pi.
^Kf or ^L^f.
Ff(fe
XXIII
(r) (15).
i,e.
the Attributes of
God
djU/AJf
*U*f
9
).
The
^"*
?
<*
essential
'
)
name
of
God
few:
is
&Uf
has
'</
.t ).
of
God
^&*Vt f*Sl!
known
to
it
magic power.
712
Remark.
<*'.
-*'
as:
^J^
"pregnant,"
d^ijte
>'
"'
br. pi. <yli
"hermaphrodite,"
and wU^..
/
(h)
form the
However,
)
^t
or
|i*
" this
is
JU.j^L
of
man."
XV.
/,
<^x
These are adjectives or substantives, and are derived from, The commoner forms are
:
i.e.
take
(1)
JU* an
liar
lx.: JU$
"killer
of
many";
t(
a great
"
;
}*&
Remark.
tor,
<Jl&
*
"a
c
great imita-
a professional
"
story-teller
;
ft?^
;
J(<f
glutton
"
;
^tj^
"a great
traveller (especially
by sea)"
very treacherous."
(2)
cL*3.
^ "
Ex.
+
^iW *
s
"
very
truthful
f
:
"
(
&l* ,
"
:t
truthful
' ' ;
,
it
silent
"
+t
L^cJ
"
very holy
(of
men
but
^-^
/*.
of God):
(3)
c!^/>*
"
))
-Ex.
jjf*(
=;^)
very patient
"
;
j^
J<
very forgiving
(of
God)";
God with
is
very rare;
jltf
"
great collector
'*
713
reference to
*'
fi&'
J/f=J!<f
"
very frowning, looking angry * *' 4 9, fi &' " a glutton "; vj'^vt**'' a great liar" J>^ very ignorant.
; ;
^^
'
' ' ;
* '-
* '*'
f *'
c<
= Jj^,
(butj^w
it
accepits
tance"): Jr")
intensive force.
f
*
s=d*y "sent"
"
e.)
Prophet": here
has lost
(4) <Jjj*%
'
(of
(of
God
or
man
'
"
very intelligent
:
"
p*)\
only)
pw*
very
painful."
This form
is
philo-
"
sopher
;
of
good family";
is
&+*
deep."
In
<J*2feu
"
contained in the
root.
This form,
when not
;
participle Jj*i*>, as
d>il "slain
"
(
= J^* )
5
^*
'
'
wounded
(= ^ j^?^*)
:
p^S
' '
^i'O.
' ' ;
It
*&
witness
^^^
quarrelsome
also
' '
' '
enemy.
To a few
still
greater
' c
God
or
man)";
but
&*&e
j*A*ll
"the very
learned
(of
man only)": fa
of
"very intelligent";
jfj
(
i*W "the
most
intelligent
the
age":
^^\
"a
happened"djfy
%j
^U^
"a
'
professional
story-teller
= aJfjj
Jf>*
"talkative," but
&jj)
a collector "
**l+*>
^/c
" con-
ferring favours
iU
*.<*
on "
*'*
;
&^ intensive.
XIX
(/).
No
epithet ending in a
(which resem-
714
ITS
In Persian, of this intensive form, perhaps the only words used are
..***
<*** and
..'^r
<xx>l0*.
Remark
Persian, as:
I.
4$,
'
&a*e
<jjij;^
"a
f^
djj
great dis-
criminator
"
(epithet of the
Kb al Ifah
'Urnar)
and
f&
pj*j
*
"
>*&
Everlasting" are
#9
^,*
cW
* *
"woe
to
&JU+J|
^
*~!
'
9
,
regularly in
^>CiJx
^
S&'
;
'{,
which has no
plural.
but
A/oJU
has no plural.
in
Remark
/
III.
-*O
As stated
$
' O
IX
(6),
in-
these admit
for
mentioned
in (5),
but they
9
;
make no change
9
dfcclflAj.
gender;
LXII
(d).
XVL
its
Abstract
ABSTRACT NOUN
is
formed by
the J of the feminine or the endings of the dual and <jr and rejecting and denotes that a person or thing belongs to, or is connected with,
\>w
it is
derived, as:
"
t"
paternal, maternal, or parental
' '
;
"
y****-
belonging to Hasan,
(the
or to
the
Hasandn*
'"
;
*j*>
^relating to the
Haraman*"
sacred
or according to
some
*y+*
"
but
a person's face.
"
ITS
715
(a) If
the
noun
itself
ends
in
letters,
there
is
no change, as
*.'
:
t;
(jpj*
a Sufiyy."
(b)
noun
is
letter,
x
the
first
^ is
**
marked with
fathah,
(name
of
"
an Arab tribe and a
If
village),
(c)
noun
is
*>
&
:
or
^
^
x
or
as
changed to
Ua*,
rel.
adj
"youth," cjk'; x
t -+
,
^ name
^ '"
of
a
hill in
^i^ "John,"
t
^'
rel.
adj. c$>^^
(d)
If
is
the
fifth letter,
it
is
dropped, as
"Mustafa "
adj.
^fiJa^s.
^-
^$
),
rel.
adj.
^***
only three letters besides it, if the 2nd rejected; but if the 2nd radical is sakin,
preferably rejected, as
rel.
:
But
radical
in
nouns ending
in
^ with
is
has a vowel,
the (s
the 4^
may
rel.
is
<jy*^
adj.
<r
a swift
ass,"
^y*
rel.
^y
"
relationship,"
adj. ^.j*- or
S
Such forms
as
x
-
2,
s
c5jLH*\
though used by the Arabs of
<j^lfc^
cJXV^ an d
Baghdad, are incorrect, and are borrowed from the Persians. Modern Persians, for " Chinese '* chinawi (m.c.) means Chinese", say ^jUfc"^. Tn Baghdad jJua.
si!k.
^^
In
India
is
and
the
era,
and
"
^L^
" a Christian. 11
In
Baghdad, there
?
*
^
In Persia
%fj*>.
Incorrectly in
in Persian
^jUJ^ and
716
(e)
ITS
in alif
rel.
mamdudah
OJ
*f
change the
final
hamzah
1
- *
into j,
as: sU*
' *
"
sky,"
adj.
eSJ^"
but
winter
becomes
or UJj^i "France," are formed
is
From
(/)
t~ir*
^~^, ^X
Aj
)
v?
(jft
"father/'
^f
(jf
"brother," <jr>;
blood,"
J*^^
x/x
)
"
Wx
r
missionary,"
<Uj
(g)
"Medinah,"
I
tribe)
;
adj.
,'
!
^^
QumsTiiyy**.
-
The
Jcasrah in the
is
changed to fathah, as
Baking,"
(h)
rel.
adj.
is
"
^
C'
*s-
tjJ
O,--
U/
xx
O-^
usually dropped, as
c^C?
from^^i
(t)
The following
are irregular:
>
and ^1** from V^A^UJ ^ ^ * x ^ x x --xo > vW jj iia. " ( from u^jJt ) <55
x-
^W
a follower
of
follower of Harnf*"
"
55
***
(an epithet of
x
.
Abraham)
^^.
"
(;')
Another form
*
%
as:
% *S
corporeal"
;
*'
"
spiritual
;
*<,'
^C~a>
L^^AJ
^Uij
;
''lower
(of letters
dotted underneath
^^i.
from Yemen,
is
now
called ^^i^
**
it.
therefore annoys
a Yamaniyy un to
be called
**
Yamanl."
ITS
717
The feminine
J.
adding
Persians however distinguish the fern. adj. 1 and the abstract noun [vide (I)] by a long t ( ).
Remar k.
by
a silent h
),
Remark.
masc.
pl.
[vide
XXI
(p)]
broken
*,
pl.
^Ux S
$''%*'<;
pl.
d&AU.i;
^j^j
" a Baghdad!," pl
i^^uj.
(/)
The feminine
"
as an abstract
^ & ^Ut*. r x
*
noun
**
as:
^t
pertaining to
God"
AX^I
"divinity":
(<
foolish
"
;
"
'
<ul<fcU
xx
"
:
* c '
JUT *
"the
v>J
0"
/^O'
"how?
",
rel.
adj.
^^,
^
;
Pers.
^^V
"what
is
<i
n-
Remark.
instead, as
:
In theological
/ /
x
terms,
/O*'
;
the termination
nt un /
;
^
o$
<?xx
is
found
"
t
"
divinity
'
*
'*
oybjf
'
'
e>^U
"
kingdom
of
God "
O^A*
"
omnipo-
tence of
God
o>lj
humanity."
So, too, a collective plural
is
(k)
COLLECTIVE PLURAL.
fern.
some
of
w -
singulars) as:
^^A,
<y^ "the
lets
sect
"
dahriyy
;
6 $>'
(Jl*^, singular
*'**
'
out camels
on hire,"
pl.
^Ua.
{<
this
i*xC*
<**
dog-naturedness
(in
even write
A-.^y
(" everything
is
nature'*)
and
in slang say
oojlo
being a native."
718
THE DIMINUTIVE.
XVII.
The Diminutive
*
(a)
very rarely used in Persian, is by inserting a quiescent ya after the second letter
is
first
with
zammah
(_ .'
);
"a
man",
(used in contempt
= Pers. ^<yc
little
fi^'
)
:
I>A*
slave,
dim. ****
f^ "
son
of a
slave."
ts
[The diminutive also expresses endearment
t(,s
^>)
,b *
From
quadriliterals the
form
is
JJUni, as:
^^
t
(c)
(2).
For more
letters, the
form
is
JUL*^,
/
* *<.*
as
;^A*
"
<<'*
(c) (3).
be formed from .substantives, adjectives, participles, ' ^ ^ &' 3X from fi, and uflbS from *^)fi note that demonstrative pronouns (eg.
Diminutives
may
x-
is
here
of
^
relative
^i
pronouns
X/x^
(l*Wf
xCx
from and
&
),
re substantives
(^^froiu
su*HP^
**>
),
and wonder
Diminutives cannot be formed from nouns that are already /Cx^ " of the measure, such as vi^^ a bay horse."
Remark.
:
There are rules for the euphonic changes in short vowels they are not given here, but are illustrated in the following examples. (It must be
(6)
recollected
that the
characteristic or
measure, are
xC^
1
zammah
/
'*
dominant vowels
of the diminutive
----(
at the beginning,
/^CX{
'
and kasrah
of
at the end
>>x
V+*
"
^
o '
a date," dimin.
1
S^;
little
Js/** (fem.
>*
Ox
dimin. J^V*^
?^#i^^
dear
one
/x
'';
x
^^a,
(pi.
masc.y^f) "
"
smaller,"
^
x
(fem.)
humayra*" "dear
r osy- cheeked
";
Jl*a-f
of
paucity)
If the
it is
THE DIMINUTIVE.
"
719
*f uhaymdl
little
loads'
Sulayman"
"(dear)
Solomon
also
"
;
o x
e>l/*
masc,,
drunk;
X X0"0
^GxO '
expresses endearment
>
o '
of a mistress
>
"=
'
/<^/
c
and
u^*
^*^
(from
certain
fern,
triliterals)
ct
'hiH" =
J^AS
(c)
f,
With
j
,*
)
mak
letters:
(I)
(tor
*-*4j>
butvayb**;
/'O
nuyayb**;
wb
(for
v^
v-ujj
&&>
(for
"
opulence
fl (
from **j
dimin.
-Jxox
>
*****
t>(s'?
(2)
vJ^
"striker," dirain.
// ^
^^*
'
'b '
zuwayno**
^
>>
cx /
j^x
huivaydir**;
"
Joseph
dimin,
;
JU *'boy,
(for
^*);
(>^,
<;
r^i*
2L/
^
,?^, dimin.
$x/ ^A^
/^-^
(
for
^^
).
(3)
"key," dimin.
^4^
^
mufaytih**; jyuo*
sparrow"
(often
,o ^ ^
applied to any
(4)
(for twf
^f ubayy.
s.f
^^f "sister";
itfj
&f ukhayyat"*.
;
(for^
PC,
"son"
,& bunayy.
"
;
&JoJ
*^o bunayyat**.
a thing
"
;
&,t
f$,t
or shuwayyal**.
^^ or &j>, shuwayy*"
720
.-?"
GENDER.
" slave
^
girl"
; ;
**f
f f
<(
<***?
umayyat**.
do.
f\
(5)
mother"
do.
As
in the
J^iu
"
quince ",
*
'.
Compound nouns
as:
first
compound,
44
^f^^
<*~U>
God"
(as
a name)
" before
fifteen",
x'
^
4<
"a mere
fifteen
"; v>^>
&
sunset";
MJ
(7)
little
before sunset."
Diminutives
may
*'
masculine or
x^x
plurals of paucity,"
as:
e^^,
/ Gx
dim. &j+i?j*
x^o^/'.
5
oUu,
&f
pi.
dimin. oUL.
(8)
dim.
XVIII
(a)
Gender.
The
place
of
the
neuter
generally supplied
are of
by
Some nouns
t
*
common
gender, as
<j*y
UA> " a
(b)
wing."
are
The following
Feminine by form
Z"
'
I.
Nouns ending
,
in
servile J,
is
masculine, as in
ii^
M " a Caliph
in servile J^
J
(pi.
*lAU)].
2.
*
a
*
Xouns ending
most beautiful
as:
^JU
XIV
" Salma
(g)\
;
"
(a
X O
woman's name)
i~^
"
[wrfe Elative,
for case.
GENDER.
721
f
Ui*
'<*9
<j*
dunya (for ^v^> f r <kj^ from and to be near ") " the world.
If
x'
/<,'
-
y*j
'*
to be low, also to be
^G'
* x
mean
/
x
;
however the
"
youth
*
"
;
^^\
,9*9 ^=s^
(
is
radical, it
)
"morning
may be "
*
)
masculine, as
^H\
(^ for ^)
)
;
(from sunrise
till
4
about 9 o'clock
f *f
for (^jS
).
-^ but (j&\
3.
"towns "
^y
as: *UiiJf
Khansa "
(a
woman's name)
"a
4
plain";
n
"the sky";
c/
*f^ "red"
magnificence,
(vide
Adjective);
>
*r
;
sama**
"sky
^v.^
"grandeur,
haughtiness";
'desert.
(c)
The following
are Feminine
by
signification
1.
Proper names of women, towns, and countries, 1 and nouns that denote
*
'
only, as
o^f
c
a sister
"
;
^^jx>
Egypt
<f
"
;
> x cJU>U
"
*
"
pregnant
(vide also
XIX
2.
(/) );
"barren "
menstruous."
The name
' '
:
^;
"a
also flatulence
j
f'
' '
hand
side
"):
;U
c<
^
and
fb'
(but Shimal $* ?
/fl5x>.
"wine": ^!^
or
kof*x>
"wine": fi*
etc., etc.,
3.
The
double parts
/
;
body, as:
" hand
"
;
"eye
"
;
^
as
:
" shoulder"
J^;
" foot"
&
;
also
Remark.
/9
<,'
' s
make
.
f '<>'
J^f,
feet
"
* x if
" ears
^ o9
r
' }
(sing,
^if
Because
<,j^f
&>&*>
*"
ii^i
V
are
all
feminine.
In Persian, and
The
principal direction
is
the East or
(jj>j&c,
46
722
4.
GENDER.
Collective
and
" camels."
* '*
S,
fU^
"
;
"a
5.
single
dove or pigeon": f
"people"
masc. and
fern.
Vide
nouns (while regular plurals are not), in some cases they may be
*
by a masculine
considerable f '
adjective).
.
number
/o
rod";^ii
"a well";
^ "a house"
l/a*
"a
staff,
Remark.
Some grammarians state, that things that the Arabs dislike, made feminine; while things they love they
Hence
moon "
^^1
is
is
"a
is
masculine.
f
'
Firdaws u***j*
"Heaven"
*.?'
masculine
but
&*
"
Heaven," and
** *l+~
"
sky
"
(e)
Of
Common Gender
are
1.
Those
S^
which a 'noun of unity* can be formed, as
fs ^
:
jfc
"
S"
cattle
";
aiyj.
"grass-
hoppers or locusts
' '
;
f*&
"
trees
"
;
/Ox
* *
^
(
j+* De-
dates."
'
signification
The names
of
alphabet.
feminine).
*,
" is
*.
3.
js
as such:
-feiJ
'*
feminine.
4.
considerable
>tf *
number
of
nouns incapable
$<*>
of
classification,
as:
f
/ox
fL>
"peace";
1
oj**
"bazaar, market,
"
path, road."
street
";
j***
"
barley'
for
a single pigeon,
is
masculine.
723
XIX.
(a)
by
iker,"
&>U
fern.:
*x>)*3Rx>
fern,
"served"; <uLc
*
muttahimat"*
sused."
*
Remark.
before % becomes
t,
as:
^
^^
>>"
(6)
xo"^^Ox
(1)
" Adjectives of the measure eJ**5 become ^bu, as : \*>\j~ drunk," P*d ' "O" vs>Uk^ "timid," fern. \ d*j* "an old dotard," fern.
;
(2)
oA*t>
make
$ ' <,?
<4*
$'*<*'
u>*i fern.;
as:
vkj*
"
naked,"
*&jj* fern.
(c)
(I)
by the
"
<#
article or
a following
"
>*
"
ive)
jf
becomes
'*,
^51*5',
as
(^>^
?,<>,
(jitS
"great")
|2)
as
O x
^
ite,"
u^
^ O^
;
Ox
>*
X / xC
;
fem.
*^^j
^5A|
>*x'
"chestnut,
red-haired,"
fem.
*fj&^
^
* '
|d)
'.
O'
;
uS^t
<f
^
^
x
.
^^f
CX
when
it
equals cJUU
X
or intr.),
and
is
a predicate to or
:
uj
" a contented
girl."
It
is
as
though even
in the
Quran such
j;raphy occurs.
f .
F^e
f
also
XIV
(d)
and
(g).
<.*
<J*5*.
The feminine
of the
XXI (t)
Remark.
724
/
>x
NOTE ON FINAL
>
*<*
if.
'
if
But
Jyii
when
it
equals J>*i*, or
/ /x
J,
no substantive
(or
pronoun)
is
as
^)
raasc.
**^) fem.
Remark.
The
and masculine
is
plurals.
'
.'
,
(e)
$
tions as
"
' Q
'
^^ *f^J
'
'
" a wounded
fiO
fi*v X
woman"; J^S X
*
'
X
"a
it
murdered daughter."
*
'.
equals
Jlcli, X
or
is
usual
S,
as
"
/xxJ^x
intercessor," fem. A*JA;
u^*
Remark.
(/)
and masculine
f
plurals.
only,
make no change
f
XVIII
(c)
when
/
some permanency,
9
/xCJix^
Jf
as: <>HJ5
"giving suck
"
etc.
But
|A*
wife
^A "she
will be divorced
Remark.
csf
as
ci>lUU.4
XX.
(a)
Note on
it
final
J.
"boy," fem.
1
AlAfc
<4
girl."
When
the
Noun
*
*'
of Instrument
is
an intensive adjective
IX
(6)] it is
governed by
the
same
a
rules as Jytt
*
and uUn*.
C'
' x
*i
In verbs,
is
it is
e,
as:
c-J^
**she struck."
ct
;
In
Peman,
Arabic nouns
generally written
some words
some
is
are written with e, only, and Occasionally, in Persian (and Urdu), there
as*,
g&xiU 'aqlda
;
"
"
ally)
;
u>^&c
'aqidat
belief in
a particular
saint, etc."
^Jiu fti'2*^
" the
representa-
ta'ziyat
condolence."
NOTE ON FINAL
g.
726
(b)
It
^"
/o*
s$
(c)
It
8y*
" a she-cat/'
9
)j*>
pi.;
acopy, recipe,"
pi.
*~i; **y
*<.
"village,"
/x O
c
pi.
>(,>
beast of burden),
u*l>*
P^
x /x ******>
X
///
-f.
^"
**
^;
"
"
^ox
x&x
pis.
garden,"
an ^ ^^JL>
(d5)
fi
x-
Fece ^emr,
J* >35x
^x ^
ckb* or
*"
JUi
or else
<*V*
x
" travellers"
*J;U
x
/tx
<c
JUa.
a camel-leader (driver),
J>
pi. &)(**.
camel-leaders";
'
^^
**horse-
S
dealer,"
*
pi.
35
>
<&Ua*,
"horse-dealers";
/xx
'
^lxj
pi.
"
;
&
^
(e)
a tom-cat,'
pi.
k^
'*
tom-cats
"
;
f&O*
***j*>
"
"
:
It forms substantives
from
participles, as:
&*U
X
<
water-channel
<f
x x
<{
(/)
It corroborates a plural,
>
as:
<xJL5U^
or cUlfc*
metal-polishers," pi.
of J15^>
and J*<*;
e^y
'*
a Pharoah,"
pi. fi^ly.
(gf)
&o^U,
aujfj
etc,
XV
(5).
(A) It is
as:
/xx
^ )= '
/
^O'
e;)j
.Ifcs-.fxox
for
'*a
weight";
uUsUUj; &^4u * X
"
)
giving help."
*efo
Relative Adjective.
726
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
XXI.
(a)
Declension of Nouns.
Accusative.
Plural
They have
).
^Jf ), Dual
(^iLJf
),
and
e**Jf
9'<S,
).
Definite
*
Definite.
* '"
(
*,'
'
).
*j&
).
**j**
with Pronouns.
<{
**
t;Nom.
v ^"Abook."
**
vJ*^' "
al~kitdb
My book."
kitdb.
u
.
kitdbuh*.
:
kitdb-i.
:
^g
.
kitdb in
al-kitdb 1
kitdbih 1
kitdb-i.
kitdb an
al-kitdb a
kitabah".
kitdb-i.
A
(je>ji&vo
(6)
word
:
in
the Nominative
is
called *y*j*
in the Genitive
jj^uo or
and
as above
is
called a Triptote, or
JLz. in
by Arab
grammarians,
tive
tive
is
J^aU
< '
declinable."
the nomina-
a triptote.
in the
nomina-
is
a Diptote (^r***j>*
vide
(/).
(c)
' '
The words ^\
[j*
"
father"; ^f
' ' ;
* c
brother"; ji
possessor
' '
";
p?
mouth "
with long
^ vowels when
' *
father-in-law
and
'
thing, vagina,
are declined
affixed
in construction with a
noun or with an
'
1
'O-
^^^1.
2 i.e.
when
9 ^
defined
^^5
by the
Article, c
{Si**
etc. etc.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
// X
727
^
"
"
my,"
as
"
:
*>*f
his
father"
*i)
*
"
<^f
'
of the father
Zayd."
(d)
This
is
The noun
/o e^l
X
drops
its
it loses its
tanwn, as (#
:
*$)
jj+* Zayd*
t
bn
Amr in "Zayd
line,
But
if
happens to begin a
/O
the hamzah
,
:
not dropped.
/ o
(*&[
Jf
It is also
is
not dropped
CX
is
when
(jjj
used predicatively as
jj+*
^j
"
Zayd
the son of
'Amr."
In *Wf
of
^t
is
always dropped.
5?
weak
(^*
?
The word
i
! is
" one
(oufc.
'
(/)
/x .
).
Some nouns
are im-
perfectly declined,
(',
.....
in the
they do not admit of the tanwn. These take zammah nominative, and fathah (_ru) in both the genitive and the
Such are
definite
called Diptotes. 1
when rendered
jtiW
"
(def.
without
"
al)
<>+aR.<c
others, diptotes, as
Some
(^)
Nouns ending
/
/x
Musa]
fcjtf (fern,
of^f
).
like
Or
&)*> or
;
to
"
my
are not considered ghayr* munsarif or ^indeclinable" nor are the regular masculine and feminine plurals considered diptotes, nor the plural of jJ t nor words like^jcljl, though
728
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
<"*/
(
(t)
The Dual
**&
).
Masculine
Norn,
Feminine
^Jy
).
eyjltf
Nom. ^tfL X
Gen. )
-'
malikatan*
x
Gen.
Dat,)
(^(If kitabayn x
1
.
Dat.)
vt>
is
dropped, as:
*tj Utf
f
of
Zayd"
'
*gltf
'
^
"
/*
kitabay-h*
^in
his
two books."
It
Remark.
(
a noun ends in
ah'/
mamdudah
*"
*f
),
"two deserts"
(from ^utf);
^l^s^
e^^t^i
"
wo
(
black women.
(j)
Masculine
j
Feminine
Nom.
cJ?*>K katibun".
Nom.
Gen.
e>tJU>
malikat un
Ace.
malikat in
Dat The
inasc. and, fern, dual,
plural,
make no change
for the
definite
(k)
final
weak
*
The word
finish "), is
"a
Qazl
"
(from
^^
^ftj C5
c<
to decide,
*
+
'
:
its
genitive would be
^tf
"
qa%iy
un
and
^^
**
definite article,
xc"
'
^l^f "
'
al*qaziy
'
and
9-
^^f *
*
al-qaziy*.
But
JL^flS
),
so they
become
The h
of ^the ( 8 )
d*
when followed by an
affixed
pronoun.
2 If
the
W.^
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
with the tanwn
is
729
for
both
oases,
l
u<>li qa%**,
and without
is
it
c^&Jf x
al-qazi.
As fathah
over a yd that
preceded by a kasrah
*
qaziy
an
and
<*^&f/ al-qaziy*.
With the
>>X
<*J^U qazi-h*;
and the
X
.
Only the
definite
xx
*
The
is
Norn.
e)>*tf,
and Gen.
(^^tf.
' '
(/)
Similarly,
^fc*
fata"
a youth
' '
(from
^^^
,
"
to be
young
9
"
),
/-x
on the measure JUi, standing for <J& fatay un and ^iAJf al-fata is for (J&1 u al-fatay Consequently, according to the rules of permutation or Arab
is
.
euphony, there
is
no change
for case
all
^
The
and
<^.&J'.
Their declension
$ s(j
+O
is
virtual
c^Aflj
*
),
not expressed
(J**)).
S
S S
broken plurals
<uxi
^
and
-^
*'
to increase," intr.),
and Uj
4<
satisfaction
^X
with" (from
/
X
^j
;
cl*j'
and
and^/) rizawun
and
they,J>oo,
make no change
rule.
for case.
Words
like t^c
^^i
follow the
same
is ^5(o) The present participle of all derived forms whose final radical or j, have the terminations of <^ 1* while the passive participle will be
u^S
*
like
4^ ^.
-
The broken
jjU
^
and
^j& make
^>l>^
^
and
^U* in the
Sing,,
But
if
(or
a ^
were preceded by a
the most euphonious
fatfyah,
(or
would become
^ .'
^/.
2
is
tJUflat ) of
X
of the dots
under
In the Quran
With the
maqsurah
>,,
becomes
alif fawilah for all cases, as
:
Jjlli.
730
Nouns
like
^
.
*<t **93* 9
-
o*l5 and
^
&j* are
called
final
vowels understood."
is
used for:
making
their feminine in *
and signifying
rational beings.
(ii)
Proper names of men, provided they consist of one word (and are
JU >*'
not compound as
*JJf X
***
),
*:
and
names.
(iii)
(iv)
Relative adjectives in
(v)
The
dative, JUif
e^y KU
for vjlity.
Remark
I.
when these
feminine
are
of
common
gender
(i.e.
S; [vide
Intensive Adjectives
(3)
and
of the
sound masc.
pi.
only
when they
s&
(vi)
j&
it
&
JUi when
pi.
(vii)
rule,
viz.:
&&
,
"
sons";
" members
9
'
;
"
(also
"
fit
")
ji
;
"
possessed of,"
pi.
#& and
9s
fs
"
9,
j)jl
(Jb
world," e^l*
a
"
f^
(>;f
pi.
"land earth,"
e^u.
8
^^ and
u^ljf
u*
"a year,"
"
The
is
,>
plural forms
d^&*, oy^b,
etc.
^*
and
>Jli
(which
)UUf and
4
peculiar form.
In Persian
x
is
The oblique
case ^^Ju*
final vowel).
731
vide
(i),
the
appears in construction.
(q)
(i)
is
used for
(ii)
S.
$x
'
/x
&x
).
(iii)
tailoresses"
/ xO"
i'-fc^ sing.
fern,
O *
(
(iv)
The feminine
superlative <^i*J
of
masc. JUif
).
(The
broken
plural is tUiff
(v)
V';
).
The feminine
both genders
9 *~ O x *JUi (of
''O''
JUif
when
it
*f*
<J**.)
(Plural,
(vi)
Names
of the
months.
(vii)
(viii)
and
pi. Jftitf,
X
and Stem IV
x
(ix)
(x)
Foreign words
nightingales
UTT.)5
"
ot;f>l (P.)
(xi)
(xii)
;
oUiyli
plural.
*>
f s*t'?
as
(xiii)
Feminine nouns
O
t
in
and
*f
as:
^W
"
pregnant,"
pi.
^
;
^yi
"
^x'O.^'O"
memory", pi.
oUjI'i; pf^uo, pi.
/^xo"
xx"
o^t^^
^^D
etc.).
> $
end in
' '
H,
as: fUa.*
, *
' '
s~
bath,"
pi.
ui>UUa*;
^4^ (com.)
heaven
1
plural.
In Persian
In Persian
Uf.
iJl^Xli.
2 8
as:
dUS*
(a) (x).
Hindi
^1^
),
and
J#,
* Ftrfe
XXII
732
(xv)
DIPTOTES.
few masculine nouns that have no broken plural take the regular f ' 'O / < < an animal, a living thing," pi. ^bf^ko*. feminine plural, as: ed>s
,
'
Remark.
is
sometimes accompanied by
charge, attack",
pi.
a change in the short vowels, as: *!**. '<* * t , *? f *9 9 " a room," pi. ot^^u* and *f**>.
"a
XXII.
(a)
(i)
Diptotes.
:
The following
Proper names of more than three letters that are feminine, or that -PX X/ ?,, end in masc. or fern., as: *-*HJ ( a woman's name) ; 4^1** (a man's name)
,
'&'
*fc*
$'<;,, " Mecca " " "; *->* a scorpion," but u^oe " *Aqrab
?'<;,
(a
man's name).
(ii)
999
names with the second
(iii)
t^+,,
-
letter
moveable, as
UA^J
*^yj
triliteral
f<
may
*
or
may
Egypt," and^A^c
>^
:
acity."
*'
But such
as
have
j**
Hell."
Remark.
is
^^
is
the same in
all
cases: vide
XXI
is
*'.*
(/)
to (n).
^y
sdkin.
Any
l*
f
Zafir.
*' c(v)
Proper names that are on the form of any part of a verb, as: p
9
;
9 o-
,
(
,
' c
^^
**.
he increases
9
"
)
;
*&s
" Jerusalem."
9
,
^9
and compound proper
e>t
as
e)US*;
names
of
one word, as
U&MAJ.
t '*'
'>'
fs
).
(vii)
[The feminine
is
9 0<
9,
9
?<,,
;
9, 9
of
JUif as a superlative Ss ox
dL ; f
^^
plural
cUWf
an exception].
But
"widower,"
fern
DIPTOTBS.
733
(viii)
Those adjectives
of the
.W,
as: /
-
0,-^* "thirsty,"
G
*
fern.
^*\
$;'<;
^l^,
1^) and
<&UojJ).
'x>
Distributive or collective numerals from
3
/X0 x
to 4, as
aUf
or **.;*
"
by ones/
(x)
etc.
All
nouns in
which the
final
hamzah
^
"
:
is
'
za^'d
[i.e.
*T
not changed
from
4.
^
'
or ^ as in
*Uvk* (name of a
is
district)].
But
^
*U
the
water"
is
hamzah
fem.
in *U~
it
is
when
;
figuratively
when
^
it
means "rain"
etc. it
ismasc.
it
^
so too *l~i
was jUo.
JJ
'O
hamzah
is 25a*i^,
is
not
Remark.
i)
^^JUaw
"pregnant
form.
letters after
a servile
alif,
as
xx
)
;
f,+
(pi.
9*+
;
$
(pi.
<,
9 **
;
f*
;
(pi. of
p*)*
y^o>
of ajfa)
J^^Us
of
ctxu)
jj^fclxA * *
(pi.
of i^H*>
).
If
however a
is
noun
is
(pi. of
of/*)
"
money-changers."
(xii)
in 5
as
&*
U^
^i
" three
is
the half of
9 ^9
f&'
Jj?
9^9
(xiii)
The broken
"other")(6)
All
Jt,
or
a possessive
suffix, or are
a muzaf,
become
(c)
Triptotes.
The regular masculine and feminine plural, and the dual, have two cases, but are not diptotes; they never become tripotes: also the only
734
feminine plural takes tanwn.
x
*C
*
BROKEN PLURALS.
The
plural of ji is not a
in jf or
in
all
X
<*
cases
<jr^
*'
good news
"
;
t?MA
"
presents
^o
"sick
men";
jfi*
"virgins."
Remark.
alif
maqsurah
is
radical
(as
in
"guidance"
for
XXIII.
(a)
Broken, Inner,
or Irregular Plurals.
that no rules can greatly some measures are more common
These
are so irregular
and
various
assist the
irregular,
proficiency in Arabic has been attained should the tables of forms for broken plurals given in the grammars, be studied.
rule, the
As a
**>)
when omitted,
it is
to be
regular plural. Some nouns have more than one broken plural in this case the plurals have usually different meanings i.e. when a noun has several
;
meanings
for
pis. &)*ij
"
boys," and
&W
"
dants"
^^
pis.
>
* 9 9
^.^f
"eyes";
ejUef
"chiefs";
&&
"springs";
va(ius
."
to be derived from obsolete singulars and not from
The
feminine, even
when they
of
masculine words
they
are
The sound
plurals indicate
is
BROKEN PLURALS.
(d)
735
MO^OS
MULTITUDE"
( g,i*)|
in
PLURALS OF PAUCITY
(i)
are
JUjf ,1 as
tia^f
"
feet," sing.
L^
"
;
"a
letter
"
;
S9<,'
o^f
/^o
letters
(but
^ 9
d^
'
*9
*'
many
,
letters ").
jjxo
(ii)
AW,
/' o'
as:
<*+**
"some boys,"
O"
-^/
(iii)
"medicines,"
sing, *fji
drinks" from
only occurs in
/^O'
(iv)
U^A
6i " a drinkable" (but ^^ many drinks"). This form words that have the penultimate letter a long vowel.
ox
./&-?
JU#,
^&..
This form
may beeper a
Remark.
literals
(i.e.
cUif
and
Jl**f
then a plural
of multitude.
sive;
Plural of Paucity expresses any number from three to ten Inclucannot, for instance, express 2 nor 11. The plural of multitude denotes any number from ten s to infinity.
(e) it
The
5*^1
**
),
less
than 9
'
(or 10).
Vide
'
(m).
is
(1)
PLURAL OF MULTITUDE
:
when it denotes
whether Jf
is
prefixed or not, as
&)*?y+)\
J^f
is
Or according Or according
to
to
736
BROKEN PLURALS.
happy who humblec
is
u>j*tU>
^L>
yi ^A ^ikJf "
f< +
a plural of multi
is
(2)
is
PLURAL OF PAUCITY,
:
unless
it
of plural, as
]
j&J
:
"
<>JU
tree- kind,"
S^
" a tree,"
oy
" trees
" a sign,"
The
regular feminine
plurals
of
paucity denote
class.
has no restriction as to
paucity or multitude.
and for masculines usually, (i) Broken plurals are, for neuters invariably, treated as singular feminine (collective) nouns, and usually take theii adjectives in the singular feminine. They may, however, be qualified by a
f
x
X/O'^x
(or
JU>
e^/ J ^;
1
)'*
noble
men,"
as well as
by
if
or
v^J^f
:
ejv*Wf: *l*W
''
fat
cows "
"
)j*j)*
shining pearls."
an abstract adjective in the broken plural cannot, however, qualify /0 ^^o^ xx / Xx /xfrx ' / f '<*' noun, as *H*i J u *'f (and not ^Ui JUif ), but we can say <3^il ^Jti.
An
(/)
of
broken plural
(i)
a* letter
as
JL; a
"man,"
Jl^)
"
men "
as:
JU
wUr
"property,"
/^/
"a
book,"
pi.
f,
u^:
(i")
those
tliat
chan8e the
Many
There
is
common
for
to paucity
(d) (iv).
no
special feminine
form
737
/
x
eowels only, as
a lion,"
pi.
^^
"great/*
/#'
(also fife*
).
pi, fife*
(k)
(not
f
*i*t
/ pi.
x x
$
(pi.
x x
:
*
/0
primitive).
Examples:
^^ "jewels,"
f
f>\?
of pi. ci>t^M>*)
x
5
w^;
>
"
9
any conveyance,
,,
;
v*V *
v^
9
A,x
"
letter," pi.
*,<,*
^i^
^
^tUU
'
emperor/'
pi.
^^l
x
<
,*
*<,
<
,,
;
'
<*
Uic r ^x
key,"
pi.
^lx> CX
^UL*o
(Per-
jian
garden,"
pi.
>>xx
magazine/'
pi. &$>***.
(1)
ETC. (exclusive of
[vide
md
Diminutive
as
:
XVII
(c)
1
cut
off,
^jJaJLp
<*
"
nightingale/
9
)1.
"
*,<**
,,
:
J^Uu;
last.
&j&*
"spider,"
pi.
v^li*
the
rejected
radical
is
generally
he
quadriliteral /x xx
X
or quinqueliteral,
/x xx
:
vith
<f
aK/,
/X
X</X
J*>
XX
;
<
CX
J*
XX
XXx
if
they begin
^C^Cr^
^x xx
e^/,
pi.
&*M;
if , pi.
<M!|
:-M,
pi.
*wUf jAJ,
pi.
/"x
xr
J|^o ^o^"
Remark.
pi. of
*i)f
***.
(w)
PLURALS OF PLURALS
(1)
iterals,
These are formed on the measure of quadriliterals and quinque& x xc* 9 x and indicate a large number, as: flb*+Jf *>#f **the dogs of the
but wyJf
f A*x
quarter,"
of
Arabia/'
^
Examples:
xx
1
Jy
"say-
pi.
of pi.
Jb ^
'*
many
sayings
":
ipUlar
pi.
o^>f; pi.
of pi. Jflrf: AJ
4<
"two
738
Ox
* +
)
hands";
pi.
*af
^
&**$ *
pi.
of pi.
^f
*
;
"
many
hands,
also
"
:
f
aifca**
assistance,
* f f
pi.
"books";
ejSfi*'.
pi.
<-A3l-*
' '
ii^^a
city"; pl.ei**;
pi. of pi.
'Vide'
(e).
(2)
is
Ox
xx
x^
:
x
c
j*y*>
-^%*
*>]>*f>*
J-^
'
road
"
;
*^
pi
IRREGULAR PLURALS.
:
quite
irregular,
or are
^mother,"
"
pi.
XO^
f
mouth,"
water,"
pi. Sfjif
mouths
t^f.
rumour/'
>x
*
fi**'
"
**
pi.
l*
or
-^^
!
/x&
or 5>^S or
^xo
&\y*
\
woman,"
man,"
pi. *l~i
women."
"
j
pi. <j.C
).
(0)
/
c<
(1)
JU^ ;a&a^"
,
a mountain,"
pi.
JU.) rajul**
>,
)
> pi.
JLl;
><
11
rS^tl*
rtA* n
a footman "
J^ rijal**.
<f
^j;
a strong wind,"
pi.
riyah**.
p).
*-
w -
^-x
,r
jlj
#;
Jllj
739
x; rijl*
" a foot,"
"a king,"
pl.
cUjf arjul**.
f 9t
S
(2)
JJU> maZifc^
/OX.
gaZfc
J* muluk**.
/
,,
"
"a heart,"
/>
u^JL* qulftb**.
>5
^-jjo durus**.
6a^
ttfl
<tf
a house,"
,,
e^#
buyut**.
na/w-"*
Driver,"
,,
a "kindness,"
f* xx
^
1
shajarat
JU*'f afzal**. /x c x
,,
^luAf ashjar**.
latvn**
"
colour,"
"
property,"
,,
M Jf^f awuxK*
"
state, condition,"
,,
Jf>^f ahwal**.*
vb
(4)
6a6 ttw
x
* *
door,
"
, ,
Ujjf abtvab**.
/x Ox
un .
d^i; ragftj
"
loaf,"
,,
<&*;f arg&ifat
^A.
^Ui^
/ ^
janah**
"awing,"
'*
*u^j
*
ajnihat**.
1**1
^w^ari
a horse,"
,,
AXA^! a^ajno^
1111
.
^^
(
s?/afe
ttn
"
/x
o "
weapons,"
,,
JU*f aslihat**.*
p)
v ^ kitab** "a
1
JftS
book,"
pl.
v^ kutub**.
Plural of paucity.
In Persian shajara. / X
X
pl., is
a plural
of paucity.
tree-kind.'
But oKLx
halat"*, plural of
etc.
all
plurals of paucity.
740
/x
<
Aij** madinat**
"a
city,"
pL
e***
.
mudun u *.
L&
<*'
' c
safinat"*
a ship,"
(1
^ sufun.
/
JT*
qaryat
"a
village,"
/ ,9
," etc.,
*Lcmillat u
c*
,,
burak.
"nation,"
etc.,
JJU milal.
*
(q)
t *
pi.
ff/ kiram.
~>
sawt**
"
lash,
whip
for
j*
flogging,"
,,
1U^
siyat
un
,,
^f
f<,9
usudun
,,
*ij
wuld un
$? *
,,
un y>Aa khushub
f 99
"sky,"
,,
ufli
fuluk
un . B
(r)
/x^
(1)
singular
*!A>
*i*o
/^C^
^^>
^^F
AX>!
"a
rarity," pi.
UbJ; AJU^^a
f *9
pi. f*f.
x
sentence,"
pi.
cU^;
"followers of
a particular prophet,"
J)
/ //
cl*>',
(2)
The
f
,
as
v^ " a
r
>
book,
"
/ 99
$99$,
"a
wall," pl.;^;
$9 ?
;^
ttw
"
adonkey,"
is
pl.^
But the
99
plural of
v lj!Rw
?afe56
"cloud,"
also of the
form cW,
viz.
(/).
^xox
;
The
plurals *Jj or
^tAtj=
<<
boys
>>
but
"
^iljf
offspring, descendants.
'
/
Also
741
,
f
x
The
plural
its
^
*
x
**
"
f
;
Governor,"
pi.
J*k
l
JUU,
XX
x
^U
"a
trader,"
f&9
pi.
JU
"
J^U
"ignorant
of
plural, as
may have
(4)]:
other
forms
pl-
JU^
vide
JU
c^ X
*.
When
cXck',
without a weak
letter,
is
an
irrational
or
word
(in
grammar),"
pl.
cUf^*,
xx
but
$
* ^
may always be
J*>1*
"a
governing
"a
pl.
Viceroy,"
pl.
JU*
^^t^ x
pl.
"eye-brow,"
x^ x
7
pl.
v^l^J
x
ur)^ "Cavalier,"
x
u*;l>;
x
**U "
x
witness,"
(*''
xO
x x
*f^& (and j^
(5)
and ^Q^f
pl.
*A{J.
x
The measure
f,
as
:
<xJUl$'
,
<i
plural
CxU|^',
*
ifo^b' X
a
x
rule,
X
a capital city,"
pl.
*cly
XX
xx
f,
ij^^ "margin,
^
8
marginal note,"
pl.
<&/<*
or i^a.
^
gut,"
pl.
or csjL^ "
X
^t>a.
ii^fj X
angle,"
pl. <^jt>)
****
(and
^lj>)
zaivdya
).
(6)
The
plural &AJ'
mw5^ have as
its singular
**U>
sing,
v^^
"seeking," but
v^
tullab un
and
rarely
V^>
" seekers
"
;
Also (j^Lote ^
may
be used.
f
*
'
$& U
"a
woman
woman."
3
'<'' *ULb
this
in
/
Arabic from
742
But
!*
may
S,'
&**'
be a singular, as
is
87*^
i^b.
(7)
The measure
from verbs with the third radical weak, as: (JA* qaz 1 *,
pi.
5Uj
&A
);
f*
"
missionary
(of
*x
f,9
any religion),"
pi.
k>;
dtj *
"shepherd,"
pi.
SU;
)
;
jf*
*
"narrator,"
pi.
Sfj;;
jU*
Ajj
"raiding,
warrior,"
*i>*
(for
ty*
JfJ
"
Governor,"
).
(8)
From
Jjx
*Jb^i
AJLJX*
"*
"city,"
/x
+
pi.
^
<^f^x>;
^
*'
xx
XX
U^
-
x x
/^o x
^
<c
*-^
&^'
wife,"
eP|/*J
X
A^l^fem.,
great,"
pi. ftti*. +
x
last radical
xx
xx>*OX
^Jwu
), pi.
111*'*
fa'ala,
xxx tUu
^5V
*;
"calamity,"
(9)
pi. bi'.*
letter
and are
of the
measure
plural *JUt, as
*'
waliyy**
patron, friend,
and
pronoumced with
with
*
^,
as:
SLAftJt (jell
go^
'l-quzat.
so too
e^l
Jtllf
In India, Persia, and Turkey also a " religious warrior/' being a contraction of the
phraae
d*
fs*9
.
/x, /
final
S
(
xxx/^^ / x
In
&Ji$Jf ^0
is
an
addition
to
the
it.
many
743
'
,"
pi. *l*fjf;
'
& , ^oA
"miserable,
hard-hearted,
black-guard,"
t
pK
ft
!.
Also rational mu^a'af nouns of the measure J**>, or adjectives conto rational beings,
V
hysician,"
"
).
Remark
is
Lji^
" wicked
x
' '
(pis.
is
an exception.
^
*
The pi.
so too
cUU
is
not
Remark
fi
II.
-
common measures
:
fi
9~',f
.
*i<u, as
^
s
;
f
(sing.
v
;
* ,,9
^A r);
<-^!/^^
*f^*.
Other
sures exist, as
X
X/
Uxi3
/ x-X^
<<
"
^^*>!
4^U!
(10)
O-
Cr'
e>^U*
(fern. ^^1*^')
^Uu
and
as
wrathful,"
pi.
(11)
iscent
letter is
a long
, , *
servile,
have a
plural
ulSUi,
as: &lax*
"cloud," pL
a pamphlet, etc.,"
/
pi.
J5Ui, Jl*A ^
the north
wind" and
* ,
^o
;
$<** ,
"the
left
hand,"
This
pi.
J5U
x
);***
Remark.
pi. is also
j^^
free
"
pronoun,"
pi.
a need, a thing,"
pi.
J>^j**
5^-
"a
woman,"
J?
<4
night,"
pi.
ji
(also
JtfV
).*
x
I
it is
a contraction of
.'
JlU|
^j.
o*o-
*;
hence A^ut
^jjlj
"heir apparent."
But
jj,"o^
> *cj
aJUi^ pi.
ojuf
744
all radicals,
have
*,
as
v^ "fox,"
pl.j*!*+
pi.
v^'; '
fH>*\ s '
r
$& ''abridge,"
pl.
jW*; '
"gems,"
vV " a star,"
is
pi.
v !/.
those quadriliterals
prefixing
f - cs
(
pi. of
not
*' w
**>(
by
or f , as
"
vi./o
*
pi.
^livx;
s
' '
pl.
(13)
Quinqueliterals
(S
v^UaJL?
an emperor,"
f f <s*
4<
;
"(,
pl.
(Jj*li*>;
e^-^^*
<3j*i*
a large box
or chest,"
c^-^3
"infidel,
hypocrite,"
pl,
<5-^3;
^^i^"akey,"
pl.
^>&
pl.
* (14)
The broken
f
feminine plural in
e>f
Remark.
The
vide I Stem.
(15)
9
**
U'f,
When
'**' J*tf
is
superlative,
it
has,
when used
XIV
(g).
0,9
$',<*
Vide
9 ~>tj*
),
XIV
(g).
When
J*5 or eJ^,
f
*<,9
as
t(
:
j+s\
red,
"
or
/ <,*
blind,"
pl.
(16)
The noun
The noun
vWe IX
(a) I.
(rf).
(17)
of time
Vide also
VII
745
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns
e^jT^i
),
c**
$o
Simple collectives
*Jf
p\
<*'
of
unity to
^3
'
t(
well as individuals
jt~*
"
f.f
the soldiers
"; ^*0
" a
band
for
jj*>v
horsemen," [but *&) a small band a small piece vide XIII (d)].
of
than ten
on the measure
are formed.
Vide
(e)
and
\
XVII.
c,
(6)
Collective
nouns
g+Jf ,*)
),
formed by adding
^O^xO"
to the singular,
vide
XX (d).
O^O-O^o
(c)
Inhabitants of a country
is
c^f
5 '
Such
a noun
name
of the country, as
India, or
*$'
the Indians ";
^]
<c
Rum,
is
Rum."
& ^.
Jf
9*
single individual
formed by the
relative
However the
plural d*i*
(the plural of
Hindus
"
(not
The
plural of ^*jj)
is
f\^\ or
O'
C
*
e^is^j;.
^O
(cZ)
Class nouns
(+a*ff
ax&
is
expressed
J of
unity, as:
fUa.
"dove-kind"; ^=p^
<4
tree-kind."
collectives.
Arabs
differ as
Hijaz generally
masculine.
make them
* <"> /0 ' In the Quran, is always masculine is while plural, found both masculine and feminine. The general practice seems to be to
dj
make
d^
"horse-kind"
*
is
"
"
Quran the
Vide also
under Gender.
l
In India,
call
Rum
means Turkey.
The
Arabs
Greece Rum.
746
XXV.
Jjj^uJf
,9
the Preterite
tne Aorist
).
*S+
*r
'
9*
The
Preterite Active
is
<J**,
JU* f or
cW
All three are declined alike, i.e. they all have the same tense endings or cas in the Preterite, and the same endings or prefixes in tire Aorist these
:
intransitive
'*
quality: the former denotes permanent condition, as
:
'
&y "
to be sad."
The Passive
is
always
J**'
and
is
^
).
Preterite
(*^Wf
^
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
fa'aln*
/a'alu
fa'alata
fa'ala
'
fa'alat
fa'al*
"They did."
"She did,"
"
He did.
fa'altunn"
fa'altum
4
fa
"
fa'alt*
'
fa'alt*
Ye did."
,(,"
Thou didst/'
uu;
fa'alna
I did.
(b)
or
is
th<
^
;
s*s
J^ J take
Note that
this final
alif is
JlJU^f
fci
or otiose.
In a word like
appreciated," were this alif not introduced, the final j might be mistaken for the eonjunction "and.'* Consequently, before the affixed pronouns the alif is dropped, as it
fulfils
no useful purpose.
VERtt.
747
Aorist
Plural.
jUJf
).
Dual.
Singular.
Fem.
Masc.
Pern.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
9 9 ex
taf'ul*
taf'ulan*
' '
yaf'ulan*
yaf'ul*
They
'
/CX
>V
fcx
taf'ulri*
taf'uliin*
taf'ulan*
1
taf'utin"
taful*
"Ye
do or
will
do."
Ye two do
or will do.
I
JUftJ
naf'ul"
"We
do
or will
do."
"I do
first
or will
do."
The
Aorist Passive
is
JU*
yuf'al*
ing unchanged.
(c)
The Aorist
viz.
:
is
susceptible
of
certain
inflexions
to
express
five
Moods,
(i)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
(ii)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
To
in
is preceded by certain particles ; the Aorist changes to fathah ( ), i.e. when it such a case the final n, when preceded by a long vowel, is dropped. In the 2nd and 3rd pi., an otiose is added, except when a suffix is attached,
*
as:
\j&i "they
or,
write,"
O s
but
o
(
1^.
'
)
The
"it
particles
are:
^f
"that"
(with Pret.
Aor.)
(
eP
=v!>fK
will certainly
not"
(for future
time only),
or Jf
e>f )
(for
any
of
^] ) *
time);
^
of
in
order that
not";
eJ^l
*
"then
li*an
= Jf = ^)
Hi) U*alla
i e>K
=B
H^J
jf in
the
"or");
when
it
0I
There
is
often an ellipse of
^f t
especially after
j and jf.
^f moy take
748
"
x
l
;
O
it is
x x
l
j when
equivalent to
55
e>f fi*
J +
(called
?x
<jJ| fSI
in order
that"); (J**
"until, so
much
so that."
(iii )
&'
3^'s
fl "the lam of the Imperative ");
or
J"let"
(j*1t\
I/
la*'
'n-nahy)
when
it is
tive, or follows
its final
an Imperative (and expresses the jaza of a condition), 5*9 c '<x $ <J Uis vowel, as in Ua. ^^ v| 8it me less often and you
:
^
' '
<
will in-
crease
my
affection for
you
itsj
(said
by the Prophet
to a too-frequent visitor)
C,
/x
when the last radical is vowel-less, as: e^. In which there are no inflexional suffixes, it can also reject the n,
f,
yak*.
Remark.
The following
particles
:
"
O x
' '
e)J
if
ey*
he who
"
etc.;
" that
which, what
' ' ;
U*
x
* *
whatever
^O
;
"
;
^f
* '
whoever
' '
etc.
(declined)
Ufc^
"wherever";
tij
"when"
'
f
U>il
^
xx-x
xx
"
when, if
"
(only
****
Uxji
x-^Ox
[
gax
+*#*;
&l
" where
"
;
x<r
^f
where
"
;
&'
oljf
Vide
XLV.
Jil
is
Vide
XLVi
at intervals, occasionally."
l+t*
'
<
'
'
but the
rest
may
be joined or not.
U =
and
^
ij
^ V
749
ENERGETIC MOOD.
Ox
by adding
O^C"-
tf
and
&
.
an and ann a
fl&x'&x
as
{^Ai and
the
<>!*&>
is
when
tense
:
tions or oaths
they
may be
strengthened by prefixing J.
shortened to
(
^ are
^
xox
and
Before the
),
suffix,
# >^xx
as
:
^
ter-
"
mination,
(v)
all
With the single n (for o>i*ibJ ). they will certainly do the dual and the feminine plural terminations are wanting.
"
persons of the
cutting off the prefix e> from the second and Aorist a hamzat" 9 l-wasl, and, if the substituting Apocopated
(
-- ),
pointing
it
with
pointing
:
it
also
with
);
and
if
or
Imperative.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
JUif*
JUf*
uf'uln"
uf'ulu
(
^Doye."
The remaining persons
Aorist with or without the
o
e>
uf'uK,
|
uf'ul*
"Dothou."
Z*
are formed
35
by prefixing J
0"v
to the
Apocopated
35x"Cx
;
or
e;,
him do "
li-yaf'alann* "let
him
certainly do."
J X
(d)
is
formed by prefixing
II
to the
Apo-
copated Aorist.
The Imperative
This
J
O O
"
?
'
9'
certainly
O'G
no governing power.
Or JU^t
or
Or ^JUif
X* X
or ,JUif
XX
as in the singular.
750.
PRONOUNS (SEPARATE).
XXVI. Pronouns.
(a)
ctoiU
),
others" affixed
"
(
case
Dual.
Plural
F.
When
definite,
it
is
'Qod,
he
is
thy Lord," or
J\
"
\
'
)
JUA>| _>$***
must be
carefully distinguished
of
Emphasis
o^tWf ^x***
<
x*
,,&*,
another subject and so gives
C,
,\
it
emphasis, as:
w***^
>fc
tia
e;K
" Mt
was
/^>*
/^
^ * c '<"* x x
cW^'
Even
formed the army." if the subject is a first or a second personal pronoun, the third is used
~
to form the copula, as
:
tf
s
"
am
'
If
*9
*>
"and,"
or
"
may
>k^ uxihuP
^
*
o<
fahy
a
:
this
lif
is
pronounced ana. an
indefinite predicate.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(6)
J51
;
(1)
Possessive
Pronoun
kunn*.
two.
if
suffixed to the
as:
l{
"my
giving
it
to
him":
vide also ()
(2).
The
second persons
*
etc. are
(c)
(1)
^ i becomes
'
^
'
ni
as: <^j-*
2ara6i+t
" he struck
me";
^**J
w-?
e>
or contracted
inm "
verily I
";
ix)
The added
it
s * s
(2)
alif,
becomes
^
<
y,
"
my
sns.
(3)
If
a-, or aw-u),
it
becomes
<f
i^a
as
1
*
/a/tt/y
qaziyy*
oh
my
" oh
Qazi
';
^sons") 4^ baniyy*
"oh my sons";
^f
abatvayy"
my
parents"
"t
(dual, <^-Hot^T
^
).
(rf)
(1)
The zammah
(
/
(
of
pi.,
is
if
4jltf kitdb*-
"
of his
book "
*&>
'alayhim
" on them."
The diminutive
singular
is
bunayy*
" oh
my
darling boy."
752
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(2) If
a hamzaP'l-wasl
follows
hum
or
'
"you,"
or
antum
^wi
"you,"
?"~9
is
must
fe*l*
alayhim
8-salam*.
if
If
is
preceded
by a long vowel,
long.
(e)
its
zammah
pronounced short
by a short vowel,
tanwln disappears.
:
As the
affixed
definite, its
Consequently the termination 8 is written e before the affixed pronouns is of course pronounced t as it is before all vowels, even when written
t
.
it
(/)
(1)
The preposition J
'
/*
becomes J
first,
as:
, *
*'
,
^ K " to or
for
me."
Vide also
XXXII
(2)
(b).
But
***
before the
first
person,
when
it
becomes c***,
'ind-l
(g)
(1)
The
final letters
&
and
abltf kitdbah*
"
his
two books
(2)
"
;
99*
VO^ zaribu-h*
mute
lt
his strikers
(i.e.
those
Similarly the
alif* of the
is
the Preterite,
it
dropped, as
'
";
not write
it.'
(h)
of the
pronouns in
<^V
&* "
>
o
i.e.
initial
hamzah
of all derived
forms of the
verb
fern.,
except
Stem IV
'<*/
/o /
af'al*),
o
?
&
(JUj'f
of
^j]
^|
8f^J fyot,
and
e)UJ(
masc. and
and
also the
hamzah
The
letter
is
is
marked with a
s-
f
)
'
as in
^L
"
despair."
With the
Aorist,
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
9"
that
"
753
9, *
night";
all
*flbJ
^
/-V
^'
"he wept
"he
wept
those nights."
(1)
(')
Two
affixed
pronouns
may be
joined
"I
thus
U iJ&M
If the
is
&
' *<,' 6
tftayP-k* iyya-h*.
first case,
persons
2nd, 3rd
say
^
(2)
When
is
for emphasis, a
*>
object, it
also suffixed to
1*1,
pronoun precedes the verb of which it is the 9 n' <,',&, fP' ' & as e>fc*~o ^.[j ***> ^i ** Thee we serve and
:
When an
affixed
9 99 9 ^ ,<s
a'tayP'kum
>+ijlu>f a'tayP-kumu-h*
6
a'taytum
O^
>+Julx*f
a taytumu-h*
utcf aftayV-humu-h"
gave them
it."
x
Remark.
The
^s*& s
l
"
my
master
11
;
<,*
9&9
qurrat* 'ayn-i*
^my
j^p
s
" that
(to
99
which refreshes
wife or child)
;
my eyes"
(a son);
c^jj^
"
gladness of
my
heart
'*
^^
-
'*
oh
my
friend."
&
The pronoun
first and then the direct object. should not be suffixed to Persian nouns. Nurchashmi
is,
in
an
affection-
Originally this
it
^
U.
**my"
mutakattim), or
may
been the Arabic suffixed pronoun be the yft-yi tawalfi. Similarly with qiblo-gahl
may have
j-A(f ai*J,
44
modern Persian,
your father
?
=>^ <dM
and
a father.
Such expressions as
^
o*f
(,ss& (+
^A(f ^JU*
in
where
is
"
+j
^5
UM
modern
Persian and
is
48
754
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
"
(k)
is
expressed by ^^iw
self
"
(agreeing
number with
V or) ij~&>
(^Jb(j
or)
tl
went themselves
themselves."
,
"
;
*-Ai
JLijf
"
;
^Aif
f^JUJf
"they
kil
c&*
in the
*'
(pl.
cH^f) as
" and
e*|i (pi.
sell
same way
^/-i-*.
(1)
(1)
*'
f
this
"
(or
more emphi
cally JA),
t
that.
Singular.
Dual.
F.
Plural.
M.
M.
N.
crti
F.
N.I
N.
tan\
A. )
G.
&j] or
Ua"
G.
/a.
A.
) zayn*.
tayn*.
&
It is usually
1
is
seldom used by
itself.
particle
U
'
(writt
'
A)
and
is
declined thus
and Fem.
cases.
cjfi*,
and Fem.
vyliA;
gen.
and
ace.
Masc. *&**,
a:
Fem.
c^I*-
PL
all cases.
^^
is
2 U> is
also
added
&'
for
also, as:
+&\\*
"
you and
other
"
;
*'<*'+
+Q*
it
killed him.'*
756
(2)
The words
c* (in
some cases
with interpolated
Sing. masc.
*J| i
or
*J^<i X
fern. <Jti
or
J*
xx
*
f
XX
:
or usually <JM
x Ox
XX
x
c/x
xJWx
;
or vJ^ti
gen.
x
jJfcx
and
ace. ^-&*i or
XX
x
ujj.
Fern.
nom.
l3
or c^JU
gen.
and
ace. <jijJ or
xx/
(and rarely
(3)
xxx
wfljjf
x '
)
or
c%?
x
for
x
all
cases.
^
O*
1
of
vj^i
and
*jl> is
^
person of the affixed pronoun, singular, dual, and plural, with correct gender,
x'
I
when addressing
U& etc.
and cf i
is,
fern.,
"
possessor,"
izafat.
The Dual
O''*'''
N.
tji
'X
C>}i)
C"
fern.
;
O""
G. and A. <^>i
scm^
^|i
/-?
satot/) fern.
/x
final
vowels of ji
-^i
<''?':
^f
^^
"
;
' '
<J
ji
O
X
,"C
is
followed by the
genitive
case,
as: eH^'
concord";
x X
ci>!i
X*
*'
"
pleurisy
(Irt.
^ X
c^fi,
XX
4<
jUa.
#
pi. cutji
O O x
'
xxx
jx
ft
beautiful (of a
woman)"; JU^
JUiff
X
'
'
<c
ji
handsome
(of
man ");
^iAx>j^
"
' '
pardoning
(of
God)
There appears to be
9 9
no
^f
but
in the
Quran
"
great warriors
"
&*
t 9
* c
powerful.'
Remark.
^
*f
to a
P
<^^f aWagt
'*
who
is
an
756
Adjective and
is
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
used for
cases).
definite
antecedents
x
55x
only
its
feminine singular
/g*>
&
is
allatl ^f +
(all
The Plural
(all
is
^^\ *
xxtfx
cdttatl^
or
yt>^f feminine
x 33'
cases): used
The
fern.
:
Dual
is,
Nominative ^l^f
<
alllazan*
<*x j5 *
masc.,
and e^JUf*
./
alllatan*
x C#
'
^^f alllazayn* +
(o)
OTHER RELATIVES
&*
(as
a Con-
" he who, whoever, such as, those who, whatjunctive it is without inflexion) ever (of living things)"; also Interr. "who?" usually (followed by a
8 singular masc. verb);
and
(2)
U> (without
inflexion)
a thing that, whatever (of neuter things; also Interr. used substantively and are either definite or indefinite.
" what
").
These ar e
Remark.
/.
U> is also
an
;
indefinite
pronoun
as:
^
;
{-*#
*'on a certain
o*fj
day ",
also
t(
I*
man 4 "
*
^U.j
{n
"
Q.
^l5 ^cf
'
ayy qalam
you want)
"
U
is
UU>
'*
like.'
If the
antecedent
is
omitted.
classically) the
2
antecedent to ^oJf may be indefinite. Only two of the J can be pronounced. The sukun over the
first
lam
is
never
written.
*
Compare
ibf.
is
compounded
of the Article
Jf, the
Particle
J and
?
the demonstrative
3
f
^3
o *
8
When
the feminine
is
definitely stated,
man ^c
Also the
plural verb
*
jf
may
Vide also
XL
:
(6).
eakin
nun
before
11
mlm
is
is
pronounced mim, as
t
Lo
+>
(JU*j
raful
u -mma
(J**j
r,
oo rajulH-m-maqtul * which
,
/
Similarly before
sometimes written
:
Jjlfl-o JLaj.
in pronunciation r, as
Before
6
tfi&tn
>.OX
6
^I|{fa6*
wJUkf understood.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS,
3,
757
Remark
that
II.
^^f
is
an Adjective
*
qualifies
a noun
noun must be
<,',
;
definite,
came "
Aim."
+>,
*>&t "
the
man whom
saw",
l
lit.
" the
'
But
$JS
e^>
and
o^f;
saw who
Vide
LV.
63*'
and
<&f
who"
and
(also
is
which?,
of
definite
declined like
relative
afoo
nouns
^ and U,
of
first
this substantive
3
forms
)
"which
these?";
I*jf
(or
t* ^f
o
portion of the
compound
of
these
^ min
and a
definite
XL
(6).
Followed by the Genitive, ^l also expresses admiration and is then always in the masc. sing. If it follows an indefinite noun it agrees with it
9,
in case,
* '
t>,
/oajj
'^x
it is
in the ace., as
' '
!
JLj ^\ "
*
.J*U.
*
Zayd came
(4)
me
what a man
which."
(he
is)
Utf "
x>
all
that, all
O x vu"
*o
all
(5) (.?*
who."
refer to
(p)
c/x
Ptrfg
XL
x>
may
is
I*
is
indeclinable.
After
some
prepositions Co becomes
2 8
as
"
for
what
why
"
*
x
is
" ^ ^ x Lc JL^ \
*t
ra/w
Similarly
rajulP-m-maqtuP*, which
before r,
n
Before
n?tn
becomes
in pronounciation r, as
^^
>*
t\)\
* 5,
^y)
&+a^e
MuhammadP-r-ras&Ftt&h*.
sakin
758
(#)
(1)
4^ "who?";
is
e.g.
&*
v^
be
;
li^ "who
it
that?"; as an
:
^ may
I.
(3)
stands absolutely
u>,
(2)
U>
" what
"
;
indeclinable
as
"
:
^i
:
fern.
cJ^ if
*
-
^
,-U^x
&x
;
together with
its
compounds
<j.*j'
and
^
:
"how many,
* xx
Ox
f*(j
^ "how
is
of
Uf
them
o xx
.
in the
9
)
1+9 \*>*
9 o xx
x ^
$x ^
)
house"
first
(1)
yJt ^*
is
y*
^f *>>y and
,
(2) }&l\
^A
ojy>
In the
case,
^f
Vide
XL'(b).
Remark.
o
*
The
interrogative
*f
must
be
distinguished
from
the as-
sertory ff
"many a,"
of the singular or of
**
* O
xO
t*'
(or
how many
its
a) slave
/,*Jx
x*
have
owned."
is
If
however
:
xxxx^ixO^O
),
ff
is
separated
from
* f
noun (j*+*
the latter
in the ace., as
f**
/
&**
^vx
^^
" -
xxOx
ff
many
(r)
a bounty have I received from them at the time of want." ^ C" ^ x X INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. **f "anyone, some one," (W a P
u^
r-
-.xoW-'
tion "one,
some"
(sing,
or
pi.),
as: tfj*&\
u^
^ x
"a
certain poet or
some
to
(5).
poets
"
(according to the
number
of the verb).
Vide also
XLIX
(3)
(s)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
;
" Each other, one another" is expressed by Ox O < ^ /O' " ^ " * *
'
also
by UA*J ^AAJ
etc.
o**? i^*
(*^^ J&1
tjiA.
take revenge
<
OTHER PRONOUNS
*>^t> # ^
Jf
:
&"
"
r
tive
as
//C'^^O"
" other than ," before a genij** xxx- ^ x-o x the king died and *JiJ v^U(
;
^O x
oU
Preposition
but
*y
adverb.
CARDINALS.
759
))
"I
"
;
J& mosc.,
x
and J&f,
x ^
fern.
noun
LXIII).
NUMERALS
XXVII.
Cardinals
Masc.
Fern.
f
The numerals
1
(a)
jectives.
The numeral 2
is
is
used.
When
used
noun,
final
or
The numerals
3 to 10 are Sub-
stantives
govern
ferably
the
and
geni-
a plural paucity: they ^of have the feminine form for the
or
masculine
vice
and
noun
in apposition,
it
It
loses
its
'""
in
"*
lilf
"twelve."
760
CARDINALS.
'
"
<*
O
,]
,,
Indeclinable^***.
tJot
'.*
mase.,
Uxt
*
and
fern.;
Sj
declinable
ir
ve
an accusative
r
| j
iv
j
appendit
ed,
may
ei-
agree,
ther gram-
n
r
*
'XG' "O
masc. and
fern.
noun,
or
logic ally
rnasc.
and
fern.
The numerals
20, 30 etc. to 90 ^are declined as
sound
plurals.
the unit
pre-
5,
declined.
"
or
From 100 on (i.e. up to 1000) the and numerals are substantives, govern a genitive singular.
CARDINALS.
761
uU
9
X
.*>
I
c,
CrU X
Jjf
1*
<x'5U>
f ASUiJiJ (
*
r ......
Remark.
as:
An
is
expressed by
U^AJ ^ XXXX^BV
o
u^
"a
portion,"
u^V J^x*
#
etfJu
"in a few
'ears/'
In later Arabic
Firfc (j)
'
and
(fc).
>ut
The numerals compounded with ten both take fatkah in all cases, the ten of the compound agrees in gender with the object numbered
(6)
'
'
'
it).
(c)
Twenty,
of
common
gender, and
762
are declined like regular plurals.
*
>*x
.
CARDINALS.
The compounds
-
30, etc.,
</
*"0 X *
>-
hundred
'
%'
common
gender.
is
xx
(<?)
From
in
number
is
expressed thus
Jl^yi " *
(#*>
X
^ttSU
X
X
(or
d^;
*
^u
"A
s,
).
/Ox
(A)
/
is
thousand"
utff,
common
gender.
Its
pis. are
*J*f
and
/ 99
JjJf, the latter being used for
(i)
"thousands " in an
indefinite sense. as
The
thousands
compounded with
a thing
numbered.
Thus
is
vJ^f.
4
The
last
numbered.
(;)
hiz
<un
(also AA/A?)"
"
:
indicates a
genitive plural, as
' '
;
fbf
t
*j
*
cl**Jf
*
&*
***aj
e>iA^
'
r*^
uM
'.'*';'
^L
A> j
his age
Vide
(a)
Remark.
<-ikJ a
(k)
An
Indefinite
number over 10
is
expressed by <*% or
it
may
vjb>i
j *j$*c
"
upwards of ten
' '
;
d>jjZ*
This word must not be confused with {JOM ba'z** " some (of any number), * ^ 9 * * *
5J"0
"
one, a portion":
J^Jl
";
* sW* ttS* <,* u&*> **M\ "I eat a part of the loaf"; *jtJf
*tts
^A^
"
Jlj
/ xx^ O^
x*
Cx x ^
O'
O*
>*Cx
^^AJ ^aome
of
them are
rich,
and some
poor."
THE ORDINALS.
+t*
'
763
x f
9 x 9s
4
x
*
*t*" .0^
' *
;
v^J ^ Jbx;
-
&
"
upwards
men.'
Ftfe also
XXIX
(g).
(I)
for
X
"
the three
men."
?"&,
9 ,
*>
"
/,,
I
' .H*
9, s& ,
9'S*'
(i) *"
JU>y
alii,
(it)
juyi
i'Ji&f,
(apposi-
tion).
(m)
When
Noun
indicating
birds
the genus,
^
'
^ -xu-^
is
(^ ^;f *
^*
-^
'
as
j&> i*yf ^A ^
^
number)."
(n)
The numerals
x-
,s
9^ s
noun
numbered, as:
/x^
p\)*\
i***
'*
seven years,"
but
^^
5^
(sing. (*U
masc.,
and
iv- fern.).
o
(o)
When
the numeral
is
it
agrees in gender
with
its
if
xx <,^
)jZts p*$\
^ gy
f,<S
fi'
word p**
being
fern.
If
xx C
substantive, 99 *<.*
)
*
***Jf
x
e^x
&>T
(tliree
abstract
^ai &U x
x
Si>,
or *i~Jf <-AA>
*
iiiJJf
" three
XXVIII.
(a)
The Ordinals.
JL^'f,
"First"
Jjf,
is
on the measure
for
its
From "second"
*x
x
to
" tenth"
^x ^
the measure cUb* masc., and ilcU fem., as: cA> and *V^
g\
<c
Sixth" however,
t
is
also found.
764
First
THB ORDINALS.
and Second are
diptotes.
From Third
1 fully declined.
* *
Eleventh
"
j*
^^
rnasc.,
and \j*
]
.
&<^
fern.
From
Eleventh to
From "Twelfth"
(or
to "Nineteenth", they
iA*) to the
ordinals.
:
From
"
Ijb
v ^'
1
The
Ordinals of the units, however, are used before the cardinals, for the interX^xoxo**/
1
/
x
OS
mediate
<*Ki)f
The
article
must be attached
(6)
From
part of the
compound
^
^,
the
first
parts,
^ XX
^ <^^
the beginning,'
parts."
(rf)
'
just as^fjjfl
parts,'
and
fc-ljj|f
The Ordinals
*V*
<5uUJf
^>
53"<=
* c
AiJljJt x ^
cardinals
>Ware used,
/x
35
as:
d;ib
$S
<x*LJf
it
is
three)."
Note
'X/^x
that
^XXX^XX'^
would mean
*'
oUL>
three hours,
and
icUy^
***!
"
What
time
is it
"
A*LJ|
^, X
c<
or
at
midday
"
etc., are
j?c^d
by the preposition
"
:
as
tj4&
or^^tt^,
'
'
Wf^ or
(e)
Age
'*
is
"
expressed thus
o ^O
How
old are
x*o*<
you
*i^
^^
*'
:
"
am
** x
O^
# * x x t*/ o
Xx
twenty
*^
All make a change for gender. The hours are counted from sunset.
THE ORDINALS.
(/)
765
of the Cardinals after
(1)
^,
life
(2)
The day
--
of the
O"
month
9&'
is
expressed as follows
first of
<*
s '
(*')
e>4*k
e^ fx
Jjf
"the
Sha'ban"; v^;
"5*
&
$t
9^^
fc
&
of
Muharram
'
' '
;
pj>**^\ (j s
9<,'o
(
o-
9
^
*'
or
^uJf ^A)
(ii)
4ftJ6,
the 3rd of
Muharram/ and
so on.
v^;
^ iD
*
j^Ji,
or
v^;
*
c^
cJk
;*JUJL>
<J
the
first of
Rajab
"
*iit.
v^> v* ^^ (rf&$ on
the 2nd of
Rajab
"
;
v^ e^
^
*
<
&jl*
*
and so on
GJ*"
'
/*
CG^
<J*
is
" o^>
up
to the 15th
v^;
ex ^*jJf ^y, or
v^>
******
or
oUalij ^5
in the
middle of Rajab."
nights remained,
But
as
:
"
(*?**&*
of
="on
the
W. when
]
14
Rajab," and so on
v^; ^* *$
F^e
also
Remark
The
subs,
it,*,
lit.
day
month and
II.
On
may
also be expressed
by the
or
by
^. *
of
(g)
" One
two "
b'tfO '
is
'
;
^uf
<^t>
" one
9
of four
*
"
* '
$"*''
**?;(
f
<j?
>
fifth
'^C'
,9
(h)
**;! <j**^ x
^
j*
(he
is
of four), or
a->k (he
is fifth
as to four).
766
XXIX.
(a)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS
or
*fcifc
(1)
S^o or
&y (or
similar words)
"
;
V*
u*tf,
V,
or
"
time"
UoU,
The
a^U S^*,
etc., etc.
(2)
X) may be used
to express
"once
or twice"
of
an action, as
If that
cH&j^jf
*{/*
*{;**
used, as
(b)
DISTRIBUTIVE
xx'/xx^xi*,
or are expressed
/
*
?
by a repetition
'
s
)
or v!r^y (or
f>A.fj
f^fj
*
;
sC"
"9
0^0
'*
)
two
by two";
43u^
&
by
or t&Jvo
"by
threes," (or
Hj
>Ki)
^j*t*vo
or
^*~*
(or
AX)
"
sixes
"
:
&&
j tj&*
^fu
"
**)j*
in groups of
(c)
MULTIPLICATIVE
"
The measure
Stem, as:
^*
*?*^
*^**
"threefold,
triple
/x>
having three, triangular"
;
^^w/o
<*
Once
*'
is
Uc^j or
^j
/
/
,
/^</
^
'compound,"
is
<
O/Ox
'*
The
opposite to %^?^/o
fc&mj}
as opposed to
767
(d)
^Jlo
suna*iyy
93*'
un
"
'
'
;
ff
i
"
if
fi'y
o^Jf
i-^f ^jlbA x
" the
simple triliteral
(e)
FRACTIONS:
(1) U*A>
"a
third
AaZ/,"
pi.
olaif (but
97
JtAJf
X
"dividing
is
'
From "a
"
to
f *
tenth,
99
JUs
/
and
^'
dLuu.
The
PL
is
samples: gy
*
>'? g^, or
J5c
9*
C^j=|; u-^^
A
or
(j-*^
etc.
Two-thirds
(f)
US,
and three-fourths
*
(f )
*
=^b>I ?
'
f
iJHS.
'<*!<;
>
a paraphrase, as:
J>A,
eH^; i^
*L>^
*^'* *^
"
(2)
by > as
/ O
lili
<(
-"G
wfc>
:?
Recurring numerals:
' '
^J-^f
^
e<
Ou^
every
urth
(gr)
etc.
Approximate numbers
-'O'
:
de the numeral
>u
jf
" about
xx/c"x
^jj
' '
*'
The words
e>j>c!>!
&jy>Jn jl ci^l
'
*UL*)| 3
XXVII.
90
147)
0')
" and
we
sent
or more."
Vide
XXVII
l
and
(k).
maddah
is
alif,
or
tlen a
>t
This
a/t/,
in the middle,
the beginning, of a
word
is
id
lengthened 5-5. A maddah is also placed over ^ are sSkin and are preceded by their sister-.
>wels
J^M*
u-^
tt<l
;
^ (>^M.
al- fa
**it
at in
^&
and
jt^i,
the
weak consonants
by
and
have no maddah.
768
'XXX.
OiiJ
Days
of the
Week.
(the
first
"
S<>
(a)
o*J
+
;
(;tf> ) f#.
day
of
theweel
of
Muslims
,
but the
last of
9 ,'
i
>V ^j Sunday
"
(lit.
day
of the
one"
the
first
day
Christians
and Jews).
^
GX G
"
)
I**
0**$^
OV
(**
Monday
Tuesday.
"
(ft*.
day
of the
two
'
').
XfcxO
^ XX
>*
;V
ft*
9 GX
)
Wednesday.
rj
Thursday.
The word
(6)
^ or
*GX>f
/x
<<
Tuesday."
' *
In addition to
jf^f
a week
' J
there
is
S^
'$
XXXI.
(a)
The Year,
xo^
9*5> '
The
Christian
Year
is
called
by Muslims
i'i-Jf
Messial
XX
<4
f^\ ^
^o
x
djj
and
).
also
XX
modern ab
breviation of latter, ^
ox
<jf
o-^
XG-'
A.D.
is.
^-vjf *
|*
>*>;
and
also
by Christians a%*Jf
x-
>*J
(modern abbrevia
X
tion of latter,
v> o^ simply ^
Muslims write a
abbreviation of cgr***)-
" to
,<,*
*
rest."
Muhammad
4'<*9
3
is
for the
Con
Also &A+A*
Also
THE YBAB.
769
A.H.
is
&jWl
&-Jf
"the
and
Flight Year
"
also
by Christians
*jj*U\
X
'O*
B.H.
is
full).
/
(ft)
$~
-?
O"
Muslim Feasts.
(1) jj<*l\
3**Jf
at
c)^> and
its
In India this
is
known
as
<HC,
an abre viation
of its classical
name
w
^
> X
(
")
(2)
^*fl, *
,.
A^Jf, or
S CM
o^
this falls
on the 10th of
,^*c
XXXII.
Prepositions
(,r*Jf
J^
999
),
Particles, etc.
(a)
The noun
) s
so governed is styled
#9
1,
'
.x).
Prepositions
Separate'
4 'o? JLoil*
4
or 'Inseparable*
(
&t
(6)
INSEPARABLE PBEPOSITIONS
999
u -
These are
-
five
(1)
'
in, by,
with
(
' ' ;
UA,
it
changes the
zammah
1 Every year has 354 days and consists of 12 lunar months 1327 began on 23rd Jan. 1909 A.D.
vide p. 200.
The H. year
9 ''
* **
-
*<"
f O
*<* C
The months
Egypt
^Sliu
9999
(
99
or
^y
99" -j*^
,
'<*.*
-
j*+*}>
-.A*^^:
in Syria
tii]
ujyfc
(Jan.)
IUM
e^K.
is
-jjif
^l-^jo
^Of
&\j*
j^J
vf
J^Jbf
9$?^ 99'
Jjjf
"x
^
*
>
In India, this
Poor people
sacrifice
may
JP
share
called
i*)by>
<Xk,
^ X
49
770
into kasrah
(
as
p*>
(2)
J*
"
to, for,
is
belonging to,"* [b
'
'
XXVI,
(/)
(1); it
Zayd
"
!
;
but
" to
me"):
(3)
1c
"li
A
(not used with pron. suffixes): (4) j
l
'
wa
<*l(j '
>*>
.-
God!" =
alfb: (5)
CL
j,
except that
can be prefixed to
;
A-Uf
<
if
a verb
is
used
in
must be employed.
ace.
vide
XXXIII
(a)
Remark.
(c)
SEPARATE PREPOSITIONS:
*':
(1)
i&* "of,
^ "from,
until":
<i
off
etc.;
(but ^^xc
"from me"):
"to,
towards,
up
to,
$JU
"upon against":
<,'
O '
O
t^y
"
After
fij
see
bohold ",
!
^ w^5// 6e
if
used, as
^f
Xf
(Ja^
:
\&\
* *
s +9
)
(Lj(j or ^^li*^*
not learned."
he
is
not a rider":
^^iJlc or
+& to
they are
also
2
XLII (a)
XXV
8
and
it.
denotes
*'
in
it
<JJL* or
must be substituted
*'as
it is, in
^A
US'
IT
the
same
is
really a
noun
kt
signifying
\_A^VJ
similarity."
+
*
jlmj^t
I&AJ*^ = -'''
;
&**-**
$ a certain merchant";
*'
^yc ****
>
*>
"a
chair (made
wood"
4
*
have"
(i.e.
oj^U^t
<>>
t*J
*j-*ji
in the
way
of kindness
"
done to us")
&
Al$f
^.^o
Before the affixed pronouns, .J) and the final jJLc change
s
alif
maqsurah
a
**
as
*
:
alay-ltf*
*&&
" on thee
"
;
Hay-h*
,JUs 'alayy
on
me ",
771
35
off";
eJ*)
o* "from near":
*ui
<J*
&*
" from
on";
'
^
(
/*
"in";
(but
<J
"in me,"
"
'/
"in him"
5*
"with, besides";
<*9
up
*
<
^ or
1
c,
9<>9 *i/o 8
c
<>*>
X
)
for ji
x -
"
-
|^-|J
-^^J-^J
LIII
"To Have."
Remark.
a,
-To these
it
may
many
^x'
but few," as
governs the genitive, as
I
:
'
9,
Z>
ouJ
5
/
fijS *
cU^
&
*r^
"many
x
a noble
(2)
x
man have
O
met."
O
x
article,
and
^
min^l-walad*, and
J^ -^
e>x)
^^U^f
"
^^
"it
is
told
^j)'& X
in apito of
x
that"
^f &e
x xx
^kl
faofc
that, although."
^ x
,f
tk
eat
the
fish
even
to
its
head
9
';
.ATV^
or else ra
s a -ha
an
^
?"
is
a Conjunction,
*^'
x //c,
'-[even etc.'J
indicates
is
oU
uxtixJf
will
kill
even you."
connote the
whereas
^j
'
does
riot necessarily
latter meaning.
3
may
noun
&o
It is
/ only, as in **
suffixes.
time
is
spoken
of, as:
f^Gj.$* A*
*L*tf to
k <
&
"multitude."
The
ace.
(dependent
on the
interjection b
of
wj
.^
must
an
:
and qualified by begin a sentence; the noun it governs must be indefinite of such adjective in tense Pret. a in or clause or nominal verbal place adjective, '**
an
it
ftsW
alternative construction
is
JU>>
signifies
a sentence. An perhaps, probably, sometimes, frequently," and introduces / being elided, as: indefinite gen. often occurs after the conjunction ^ the particle
"
^ ''many
a.
man."
With
affixed
(
l^
adv.
) ?
9<*
"
c^J
tfx
ojjA
In
"
many
means " a
;
many
a."
vide
* <
Supp. VIII,
772
alifs,
becomes
i&*
* *
min
.<"*
1
,
as
AX?! ty*. +* + *
*"
'
When
'.o
j>t)
,
U>,
the
final
& becomes
by
assimila
as
(*)+#
U*, and
U.
(or
Other separate prepositions are simply nouns in the accusa adverbial) case, but without the tannnn. They, too, govern the geni
(d)
and some
may
"after" (time
JUv
) ;
) ;
JUS
"before"
(of tii
n
(dimin.
gji
"
ber)," (dimin.
"
5 <JH> ');
o*J "under,
"
;
underneath;
less
than
(of
a numbei
&*
'*
"
under, underneath
H^J "
"
;
"
;
*f>^
>*^
for
"
;
x^
"
;
*Lc e>*
* *
from
' '
U^JK (or
^ L^c)
'
'
ins
O
"
Ox
of, in
place
of";^
*
'
;
"
;
"without"
&
*
bi-la
"without";
*
<^f~*
+
" exce
(indeclinable): (^y*
" '?
"besides"; ^U5
"opposite"; *fi^
"opposi
But as adverbs,
i.e.
t*Jt>
and
all its
^r
^*u
(
"
used as a.substantive in
0^-^of^.^x
*'
man
like
Zayd"; d
'^
"
I passed
jJo
an
*
indefinite or a definite
substantive, Jb
one that
*
*
i
is
indefinite, only.
After
9^
''^c^'Ox/xooe
understood, as
Vide also
(e)
:
^i
t^
and^i ^j^
L>***
*
<
fcjili is
^)i 3^^ ^
"
else."
and
XXXIV
(61 (2).
773
(
'
*uo
"
,
' '
placed
opposite
) ;
*l*J
-"Ox
or
*Ut>
*
&*
x
"
' '
opposite
>.
""before,
opposite"
^<x* '
(of place);
x Ox
x
Jd^
-
"after, behind
"
"C
*
1
(sometimes (.^
X
>>
t*>%
and
<^jj
U**)
"from &* X
amongst";
(dimin.
(e)
e?5O
"on
this
without
8
,
less
than or worse"
c*>;d).
The following
772
/
^
are
all
the cases:
(vide p.
and
adj.
O-
notel);
^o
subs,
"likeness"
(=
adj.
" resem-
bling, like")
AJ$
*
and
^O
"
;
^O
"like
X
O
X
'
" ^
match
"
for";
"
as:
*
A*j
^
Jit*
Zayd"
a
*li>c
^
*U B
*^;
^f;
O
*
*jj
^
(r^
"
or
J^o
or
aw
man
like
Zayd,"
Also
^
G-*
/CX
6
x^^^o-
^O/
^alteration, difference,
' 4
e>
' '
impossible
^*rA
^^^
^^>
(rarely
^y* and
v,x
^'
'
<**
If
^4
X"
is
x c^
j
'
U
<j*
Ox
and
'
(^
sometimes mean,
rich
"both
to us."
and,"
or
"
,<
partly
'*
partly": lu
j-w
^ " both
Ox^xO'
and poor came
9
AJ&J ^^jj
'
in his presence."
x
'
8
t '
f
;
^N, XX
or
CJ>5^ x
(^
may
be used
^ or
c*J>^
but
<
x x >
fo
*
Mi*l'tn
JfiLo etc. is X
through
6
all
the cases.
FwJe
-^O
-
)**
XxX
is
similar.
/O
^
refers to likeness of appearance, only,
x-
J^
/O
a^& X
but <UA&
-^J^J X
^
and
JLiuo
are general
terms.
x
J|
/o'
'</
and^jji
^
'O
*^^
O
is
understood, as:
^O*
^ 0^
i*
"
Fide also
(d).
774
CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
>
all
;
s+^
cK and
&K
and oo*j
* "'
;
"a
*
part, one,
some "
ft,"
;
"
measure,
;
size,
worth "
Uj
*
Jf
number, computation
' '
both."
XXXVIII
'&
(/)
(h)
and
LXI
(k).
Ux-o
"
especially,
above all"
(lit.
there
is
of)
seems to
,
be both adverb and preposition being followed either by the nom. or the geri. 9 &~ * o' ' f*s <,' '& as: (AJJ or) ^j U^* H ^JJJf t^u^f "all the people pleased me, especially
>
'
*>
Zayd."
The word
i/.
is
compounded
of
the ace. of
i ^
s
the negative
(g)
$
exception are used
,
:
To imply
Jlj
(particle)
***,,,,* U ^ U UU
.
fxc
(par'
^<
tides of the nature of verbs)
(indeclinable)
vide
;
^
*
'</.
-
j&
(declinable)
and <^y*
s
LIV.
\'*
U and
^U
' *
*
govern the
*
ace.,
*
but
if
the ^o is
^U*
f?
o , *+ 9
XXXIII.
(a)
'
Inseparable
:
and
(i)
wa
and
a
f
" and so
'
'
(as
a
is
The
latter
indicates
j,
and
= "
,
so that."
It also introduces
Nominal
of Condi -
clause
after
Uof
*'as
for"
from
"
q.v.
and
is
apod osis
ItL Uo
Lit.
'*
'*
what
is
free
" )&& Ix
be excepted."
.,^^^
3
JlaeJt jfj
s
as:
'*
second clause
is
'$*
Verbal,
'
^
the j
*'
(or
if tlu^
may
vide also
II arid
LVIII.
This
waw
of condition
or Aor.,as:
U^*
"Zayd came
XXXIV (6)
(7).
CONJUNCTIONS.
775
&&
with a following
Nominal clause or a
(ii)
Suffix
means
'
'
for.'
so that,"
vide
XXV
(c)
(d).
With the
fa-l-yaktub.
Remark.
Accusative, as
In the meaning
:
of
"with",
lLf j
x)
"Zayd
For
XXXII
:
(6).
(b)
SEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS
"then, next,
:
The
common
)
^S
after
little
e>J
connects
p* $j+**
<xj
^^
<J
8
.
here
or
f$
could be
^ could not
precede
jf
unless,
unless
that":
Uf
either
or," or Uf ^
Ul
Uj for
v^J
and U);
l>
"give
it
either to
Zayd
or 'Arnr."
(*f
"or"
(in
JJ
*i*^ f
<c
shall I
do
it
or not? ").
$',<;
i(
i(^
,
f 9'
Sf^ot *
JI.J
J^;
^ (^^ +
tc
man
did not
come
to me,
nor a
woman
of
1
"
&
^ nf^
'
c/'
ejU - ^5^; s s
(6).
4L^J
"HO
tliat
not."
XXXH
&*
is
The Adverb
^j
connected with
^i
If all (jame in
quick succession,
776
O X
I
CONJUNCTIONS.
$)
,
* iy&
* *
but
* * ;
the former
is
used befc
verb
and sometimes,
without governing power, before a noun pronominal suffixes and nouns, the noun being
used,
in the accusative
^
"
where,"
is
'ffr*
= "
wherever.'*
^ " at
*
since, because,'
is
it
a sen
W can
fij*
*r
33
B );
j*
"
when,
"
if,
always followed by Pret., but generally in sense of Fut., in which case it duces a Verbal clause, vide Temporal Clauses in indirect questior
;
"whether" = cU)
(forSf and
*
lit
"
"
Lakinna
is
one of
O '
U
,
if
" anyone," I*
'O'
if
if
even anytl
'
xx
**
^O^
S^OA.
"how,"
" wherever,"
UftJ^
*
"however,"
^f
where,"
c5
Ju"when,"
where,"
^t>f
" when" and other words implying a condition, the Pret. has a
The sense, the condition being represented as fulfilled. * \* <*' * \ * cx " it is all the and after jf *' or," as jl l>?^ %\y*
same
*"
jj**>
are abe
present."
+
If
etc.
is
to retain
its
meaning,
^
and
'
or one
" sisters"
is
inserted, as:
^yo
el] *
"^
(a),
nia [Joseph's] sh
(5)
Vide XI3.V
LVI
^J
3
is
vide
XXXIV
4
(6) (3)
Adverbs,
p. 783.
For example
it.
/^/tx^G tyJ *A i]
* is"
*gj ^Jtr'S
99
$''&,&'
f^
C!^x>
U U
:
mxist
vorb after
*
But
2 /5f
CONJUNCTIONS.
c
777
oj
f
"if"
(for
probable
conditions;
followed
O.x
by
Pret.
O
with present
'
= cU
whether"):
oj.5
^
"even
-f-
if,
although"; sometimes
33
= "and
If]
XX
(of
if)
"if
not";
JIJj X
"and
if
not, otherwise."
as a particle
of
exception
LIV).
y
of
"if"
(for
before a verb
suffixes
y is
Jjj
used).
With Negative,
O
"
Uy
O.
jj
^ji
"if not."
impossible
"
(in
conditions).
o ^
of "that"; with Verbal (and sometime? with Nominal) sentences, the verb being generally in the Subjunctive a or rarely in the Aor. Indie.
,
'
*'
or the
oil
o
x
Preterite; also
introduces
direct
quotations:
111
o^
" as
<c
though";
" because
^'
";
Hi
for
^f +
^5J +
<{
Jh
C(
or of
except that";
'^^
;
so that not
"
;
of
the Indicative
3j
the noun
is
8 '*
verily ")
3ix
^J"
,
,$*,
*$&'
;
,&*'
Uitf
person
5!
or
tif
or Uif etc.
oK and
"
just as
if, it is
as though
"
;
" <*'
I
'
o<
Of
these,
Jy may
;
is
used
and *)
^
is
*
is
If
twed throughout
o^ but o?
no ^
P&ted.
may
be used indifferently.
778
$
'
CONJUNCTIONS.
x 'tx
cdl
&* &
or of
Iff
Vide
XLII
(c)
and
XLV.
cS
U>f
amma "as
for,"
with
a following
has o).
or Uijo
rarely luj
"
)
while, whilst."
followed by Pret. vide p. 776 note 2 (conditional) "whenever, at the time when" (temporal only, does not apocopate).
; :
Also
adv.
= "when ?"
r
UL/
^
<j (
'
\t*
&
'
^ia, "until"
vide
C/
of
^f
^^,
XLV
'
(c).
FtWe
XXV
'
(c)
and
XXXII
(c)
and note
$*$
2, p. 771].
^ ^"
or
O"
in order that
'
;
takes vSubjunctive
and ^^P
*'
in order
that not."
jO"
U)
tect
'when, after
;
"
(
meaning requires a complement, as ^3 Fide note 3, p. 776. Zayd had gone ").
w>jki
W ^U
^
U
'
o>
or
A/O
4<
as"
(followed
long
' '
9 <>9
'
!j>l*
= "as
(e)
as
he rode";
UJti
cux^
" as long as
I slept").
^
,-
Vide
XLI
"after that":
used
to
U>
JU5
as
that"
It
is
often
generalize,
^* UK "as
;
often as
"
:
^
U>
c
^/o
+*
when
condi-
tional)
aZso
if
s
whenever," and
fit
"
if
ever
"
q.v.
Ux^f
Jx),
veXLV(6).
ADVERBS.
779
Remark
"
/.In
generalisations,
if
" whenever,"
'
tif
"if ever,"
'&*
whenever,"
UK "as
by the
Preterite or the
Remark
II.
L* is
(but in Arabic
is
U^
$x
"as long
as he
was
Persian
Conjunction
Vide also
XXV
(c),
Subjunctive Mood.
XXXIV. Adverbs.
(a)
INSEPARABLE
s s + s'
1
interrogative prefixed
to
the
x
-?
first
word
of
the
^C/x
O-
sentence,
"did he beat you ?"; but ^j w^f * asm u-k a Zaydun "is thy name Zayd ? ": only used when there is no interrogative pronoun,
as:
J^f
o x
XG-"
(
XG XXX
or) oJU^'f
e *
xi
x>x
o-'
'
e.0.
fi^
oJUi
?
JU
' '
Wh
Vide also
XLIII and
8
LIV.
u*
a
(s
Aorist limiting
(*Wf
J
l
I*
"
'
certainly, truly."
t
This
in a
may
be prefixed
'*
^umru -k a
by thy
life
"
;
(ii)
complement
to an oath, as
^>^ *&
^
of"
\JJsO
j,
**
"
;
(iii)
(iv)
to an apodosis after
ejt-
y,
or
iy
x
i
x
.
oxx
-
xx
o 'x
.
9 xo " stf
<x
J)f
^)|
Uf
xx
J(f,
^f, a:
*Wf
is
V'
"shall I not
x
it ?."
do
it ?
"
;
But,
an interjection.
'.
'i
doubled.
o'
occur together, except in pause.
^
f
For ^f
in a
j(.
Sawf
is
a
.iJ^M
a , of
a contraction.
780
(6)
ADVERBS.
#0x
(
are:
(1)
Nouns used
at another
in the
accusative
:
case,
as
x U>
f^l or)
S;G
time "
U* "
*'
"
together
;
*<**'
I^P
K
"often
* '
"
;
"
Ulifj
-v
' '
fjjJ?
al-yaum"
,
"
' '
"
to-day
* '
; ;
J1
II,
or
^
**
undoubtedly
^Hf aZ-an
9
<s
this
moment now
- -
il^x (in
$
s
x C"O"
'
-^
O-C/**
^atonce";
ox
e^it
1
or
' ^x
c<
ti|
^^
let
us go, then."
*&9
of,
To the same
perhaps"
futurity
class belong
(^^
when,"
Uf;
"sometimes,
of
XXXII
(a)],
(c)]
(I)
Rem.,
if*!
[particle
;
vide
u.
as"
;
II
"especially" [vide
XXXII
.
(/) ]
"how
(interr. orcondit.*),
suffixes, as:
<x*j
"he
For
alone,"
3i/
ox*"o
x
<
p&c*j
<J*\
vide
Remark
(2)
XXXVIII.
tanwn, ['vide'
Several nouns that are used as prepositions in the accusative without XXXII (d)], are used as adverbs also, but in this case
*>.'
9 ox
o
'*
*AJ,
or 8 A*J e>x
after-
wards"
a preposition Jj$
C
X
4.^0.)
eo* 4
" where
"
(not
'
interrogative);
e*x^
^
O
is
^0
^whence";
^Cx
x
il,
e;l
^i*^
x ^x
<4
in such
a manner that,
so that";
U^
if
x y O**
'^x
wherever ";
there
^C
j&
(or^^^j
^CX
;
"
an affixed pronoun to
-
it,
JJM
"
'
'
like
l>o
or
e>f)
u^*
1
f
J|
is
also
if
since, etc,"
and an interjection
"**
'*
behold "
!
from
tf
iSf t *
an obsolete word
,
for
of
which occurs
ir
A>\j^r^
or
t*
*
'
at that time/'
and iLo^j
cftA?
on that day."
Fi^6 p. 776.
a 8
Jif JUi3
The
final
cw
you do,
so will I do."
zammah
note
is
2.
of course
dropped
in Persian,
Vide
p. 776,
ADVERBS.
x
3)
781
r Jkf "
"
yes,
certainly
O '
'
(confirming a state-
x x
l
x
<4
),
as:
<**}
ftf
p*>
is
better],
=
1
Jl
4-
interrogative
f,
vide
X
(a).
'
**
of
= U "not" +
"
or,
interrogative
f,
snefe (a).
O'-^X-GX
<c
in a double question, as
Jl
ff A!**!
" shall
do
it
or not
?"
fol-
"
,]
g being in the Accus. the Predicate is often strengthened by J, as P ^ o' & x ^ C* 3* " With pronominal t^j ejj, or (JjU? tH) verily, Zayd is intelligent.'*
:
""
^
;
>
es, *ij
^
"
verily
C?
he"
* '
^} xx
' '
or
?
<*x>J x *
4<
verily
"
;
^?
<!
?
x
ty
s
or
*'
tii]
verily we.
"
'^
Uif (for
x>
"
-f
c>J
^
at
only
x x i5
x^J
<c
or clause
the
em,
as:
*t^ftiJJ X X
d)U>J>^aJf
USj
only"
CMX
and
M.
y!
' ^5
a 4<
'
how, where,
x
(interr. or Conditional).
Mtf
and
i.e.,
x ^ ^b^
"
c
(interr. or Conditional).
^\
O
t:
that is"
<*'
^^
^^o
;
'
"yea, by
' *
' '
!**i
yes
vulgar form of
' '
&\)\
5 ^t.
'
'
Jjl
where, whither
(interr. or condit.*)
e/x
' '
whence
* '
ither?
"
;
UJLJ?
" wherever."
Jff -
+)\
kf
-
c^f> & s
*!**? Kf
is
"shall I not
interjection.
"
;
>X6' X Ail*^
< "
it ?
"
;
an
Vide
p. 776,
782
O"
ADVERBS.
ck
f*
"but
rather,
4^' 'yes,
terrogative, as
:
certainly,
why
O^gkl"
-
not, of course,"
/
O
*x
/ x
<x
yi5
^^
c*-Jf
"Am
I not your
Lord?
They
said,
<Yes.'"
x
c^
Ujj
'
"
while, whilst
'#'
"
;
O'
.
** (or in
'
"
pause
**i)
Ox
^"yes."
<x, often untranslatable
;
it signifies
the completion or
may sometimes
have mentioned
be translated
(just
"now,
It
'
already,
signifies
<*'
really,"
as:
QX^>
" we
now)."
?9
/ o/
was hoping he would come, and now he has " sometimes." XLIV (a) Vide the Aorist, it means Ill, and (7).
'*(L
<&*
<c
really
(6),
come."
(6)
Wit!)
and
(3)
Rem.
ox " ka^
o "
for
4JI
is
all)," Z^.
"and enough";
lw>
*'
never"
(of
negative Jussive,
f<jS
[
6is:
^
^Ox
??<*'*
'
VW
"*
C"
<C
*-vb
U =
ks
jji^!
^J
him"
u***> or
u^
XOX
1 ,
or
oy^ "never,"
(of
future
follows
negative Aorist,
as
o^*
^>;^f
"
il
will
"
:
f^f
" never
' '
time
is
vide also
XXXV
(6).
in
it
"
:
*"*l
<*l**f
'
J|
"
do not do
^O'Cx "
aJUitf
J|
or I shall not
do
"
:
meaning, as.
1
"do
not do
it
"
S,
Tn Persian either *Jb or ^tj can be used for enhansive vide Phillott'a Hind. Man., p. 210 (c).
;
but"
but
in
Urdu
&L
Vide also
ADVERBS.
tf*,
'
783
yu
" there
is
<
110
escape at all."
Also
j.
"
not,"
*
it
- 6' w
as
(J*ij *J
^r U "not yet
* *
"
;
followed by Jussive.
O
'
^O ''
uj;<*
'
^(contraction
of
e;f
$)
"not";
^xx Ox
followed
by the Subjunctive,
not do it."
ox
4A**f
&)
"
I shall
U "not";
1
Present.
e;J
a particle of Denial, as
"
cuJij c>J
LTV
(e)
Exception.
[For &\ as a
Conjunctive, vide
*
XXXIII
what time
<;
(6)].
' '
when
at
o -
"
yes
""
[derived from p*>
"
f*i
rarely f*i
affirms
is
agree-
o ^^
able "]
J^ introduces more
vide
lively questions than the Inseparable particle or indirect questions; in indirect questions direct introduces (a);
xo^ xC"* O
<*
O O x
r
"
whether,
"^
as:
^M^t cU c5^^
"tell
me
me";
Vide
dx
"
L1V.
ox
(
JU
<JU>
'
)l
not
"
;
q.v.
Vide also
bf
before
The
interrogative
particles
not
used
the
interrogative
0<*x
pronouns.
(JjfcT.
x*-o^
i cjJ
w>M
J*
like
some wine
"
?
;
"^c.^f *jJ J^
o
.IL)
**
in these,
some substantive
as &*+) or
tU* must be
supplied.
784
ADVERBS.
IUU
(or
U**)
"
and
(4)
^y>
<e
"
shortly
"
;
^
:
o!i (or
or U> U>J
*
^i
" one
day, once
"
;
*JU^ ^x)
J^
o
"
) e>?
J
*
<i
^Lc,
or
**
'
'
yf
t5^,
"any way,
( e>
or
^^^
* f
per-
= U
'
<*
^
y "there
is
XXXII
* *
(/)
* *
it
seldom
' '
,
and
U Jib
Vide also
or Ulfc* (from JU> - Jjk? 8 "it was long ") " not for a long time." XLII (c) <c Particles that govern like Verbs."
/ '^
l
'-'
+'
99'
(5)
^x
f<
$6
is
cfc
he was on the
point of,"
o
signifies
and
as
x
^^'o"^o'
(
iayof
e>f )
"I almost
died
";
^ c^
;
#o p
xc>^
very likely that poverty may result in infidelity " he Vide also LXL nearly did it."
it is
"
"
(
/^O^ O^
*1***^
(6)
^J
or
the
accusative
as: (^&d
(rarely
"
1
By Arab Grammarians
,*<-** is
considered an
"Approximate Verb"
&jjl&+J|
c^
ii^
o'^
In
vff
O^Urf'
^.
o'o^o^wx
/*^J)
**>}&* c^*!c>T
^/--^
"perhaps
9f
(said Moses)
will destroy
your enemy
",
*&\
is
first
in the clause.
The
Pers.
^A,
"
perhaps,"
is
also a
verb.
^
LXI.
these are considered to bo verbs.
By Arab Grammarians,
"o
*
They stand
' ^
lx>
first in
the
clause.
8
As
iill.> >
&*
JL5
*'
"c*
* *
&*_&
Jli
honoured us
*
for
a long time."
INTERJECTIONS,
785
1 '
would that
I";
Cx
00
<^W
(rarely ^^UUJ)
"perhaps
I"
etc.;
'C,** x
me
the distance
But
if
is
if it is (c).
& added to J* or
x
xx
J*J, their
governing power
ceases.
Vide also
XLII
Note the construction Jl^U *=*u* ( = ^ysvJi Jltf ) "he prostrated " he himself and made long (his prostration)," for prostrated himself a
(7)
,,'x
x ^ x
x X ^
long time."
Compare
LXII
(a) (5)
Remark.
XXXV.
(a)
Interjections
e^f.
xix
'/ix
lij)
The Vocative
Lj,
and UJ or
For
Some Interjections
from it!";
are
' X
or
C^I^AA ci^U^
"
alas,
+>
5>S
alas! or far
-
tJ^
of
*
"fie* on thee";
tfix
^,
or
more emphatic
(with prep.
' ?
x
4<
UTj
ULx
x
never
5i^
M
,
va^e also
XXXIV
"
!
(6) (3)
Cx
I*A
O-'
jJx +> s
v,as:
of
l^j
UA <come
e<
)
lefc
us go
);
^rJ>j,or^^ "bravo!"; J
L^
(fern.
Elative
<,** *
v^f
tail!
>J
,$
8
or
f%>
"beware,"
x
= ^l
or
^Ut;
<*f$s U ^lo!";
^
"woe!
(often
>f
(with
o"
suffixes,
as:
J^ "woe
!> or
to thee!", vide
in
t.jL_;
(c) ];
"oh!"
or for
with the
or
in
pause,
an
alif
maqsurah
l,
as:
'*
AJ)
* ' ,
!^J
(^
Oh Zayd!";
' '
t->/o
^x
^
Ij
Oh sorrow
and
also
^^wf
Oh my sorrow "
!
C^X
*
i/-
(and
pi.
f^U)
come
But
in pause
0/
*
In Persian,
X
of
/
^s
e)J^
f^t
*
-
a^so a Preposition.
2tV.
f
\f"
If* JlAj
so on,
and so
forth, etcetera.
99
50
786
INTJDfcJEOTIONS,
oa>U
"give,
X X
l
IV
of
"to
'o'
come)'
^
jj,
"come!"
prep.
tf)
= fr*l
x>
<**"
^f
"call") (with
*x
^
"
!
x x
t
as in
H^| ^1*
^
!
Ji
"come
to prayers
!");
C x *<*
kj, or
or
(for
also
*+
*
"silence, hush
let
alone
O x
"
!
t*'
(c)
The substantives
to
?j
"owe
(rf)
thee"
4J-
Jb "woe
to
Zayd"
*j^
I^
"woe
to him.
The measure
"
give
Jl** gives
X
an interjectional Imperative,
as: jf3^
X
" take
care!"; <Jy
.
it
up
"
;
J|>f
"
(rn.c.)
stop work."
(e)
lil
<
or
^1
*
"behold "
^
.
a Nominal sentence
and the
as:
latter before a
Verbal
subject
may have v,
or i^qpu
f
l^f
^^?
it
tit
^jf
<xJ,
til
' *
"when suddenly
junctions, for
til.
*
4
(/)
*
tj
are interjections, as
"
lf^j/
welcome,"
"willingly";
%?* j
%*>*!
"welcome,
iU'
you are at
Ui
"slowly, gently!"
XLI
(d).
(g)
Many
this
forbid! far be
it
yy *
from!,
cannot
be!";
aD|
x xo 9 2 e>Uu*
"praise be to
God"
(used for
'*
to I
transitive.
xc-'
* Aix>
c)^^-
wonder greatly at
it."
INTBBJEOTIONS.
'uU
admiration)
:
787
J,
x x
aJJl
"
pleases
(to
remove the
' '
!
evil
eye
).
*U t+aJl
" thanks be to
God "
al;
*U ^
or
-
< <
if
God will
"I
hope so");
in
XX
1
*JJU :>af
*e *
aJJi X
iUx>
"God
forbid"
(lit.
"I
take
refuge
God");
*Mf
y&Uf "I
cases)
;
ask pardon of
i
God!"
(used to decline a
'
p&*)\
*JJb
Jf]
Syf K j J^cw
If
there
is
no
"
!
(expression of astonishment
^
*~
fX
vP ^
^^
"He
is
exalted!
"; and J^
j*
*JJf
'*God,
name)!"
name
God)
(h)
etc., etc.
calls to
cries
driving horses
o
^
o
X
or
^A
or
IA
x x
for driving a
dog away
o
a dog
kneel
;
^^ ^^ X
*
x
X
o ' H
O "
>
the sound
of a falling stone
sound of splash.
Also
'
"
many", as:
*
^JJf
^U>U
.iiljilf
^J e;
here
the word
many
is
PART
XXXVI. Nouns
(a)
II.
SYNTAX.
and
Indefinite
Definite,
/*'
'
' '
<*>
Tanmn
*'
'
is
*
v^k
*
v^
good
book "
(2)
'
The
loss of
of Jf
definite (except in
proper names,
, o -
v^' v^'
Jf
The
loss of
noun
(if
definite
genitive, the
noun
the
that follows
as: vJJWf
o* 9 ,s
;
e>ij
father of
*
Zayd
"
p****\
" one
of
them."
is
(4)
expressed
9 * 9 ,?
by
J^)
#
f^
*'
man " =
(
<.,
99
*
J^y *
^
^.IWf)
JUyJ
-
WSAJJ
"one
of the man's
houses"
/i cX=^J
'
/ ^
^ "the
"
'
slave of the
man."
king"
;
(5)
-^U
o^ "one
*<*.
of the daughters of a
!_!*
e>
v-JiJ
'
daughter of a king
"(*'<j*>
(according to context)
</
t 9
' o
^
S^ &\*d*
'
O
'
'
'
'
ty Jty
vjti
O
' *
^Ae
cup
of coffee
' ' ;
ff/^
^ "
"
wy jj^ -
"a garment
"
:
^/w -*
"'
(6)
The
^
-
/^
**
"he
is like
a (the
class)
ass"
fSjfi
^*Jf "
^O'-O'
(the class)
wine
is
the origin
s &
of the (the
l
whole class
of)
sin."
i.e.
nofc
789
(1)
V U)|
\*A
may be
l
either
is t
definite or
indefinite, as
^\X
is
(* A
"
this is a
book
vide
"
;
^U&jlyt
(**
" this
^UT
x
-^fr*
lift
"this
your book,
XXVI
(a).
In Islr
'
^
"
ejj**y
"
x /
this is the
XXXVII
(6)
and
XXXVIII
*
(e).
"&
Note the
:
cU|
"
(adv.)
this
very
hour
'
'
^J
today
"
(c/.
Scotch
' *
the day
"
) .
XXXVII.
(a)
11
etc.
The words
*>
for
*
"
is
$ts
are omitted, as
J*+**j&
" Bakr
(is)
handsome "
(&)
<j?v
$'
* *
l
<+*
*
c<
J ^l
the
men
(are)
handsome."
prevent the predicate from being mistaken for an apposition), the third personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, singular dual, or plural is often used instead but the subject and predicate must be
(1)
;
For clearness
definite,
/
as:
Jf
j*
<*JJ?
"God
he
is
the eternal";
C
-^
Al^sJi
^Xf/o
iff
O-^O
xOC^^-^''
L^jJi [in this last
'
singular, vide
*'
XXXVIII
"
In
all
(a)]
^ J^J| uJi
'
"
;
Ul >fc
who am
predicate must
be in the nominative.
.
(2)
After oj and
is
e>'
JLajdi
^*.^
is
not required,
as the predicate
easily distinguished
by being
etc.
in the accusative;
same person
f
may
be inserted, as:
^) ^
but a C*' f / 0*
<*>f
"I
(am) thy
(3)
Lord";
vM ^
x>>
^1 "Thou
(art)
When
1
without the
'
This copula
( ^A)
is
O'0*
(
790
"pronoun
,
is
*-'<,
*
gift is
(c)
"
"
C-o 9
,&
'
\
*
aiapjf
as
v**^ >*
!*A
* +
* /
c,
**"*
(not
is)
the reason
' '
:
^A
"the
,
**
slaves or mercenaries)
formed the
3*
/^
tyl^
'
<
^^
**
" but
they were
the
doers
of
wrong"
?
-*<*.(
*>*^
,^'
JSAJ\
t^A
u*
Uf
jjix^ai
^jU
<r
'
where then
is
my
";
'fr'
"
lil .
^i
* *<***,
vtK)f
IXA
^
o "
whose
is this
book
Ours "
compare
li$"
LXII.
"
if
J is
prefixed, as
^jjJl^f ^acjJ
&[
we
be the righteous."
(d)
aif
*
and
l^f, etc., *
mean "
there
is
"
etc.
J(
<uf
<-
t(
there was,"
XXXVIIL The
(a) Adjectives follow their nouns and agree with them in every respect, but sometimes according to the thought in the mind of the writer. Collective nouns (and broken plurals) may be treated as singulars or plurals, according
,*.
to the idea,
as:
&?"(&
s
?y*
"a
tyrannical people";
&mLc
/
^"
a united
f~ ,9
people";
$&*>.*
/o*
"a
miserly people."
Occasionally a
fi *
broken
$' " clf
plural
9o * t
ol^^^
i
numbered
days."
*
(b)
s
generally
j*f
makes no change
for gender, as
^^ or) ^^ *J>
****'*
or
(c)
For the
Infinitive used as
For the
III,
Noun
and
of Instrument used as
XV (5)
Remark
LXII
(d)
(d).
The
adjective
may
refer either to
x^
it qualifies,
*9,
<.*,
or to a following
noun that
is
connected therewith, as
tlft*l|
J^> lU^e^f)
"
791
G<V
# ^x
>*
' '
of understanding
o x
:
*0
' *
-?
**
-?
aJ&c &JU>
%;
c^f;
man";
*^f
was
It agrees in cose, with the noun preceding it (to which it is, as it in were, apposition), but its concord with the noun following is the concord
,
of the
verb
and Us
agent.
Thus
in
fly
passed by a
man whose
dual noun
WJ^?/ *
may either
"' ''
#
-
Similarly in UA^f
''*',
x
(^&/?u o>y
-
**I passed
by two
girls
whose father
was generous/' the adjective can only be singular masculine, as the verb
which could be substituted for
it
would be ^/.
also be rendered
,/
# /x
#/,
,x
9<j.
oufj,
and
y y
f
^^
by a verb
or a verbal clause, as
their
() The adjective follows its noun, tlie demonstrative pronouns precede noun; but if the noun governs a genitive or has the affixed possessive
:
*** IAA
^V' * X
-
mine
is
noble
"
;
!&*
jjj
*
^] X
this son of
^ x t/
x
Zayd's."
/
x
x
i
Note the
O
following
>*x
x
t
v li^>
this is
I**
**
this
(<>*
this
1.5
^^^ ,|
<c
a book" and
^CU^
(<>*
4<
your book":
JLxjJniA
tJj^
this
man";
!&*
<
this is the
man
' '
and j-^1
U-'^x^x-P^ U Wf cUf
^ ^
k liuk 4<
this is the
man
(1)
who came
and
(c).
to
me
yesterday."
F^e
XXXVI
(c)
and
XXXVII
(6)
is
Before a collective noun, the demonstrative will be plural if the verb f &, Note that the word <j*UJF is always treated as a plural and plural.
(2)
it.
feminine nouns, the singular before regular feminines, either but used;
lifeless
used.
its
The
genitive
governing word.
In
792
ji
zammah
in
clearly
If the phrase
shows that
it
is
j^
*xWf
the genitive,
in
which case
it
of the
Wazfr"
(00
as
Generally
+
is
when
"and"
if
C?)
omitted, as:
>" *&
&}**
fy*
'
,
But
as
'<,*
the
i^^f.^.Z"*"^'"!"'
jtfjpWs
(h)
(1)
'<'
-~
"
<~^"
every one
ftfj j+ij
cUf j>f j
no^Tis,
^M ^ ^f
such as
like
'
'
^^ aiiyiJj.
M
;
Some Arabic
"
all,"
one, some, a
<4
M
;
'
eJ^ tern., *
and
(e);
both
"
wrfe
XXXII (i)
9
"
a," stand
peculiar
for
English
use of
J^
apposition is:
is
a thorough,
real, scholar."
^
Note, that with a definite noun, J*
indefinite
OS^-o (S ?
4<
" as:
(*>^i <J*
'
"the whole
of the
<*'
day,"
*<****?
cU "
all
mankind," olii>xJl J*
'all
the animals":
* 9
J> "every
stratagem,"
(3* #
single
one," e^
Sale
translate this
this is
*'
Urdu
2
translation of the
Quran
J/fj
u^^j may
qualify either
^y,
Z*.
t^*
'
In modern Arabic, the final vowels are omitted in speaking ; hence, to avoid ambiguity, a word signifying property* is inserted in Egypt, to indicate possession, or
in
Baghdad J
X
*
f^
0-?
/o '
is
privative, as
^+*
>*
'*
impossible."
793
&
one who."
as:
may
Ulf o)iif
"the
mankind,
all of
them."
Remark,
of kull**
J* (followed by a genitive)
:
w^W| Jr
V^^A
" he
is
"
;
<^*~Jf
I tried
my utmost"
Jl,
&
W7*alf
*
cK
w
J^
*a
as he could.'
But without
v^ &
"I
and
ate
^j***
= "in
all
cJi'f
df
cJLTf
all sorts of
dishes."
is
(2)
followed by a gen. of a
pi. or
a collective,
one," as:
f^Jli
u&*> u*
" one
^
evils are easier to o be
^^
eJ^f
^iJi
(^^
>
" some
M
^Ox
u^**^
'
/4^ J ^
>/ / and *Uj
"even
is
the use of
^
X
/ xO or $<&*>
etc.
XXXII
(e)
at;i
l*j
Xx
note
2.
x X - > /^x J&^i JjJ^ JLxj ^ X
is
prep.
^*u
vide
XXXII
(d)
()
little o/
An
Adjective
may
govern a genitive, as
<
man
understanding."
may
t&o
, , 9
have
Jl,
which
is
JU^Jf Ja^lf
^,J|
x
is) little
of
understanding."
Ffrfe
Relative Clauses
LV
6.
794:
+ x
^o*
xjj
I**;
U^A*
"Zayd
o
*
(is)
handsome as
<*+
to face
"
(i.e.
(is)
Zayd
is
hand-
99
* *
some)
GxO-c
=
>*
A^
x
ej~^ V) "Zayd,
*
his
face
handsome
"=
^o*
)
Zayd
(is)
handsome
of the face."
(ii)
A^jJr
^.^sJf
x
as to the face
(here Jf
X
<c*Jf) "
X
(for
Relative Clauses
**<
LV).
is
/o x
tt*
(iii)
;-fiJ<J^l> *vj
"Zayd
long o/
fate
sight"
(i.e.
Zayd
is
long-
sighted).
-e/xO"
*'
(iv)
o"^'^f *
"
;
^ ^A
of
O x X' O'
</
&j *
" I
"
(i.e.
very quickly).
Sometimes an adjective
'
is
as:
j*
aijjl^
x
"a
x
girl
/ x
,+
c<
S<*P **>\<~*
number
mosques
"
;
$x $/
UA. t^x
xo^
JU| cjjW j
(2)
The material
which an
x
3
article is
x
made may
'
also be so treated, or
1
#,*>''#'
&*
else
w^fci/|
X
*LJ|
'
=
x
w^iJf
X
/x x
(
{ *
the
' '
'
golden image
(3)
^^ vy
^o,tr
= ^j^
^o
v^>
a garment of
silk,
a silken garment.
is
The
Infinitive,
used
in apposition, as
JU>;
and J^c
/0
1,
vi^e
LXII
(d).
^
(?)
adjective
*"^
may
x
^d
o^
O x ^ O'
(m)
(I)
COMPARATIVES from
6^0
hating, etc.
^C,x5*^ x/
aJJ X x X
are followed
after
by J, as
*&*
1
UU
^A, or
^
c-?^
I
X
*JJ X
X X
he seeks more
795
Comparatives from intransitive verbs take the same preposition as *' o x '* # ^o Ox*wx their verb, as: S^ Jb *Jj v yf y> "he is nearer to you in affection (i.e.
X
x
<
When
^
the
O
comparison
O
x
is
between
I
sentences,
e^
with k or rf
is
xO *
"f
used, as
better
<c
^5X **&
x9 -
t,
^f ^x?
^^i
^O-OX*!A/|
*
o
x
* ' x
**A ^x)
iJ^x*
"
ia
'
"
.00'^'
I**
this
c x
book
- x
is
^
/
saw yesterday/'
^C.
''O-
x'O
"
"
<
x xG*
^ '
(n)
(1)
indefinite
noun
.
in the genitive,
^
x*
x C x
>*
,0-
in
'*
which case
makes no change
for gender or
number, as
&)U>
Zaynab
is
If it is followed
with
its
O"
noun
in
i,
by a dependent definite noun, it may or may not agree gender and number, but preferably does not:
9
o*
*/
' '
o'
'9
(^jft lUjf
U*or)
j^SJf cJLaif
UA,
1
xx
^x'Gx
(
/^O"
or
)
x'x'x
^J|
cfjl^
ot^Ua
^-^1
*3lxj
'*
/
really superlatives, take the
x
Remark.
same construction.
Either
^
*
^i^^ox'
JjJ/l
J^f or
c^Jf
is
first
day."
(2)
^
The
^x
^
lx>
highest degree
/
^
is
U or
/
x
06 ^,
o
^
,'
^
as:
g^
c>>^
X
e>^^f
e>Uj
XX
^.^x)
cuiK
U
;
J*^f
X
^
X*
O ^5
1
"she
,x Uj
is
Hayy
of
"
U>
cJ^ ^*L)
of
^.^o
*'Zaynab
is
the most
beautiful
the daughters
of the verb,
rule.
796
ORDER OF SENTENCE,
Remark.
ETC.
*< **
'
of expression:
* *
c***
*f^JJt
*
^*f *
* +
**
"
9
the
*
Amir
4
Amirs "
*
%
and
jk\y*b\
\j&
or
'the precious of gems," i.e. "the moat precious gems"; (in this latter example, the adjective is practically a substantive and need not vary with the
XXXIX. Order
(a)
of Sentence, etc.
is,
of a sentence
(I)
verb;
(2)
\&$
*->j>
"
would mean
t <j'
"his (some
prospective.
person's)
slave
is
struck
Zayd":
JJ
pronoun cannot be
'S
The same
order
observed with
iff,
as
&
ill
" '
'
'
l/p
'
l^j
v/^
"no one
me."
The Predicate
is
placed
first
(i)
for emphasis
(ii)
when the
,9
'
:
subject
$*
U*
subject
is
(not )]&i
*
<*
in the
house"
L**
(Hi)
when the
but Zayd
is
restricted
, ;
or
U)|,
as: oSj
^i
^ "none
"
in the
,
house "
* *
x3
jl*J(
*
^i *
Uif
^
only
' *
Zayd
is
in the house
(but ;l^l
^
^
^
*ij Uit
"
Zayd
is
).
l (b) The subject of a Nominal Sentence should be either a definite noun or else one qualified by an adjective, except in certain cases of which the are the most important: following / ' * (i) When the Predicate is a noun with a preposition, as: c5*^ c
v^
*
"
* s
41
6 ?,
;
-*
J*j;f J| J>
in the house is a
man."
fi
>',
**
(ii)
When
the subject
is
introduced by J, as:
pM
d*?)
certainly,
man
is
standing,"
t.e.
797
:
When
/
x '
x
<y
x
*j*f
" there
is
no one
-
in the
-
house"
y*l\
x
<y
<*
^ cU
O/
x x
^x
c x
"is there a
"
;
/^ t
'
//'x
man
in the house or
woman? "
/x x
^
(iv)
When
' *
!
*&JU
JL
"
peace
>e
upon you
(v)
**y ^
* *
JLij
woe
to
' '
Zayd
When
or
the subject
is
is
^
Adjective),
/C,*.'
lijju
Jj^
.
there
is
a
(
mean
house"
fil
^
'
^^
"
fc>*5* JU>;
^
^^^c
*
a believer
(vi)
believing
man
is
is
better than
an unbeliever."
*9 to*
:
When
#^
the subject
<JS
$9 & * =) d^
^ (u-^
'
/-
"
all
die."
(vii)
Ox
*,**
If
Cx
O-*
j*t^ y*
'
C x
(a)
^"how
#/-0, 1U; p$
'*
SAX>
*,*<*, ,9^9
^
(g).
^r^
**
how
old are
you?"
XXVI
Remark.
O*
Jbfc
(o)
and
'
and
**'
(6) <^f
masc. (and
AJ|
md
as a relative, as:
JU> ^f
" which
man? ";
**A
xx ^ ^ ""
c*'
c^^f
4<
give
or
798
Tfifl
VERff
Kan* AND
ITS
'
SISTERS.'
like
"
;
J**>*>.
c*/
(ex* or,
standing pleases
9,
me"
e/
or
i,
vide also <^f implies plurality;
person, but
JU;
XXVI
(o)
and
(q).
XLl.
Oases of Nouns
its
Sisters
'
^
(a)
),
etc.
$
s^
$ss
ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE.
/O"
<x>3
Nominal, sentence)
>>
may be
.P"
^f Zayd
was beaten
his brother
died"
^j
*
O'^'^x/^-^/O'^^ ^f c^U;*/o^^jj ^^
is
Zayd's slave
"
;
^e sl^ ve of Bakr
standing."
(d).
The Nominative
(gfj
is
(b)
GENITIVE
:
(^
O u-*
or
u^^)=
)
The
genitive implies
'*
(i)
possession;
(ii)
' x
6"<j'
* 9' xo x
material, as
xo"
(v^^
^
*^^
v-A^i <xA^L>
*
O
**
a golden chain
"
;
(iii)
a part*
' ^ C
^''O
as: S>i
*
o ?^ "a cup
1
of coffee";
#
f*J
A*ti5
"a piece
of
meat"
[wrfe
XXXVI
earth
"
;
J^^l
/
<f
? s
<c
(2)
4^^;^
9
/c'
-
f
.
,
-
'
.
&
.
of
words
like
ji
JA?
^^L* ^f
^f
^j with
as:
^U^jf
"dissembling"
(Zft.
(3) If
' ^
first,
x
&**.*
The j
zammah
of the nominative.
This j
is
only inserted
is
nominative.
The accusative
is
K5n AND
*l*;fj
ITS 'SISTERS.'
799
and beloved
of
God"
(said
by the Jews):
ilr c^f
"the man's
For
JM cUl* "
'
'
little o/ (the)
understanding"
(/),
=^
Jitf,
X
and
"
empty handed
(c)
"
t*fe
XXXVIII
(w***J).
and
LV
(6).
ACCUSATIVE CASE
9. i.?^'
(1)
99
w'
)
may
)
be an
fcXjj
infinitive, the
vs
of
manner, or
of unity,
or other noun:
f^<x
b^
*{7**
or
f**jx
^^^^,
f<^3 is
&J* &j*>
(one)
blow"
^i*^jl
l^
(/^/^
"h e
struck
me
me";
* C**
*#!
*
4
<3^fc> +
"
^&>+}
"he
the
is
*'
'
his
father"; ^lAl^Ji
Aix/o
oU
he
died
death
*
?
of
(those
of)
time of ignorance
(i.e. of
a non-believer)";
v>0
/
er**
T*^;*
"he
rides the
"he
is
a good rider")
&~
"
way":
tf
ctc^f &*>
\jj<*
j<*
into
many
oo'
parcels."
is
understood, as:
&**>
"slowly",
f or
for
?$*,
o/
(Vf "wait
bit"; *U
>A
"thanks
for
God"
b^
i?
The
INSTRUMENT
1^3
is
in the
o^* "I
Zayd
with a
sword"
O" O ^
But
^
fc>Ju*a
'
different occasions"
Note
is
that, grammatically,
^^a^f
is
object
in the genitive.
800
OASES OF
(3)
tfOCTNS,
ITS 'SISTERS.'
TIME OF AN ACTION.
e*Ji
It expresses details of
"I
stayed a
month";
\j*&
ey'U "I
month"; Ulf*
^pf
"he came
left,
(4).
early in the
morning"; HU^j
j&
"he
"he
journeyed a mile."
Vide
this
Remark.
To
:
class
belong
as Prepositions, as
(4)
uU^
"
behind,"
o '
J|>*
9 o
"
definite,
and immediately
*jj
"
;
(but
*>)
f
^^^
*
*
<y*
*"
:
/o"
e>***
When
<,
U&o
"
I sat in
'
place.'
as,
ASV-^C
^ o*JU.
"
;
b"
"
<J
concrete, a O*
;
preposition
must be used,
tf
o^^^c/x-
I sat in a
9
<,'
mosque"
**)
^^/
(.5*
&***
I sat
in the chair
o-
of
Zayd
(5)
u*> </
express
^/ u
"
I travelled in a
land."
'
'
To
;
STATE
or
CONDITION
(<J^), as:
riding"
i.e.
** ^1 l^a^Lc^U X ^
"he
Mecca":
ij*\ U^i;
who was
riding."
Remark
I.
The Accusative
of State
may
II.
U*** f&*)
was
falsely
charged."
Remark
condition
it
III.
The JU,
is
generally
indefinite,
i*r~**\
but where
it
involves a
may
(
be definite, as:
^AU-fy Ai*
v^[yf
"
<H>
Zayd when
xx
he
is
riding
-^j
JiJ
when walking"
IJ&A
>ij ).
***
801
(6)
The ACCUSATIVE
OF SPECIFICATION (J^),
tfU>
as: ?
1 '
" he
is
*f =
The
of
olive oil."
(7)
The OBJECT
FOR AN ACTION,
respect to
t
if
indefinite, as:
U^5 c^
"I
stood up to show
my
him"; U>k
But
if defined
by the
article
JyJ[
:
<&* ^*j*
&*> ^*>j*
^^
" she
(8)
eliaJf
^^ ^ C*^A or
L
(6).
<-UiUi
o^
CU^A
from
Vide
The
ACCOMPANIMENT OF AN ACTION,
its
as: olA*Jfj
IC
!^
^ *W
is e(l ual
41
overcoats
the water
"
:
J*y
^Jt
c^
fche
water
*'
(i.e.
is
very sandy)."
is
In such cases j
used for the
^ 9*
*>
* ma ta
The ACCUSATIVE
WITH TANWIN
is
VOCATIVE>
man,
1
addressed
imagined,
as: ^U;
I?
"O
'
the
W^
it is
JW.
(nominative)];
(ii)
In construction, as:
e)
*^l
*** ^
(iii)
When
&**
c<
&cU
'*
Oh thou
carrying
*
"
;
or
J**JuLu
a ni g ya hamil* 'l-himl
(10)
CAUTIONING:
lion
8
*-H!,j -*y
"take care
!"
t4
(lit.
thee
and the
"
!)
;
11
H. ;H
) :
*^^ ^1
<4
avoid the
For a
woman
o
*
ayyat*-ha.
'
But
S
JUWl Jta^
51
b "
Oh
Vide also
LXII
(c).
802
Kan9 AND
ITS
'
SISTERS.'
(11)
The DIRECT
OBJECT OF A VERB
"Thee we serve/
'
(A;
"I
beat Zayd
"
;
^ ^J
Many
be
)
,x -
Remark
the ace.
I.
Remark
II.
thought Zayd
(to
AaKw."
and Active Participles may as nouns govern
'
Remark
III.
The
Infinitive
The Predicate
of
Kan* and
its
Sisters
vide
(e)
XLII.
preceded by one
Either the Ac(c)
VOCATIVE.
(I)
The person
which
l>
called, is generally
is
the commonest.
cusative
or the Nominative 9
may
os S*J*'
(9).
The
particles
fern,), or \*l
l,
may
*
be prefixed to the
NOMINATIVE,
*,
Before a compound
particle
is
prefixed, without
tanwn, or some
W
is
'**
&
c<
"
boys
!
(The tanwin
x
is
dropped in
collective nouns).
(f
x s
5*9
'
cujf L
"
lj
my
is
father!"
Uf b
mother!
M
;
v; ^
alif,
my
''
:
Lord
"
!
The aW/
!
of
' J
,
as
^^ " oh my brother
*
* <'*'
welcome
' '
!
o
c<
After b
'
when
calling to
'
After
\)
noun has
or
*f
added.
$fi*
' (
fl
(2)
The word
*Uf
is
^f Allahumm*
LXII.
= Ja
be
Allah*), without
this is said to
'
SISTERS.'
803
The following (e) The Verb Kan* AND ITS SISTERS ( '<& &'yLt > jft) etc. en verbs, however, require the Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun
* )
* *<.'
(It
to be in the Accusative.
Numbers two
Jf oyU.
be recollected that state or condition is usually expressed by the Nos. 3 to 8 may retain their proper meaning, but frequently isative).
it
,n
'
simply
was
'
or
'
eto.
With
exception of
terite
:
^J,
1.
J* " was"
also
still
<,'<'*<*
is," as:
*
' '
U^
*
Uxi*
X
*JJ,
JS "God
'aliman
il-knowing and
all- wise
"
:
+
+
UU f^J\ ^f &\6 *
*
* 9
kan* aWl-marhum*
U>
man."
For &K
vide
XLTI
(a) (2).
|^
is
may
)
I
also take a
^
ft.' x
O '
2?^ ^
^o"
iicate
i*
Zay d
is
not a
thief.
' '
(**j or
*Jj *>j^u*
^^J
Id
not a boy."
*<j
^ +
3.
'*
'
1
3* '
-O*a * *
;U>(Aor.
'
.
-<<
j*<*t) '
J
"became"
Lie
j*s&)\
){*
tired,
"
4.
^?
(or
t^
"he
"I became*
thirsty."
4^~of
or
) )
"he
U^ ^
C5*wof
<
Zayd
me
6.
>
<
<ysuf
7.
d& "to
\t>}*~>
face
his anger.
And
also
x>
^f
^U
x
^jf
and **>
=
'
"
to
become."
For
LXI.
.
^.^
O-Q
804
,
'
SISTHSRS.'
X
'
OX
8.
&b "he
*
&U&)
/OX
oU "Zayd
' '
& x
9.
/
,,
Jfj I*
\ or Jf>j
il,
or J>>
" he failed
(Aor.
X
if)
Jl>
may
also
$ b**
*>'
'*'
/CX
ArfJ
"
,.
Jij
lx>
"
Zayd
me "
(
x
:
(,*
X f
97<*>
O"
JlwJi
|^ ^\& ;^ojf|
)
(J>3^) or)
in this condition:
Uati or
VA <^ *iJ
'
(<!)* /J
JO^
Zayd
still
goes."
10.
Ftrfe 5
XLIV
(6) (5),
LXl.
'{"C x
XXX
" he relaxed wo^
iJ&f
U m'anfakk"
J<j
U.
11.
^U
a
he ceased wctf"
= J tfU.
X
/
12.
JtjU.
as
long as
it
LSXJ
f
or
UJU._,jjx>Kt * +
p^
os+i
"I
sitting."
14.
' *
^tc
-^yj
"
to
as
UJ^P &}**.*}
^
U^
+
f&ifl *
foj
' '
;
Islam was a stranger in the beginning, and it will become a stranger again
u**>
^j*~ u^ A^J
With a negative
wept again";
signifies
"not again",
"
I never
jJ^ J*&
"
***
'*
SI
^aj
"I remained
sitting."
MS U
adv.
" not
x
JJ is used with
C "
the
^xx
;
negative particles Lc
Jfjj with
V and
<"*
O"
and with
(Jj^fJ).
Ffrf^
XLIII.
*
Ma U
Vide also
X
*
XXXIII
X X
X
(6) p. 778.
^Ic
x *
Sisters of
*'
:
i>(
GOVERNMENT OF
(/)
AND
of
Jf,
The "Sisters
as
:
Kan*" may
'
/<-" X
Accusative,
fi&>
If
^"
f* Ox
he became speechless
"; Wj j&>
The
(^**
"he
I*
and
, '
<J*fcJ
others
may be
Remark.
f\*
fj&
without
I*
may
also
XLII.
Government of
I*
and
i, etc.,
like Verbs.
(a)
cases
'
The particles U and Jf when they = ^J, have in certain the same government as the previous verbs [ XLI (e)], as:
(1)
'
**
'
/G'
*jj
U=
^
''
;
*
;
^
Uf
y
X
^3 =
/O'
"
(2)
also be expressed
by
/ftaj x?j
U>,
or
/*5laj
'
^ ^i, or
"
Note
=s
this
9
redundant v, which
the former
is
is also
used with
Ji U,
and
as:
c^ir
UG oJir U
better.
FWe
LIV
(e)
p. 783.
(b)
When
*.
^j^^ '
&f
),
it
governs, before
'*as: aUf
&
II]
^.
'*
^|K "there
^
o
;
315'*
'*>*,
(
.,
^^J|
^.^o
<xJl^.>o
If
or)
o^
II
la
budd* (or
Za mahalal*)
is
"
;
"
"
absolutely necessary
*
J|
(there is
no alternative from
^UbjL
"there
is
no hawk
is
flying.
^O
C^
^O
"
x
Jf
" there
Uy UsTi; >
U-^
If
"
there
is
no rider of
uv5 ^l)
'
J(
(ditto)
^AX>
al**'
the noun
is
from
II,
there
is
no
It
is
O " not " has a disputed point whether governing power, but ^J
e>!
** has none.
l"
806 GOVERNMENT OF
I*
AND
$>
cXjjJf
"Zayd
is
not at
home";
" there
(4)
is
no man
in the house."
With
are indefinite
several negations, if V is repeated before each, and if the nouns and do not govern a word, the two constructions can be used
For
(c)
SI
after j vide
LVIII
*
(6).
*
< *
4i
G**
The government
c;J,
of I*
and
D is
negative
^a>f
as:
(****>
f,
&L,
oil "it
^ "he
(d)
rules over
nobody
"
vide
LIV
(e).
*'&,9i.~
The
!
following
(*t*iJl
<>
cU^lj
*
reverse the
The predicate
consists of
'*
^i
its
preposition, as in
t*.{j
^xlc o(
'
X
verily with
you
is
Zayd."
If the pleonastic
is
its
governing power, or
ace.
and
as
meaning
',^S
^5^
\*>)
but pM>
*i)
^>J.
(1) of
f$& "
or
G '
clJ
Zayd
is
standing";
^
;^UJ!
3*
*JJ, ^,1
"
all-powerful*
;
^^
33
<j^*l**
^j^
^f
"your
friend is with
you."
a clause connected with such particles
where, as:
c>t is
as ij
"then,"
|cj
"behold," and
^^
"
sit
where there
is
Zayd
sitting."
&[
GOVERNMENT OF
If
AND
53
j,
the subject of of
is
*->l*jl]
^\
cs
Liberal giver."
When
c>J,
the predicate
is
may
take the
4
as:
1
"
*
+
#v*
corroborative
Jf,
separated by a porin
may
vide
example
Remark
C
'
to (5).
*
is
is
Remark.
,
If there are
copulative ^
is
several predicates in a nominal sentence, the / * o> JSJA^ ^\ "I am attentive (and) usually omitted, as: /*!& ' '
*
<,
*>
well-informed."
3* "
&'
(2)
&)
its
*x
"as
as:
''
though, just
J,-*
introduce a
'Nominal'
is
clause,
9 9 ,
'*
*&\
Jr;
IA^SBWO c;|
Muhammad
is
the Prophet of
God
(here
"
^AS^ "I
*
3^^'
":
*,T
1^3^
" as
if
Zayd were a
(i)
lion."
$ Either ^1 or
&
&*]
may
_
signify-
^^
*^ ^^Ij
^^o "if
is
honoured "
/
as:
(ii)
after
*
S
r-
4**-
&'*
pW\*)&i
^*5U tij) ^i
*U\ j;
after
"
*
il
"undoubtedly,"
^C''"
Uf
s
as:
is
"
;
C.
x*JJt c;J
xxx^
^j^SI
;^
"undoubtedly
Nominal Sentence
*5> o
( <>.jj4-*f
aJU^
begins with a
noun
or pronoun
o
a Verbal
*<*
<*JU^
)
'
Sentence
t*
\
<*>!*' + +
with a verb.
(jf
an "
that*'
(and
"but")
are used.
its
808 GOVERNMENT OF
U AND
Jl,
God
as
:
is
forgiving"
(iv)
after oJJI
*i)i
*+*3
^f
^y
(
Jj>f
" the
first
thing I say
is,
I praise God.'
"
(3)
J^
c*J
lakinn*
or
J^j
"but "
1
(4)
layt"
" would
that
"
etc., as
^ ^
tolf
were alive
"
^^
Ubf ^f y
(5)
^Sli ll^}
JU
in
"perhaps Zayd
is
sleeping."
Remark
/.
\j**<~}
c^l
'
u^
oj
"some words
would be,
[/*"
e>!
e>Uj(
^< ja*
Ai|
[ A>t
XXXVII
(d)].
Remark //.All
ft
if
without
it
d&
e>!
&\ Ji^.
In,
JLa* Jj$J
it is
AJ]
words," the
ft
after
is
redundant;
(e)
(1)
e>J
eif-
e>^
and
Z,
ff
/c
*
c<
as
(Jll^^ ojj
eif
^"*b
know
going away."
verb, as
he said
ft
"
;
<*''<*
'
e^^
" but
8 If
9&"
aJUJ
come."
809
(2)
?>!
J before
f
as:
its
predicate,
o'
it o
' <**'
e>l>
<jJ^
"
*?.)
oj,
verily
Zayd
* *~
is
* *
going away.'*
*f
-
e>[
,9
* * *
&
JU*'f (e.g.
o "-
a verbal sentence
/O"
^ ^
is
<S"
^ or^J must
up";
c'
O '
be inserted, as
^CX
*>j
fLJ
^3
^^
(4)
"
O" w ^
v^
-*
lr
For ^f vide
XLV
(a).
XLIII.
The Negatives
"
'
O "
l
(a)
U is
is
used
more
forcible
than
l-
J*J
= "he
)
never did."
(6)
U
*
Jl
"not yet"
like
and gives
(c)
it
a past sense.
prohibitive, is used before the apocopated Aorist (Jussive), or the Energetic, as an Imperative: (the Imperative proper is affirmative only). In oaths and asseverations, ^ with the Pret. has a future signification, as
:
Jf
*JJ|
"
by God,
I mill not
open
this door
^
"
;
but in blessings
'
and curses
f
it
!
L'S
Jl
cu-jf;
"mayesl thou
a Preterite (in its past sense), only when there are two JLxxX & ' * * or more verbs, as j^ue j <3*>* ^i "and he* neither believed nor prayed M
y precedes
:
Jl
first
negative
is
often
to.
"no."
is
of
<J**$.
The
infidel (generally).
810
Remark.
G"
'
Prohibitive.
'
(d) If pi is
verb
but,
if
followed
by
9 *
Jl
# G*
xx
Jf
succeeds, as
** &*
IAJ) ;f
o x
"
I never
saw Zayd,
<*
* *
),
and gives
it
XX
and Uf with the Aorist ( or the copula interrogative negatives " understood) often mean truly, verily, certainly" in a present or future
f
The
#
sense,
c,l
&~J
M t<*,'
3
x
c-o / xx x ^ "
ty
JUJ
H
.
J|f
not attain learning save if a&AaJt ^j j|f "truly through six things"; ^ /-? c^^ x^ " j^x youth does not last for ever ; *Wigu,)| ^} Jff verily these are the fools."
,
9^9
*f* c.~&
'
(2)
)lf
JU
UP
O'O
"
)
U,J
o
X
are
o CM^
"
x5
REPROOF"
{j?fb\
**
{JO*<A*)\
oj^), and
AApr^i UlK
JU~c3
Jff
"why
= "pray do
" ^^li^f 3U
why
me ?
'
'
U "why
standing
up?" =
XXXIV.
XLIV.
Tenses.
PRETERITE.
(a)
The PRETERITE
still
expresses a completed action, and also an action exists : the time is not fixed but may be defined
by the context
or
by a
particle.
is
It is also used of
regarded as certain,
as
&*? O4jf
II
*U(j
"
by God
Hence
c
its
use in
cu+J
o*$
&\ "if
*
you
rise,
then I will
risen."
rise, i.e.
Hence, too,
TENSES
PBBTEBITE.
81 1
Examples
(1) <j4A,
'u**^
jj** ftf
down"; U*
dU|
Jljl
(2)
^U3
Ajjf
t*
Most High
s*i,*+ '
"
;
U^ U*l*
/!.,.
*JU|
^
;
-*< '
? +**'<'+
and
is
u^Ji Jli UT
"
*UI^l uUUL|
this point."
9<*'
</
(3)
IAA ,j&Ja.c|
*
" I
grtve
of the idea of
<
giving); cuUi *
cU=
"
^G^
(4)
*Uf <u^;
"
;
(also as a
statement
= " God
"
*M\ A+^J $
his soul
*
*JJ|
&*J
**H*
*W|
&*J
"May
hand,"
God
(i.e.
him "
9,+
:
9 o
<
"
u/'*^
jj<x?
e*C~* K aU| ^
!
"by God
!
I<will
shake him by the hand) also " by God stop him, from doing that deed).
I will s not
"
(i.e.
Remark.
the wish
is
In such cases, the speaker assumes the fulfilment of the wish So, in conditions too, the Preterite indi-
The
Preterite
is
**
past,
or future, or present,
particles
with
lij
if
any
as:
(conditional)
LVI
'^
(e),
strives,
succeeds";
e^ Vj &tf
Or
&AJ
is
The tanwln
9,9
'
over the j
.
the
waw
is
Umaru
^QAJ
weak
radical
is
dropped.
$12
41
TENSES
of
"
individual;
and
after jf 9 ',
^
"or,
is
are usually to be
the
{&*** jl
\j>!*
Ar
"it
all
same whether
f
X-
Remark.
its
'
If the Preterite is to
;
sisters
'
must be inserted
particle
to
vide
of
(6)
The
it
*i" already,
'CX'
restricts
U/i
"we
"we
x
xx
"we had
mentioned."
But 2>*)(
^U
AJ
"the prayers are just going to begin" (said by the Mukdbbir just before the Imam begins the prayer) ; here too the commencement of the act
is
and
(b) (6),
and
also p. 782.
(7)
prefixing
\S'
(J*
<jK
to
<"*
"*
the Pre-
xl/X
f S^S
' '
"
terite
with or without
JLo
^f
*J^x>!
<c
Zayd
had
told thee to
do
"
(or-e;? iJf^f ** *
Remark.- The Perfect and Pluperfect are, however, more usually expressed
C*
C ' '
by
^O-'GX'
:
o"
I^A^ vidr oJ
^^cf
^V^
(^
why
me up
at
(what the
infidels
say to
God
f
the
??&'
Resurrection)
this
^5Uau> ** j **#)
The
C,
Preterite
x'
in Conditional Clauses,
ts't
'^
(
v^t
I^A
j
oJUi oJ^
it
Ox *$
j
"
)
this,
if
power
"
,
J could not be
#"
[
< "
omitted.
If
two
or
jt
(with
'
O'
]
,
^y
TBN3BS
signification of
AORIST.
Potential,
4 +
x
an English Pluperfect Subjunctive or Past Conditional, or of a and occasionally of an Imperfect Subjunctive or a Potential,
f
xjji
0tJ5
? x
\U*
x o*
as
cij; *U*
'*
if
He would
it
surely
*,9
^V
if
$, .
'*had
Ali,
'Umar would
" and
";
they would leave (or were
let
to leave) behind
If
them weak
would be
afraid
on their account."
* 9 * +
c-
Potential, as:
UUf
ljjL*^^Ujy
"
if
we
pleased,
we
could
make
it salt
water."
Vide also
LVI
(a) (1).
Remark.
It is to be noticed
(I
conditional past
both the conditional present and would write or I would have written) may equally be
that
expressed by
^ with
a Preterite.
AORIST.
It may express the (b) The AORIST denotes an act not completed. Present, the Future, or the Imperfect. Like the Preterite, the context or else particles may define its time. Vide also L (c).
Remark.
p. 749.
sense
vide
XXV,
*
,.
(2)
The
particle
oj~
sawf" 9
:
a*,
Future
it
(3) The Aorist expresses an action accompanying a past action, and is then equivalent to the English present participle expressing state or condi-
tion,
#
infinitive
expressing
in
the
x-^X
words
Xo
x
+
C,
x*
H'
" he came to
me
"
;
c*C +
"
cir*.^
wX^i
^\
w^ai " he
* *
Note that
this
LV
(e)
and
p. 774, note 3.
814
TENSES
AOBIST, IMPERFECT.
^
A
:
Remark
II), as
negative verb, however, requires the j f 9 ^ ' * /o' 'S " u^> l*^ **) *!* Zayd came to me not
running.'*
Remark
a
thing,
The Present Participles, however, have the idea of doing wanting to do a thing, or having done a thing, according to the
I.
context.
Remark
II.
It will be seen
of the
examples in
**
:
(3),
J^c/^
that
*
as
an adverb
^j
'
&*)
*W
in his
hand "
f'
;
i,
'0* /C,-
*$
c*. 9 ".*
came
This
waw
is
called
(e).
iJ'-^
*
$\jY\
" the
waw
LVIII
nouns have
may
be omitted.
Vide p. 774,
note 3 and
(4)
LV
(o).
The
may
them
f^b
M I saw
fighting."
s *
Imperfect, however,
f
'
is
as:
* o*
'
<**
"
<j
ci>;^o
"I
<f
?'
&9
iu Uf
we used
(this
will
9 9,
,
be
said
by the
x x
^ x
careless
-
at
the
to
Resurrection)
tell
Jyb
*>j &\6
cP Jjj>
^&
ft,*
3* 9
<
or) |3 j
t^ ^j J?
Zayd used
me
this every
day."
Remark.
also be expressed
by oK with a following
"
present participle.
x
'
.'
(5)
The Aorist
4.^0
&(***&) b&b
*iJi
j^
leaves of the
<c
Garden
"
;
a&
"
;
weep
"
;
^Ji ^if
;^f
U>
^^A/of
cJ)
I continued
to walk."
Vide also
815
(6)
The
>
Aorist
as
**
'
o^ AJ
"perhaps
x x
it
may
be so."
Vide also
and
(7)
Remark,
p. 812.
(7)
The Aorist
of
oK
'
(8)
The Future
XO-"
-
Perfect
<j'
J>'/
with the
will
'
(,*
'
x xx
Preterite,
cU &j*)i ^i J*>
x
.*
/ cx
9 ^9 *
^/j "Zayd
have
Remark
x x
I.
When
O"
*xS,
by j
"
and,"
Jr and
Remark
in Arabic
II.
XLV.
(a)
(1)
When
O^
of (and
compounds
it
-
Iff
and
(,
"
)
introduces a fact,
*
'c'
:
i.e.
/'ex
fti*
of
" I know
that he
is
"
asleep
;
^ ^
>"
^W
"
\
J^
o!
^f
know
9^
<uf is
commoner.
necessity,
"^0CV x
ill
permission,
gj
x x
by the Subjunctive,
Slf
as
^j^.
JU.f
^f
"I
fear
he
will
not leave
me"; **>^
^j>i>o
the Subordinate verb expresses a future after a verb of supposing or doubting, it may be in either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as
:
9 x>> xo
'
of
^& "
c,
I think
he
will get
up."
is
Remark
I.
by
the prepositions
I
^
*'
XXX
-
<,
<^
A****
L$*i
^^
&*
as
*^
dT^f of
*Mk
^f
God
816
/rom $a$ I might attribute partnership to him "; here &* could not be omitted.
*,+,9 o* r'S' " In JUJUf oil -&*>?
<-*
have come
for that I
erf
could
be omitted.
The
(5)
ellipse of
Ox of
is
common
rf
after
J
-
xxSD-'X
-
t$^
"
L**^
^ an(*
-*
The
predicate of
'
:
is
very
'
/v' v
"
]
seldom expressed, as
/" -x-
ojk
X
/O* iV)
^
if
'
(=^5U
cuJU
know
Zayd
is
standing)."
If the predicate is a verbal clause with its verb declinable + -9 > f *<.' f precative ( *j** <J^ai* ), it is better to insert as a separating word
and not
(
' * JUk*
'
),
the particles
*
>J
o>*> or
u>
*V,^
x5
^&>
J^
e)i
^J
*'
will
Remark.
vide
'
Indeclinable verbs'
are
one tense,
VI.
(6)
0"
In the Indicative,
*
<r'
(~*
^
"
(
'
O'O
or
e>f u-'
35>*0'
or)
e>f
didst strike
Zayd" =
/o<.*
f^j
^-y
"I wonder
at
thy striking
' '
Zayd
"
;
^9'
9 ,
)
^ j&* (^t^> =
''
*'*
99'
\t*y
<,' *
&\ j
you
here \y*j*** of
(c)
is
the subject.
'*
When
mere
^^
or the
it
result of
an
,
act, without
is
as
^^
x x
*
I^;U
9^'&~e
"they journeyed
till
*i>*.ji
al*>
^j>j*
he
is
<X>J
may
meaning.
'
4Xjj
^ O x O iJ^Jr^ ^>
come
together.
<J.
817
so
ill
inten-
&'
'
'^'O "
<**
u/JJ ~e>
'
&?'
we speak,
in order that
words
may
be appropriate"; ^\
(of
>
"
I will therefore
Egypt) until
my father give me
leave."
it
(d)
When
o
&
*
is
equivalent to ^k*. and takes the Subjunctive. The preceding clause must contain: (i) an Imperative or its equivalent; or (ii) express a wish or
hope or request; or
(iii)
ask a question; or
(iv)
be a negative clause.
Examples
(i)
^ -
(*Js*jfi)
<,*
J*
visit
me and
:
I will
honour thee"
)
=
if
"
if
them
visitest
me,
I will
honour thee")
(or lest) I
(uJUUkf
^ or
ijUl*U'
^^1^3
"do
perish."
vs*J
(ii)
^U
^J
"would that
had money,
cutf
it
in alms!
"
;
)^
p$***
^^ b
:
(\)\
visit
or)
" 9* ^j^
j/*^
Z>
?'
+-'
-c^T
C5^ "perhaps
5
may
go on pilgrimmage so as to
*'
Jff
thee":
(*^**r**
or)
^^A^
U^xc JTti*
j or
o"
(iii)
4<
)
will
we
-^o-
will
c x
honour thee."
at
c' <
(
*Jt
-
^-axfj or
?
^^^U^jJi
"o
r''*
jJ-
^
W^
^3 JA
is
Zayd
home, that
may go
to
him
"
(== "tell
me
(,
if,
whether, Zayd
" ^
is
at
home
so that I
may
|t
go to him ").
/ f'
(iv)
( '
f *,'
"'
ty^+J
^ or)
t>^*-J
f-H**
t5^^
"sentence
UuJU
is
Uij.^.3
^ or
lx^3
LVI
us something." 52
Vide also
(d).
818
SUBJUNCTIVE WITH ^
*
-
jl
e^J
OPTATIVE MOOD.
o *
Remark
L The
%<**
f
*'
hush/'
Remark
II.
tional sentences.
(e)
It will
same circumstances
taneousness ";
it
as
cs-.
the
wdw
of shnul-
'
3>
(/)
when
it is
equivalent to
$1
O^IUU"
^f
'
,
(-
**
**
g.
or
^^
O'
O
C/x
x<,^o
^ O \P--'o
'
/*^y \^\
"
^Itfll
I will
certainly
kill
" I will
stick to thee
thou givest
me my due."
case,
(g)
Ox eKj or
X
i!
fit
"in that
well
then,"
t'/
it
begins
a clause that
not separated
expresses
some
and
is
from
its
verb except by
For example, to
the remark,
(
x
J|
"I
X
will
come
AJJij "
^if, or
uAo/f
**
o if
*
etc.
But
to the
remark "
Zayd,"
if
" Well then Zayd will treat thee with respect," the
'
t,9
/c/x o x
o
),
"
jo)
^ij
as oil
is
<x>j
is
used, as
interposed.
XLVI.
(a)
Optative Mood.
Preterite, or less
Is expressed
X
1
If negative,
like *j
*
/
then
^
SI
also used."
I
Examples:
o*
tp^^
"
*>f.
"
;
GOVERNMENT OF VERB.
819
"and
when they
&i
(6)
if
=
l
x x
s x G'
"I
x C'
their
Lord!"; ^U.f
Oh
An
infinitive
without a verb
may
also be used, as
(a) (4)
^1*
*!)(
"
!
Vide also
XLIV
and
XLVII.
(a)
Government of Verb.
is
The object
(1)
of
an action
(b)
Some
IV
cW
'*'.
or
<J**'f
);
8 others, as
^^
a thief
C?
/xO'-
f (,'
<*"&'
;
&
"
i^j
5>
;
^-^O
"
l^U ^Jo^^
thought
him
(to be)
I turned the
man
into an ass
"
J
l^5G AAJ[)
c<
may be
the ace. of
state or condition.
(2)
cu*4^
" laughing", or I heard of the Governor laughing, I heard (some one told me) that the Governor laughed."
(c)
{>
Some
-
verbs of
to
,_,
x-
* *0
S + *
me";
<xsx~Jf
the
mosque")
o ^
xxx
but S^aJi
J^> "he
x'o ^
f<
"
stayed
;
X xC**
w^f f^^l
"
^C**
(v^l
^ could not be
said).
Remark
(d)
But verbs
Some
intransitive verbs
become
x.x^/xx
yniJb -^'
$13 f
x-^x
^.xx^
Accusative
^iif
).
Nominative
t^c8
i.J&)|
or
'
820
THE PASSIVE,
took away the book/'
OF INTRANSITIVBS.
"he
go
In the Imperative
& u**[ =
X
X
,.
v^ii) "let us
X
"
Such verbs have a passive, always in the masculine singular, as: ' * * ? & & * 'O , " l ^U)b WA&> " the book was taken away (by some one ) o* <j" '
* ^
*
--
v/*Jl
Vide
XLVIII
.ftemar&.
(6)
and
(g).
is
ace. of the person, ^f (stem IV) the person and the thing. doubly trans., and takes the ace. of both
As
<j3f
" to
(e)
Some
:
x-
transitive
used, as
(i.e.
Uj>U
<LZ
in
' <
^WU XX
C.
-
**j
c '
' *
some one
:
not
c/^O
x Gx
4<
be used here
iL.jf
"I
(<
sent /or
them,"
I sent a letter to
them "
I
& ol*
x ."
"
I busied myself
but
^Ox <uc
^0.
oJ
f"
"
(i.e.
occupied
XX
it):
^ ^i "he
(i.e.
U^
(/)
called
down
L.
curses
on him).
XLVIII.
(a)
The Passive.
is
The Passive
O
"
is
O*
0-?
'
4<
mentioned, as:
XX
^t (^ ;^ J
''He was
is
" but
O"
l
I
0-*
J ^. X
f,
killed
mentioned.
and not
taken
state,
may have
^ X
a passive,
as:
u^Ao^he went,"
/
&>
^>
"he was
j.e.
away";
^ "he marched,"
Vide
#xO x
^^"^^ XL VII
and
(c)
(iv).
Active Voice.
(c) (iv).
THE PASSIVE,
(c)
(i)
SUBJECT OF ETC.,
if
Jtf
821
in the nominative,
The subject
' '
expressed,
is
as
*jj
f^'? Jw
Zayd was
"
;
* 9
*
tjJJUf
"
;
$^&*9'
AJJ H]
was
killed
except Zayd."
o
*
&9
^*>
(ii)
In ^J>*
"
[ lit.
"
it
vide
(gr)],
a preposition with
if
its
(in)
An
used as a proper
subject, as:
eM" ;
of
p***
ejUa* ; p(*>
5
" he
Kamazan ").
noun used adverbially may be the subject provided
, :
declinable
it is
restricted
by an
adjective, as
er*^ j&
j^ "a
s"
"
6t
f <as
j*>
in
^
'
>
(without an adjective)
O^
would be wrong;
s *
(6).
of
^J
<^&)
u^>
he sat by Zayd,
"
*&*
or of
"he
recited the
glory to God,'
as neither
nor
vs>l^f- is declinable.
(d)
If
frtt**
&
'
!<>+:.*
Aut
^4-^
"he named
his
^^^
son
' <*'
Muhammad"; fu^*
u he gave
av|
^4-**
Muhammad ";
j
\i>
^^1
'
\*
u kpf "Zayd
was given
a dirham "
Ul^.A &^&*>
AJJ
Zayd
is
thought brave."
XL VII
(6).
(e)
"
say
it
The verb JU governs only one accusative and when it means " to " to order " requires the direct narration after it (but when it means
;
t&
'
'*
may
d*u*
**
A)
Jlj
"he
him
is
called
Muhammad,"
'
;
f$
stands for
, 9
,9
*&,,,?
)
i*aciA>
(j* or
AJ]
*J Jlaj
it is
said of
'
he
is
Muhammad "
^ in the
:
first
example.
When a verb in
is
U*i*'
,
)
or
*>>&
<yat
him
"
(or her)
;
,,*
passive (l*^ O r
*J
$22
of neuter verbs) is
^ *
* *
(in
as: **k
*
^j
+
lit.
" it was
G";
on him ",
fell
i.e.
"he
died
"
;
'
o*
U/
0-0
"
l^ir
^aijf
*^JU ***&
" he
under the
v>^^
t5
= "she
"
)
;
is
cursed by
God"; ^1
;
those cursed
by God
(the
Jews
*&
^Ai
t^lp
In f&u*
is
understood.
XLIX.
C^
O
^ o
(A)
(J^f
^
dates"
;
C<
^!Jf X
f 9' ? $
of the
j)
Zayd's slave
(is)
beaten," vide
(d).
Remark.
take their
or their
may
Noun
of
Number
of
Times,
%, 0>>x
Noun of Kind
Manner
X), as
t
fi*
pieces
U; &*(&*
^=
^^
*
<l
"
He
hath numbered
vide
(c) (1).
XLIX.
(a)
it,
one, they,
w
expressed as follows
to
(1)
By
'
him
to
in
+ *
fcho
time of necessity n
''
,
;
Ox
iy>;^
^
vaJj
X
^
**
c*
"
"they journeyed
him
*
"
5*
'
in
...."; djjj
aJJjl
^t
J^',
"
^\
or
\*>\
it
JU
after
which
neither
If a verb
immediately follows
JU
it is
direct narration
823
*,$
*
'
(2)
By
I
"
they say,
it is
said ";
f^fiiSl
*J
'"
* *
*>*>
^
-x-
"and they
question."
**
(3)
>"
/x *
>
x
''
or plural active as
,
&>!
Jyu
l^ J;!>-k j&> s
is as
*'<'
o
tall
it
very
is
as a
palm";
possible that
(4)
d**j ^yo ouf/ "do you (does any one) think anyone can change water into wine ?
\j
^\
By
*
J'lJf
JU>, or
-
someone has
' '
:
said
ssi,
' '
J5U JL
9
j5 -o
it
' *
;
^fj
^^
it
t
,
"
rj
<j'
$+
$s
*
*'
^
'
^l**.a.
rf^o
a pretty
girl,
whose
like
Remark.
*
The cognate
"
I
participle
is
*
'.
^ ^ ^^
+*' H
(5)
By an
intransitive, as
it
&a^^3^+ ^o
' ;
&>*
OAA^ or
is
ci^Ua*
'
"hence
the proverb, so
he that ridicules
?
ridiculed
"
;
the
'
f^
is aL^axj
or &\+s* understood.
9' XG-O- X X
etc., are
expressed by ^Jf^Jax)
" the
is
rain rains"
*U-J| >z+&&
fern,
Remark.
f
v^
2
"it
is
necessary," c5**^
is
"
it is
necessary,"
)^^i "it
is
allowed,"
the subject
the following
clause
L.
(a)
(1)
future,
as:
^3 JWj '
#
c<
^=
<*
'
ct
who
killed
Zayd";
"who
1^
is
going to
kill
Zayd
"
;
f5U ^f
am
"
;
kJJi cM*'
^f
"I
am
Vide footnote
on
p. 822.
824
"
;
ft>(3
IJf
"
am
coming, I
am on
the point
coming, I
(2) If
will
come."
*
they Ex.:
may
ex
*>.)
used for past 1 time, they govern the genitive, but in other cases also govern the accusative. They may also govern by a preposition.
'
>>
x
1
9
.
,9
>*>
v;
**
'**
"this
is
the
man who
struck
Zayd";
"he
;
J31&I
cUjj|
"he
is
going to
kill
the
man," but
jljjf Jjtf
is
the killer
of the
man," and
^;
J5U> j*>
X*
"he
is
going to
kill
man"
fjl*>
6
'
^
'
j*
**$&*
t '
x x
knowledge";
U^x> eJj
^ 0)3 U
i*l
^lili JLiU
= ^Di
? '
JLJl^
'
one that
kills
or
^UJf X
'
he
who
kills
"X
its
(3) If
active participles
first
object
-fc'
Uf
"I
x <,x
will dress
x
Zayd
thou
in a splendid
robe";
&U
?
O x
(
y^ x
&
<
^ ox
vW''
(/
^^
^Ijfe
Or
\j+*
&\&
^\ J* "dost
**
think
'Amr
"
:
intelligent
tfliiixx)
this
is
going away."
(4)
When
the
-^
x
i,
O^-o
x*
' CS'O
"
may
be defined by J
as
**
one
who
^
^f.
kills
people
"
;
^UJf
JLKaJf
or
^-IJJf
jHaJf
" he who
kills
people
-^
"=
' *'
So, too,
is
a genitive, as:
/ /,
,
''one
who
^^
2
jf.
825
(1)
The Subject
of a
Verbal
Noun
in the genitive,
"& x
and
its Object is
t"&
*
ox
*
-9
ox
&) J&f
"Zayd's
"
killing
Muhammad";
country."
J-tyi
{Jf
j^. (hubbiy
al
'Iwatan")
or e>fc>U
^s*
my
love of
my
(2)
When
vide
XL VIII
it
a verbal noun governs a genitive, it may have a passive sense, If however such a governed noun is separated from the (h).
in the accusative,
/
x
*x o x
muzaf,
must be
as:
^
-
^Ub] *
/
x G
feeding an orphan,
G'
< {
Ox
U*AJ <u**u,c
^i ^j ^j
^Utfef
jf
O r to feed, in a
its
day
of famine,
an orphan," since a
genitive
governing word.
(3)
vl.
noun can
also be construed
^
with the gen. of the subject, and the ace. of the object, as:
j
<H*j is
used for
the Infinitive
dl*j|.
(c)
To
express an
act
now
AORIST
or the
<,'
x>
^c'
*^3
XLVIII
<(
It
may govern
:
&$i vjtr^
9 9 C '<**> $ ^
**ilp VJ
^Jl
"
<x?3
Zayd
(but A'C^U
vj^"
Remark.
Arabic Pres.
(e)
by the
(I)
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
may
'
<*.
or
PARTICIPLES
their subject
are
sometimes
the
must be in
is
Nominative, as:
&j v^
;
'
saliva
sweet"
but as the a of al
is
hamzat ut l~wa8l
al,
it is
'
is
y of ^Aa*
sakin,
it
which
is
is
rule that to
make a
added.
Here
(after
y) fafyah
is
euphonius.
826
CONCORD OF VERB
*f
" ^
"&
PREPOSITIONS.
"
19
(I*
<*ili=R/o
i^a
0./J
colours"
(2)
Jtpf
cJliil
Uji
wde Adjectives
or
XXXVIII
(a)
and
(d).
INTENSIVE AGENTS
[w'de
(6)
(chiefly
f &'
f^*f&
JUJ and
may
govern
' '
;
like
the
'
vl.
noun
?,<,,
(1)],
' '
;
as:
\j+*
jr**
//o
/" 3^
A^* ^Uo
great collector of
books."
LI.
Concord of Verb.
(a)
The verb
is
It
is
it;
following
Feminine Singular before a feminine singular immediately generally before broken plurals immediately following it; and
Masculine or Feminine Singular a (i) before singular feminine not immediately following it: (ii) before collectives destitute of reason (but for female persons the feminine is preferbut if they denote male persons it is (iii) before all broken plurals able)
(c)
It is either
usually masculine
so too
if
the verb.
(d)
first
When
it
usually does in
modern
If the
else agree
(g)
verb has several subjects, it may either be put in the plural or with the nearest subject in number and gender.
*
sw
9 o^<">
<S *
The verb
f.
(h)
The verbs
+*i
j " and " how " how bad," generally take the good (j*^
LXI.
LII.
Prepositions.
seize, begin,
(a) (1)
hang on,
take
(a).
It
may
sentences ; vide
XLII
and j [Vide
XXXII
(6)]
any verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
827
(2) It
may
be used with
+ ' *
*'
;
!<M
*,
"see!
J*
fit*'
"and
'
1*
'
'
^^
^ I^J
' ' o
'
>
u^H
= s***
** c/^
laj;
wWe
XXXII
and footnote,
j *^f ^f *
c$^ * *
"may my
father
my
father
ransomed (= thou
'
me)."
It is used in dates, for
on
"
:
**
'
i.e.
five
from Ramadan,"
J^UiJ Jx>
It
It
is
also
^i
^XiJ * t
vide
XXVIII
(/).
"
before the
names
of editors or authors.
'-
*'
:
* <*"
signifies
&)
o^^
"
^ e,o
" *
'
9 Q*
*'
I cursed
him)
"
:
'<j
'
<j'
"you owe
me
a dinar."
It denotes the
purpose or cause.
Vide also
Remark.
wefe
The phrase
c(^f
^JiJ
"
LX.
(c)
^i^
"
^JU
me," but
" I con' "
' <*""
"you must
jure
stick
to
thee
by God";
\^.)
^^
sC,**
UJ
'
<s
o
X
'
<4
"it
is
<E*U?Jb c^l*
X
you must
as a conjunction
'*
^J/
C-
Khalawn* 3rd
&L -^l=su
" to be empty."
A'JUJJf
would be used.
But
<WiJ
,,"
Ox
fern.,
"on
the 5th
day"
828
PREPOSITIONS.
never separate yourself -from the majority, you must act as others do ";
"you must
**
+
"
;
'
fyj***?^ ^
*** e^f^k'k
*
sb"*
'
.***
O
e>J
>J^ +
i^
o;!
^
-
"
* *
&&
O'
lt
according to
XX
*!*
"
;
<*
"
c>l
&^*>ty
*
j$ '
rank";
xx
ert*Jl
XX
j
spite
u*W
of"
cr^
willingly ';
O' Ox
;
^l$)l|
cr/x ; "publicly" x
1
uti?
x
^c; ^5X0 x
"in
f#4&
" in spite
of their ill-doing."
(rf)
is
flee,
avoid, restrain
and defend.
With many
of these verbs
^
is
= "
"
= "on
as: JU
aJJf Jj**>
^ j+* &*
said
"
it
related
on the authority
*i*
of
God
".
^O ' *+"<>
*JJf
'
'
*
"
May God
"
!
apart from
' ' ;
JLjsii # -*
^
"
;
after a little
O x
>
while
j&+ Jj &* oU
*
he died
'
^A^T * +
*
"
(^c
f^JLtf
(e)
(1)
^^o
is
be
near, approach,
wonder
be pleased with.
#
x-
With verbs
, *
of selling
*
-
9^
or giving in marriage,
it is
Uy
**
"he
sold to
him
a horse."
(2)
'
e^
"some
of, of,
o^ "
x
drank some of
it
"
;
J*
no
^1
x*
God
"
;
*Jl
'O< "
e>* I*
*
there
is
is
t'~
Jfcfm is
PREPOSITIONS.
829
' ' ;
SI) ;
^ ^U
J*>
"
ye have no backer
li&k Jjk
^^
are
^xo
(3)
^xu*
x
f<
^ ^w i*
l
o'
since
"x
~x
years
ago":
;l*uU|
^ y^G
!
/ XGX
a certain merchant";
v^i ey
;
<&JU
chain
*
'
made
of gold
"
;
JUJl
e^^>
c5^
^ u
all I
' '
possess
oli
A
<f
pleonastic
in,
is
^ and
^.
(1)
c5*
among,"
etc.,
speaking (about),
(for),
yearning
"Multiply
"
is A*A** *
^9 -x
AjUJ s.^/^!.
.
(2)
It
&y
Utff
^J
j.
< f
he
fell
into a
tank
"
;
^^f
"
^J 5^
fell
hands "
^^^A
^ ^y
'*
he set
to) fr
^r^^f
^^ t*
sick
' '
exactly at sun-
' '
rise
^y XX
\s*
**
C^
my being
= Uayo oiT^f ** .
^
"Ixx
^jJi g*
"in
spite of
that"
I**
f^>
"in
"
;
O-^
&i
j^>
4<
'
Elias*
is
a tent-peg."
# c
Remark.
with).
The accusative U*
(h)
(1)
The
preposition
C<x
^
s
ox
"amongst, between"
(a
noun
to
in the ac-
cusative.
but ^jo
^A
genitive
be
repeated
But JLo
^
^o ^$&c x x
-
t/o
"
own no property."
of the Muslims.
830
PREPOSITIONS.
if
it
*
is
a pronoun, as:
Gx
<j
(<
me and
(betwixt) fchee
"
;
*
*"
I*
^XjAf
to
thy
brother."
But J^^; ^
' '
^i 4'
"O
.
^
&*&
j^ilf
" what
is
and raaul
'
?
'
<^'
O"
x .V
(2)
e^
I*
and &*>
I**'
^j.
(3)
&
;
" before
him";
^
"
'
"
C '
C'
^U
^ajf
me "
J^U ^
^Ju
^A
he
is
between learned
,,
and ignorant,
half
and
half
"
;
middling, fair
"
;
*'<;' 9 L 'i/*
^&*fy J^x
p. 773.
^j
" the
tribe
was partly
slain
(i)
cj>*o
" on
under,
" on
"
;
oUy
"
<J^Hr
^6
is
a paper
"
;
~x
9* 9
l\j}
^4^
-$99^,,
I will certainly
or,
Zayd and
all
besides
him
of the
Arabs"
cJ^i
^^
^^ or)
&j*
or
"without that"
(^^ U>
5^1 Ji
<;
S^Jf "ten
more").
Remark.
tJo^>
, ,
= u/U and
f>jj
^U
" be-
#G^^x^^ OXxC/x
folio wed
'
' '
seize
Zayd
*&j*
seize
(?)
>*u preposition
ty''
<4
<*Jy>>*u
^ o
as he says"
"
l
^o
ix>
<r
like,"
as: **[
/;
J^
fc
^^"
<f
or
>
or) ^^i x
^acu
JLx;
man
like
a lion";
^ "I
.
CxX
passed by a
man
is
like
"
as
it is
ambiguous, and
liable to
be mistaken for
so on, such like."
the preposition
but
^) i ^.acu
(which
PREPOSITIONS.
831
(of
As a substantive
(&) L^l
x
X
I
it
also
numbers).
is
"up
x
I
that one
thing
added to another,
XX
ju
as: I*A
^l
\&*
<**
add
this to that.'
It
is
used with
j>tj
"to augment"
/
.
5
:
v^f *
/
*~+j
* x
' '
;
'
s^a^/o "dear
vo4
" dearer
' '
;
^ -"^
o**?f
etc.;
and with
'
etc.
signifying
"near"
as opposed to
'
'
^*J
'
'<,
'
9&*
*jL>
as:
^\
'
w^Jf
for this
^|
(contracted %l
"et
4<
cetera,
and so forth,"
J3
<-
stand
off
"
!
"
*Jj |i*
X
thi3 is entrusted to
him."
(Z)
Ai>
fviWe p. 771
and footnote
3)
may
nominative or the genitive, the latter being generally used for a yet unexpired ' 9 ^<J<^" ' >x /' ^ " >&*> '0'0^ 3since last year &L^f Lo <4 1 have period of time, as Jjf ^U bj^
:
c '
-*
C/'
of) this
month"
x
Ux>jj &*>
or
X
LV
(k).
Vide also
<,9'
LIII.
or &*
(o)
&*) and
x
9^9
<>J^)
^9
may
position, as:
(3^
him
since he
was born";
"since
the
tribe
-
departed."
or
6^#"
require the interposition of &\
"
vjT
^0"0'
t
as:
o^ ^f ^f
<c
till
grew up
"
;
'
'
"O"'
x O^O*
35
x-
of
5*
"
though
it
is
easier
to destroy
than build";
xOx o^
1
x>xxo^OI
"that was because they disobeyed" XX f'9 "as we sent an apostle to Pharaoh"; u>JU ^^f
perished."
;
" '
y^j
X
U>
XOX
cwo
The redundant
Co after
is rare.
832
TO HAVE
To Have.
l
* *
To have
' '
is
or tic-go *
^d according to
or about the
Thus
**
*>
'
'
^^
*
*
<**U
^*&
*
"
I have
watch."
*' '
J *
.
also
means actual
possession, as
-VeU
<J ~ *
"
Ask*
"
else's property)
a watch
<*OJ
^
"
^o
J
after
is
JU
lt
know "
it also
' '
of
"
an indefinite noun, as
*
'
JU>
t
,
^^
I
= "I
have money
on
me
or at
home)," but
JU> ^liJ
&*' "
my
person."
'<^
Remark.
/
-
^$d
differs
&
' '
OU-^Ox
not)
^5^
"
Jj&\ t^ A
'*
my
opinion."
LIV.
(a)
(i)
except" (not a
preposition), governs
^G'0~
(*^l
* "
*"
"G '
the accusative, as
is
1^3
Ht ^
^^f.
+
JfU
that
&
Hi S
<j
precedes
it,
as
&*+**
'
b*
5>
J|t
or
^y*
,
*S
^^ o.*^* U
'
<;
t,
'
'
<c
heard nothing
After the
51
/JU &
the logical subject, as: *Uf
'
#| A);
" there
is
'
<j
/^
comes
O
**
From
txi*
<x'jxii0
opinion, intention.'*
(ii)
(Sf
"
except"
is
is
indeclinable.
(Hi)
but")
is
XXVI
(),
and
'
is
declinable
j*
*
is
a preposition only
except.'
jA*must
:
itself
<*'
&
KJ
,
<.*
3*
JfJ
)
*<*'<*
were used, as
9
<,'
( fx>j
= *
*
j**
^^
' -
ft,*
;
&
l
and
is
<xj
ill
-,
'
^j^iW f(* U.
*
o- 9 <^t
$ ~*
* +
In *JJ^AC
:
~- * *V*>
*<*'
a noun
"
;
t <,'
so too in
may be
treated either
as a preposition or a noun.
* *
* +
+
;
+r
(iv)
*
ftxc,
butfxc
("what
^U
is
<,
(* what
is
free
Rarely
is
t^t^ preceded
by U.
Remark.
o
(v) c;!
&U*
"
far be it from."
of denial is
/
may
and as a particle
^wjxx^as
^^.o
&*'j*
l^J
111
J^;
e^
'
4<
c^J *
there is
"
;
c^H^r
"
f*4^j>
e^t
Jl]
'
e^*^ "
c^J
"they
Vide p. 783.
ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES:
"
if
(i)
**
is
command,
'
Jl
f<S
'
'
^3 <y*U
'Amr "
(w)
e^
or
^
5i
^
'
G-
(often preceded
by
or
emend a previous
tbs
&
prohibition, as
^at^
^j t^c
^
,
/tx
.-V ^
^) <^*U>
"
Zayd came
to
me, but
Amr
did
not come."
This
is
*jj^c
*
fJoj It
J|t
).
'
between
it
(c).
and Jb
is
Hindustani
Manual," Lesson 60
53
(in)
Jj
' *
"
)
is
opposed to an affirmative or a
* ox o
'
>c^
' "
j^
ck **}
fU>
"Zayd
^
;
o - O.x
/O'
'
"
I*
"
o
(nay
rather)
^
J|
^ O"
C-
.*
* &*
"Amr "
(beat)
^ (^
*
or) Jb !x>3
^^^ *
=nay
rather)
'Amr."
(c)
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES
are introduced
by
CSl
vide
XXXIV
(6)
(3), p. 781.
(d)
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.
'
-
(i)
The
particle
may
be prefixed
&
to
e>f
-
&?
v3
and
^i'.
It is
may
:
introduce a clause containing alternative questions connected by ~ , *t~ * * ,9 * 9 o* ,tS , ^ o' ^d5-e ' 9 &*+,?'$
<,
t,
ft or^f, as
^iu
J^ +\
'
jJJiJf *
j*l
Jjji-J|
_yfcf
cUU
*
^A
^^ ^aa^
w*'UuiJt
*>
'
^yxj j
*
one of the
whether he
strange things is the self-conceit of him who does not will be saved or damned, or how his life will end."
It is frequently
G
know
O
"
O-^O
*<**+
"
Gf
^<
.^HJ?
"
If
*
..
am < 4
or not."
is
placed between,
I
'
8
^. "
aa: l^>
jf e>
IAXC
<e
under
XXXIV
(a).
It has the
same meaning
as in Persian,
and the
distinction between
and
<J* is
vide Phillott's
"Hindustani
o^
Manual," Lesson 60
*
'
(c).
For
^XUf.
/
For Ui^f.
4,*-
fr
O*
" "V
/C*>
iJJ[
It is said that
*M jf
t^iXU
*'
"
;
.o*
if
-f were substituted
is.
it
should
fr
preceded
tf
3*9
The
particle
JA may be
by
J and ^,
but
it
cannot be
It
<*1
finite verb.
OX
It
may
&Pt,'"G
***'\
f\
it
must be repeated,
as
v** j'
" w* TM* J*
I
&'<*>
was he
reviled
"
;
^Uk
i^
LT^
****
cU
/! JSf^j
09 ti JU jj^f
(Jbtc
<ask
my
Vide also
XV
XXXIV
X^
Iff
(6), p.
783.
are,
^
and Uf and
;
(the particles of
#V
-
^C"
-
O'
ill
&k
tP
and
K^
vide
XLIII
f
(/).
The
interrogative pronouns
x o*
^
o
*
"who?"
art thou
g
^
and ^
"what?" may
X <^
^
O ^
(j.*
"who
"
(but
c*if
xx
thy
/
> o
position, etc.");
oJf
^^o
exu "whose
-/
daughter
thou
"
:
>
{<
oJU
^.^
whom
"
?
;
vis'
*jJ
ye,"
etc., etc.
place
:
c>JU or {*[;)
as
J*
+>ff
-?s
c^JL* ^^ J^ *
$
' *
^"
O
"
O ^
is
everything
'
More
^
(i
^ and
"what
xx
filx>,
Six
which
may
^x
xx!&
C x
^f
^-
is
it
(that)
1^) (&*
"
&
f*\
{&\
<c
who
t*
is it x
' '
Though
13*
and
The
.'*;
"
?
886
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
is
"
usually masculine
' '
but
may
be
feminine, as
uof o^K
' *
er*
.*
The
interrogative
U
</
is
is
not
LV7
I(c) (i)
For
4^1 vide
XXVI
'
(o) (3), p.
757,
/
x
and
XL
(6), p.
x
'
797.
,*
"
The
x o'
*
interrogative
^f may
fern,
*t
and e^T,
$ ox
ox
pi., as
^
^f &*
and no
"
'
*a^f
*t^
"
;
c^
;
(>jf
^b
^Ju ^^JJ
U^
soul
knows
in
what land
it
shall
die"
c^S!
^jJt ^f
^ "of what
(d), it is
people art
thou?"
-
(n)
sing.
,
When
45! expresses
it
astonishment,
if
trcWe
LX
governs,
undefined
is
in the genitive.
as: cU.;
noun
with
it in case,
<^f
hast brought
me
man
(and)
But
if
definite, <^f is
of state
(J^), as:
first
<y*^ *
be
"
Zayd came
to me,
The
substantive
may
^f
[ ijto ]
\&\ "how
tor-
mented!"
LV.
(a)
Relative Sentences.
by the
adjective c$^? and the relative clause generally contains a pronoun (called
aJU or g^f;
this
else
^j&A\
+
pijj*^s^ *
,,
expressed,
as there
is
^o ^oJf
^^ii/f
*W
who
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
837
sings,
came**
is
t"'
fcjjf
eU;
'i*
'
hidden
in
ct>U
/*' >*'
P^CXX
' / /
**** *>T
iU
<f
" the
x,,x
JLa^Jf *l*.
whom you
'*<.'.
J
"
thought dead
5*^
"
:
afcfj
^Alf
tUyf
man whom
father."
"
:
<
^i
"
my
my
S>
(6)
O XO--C
may stand
the (who
S-o
for
^^f
as
^^.yt
^^^^Ji
-
<(
the
man came
u
to
me
,
is)
handsome
o/ the
face"
*0
(==
x^
^"
ts*i1 9
^^ /x
x^
/*'
JLa^)f
W^? er^^
or-
A^jf er^^
^iJf
^U.
),
wrfe Adjectives
XXXVIII (d).
There
long
is
in Arabic
no
possessive
x-
" whose"
the
is
"
* 00* /o-^c
/ / 5j5 x
is
JU^f
man
here J'
^oJf "
this
may
also
be expressed by
x
"
<u*dJ|
^ ^
'xc,^^^//35x "
Jjpjf
x
2
Jk^f
x
^'O
)
&
~e
>
^tf>
J&e
beard";
xj.J or
<x**J
JL^Ui
^cJL^i
*
to
(Jti^sJ
"
or
^J
, X
JL^jyf
JL^If
o/ bread (or o/
(c)
Aw
beard)."
9
-e
x,x
is
a w^za/, Jf
"
who,
' *
as
cJU^t JLiUJ F
the killer of
^e man " =
d^f
JiiU
^f JL^f
whose book
vide
(a) (4).
But
is
this
?"
(jok Ajli
" I
am
at
tfie
house of
the
art
x'
"
oo^
^c **
Gf
;
"
I passed
by
$X
X*
O"
"
Jf
838
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
/
(d)
9$
'
The pronoun
^AJf
is
JU^ff
f*
"this
(is)
the
man whom
there
is
beat."
Ffe
:
also (h).
(e)
When the
4
antecedent
is indefinite,
no
relative, as
x
;
^
*
X X ^ X
k
5
"
in thy
hand
"
w-
^
fj>
9 /c-o x '
(v$+~* or)
&\
Jli
*>
&
$ 9'
,9 9" 9 '9
"he had
Muhammad
x
'*
;
lUaewo aJ
JA.;
9
s
*GX
"a man
J&
<on the
day
' '
(that)
9 t
he was killed
' '
:
c^^
*
^
x
<.-
<f
Such
a sentence
is
called <xi^
is
t,
an adjectival sentence.'
The
&
as
:
relative
9 xcx
also omitted
x
-
generic article,
jfci-aty
vr^
^^
cl!*f
"
by whist-
ling."
(/)
^f,
or
by U,
as:,
.olU ^)
*?'
<**'
. .
fyLcf
^jjf ^|
x x
x
x ^
;
/x
C,
^^
^.^o.
FiWe
XXVI
(p)
Remark.
When
or
L*, it is
a noun and
it
= " he who,*
" whatever
o
-
but as an adjective
The
substantive
<&*>
is
'
''
'
xX
(sing.) ....
/<#
'
who say
x
they
/ x OX
Ox
deceive
are
some
who
"
;
xxx
f
Ox
vy^f
e^ (*^ J^^
"
e^
<c
whoever
of the
Arabs
entered (or
1
may
$t,
*i
9 Oxx
c^U'JU'' ( Ju
)^o <^^^
o^
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
839
Note that
<^f
and
^Wf
^\
vide
XXVI (o)
"V"
<*
(3),
and
XL (&)], whilst ex
"he who comes
I
and
'
thus *U>
^ =
I
O
"
either
or one
who
cornea
";<yU =
either
have or something
have."
the pronoun referring to them must ' * so s & <~'' ' G " " I saw a woman *l-JJf Jl
<>*
*
*
Though
ij*>
and
U are indeclinable,
/
**
O-*
o>jf;
please
me."
9
o9
'<*'
The accusative
/-L^" *s*flU.
p*
<,
etc. f^JUlf)
-*
and^,
thou
^o
as: Lui
^
?
*'
9
i
"
<
<^^f
shall I
fall
down
before
one
whom
hast
made
(f)
of clay
"
;
Vide, (d).
-
The
'
indeclinable substantive
S
s
I*
-^
*UiJ{
<,?'
^yQ
jg]
women ":
> C
.
<l
-*>>,/
^O^ or
)
(*il*
vsJl^
'"*(.'
O^AJ
*
'
I repent
what
"
;
I said
"
;
O"
f^J)
cujy
c^fc.
wonder
Zayd
J|
-'if
thou
fulfillest
my
need,
I shall
be
indebted to thee for such a pleasure that the kings of the earth could not repay a grain of it."
9 ** (j)
An
(
indefinite antecedent
u>/
may
*
o ^
* , f
xo
I
jj-^ (
9 u '*
4<
<LoUa>
J^ or
4^o d^
j)
d>UUA
c*jfj
saw some
pigeons, each
of
" What
past
is
*'s
hour
m wAicA
thou art"
W
.
'
- f'
hoped for is hidden, and thine is the "" " 5/c ' " " * " '' /
oot
,.^0 is
840
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
"
;
14
That
is
is)
mentioned
Verily
it will
you"
e>J
J'
'
* '9
"
(& J& *
t 9
tia
#e wfeose tongue is
girl smiled,
long has
little
intelligence
JlU*
The
flower
"
iiyfc}
UtX
c *
iX$;
saw
girls in
flowers"
*'
t*3
is
clever"
^L
<
*tjf
J^tJ ^^Jf *
*
V I^J| f^A
<c
;
o/
"
cA
x
/T
you
is
a high
oj^
c^*^'
X
^" ^r &***
'O^
Jb JU
' '
^^o;
(in
alms
* ' ;
giving)
And who
them?"
O
AJJ|
He made known to me aK
that he
A^ U g^su ^jjj*
"
;
A day iw M;^^
&:li
there shall be no
"
H j *i^
J|
&xf
x x
1
gw
J|
^j
We
were removed to another room, which had been sprinkled with rose-water"
Remark.
relative sentence
is
added
When
nominal, the
predicate
/x
,
O > x/ xCx
Ferfe also
841
LVI.
(a) (1) If 9 c/x
a condition
possible or likely,
(,
it is
or Conditional
Particles
&\
orMij
*j) (or in
nominal clauses
\$\
v
After
^ etc.,
After fij or
*
^ U Mj,
*
Either Preterites or Aorists (Jussives) may be used in both clauses, for the English Present or Future, or one in one and one in the other there are
:
thus four ordinary possible combinations. In the Apodosis, the Subjunctive and Indicative form of the Aorist can sometimes be used. Vide (c).
If
'
a Preterite
is
is
"
&K
&l
used. 8
oK
with the
be intro-
Preterite,
is
After
the Apodosis
may
duced by
After
J.
f
tit
<,"
is
seldom used.
Withy,
the Preterite,
is
Vide also
XLIV
the
Remark.
present
(2)
is
The Subjunctive Aorist always refers Intended, the Indicative must be used.
(
to future time:
if
The Apodosis
*fj^ or v!r^
^o
-
^s
O^nerall/ introduced
by
<J,
or less
often
by
If
>
the Protasis
(
(6)
if
is
Preterite,
O
<t'
O*
^C" '
as
<-jj**f
or
J&^* t$^r^
&l
if
you
(c)
hit
me,
I'll hit
you.
Vide
(h)
and
(i).
If the Protasis is
Os
)
*
*J!
(/
G**
^t"*
may
]
**>j*1 or
LVII(a) and
(6).
G2
is
(= "
if
only"); vide
"
;
and
3
XL VII, p. 847.
Vide also
(e) (2)
^
and
e
(3).
" even
if,
although
vide
examples on
842
o"
*tf
the
*
first
"*"
Aorist
"
is
' *
as
vJ
Ox
"
iS^Lf
"0! God,
delayed
me
have been
(e)
of fche just
only up to a speedy death, I would have given alma, and would " (said by the Infidel at the time of death).
(1)
^"
*Juf
if
anyone",
,
U " if
' '
;
' '
anything
x^
1
whatsoever
or UUx.
' '
;
*Jtf
' *
how ? "
lx?
;
"
howsoever
Cx
^f**
<f
"
when",
;
whoever "
' '
-
"whenever"; ^f "which, if any"; ^^1 '35^ " UK " whatsoever (afeo whenever a )" (^K everyone who
i5 Lc(
)
xx^xx/*
t
$ OJ''
*\H
A,
c^'
where'
'
UH*>
<k
wherever
' '
;
(^f
" where"
Uijf "
wherever
"',
are con-
is
JU
anyone
-^
-^
seeks he finds
(2)
' '
ci
If the Preterite is to
of its
'sisters'
Jf
have the signification of the Perfect, or one must be inserted between the particle and the verb, and
x x
tfi
i-J
^ >
"
+ '
J, as
cU^ 4^0
if
(3)
But
the Preterite
is
(or Preterite)
O
A*x
:
Tense,
o ? '
^
"
"^
or a
if
sister
introduces
its clause
and
is
followed
by
x'.-x
c{,as
iyJb fytfb ^j
'
iyK
attained
'
it.
Remark.
The temporal
clause introduced by
til
is
in
but rarely
is
it
construed* with
LVTI
(a).
(/)
The
particles
mentioned
in
(e)
(I)
take
two
apocopated Aorists
(Jussives).
Vide Conjunctions
XXXIII,
p. 776,
note
3,
and
LVII
(a).
may
sense
also it does
843
(g)
<J)
may
follow
a Conditional Imperative,
*
' O <*?
as
l
:
**/\
"
4.5^}
visit
me
if
you
visit
"
(h)
e>J
nmy
in the Apodosis.
(b).
(i)
Unlike
&[,
If
not
"
o
x
G*"
O
e>i
^
or
Jlf
*
x C""
is
fJ
X
G*"
the Preterite, or
t&)
(i)
^y
The Apodosis
introduced by
8
<J in
In a nominal clause;
(ii)
in
O
"
time would
-
O
-
be future);
"
</
(iii)
Jj~>
^
o
("not")
or
o'
x
'
;
or
(^J,
or
*xj
clause expressing
command,
:
prohibition,
o>*
wish
4
(v) in
;"&/;&
;
& p&
UA
"
(vi) in
a verbal clause
'
-
-O
-
^^
4^-^
*> etc.).
(^)
for up
is
t/
protasis.
With
jJ
and
K,
the use
of
is
optional.
If
o is inserted,
il
re-
Or
2 The Prohibitive sentences Precative following may also be considered conditional sentences expressing polite invitation, urgent request, desire; hope (as "perhaps he will
:
come and we
is
will
interrogative, as
*'
if
there
give
(W*.
who
is
a beggar so that I
'
*'
may
? ).
In
fif
X
behold!
"
maybe
sub-
stituted for
844
rarely, it is followed
o>
-
by the Aorist
t
*iJJa*
**
^U/
*,
fi
*,
"
3*V
da
4tf* *
^**
*** "0*
W*
"if
God
were desirous of
calling to account
mankind, he would not be leaving on the earth any moving thing, but he giveth them respite to a named time."
(n)
LVII
(/).
LVIL Temporal,
'
'.
Conditional,
'
etc.,
**
Clauses.
<
(a)
^o
*
" when
(i e. if
'
' '
is strictly
conditional,
I
as
v*
'
??
'*
* *
when you
also tern-
go,rilgo"
poral,au
:
won't); but
(if)
tij
"when, if",
him,
I find
is
,*'(,*'
* ***>
I go to
lit f
always
it
may
3t~<'
(if
there
is
*
:
fij
MU
<4
it
covers,
and the
Vide
LVI,
p.
842
(e).
but
fij
(b)
li],
of the Preterite
<:
to"
*
? *
*
UJI V *
,*,;,,
-j.
/if
*
Uty
&\i
" he used,
when he went
is
out, to meet
him
at the door."
(c)
**
when, after,"
used,
"if,
is
usually
For
Me
XXXIII,
p. 776.
(d) 4jia>
can be used, either with the Preterite, or with the Aorist Indie.
1
,
9
*><,
or Subj., vide
XLIV(c).
in the following
Ai*
is
also interrogative,
If fit begins
a clause,
it ie
845
*'
"
followed
him
the house."
(e)
I*
is
meaning,
V^!
^
x
t^o|6
X '
^UJf
x
>*xW
live in
this
ixO x
^lf
"Care answers,
as
the Preterite
(e) (2)
is
to
have a past
signification,
&%
is
inserted as in
LV1
and
(3).
as long as not
"
is
expressed by
pU
poral sentences
"
When
(if)
"
"
Accept
my
least)
be indulgent,
if
I have committed
a fault
"
oS!
^,
ex
9 o x
jy;
xcx,
" You
*'
;
are unjust,
if
^JU
>
(
x
'
'
' 02'
'
O"
cJU* ^!
= fJlfc
What
will
you do
that?"
if
^&* cJ>^*&
*
<*
/^^ ^
tit
^^JUiSfiLo;
If
Ufj
e>^ ti[
f
J^A) x
is
t^A,!
JL*;^'
x
oi
x
^t
x
**
;
cAH*** c)^Sl^ Jf
t<i]
l^Lg**?
jUj
c)
will
make
fit
you
day
of
' *
'x^.^.XXX
me,
I
.XX
*yx
Be not grieved
for
O dear
one,
if
these wretches
make me drink the cup of death, for if I die, eyes; and if God allots me a fair portion,
S
<,*'*
~
am
"
A,
"
f
tci
^ ^**9&&
Sjjj
+<'
UU
li
846
"
;
<J ^*s
c*jf
+
If it
number
of officers
*'<*-
9*
&
' '
&* ^cxx-'
&^
/xx,,
9
If
of
'G'
O" "
**"
' *0
O *x
'
o*JuLa U) U$i
A^
*'
;
must consider
* 4
my neighbour even
light of the
if
he act unjustly
"
x O"*
lacJt
;
when the
my
"
spirit
^
was
refreshed, although I
x x
*
had despaired
x
of deliverance
" x
^3^
W
"
i"
^ O " C"
^ O^ O
/
*'
;
If
*)
JLy I^A*
if
'
^i
If
and
9
upon thee
"
*>,<,<*
*r
"
fsit'C
^r
**
f'<S<s
**
:
Py
e^J
When
the Arabs
knew
of
our
of their
"
-'x
voices,
Welcome
to the guest,
welcome
"
/ /
/ X X 0*
\
t.L*$&aj *->>*)
when
I
triix/ L
j***)\
^
u*;
*
"When
came
it
my
my
was a night
in
which
did
not
taste
sleep
o!
for a single
moment"
^^\ cl*-*
^\
fiJL^
S^fj &vl^
L^l
How
when
have seen the tears of love flow from thy narcissus eyes?" u^Alf cA^ s
^^ix^A-yJj c^ijj*
<x$
^yu?
his
*alj^ w*f)
AH soon
ag.
$47
jJ\ j
ails'
"
:
had not
"
c,
finished
'
my
'
speech wAera
xO' Ox
heard the
sound
I
of firing
"
^^
' O
<?
fr
c**+
'
^^ ^^ '
s xO'O
I
<.,* aiif * *
< < :
Had I known
9
that
should meet thee in this place, x *^9' ^ s & t * <*'* o-e o iJJUaj^t <^*t (3***
x
my
&
^'
vyM
o^ ^
/
c<
:
When
'
*
"
x"
-^*
Sjt~&J|
x-x
And
if
when they
t>Wj
il
LVIII.
.x
(a)
>
J - and
^, vide
XXXIII
f f
(a)
and
(6).
:
Note
%
examples
I
'
(i)
'
or
wj^
/^ ^
pronoun
:
o^osk.
Here
l>!
but
if
there
is
suffixed
in the accusative,
separate form, as
4t
^j j vJj^yf
'*
(ii)
"
(j
* r~*
^5ljf
^ j p&j
m*
9*
iSy**
:
governing word ( here v; ) is usually repeated. ,* .< '*' oJt vJ^Uf rare construction. x>J 3
:
<{
(iii)
99'"
si.~9,
**
"
(iv)
A^K x xxx ^ ^.
*
must be repeated.
"
(v)
He
killed
(vi)
For omission of
(d)
vide
XLII
(fe)
(1),
Remark,
p. 807.
The negative i
after ^
Until.
see.
848
Neither
.,
my
father nor
.xx
my
mother remains
alive
' '
ifj <^*f *
<vf (jfc *
+
'<*'<*" *) :
'
here ty equals
$ fa and
saves a repetition.
In,
^
to
Vj
first
Jl
might be
for
me
:
'
~G"
t
xx
tyf gkf
Sb
&&
x x
ex
OX
ctf
xx cx x
cUcf
t**J&f ^
it
here the
and
as in the
(c)
first
example,
Single verbs
(& j
f f (^
fa'
altf
"God knows
^, vide
(e).
know."
This
is
practically a
xo>
(d)
of ^
JUU
^at-
"he
(a)
g^ ^o
x x
time"
= ^>cJ|
is
LXII
Remark.
(e)
shown Such sentences XLIV (6) (3) in (4). vary slightly in is state nominal or verbal, and negaconstruction if the clause indicating
expresses state or condition,
generally introduced by ^, as already
and Remark
II,
and
tive or affirmative.
this
(i)
^
(
NOMINAL.
"Zayd
rose
f (j
up weeping
f Ox x
*
^v^j
&j
or y* j
lied
-,Uf
^^
x
^'C
**
*i) ftf
*
).
Ye
lied wittingly,
ye
knowing
C^O^ x
so" eiy*^
^^J
f**^:
this could be
o^
Remark.
Ox
j
'
<^",
omission of ^w' j
or
by the substitution of
**j.
is
//
O*"
O"
<^j
"
A^
<ub
'
' *
;
*3)
X
'
xx ^^x /(^
*oo jjj
&*
Zayd came,
(ii)
his
head."
The
Aorist alone
O^CI
may
>Px
be used [vide
x
X'XGX
(i) ],
x*
fX
""
>*
or
4
*
it
may be
introduced by v^ f as:
Vj
aJJf
J>;
why do you harm me, knowing " Apostle of God unto you ?
am
the
ASYNDETON
It is
negatived by
/'
fJj
or by -^C,'
51
o>Jt7*^
^
O
"
,'
(without ^ ), or in a past sense by I) or '*' & *>'<;' c< but they deceive ^j f#~& Hi
"
e^*^
is
The
clause
generally introduced
C*"
by
'
*"
-^
**j or u>lj;
<
but occasionally j or
is
oi,
Ex. ** j
*'f p%*
U^UsX \b*
her singing,
^
'
<*
now
^
f
that she
*'"'*
is
grown old
"
;
^ ej^j ^ J^
'How
?
<**'*'' Z
shall I
O"
)jKe
is
(y yl
^^5 "he
X
[Zacharias] said,
have a son as
It is
my
wife
"
-J^O'
"V x
negatived by U$ or rarely by
9 9'
'
-
to
}
as:
v*; ^j X
*H5
*^"
<c
Zayd came
his father
'
'
*yr ^U>
Uj
*la.
3*
'
(/)
/<,"
^x/i
^1=^ is sometimes a simple copulative (and not a preposition), as: :>' > < 'o^-' vsJL^a ^ia- c^- = "I journeyed on and at last entered al-Kufah."
Vide also
XXXII
(c),
XXXIII
(6), p.
778, and
XLV
(c).
LIX.
Asyndeton.
x^x-*
xx
> ^
>
*T**J/
&Jt
s-utnit
;A? +* "rise,
two
and
' '
,
the conjunction
the last.
LX.
(a)
etc.
(^^
xx
*'<S
J^'i).
viz.,
(i)
cU>f
U (the 3rdpers.
:
by an accusat
tive, as
tj**> &j**l
U
!
<
how quick
how goodly
Vide also
is
is
his
walking
* *
!
'*;
ftX-jJ
er*M
<4
what a
O G"
good
man Zayd
is
or
Zayd
(ii)
w JUj'f
III.
(the
2nd
pers. sing.
XLI
(c) (6),
Remark
54
850
ASYNDETON
maso. Imperat. of
IV)r,
as
f/f
mired must immediately follow these forms. No. 'i) means literally "what has made Zayd
(ii)
"Try your
if
ability of
good?/' and No. making good upon Zayd" (i.e. "make him more
(so)
#o^
*
good
you can)."
o *
*"
Past time
<S
is
- *
expressed as follows:
'
*
f>*)
<^~.*f
cjfe
I*5
"
' O '
'
was! ", or
oj) ofe
I*
er^t
= "what
was?"
(2)
'
The complement
t **
of these
forms
***''
5
may
**
or I*
as
fj>**>
'*<.*&'*
^ ow ^^
s ^ or
man
intellect
to seem patient."
Verbs of surprise are formed from such verbs only as express something in which one person may surpass another. They cannot
Remark
I.
like
oU or <J^,
in
cannot excel, nor from negative verbs, nor from verbs defective in
like
/*Xi
Grammatically, too, they are not formed from derivatives of the triliteral, nor from the passive voice, nor from verbs signifying colours or defects,
though this rule is occasionally violated. When a verb of surprise cannot be formed from a root, some form
circumlocution
is
of
employed.
Remark
/
11.
The diminutive
and
it is
*"<',, of AJU^I
'
'
is
"
!
O'f
s
)
*"*'
occurs,
also of 4*dx?
U "how
of
U how
(6) If
sweet
"
!
^,
''
there
is
no permutation,
f**'tl*S'
U
J
as^:
"how
tjjj
'
how bounteous
(c)
' '
Zayd
(not
aUJ
).
m>
%^
AJJ*
what a
fine
horseman he
is
From
*
The
literal translation
appears to be,
horseman."
851
(here
"
his
"
s
A y is
S
*
\t*
A;U> ^3 '
#
^ "
u *JJ
what
!
a good reader
' '
Zayd
is
Jtf
OX WX ^
jj>
' '
repeated in the genitive and separated by ^f often ex/x & ^ S's what a man!," tmfe p. 757(3). presses admiration, as JU^ ^\ JU;
(d)
:
A noun
LXI.
<
H* c >Ji
x
Ji^l
and Approxi-
mate (and
xO (a) **J
'
Inceptive),
xo
^. "how
s
f
X
&^
,
*
*jj
^-^UaJf
**>
x
"excel-
companion Zayd,"
i.e.
"Zayd
*
is
an excellent companion."
* '
#*,
^3 Ua>U>
xo.
excellent aa
a companion
Zayd."
(6)
*"
"x
Also indeclinable
is
)***>
"bravo!
or
is
said
to be derived
from
> xw*A.
"it
is
agreeable"
is
and
|i
"that":
s
it
must be
in apposition to
U>.
(c)
*t
*
t(
^'',-x ILyl *U
*
"
!
:
Ifr**
*
*x^ o*U
all
it
(Hell, /em.)
!"
(d)
X X
^)
<(
that, which,
{J5,,,
U l^o
is
'
(e)
^
(:r
xo
K etc.
(/)
^.
It
may
also
this construe-
tion in the
Quran
XO u. for
is
"
to offend/'
852
(g)
APPROXIMATE
all
(and
INCEPTIVE) VERBS.
*',
These are
of three
kinds:
(i)
an action
is
s -<*?
rarely followed
(eJ
J^y
*J
+
9
;
(Act.
Part.
J&>^)
personal or impersonal:
and
rarely followed
->*
junctive.
Examples: ta~9
^$1
*>
t\t
the
9
also p. 784)
^w
*$** K) -**!
t?
and
<.'^f<*'
f
<^4 o
<HJ <*&*jt
(both personal),
'*
<*jj
ijt
Zayd
is
on
possibility , as
( e>' )
C5~^
),
<s*
t*Jji q.v.
it
may be preceded by
or not
;
noun
which
it
may
agree in
;
it is
usually followed
it
may
an
ace. suffixed
pronoun
o^
* 'l*' O
*U*je
"
perhaps he
"
etc.
it is
"
:
^f
J^J^J
"
(
rare)
it is likely,
probable,
"
;
may be
,
^ ^j^ (rare)
stand up
will
Examples:
b''
;
9,
$^,
~* *
etc
etc
*
'*
-
perhapsZayd, may,
o/o
"
'
will,
\?~*
&&y
"
<*9^& f
9 9*
<,^
f
^/
1
(or f^c^aj e)
9^+ ^9
l5Ji
(.5-^
e^jJ
\,
'
etc.
"
stand up
.
't,*
b+
/^.x
^^i3 ^f
;
'
^^^^
^
- .
perhaps ye
(*^3
e>t
may
it
,*-<,*,',
be good for
you"
+^3 Jl*^, or
^~*
(compare
J^ p.
785).
(iii)
^f
- JLta. -
AJJ*,
and
v^
*'t;o
begin."
by an
***
cU^ u he began
Fide
to
reproach
him";
t^^
also
APPOSITIVBS.
853
XLIV
(6)
(5),
p. 814.
'
prepositions
o or ^,
as
^*J\
tii^l
- *
fi
when
* "fr*
there
is
no
Jl
].
Remark.
It will
be noticed that
all
the Approxi-
mate (and Inceptive) Verbs are used in the Preterite only; that, <^ excepted, all must precede the noun, and the noun must precede the
predicate; that,
if
is
used.
(h)
>*
Jajfta
fr
* ?, </
'
or by
u>'
<^kcf
y*\
' '
;
J^j^u.
t&*
4<
work";
A)
V7if ^f
ci>joJ
U "I
could
him"
(ii)
(1
^\
>
or
(
;
)
<->
as:
J**'!
j'
^j^*^
U
is
<{
cannot
do it";
e>'
<^+j "it
is
possible that
"
;
Al*^
e>*^H>* "it
not possible
to do this."
Remark
I.
d ^ tU
"
to
'
'
can you
to
"
is
in the sense of
' *
know how
do,"
expressed
as
<^&
o^t>
he can write.'
>
xCji).
LXII.
Appositives
gL^f
(a)
Words
in
p.^
<H5
*W
there
The Arabs
(1)
c3t
9*
jj
The Descriptive
The
854
APPOSITIVES.
idea of
^/ <J*; is
man."
ct^ o^*
"
I
"
pjz
I passed
*;/*
passed
by a man whose
(2)
a generous being
"
vide
XXXVIII.
or
'3- *o
tive)>
tive),
"and,"
>
(*f
"or"
(disjunc-
" or "
(after
"),
6 *
&'
"
<
(simple negation,
as in "
),
t>
nay, rather,"
but."
(3)
Explanatory apposition
e)^t
*-*J^
of
defines
more
(i.e.)
particularly,
as in <x>*^ *to
^ ^^
pus."
(4)
J^f
).
(5)
H C^I
vide
LXIII.
be regarded as in
in the
same
'
tense
'
)
may
***>
fi (for
4<
^ >^
'
f^
"
;
Jr^f &&' =
he sang well
"
;
compare
p.
785
(7)
and
p.
848
(d).
In
(S** JL-^i,
S
*
may be an example,
first
either of Appo-
sition or of
'
State
'
Jt*Jl
).
But
if
the
State
only,
and would
p. 800.
vide
XLI
:
(c) (5),
APPOSITIVBS.
gw f<jf<
855
grf
*0
9 XX
/X
.0
O*
(1)
cWl
e^
^'
^ X
J*,
as
J>yU ^3
*W
"
' '
J^U. " the people, great and small, came to me. "
(2)
J#i
x
^
x
uoiu/f J*j, as
^
oJf
aJU*
hand
'
'
;
***j
iua]
x/^x
^x^^gx^oxx
a^S 1^3 CU^AAS
f<
I praised
Zayd,
his
garment only.
mean
the mule."
(c)
may
be in
the
^h
**
j*,*uc
"Oh! Muhammad,
Prophet";
another word,
^f
^^\
If
it
x
;
must be
uu^*
in
Accusative (vide
J^
XLl
(c)
(9)
),
as:
tju*-x^
jdlf
XG
xG~
xx
c5^^ ^-
cLl^
f^f^J ^
*^f
^c
L^! occurring
it is in
names
in the
loses its
apposition
^
**
may
be either
the
Nominative or
^r*^
Oh *Umar
son of Khattdb
(^)
"
\
The In6nitive
#0 x
* x
as an intensive adjective
> o xx
may
stand in apposition to
a noun, as
S(** <&A*
o^f;
"
saw a queen a
"
I
personification of justice
"
(i.e.
''justice itself");
JxJf AdWt X
ow?t;
One grammarian at least treats such an infinitive as an adjective and makes However it agree with its noun but such a construction is usually condemned.
,
/xx
such expressions as **>Jb <jv j "a well-schooled mare" are found, though This infinitive should be masc. sing. only. incorrect.
(e)
of Apposition
:-
But
'
j^\
v^y^f
XX--0
*ta.
X*
"
'
(i.e.
^ X
So-and-so
), is
^U
856
APPOSITIVES.
(1) Size.
f;i
x-
$U>
*
&j
x
af>i ^
/ x/
of stuff"
;
eMji e4U*
' '
;
But
ffdjf
&
9&
^ 99 9
aJf^i,
<J
fi
"a yard
9,
JL^;
man
"
(2)
^O
Likeness.
Sfjx>|
Ji*
iL>)
" a
man
like a
woman "
xx.,o#'x/x
;
Sf^f
J&
**) ojf>
"I saw
a
CG
man
x
like
woman."
-
*.'
,9
is
9,
If JjUi' is substituted,^*
c5^l
understood, as
j* ^<A\
^;
xO
(3)
Material.
*>**>
'
JUL
f<
a chain
made
of
iron,"
^*^a.
^
X
^UL
O
).
is indefinite,
xX
(
as in the example,
it is
better to use
e^,
X
/x xO
as:
w^i ^*
&LJL,
= v^^
^x xo x
*JUL
"a
gold
chain."
If
definite,
the
%9
(4)
t&
-
<&!
<j^
*,,
o**fJ|
J^, or
t& *+*$
<4
<jtiJ|
J^
4<
^&
Js
every
Vide
<f
all
the people" or
3>
XXXVIII
Remark
I.
^
X
)
<j^
x
'all
the world."
(A).
' *
Every person
"= <j^( X
(
*<,
^^fj J^, or
*,
Jr means
**
"the whole day," and oUf^aJt J> ^all the animals"; but that
O"
*
U/
, x
before
an indefinite noun,
it
means "each
or every," as:
cK " every
day."
(5)
x uoo "
"
portion
in the sense of
"some, a part"
or
-
x
' '
^.
(6)
Ohayr
un
another than.'
'
^i
tL*>
* '
' '
;
EMPHASIS OB COEROBOBATION.
u
^jf,
lit.
857
(7)
Ibn un
son/'
&l
^X* ^1 ^;
" a
5 '
age.
(8)
Kunniyyat
*&,
subs.,
name
<" father or son of So-and-so, mother or daughter of So-and-so"), or some nickname, is put in apposition.
(9)
L&
for
'
title,
nickname/' as
j* ^T,
lit.
" father
' :
of a kitten
'
(a
nickname
of cats)
LXIII.
(a)
Emphasis or Corroboration
also called
*j&\ *
).
This
is
CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION.
It is either
(i)
synonym
or
(ii)
kV
y***>, i.e.
repetition
all
by
"he
himself", "both of
them,"
(b)
"
of
them."
first
'
:
$Q*
&j
^^ " Zayd,
t
'r
Zayd came
to me.'
^
AO
* *
"
.**]
yes yes
,
Uiffj
L*f^ >U.
(t
or
}'*
saw
tliee,
ihee."
also
given
to
animals and
lifeless
things,
as
**
4 *
mother
*
Jjf
Jij
"
(i.e.
the jaokal)
*<*
"
',<**'
daughter of the vine"
(i.e.
wine)
s
*
* **)j>'\
" father
of the knees'
(a fever
# s
?s
(i.e.
in
which there
is
the
shark).
2
Nicknames given to animals and lifeless things But in Hindustani daurta daurta pahunch-gaya
till
he
arrived."
3
858
EMPHASIS OB OORROBOBATION.
"
wf,'
"
At>l
^3^1
bf
verily verily
Zayd
"
lif
pi(*
"I
am
fasting, I
am
fasting.'
'
or
^^
/
jj
*'
,
the
army
retreated, retreated.
"
'
^xo "
J^^ ^^
x
c. "
^*j
j*+
x-
yes, certainly.
(c)
In the phrase
^ij
'
or) U'
*'
(*UI
Uij
up
(or
we),
is
me
'
,
(or us)
the
first
By
/O'
).
in the sense
^yiaJi
o^UJf
u**^)> and
affixed
(pL
^^i
"self
cU',
or 5^**, or &(
"with an
pronoun
and the
pronoun.
of
fern.
<J
both", with an
affixed
Examples
f-4,
x
x o
or ^-^**lf or
o
'
'
j*4?
x
^i
c<
oof;
them",
or e>$**aJ
*>
*
^Ji'
^f
v^o'^
a^^A *U
W X
.
tjs is
* *
Not ^<&.
& &
i.jt
Not
f<ij;
L.jf
PARADIGMS.
859
LXIV.
Paradigms.
I.
TABLE
(A.)
'
vU OR *****) VERB
*
*<*
'
J&>,
"HE KILLED."
f^
Active Voice
).
Person.
Preterite or Perfect
ImperaEnerg.
1.2
Tense
Indicative.
(or
State).
Energ.
II. 2
tive. 8
3.
[
masc Sing
3. fern.
2.
masc
fern.
2.
1.
c.
!-> Jkjf
3.
masc. Dual.
fern.
Uliii
wanting wanting
wanting
99^
3.
2.
3.
masc. Plur.
fern.
{
{
>.
wanting
!.
masc.
2. fern.
wanting
1.
.,
Strengthened by J,
X
it
For
truly, surely ", is usually prefixed. greater emphasis J 8 The Jussive must be used for prohibition, as no negative particle can precede the Imperative.
860
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(concluded).
(B.)
If
if
is
it
remains
- in the
it
Aorist; but
it
changes to
x
x
' *
may
" he
x x
be either
or
m. ^u
:
it
was pleasant
i
* c
' ' ;
_*~A.
he thought
' '
c <
despaired,
,j^|
'
it
dried
' ' ;
he excelled
"
;
&*
' '
he despaired
'
';
u^*
" he appeared.'
"
2nd m. CxJtJ
2nd m.
oJ
PARADIGMS.
861
TABLE
Infinitive Nil
1
;
II.
HE WAS KILLED
/oxo
Passive Voice
The Passive
latter
may
*
be supplied by
J and
killed."
'Q
),
&xO
IX
(JU*!
XI
JUw'p,
and
x"
,
and Stems
is
(JUiii),
VII
"^
(
J*ftij),
and VIII
is
something effective or sequential. The subject of an Active Voice is an agent whose act may or may not affect an or else the object the subject of a Passive Voice is either the object of the Active Voice
;
862
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF THE QUADRILITBRAL
l
III.
**'.
(
v
)
VERB
b; <Jn>
jk+$
" TO TIB
TJP
BE ASSEMBLED."
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
Preterite
Aorist
Imperative
/'OX.P
Participle
Infinitive
There
are
numerous
onomatopoetic
quadriliterals,
as:
to
howl
(in
mourning)."
2
Measure
<JJU-.
X<
Another example
is
/*^y
is
" to translate."
"G^f
'X<> X C
3
*'
Measure JUU&i.
Another example
"
^laJUJ
to
become
vSnltan
"
x x c x
(from ^latl^
&!> '<*
Measure
JJU^'f,
Another example
is
"
c)UJfc>J
PARADIGMS.
863
w
tf
> H
H
I
5
<M
O M Q
<4
o; t>
o >
CD
-a s
864
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
'
V.
y "HE
FLED."
Infinitive
y; Participle
;U*.
Active Voice.
3J X
^ >X
-
CP
i^X
c<
e.
go
too
are conjugated
i**
j^j
c<
to
prolong"; cU-JU,j
to
It may be noted that whenever the second of the assimitated letters would be quiescent, these letters are resolved or separate, otherwise the rule that two quiescent letters cannot occur together, would be violated.
.
Two
viz.
e*y *
or
ooy *
the hamzat^l-waBl
is
restored, as a
PARADIGMS.
865
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
VI.
(continued).
cjyb
and C^AJ.
Pass. Part. m.
c" ^^A^,
'
f.
)j^'
55
866
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VII.
$> '
.
Tense,
etc.
III
TV
VI
VII
VIII
Preterite Active
Aorist
,,
Imperative
,,
-**!,
$'
Participle
,,
>
Ju**o
Infinitive
t
Preterite Passive
)**
Aorist
,,
Participle
,,
jjjiu
Note.
j
" to be curly
The remaining Stems present no irregularity. * f '^ " " " "
;
Some
bad "
t
verbs,
,
;
as
^J
to be intelligent
f.
to be
<~&*
" to
also
cW may
*
The forms
jlf
jli5,
etc. as well as
^(i
PARADIGMS.
867
TABLE
^O^C'C"* ^ O Cx
VIII.
ffamzaled
(A.)
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd masc.
Sing.
Note.
ceded by
supporting the hamzah is precharacteristic of the form, the alif is changed into the
alif
:
to
take,"^f
to
command," and
>
J^t
:t
to eat," drop
Imperative of Stem
x x '
I, as
&*>, etc.
x
X'
x-
x*
'
*
'
},.
its
hamzah, as
^afajt -
i^i?.
The
same
as those of the
Sound verb.
.
But from
<
Imperative
is
ji>J
868
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd masc.
to be asked. **<...
Sing,
The verb
;
JU
has in
its
x
Jussive
fern,
JU?
*
(or JSUo),
an d JLj (^i
^ ;
<-
and
in its Imperative
J~,
^k*,
etc.,
All changes in this table and the table of derived forms, are governed by rule that hamzah, when it begins a syllable (not a word), takes as its prop the weak consonant that is sister to the short vowel by which it is pointed, and if that weak consonant be <^, the dots are omitted.
the
The
same
as for the
Sound
verb.
But fib
/*K
(Inf. fJI) 9 9*
"to
,*
^Jf
dress or bind
<.*
up a wound, accuse
fit*
-
**
-
(Infs.
^JU
&SU)
" to
blame.*'
PARADIGMS.
869
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
(CO
Forms having Hamzah
for the Third Radical.
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd maso.
Sing,
Uaiu
Note.
of derived forms,
depend
on the rule already given in the Note to B. The inflections are the same as for the Sound verb.
870
PARADIGMS.
"**
o
:
o
"j
oiJ
^"W ^
^ *k
^j~
^J
-|*
?
rt
J
*^N *>
o "a*
o
v
v
x
o*^\
*3
*>
^ ^
<N
Stems
III,
V or
I,
are substituted.
Vide
TED
d | m ,2 3 ^
53
05
Q
a o
1
Cb
PARADIGMS.
871
"
-3
a "
1
S
%
e
v
r>
^, j* ~
*^
7 ,-T
\ ~~_)
H
'43
34
S O
I
s
a
<a
<
S72
PARADIGMS.
H ^ H
v
o.
jw
'
aH
o
r*
'X
o,
i li
,*
"i
^
3.
S
of
H. v
1 8
v
,1 JS
^ *1
*^
>'
V
* I
3?
-)t
\
VK
O
">--'
'^
H
PQ
1. -^
"K
*V
v
XN
"i
32
"
<S
&
a
PABADIGMS.
873
TABLE
X.
,
or
and
<^$
e.
(5
as: JLoj
"to arrive"
Aor. JUj
Impera.
JLe.
874
"
(
PARADIGMS.
,
Some with
fathah
*y
ia
"to place";
dropped and
^
Aor, j^j
*
;
Impera.
*>.
suffixed.
the j, as:
J^^
J^-?
as
is
a$
# Mf "
to love."
in the Active,
"
S
-
as
***>
*u
'*
to find
"
;
*
-
xa.j
<Xa^j
to be found."
are,
that
or a
the
(
weak
as
ci?ut
for cJajl),
Imperative of J^j.
assimilated to
its
following o, as:
J^
" to
J^Js
-'*>
'*to be
continuous," Aor.
J.^
*"
\j&>.
*
4j^J ''todes-
^Uj
" to despair."
The same
>V> " time
of birth
"
(for
to
9l
um t er
>
a ^80
t>
awake."
PARADIGMS.
875
TABLE
(A.)
9
l
XI.
"
o' $ o
Stem
of jli (for
Inf.
Jys
live Voice.
JV ^.
*'
is
division of the
Weak
verb.
Weak
of the ^ayn.'
letters
or
in such
dropped.
(not
Jjj>).
876
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(continued).
(B.)
Stem
of
travel';
Inf.
-J*
Act. Participle
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
877
TABLE XI
(continued).
Stem.
^ Passive Voice.
Passive Voice.
Sing.
m.
For
For
**
J)
to
sell.'*
878
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(concluded).
AND ^.
(for
J^)
" to say,"
<Jt^ (for
.
o>^
-
" to fear
"
;
;U
(for
j^)
" to
travel"
&
^
J>o
'
" to lead/'
IV
or
VII
or
VIII
)2nd Bad.! 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad.i 2nd Bad.! 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad.
Preterite Active
2nd
pers. masc.
sing-
Aorist
J#
, ,
|
i i
jjif
Imperative
Participle
,,
Preterite Passive
mmmmmmmm
Aorist
, ,
'
.jlXftx)
Participle
*
,,
f s
, ,
<,
?' s
Infinitive
Notes.
(i)
^
";
and
are
j}*t
"to be
one-eyed
For
So too from
^b(=
gjj)
Stem
is
gjjk
<for
PARADIGMS.
(ii)
H79
their ^ or
<k
^
or
in
Stem IX,
3&x
(j
U^O
' ' ,
"
;
tf&'O*'
Aor.
*&j>~i
O^XM
to b
>
wu^c,'
The
0;rC"
is
often
retained in
* ' O "
<*
*'
to approve,"
'
A Aor.
s
V^-AJ^J.
(iv)
*
*
Hollow verbs that have j or^as a third radical always retain their
f
*/
jj,
as: C5^*
(v)
it
4<
to be
with a following
&
or
as
'<**
oi>U
<c
<e
he died
but
*=** (for
0X0)
* 4
I died*
'
;
J6 " he was,"
(vi)
&9
but
Itf
(for luT
^' fc
.:
we were."
In the measure
*
'
cU*'l,
"
"black"
(not
-'^-.
f^f).
* ,
,9 ^
On
the measure
J**'.
is Jtfc
(for
Jyfe>)
Aor.
J^
99*
Irnpera, rnasc.
Di,
fern.
880
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(A.)
XII.
*FU
1
DIFFERENT FORMS.
Inf.
j>.
Active Voice.
f *w x o
1
" 9
Or
PARADIGMS.
881
TABLE XII
(continued).
(B.)
<
Last Radical
rs*
(
^
^
(
.
J*j
;
= C5^
>
^
-
Inf.
<y;
Act. Part, rh
***l> f
Active Voice.
AOBIST.
Preterite.
Imperative.
Indicative.
Subjunctive
Jussi ve.
V^O/Oj
**;!
Energ. I
eHi^ and
II
56
882
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XII
(continued)
(C.)
J*J
s
).
to be pleased
"
;
Inf.
<^
and
vi>tj-*>
and SI*/*
Act.
Part
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
883
TABLE
XII
(D.)
(continued).
"
;
f&'b,
Inf. *l~ojf
and
Ax-^jl
Pass. Part.
Sj*feo
f.i
Passive Voice.
"
1
5
is
<
Pass. Partic. of
884
PARADIGMS.
y
M-l
.
"J
i
x
>
HH >H
rrt
.S T3
*;a
VI
;^
o
*>,
^
V
x
'V
{3
-1* VJ
1
tf
"o
~
s
CO
"I
3*
\V V
^3v -f 3
'-
V
B
X!
"b"
S
tf
-a
H
-^ *|
ft
xX
x
i^ ^
Iv?
2 S
i
4S
.
.2
^2 ^ H
*S
t^
i a
PARADIGMS.
43
885
o
note.
.9
5 00
-
**
l*ft
t ^
'
J
*
* J 3
X^
>
"S
S
g
\H
'"
eo
1
o
03
"r
M M
^1
CO JJ
<D
-g
c o
\%-
^
?
o
c8
."ft
.
I KT L>
^
.*'
D
N
ji>
2
le
vi
1
CO
8
*rs
i a. I ^ **
CLi
I
4
09
5
*C
a>
*C
886
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
WEAK
LETTER.)
1st
'
vf
or
wf
/O'
;
'
Inf.
wj
of
4< )
(for <Jjf )
" to injure"
Jt( for
II
^5" *jf
J^f
^f
to
be strong,"
Stem
"to
PARADIGMS.
887
TABLE
II.
XIII (A)
(continued).
1st
<Jf
"to come"
Inf.
Note.
Stem IV
s 9
is
<yf
Aor.
^fy
Juss.
o^j
Impera. of;
(2)
to refuse
"
;
Aor.
^>^
t^f
Stem
(^df
(same meaning),
&*$:
^^
"to
grieve,
mourn."
^b,
3rd! ^jlj,
o
*3.
'
etc.
At the end
of
a sentence written
ex
In pause,
all
one
as
gj
for
888
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
III.
*
XIII (A)
(continued).
1st ^ or
f>
<tr
'
" to despair"
Inf.
^b
and
to see
"
;
Inf.
^t) and
AJ-^).
PBETEKITE.
3rd masc.
ISing.
Dual.
Plur.
3rd fern.
c
O/O
2nd masc.
2nd
fern.
1st c.
Participle.
But
Passive
^jf
is
pointed."
PARADIGMS.
889
TABLE
XIII
(A)
(continued).
(1)
is
dropped.
i
her,"
(2) etc.
(3)
With a
suffix, the
forms are:
*1^
^
x*
"he
The
Pxx^
.
following Derived
J>
Forms occur
to
^^
>*
tf
to dissemble,"
x> x>*
x
;
x'
IV ^;l
<f
Inf.
*!;!
and
S*t;J
VI
^^
'*
to look at one
another"; VIII
"to think."
890
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
V.
"
XIII (A)
(continued).
"
"to tread";
Aor.
tk*
;
<
*^
Inf.
U>
and 2nd ^ or
&
*U
'* '
f ' -*
or
*U
(for
f^j
'*
to be
bad"
Inf.
Preterite,
Aorist.
Jussive.
Im P era'
tive.
Active
Participle.
Passivt
Preterite.
Participle.
j^-wj
or
*L*
{(Passive
I
Aoriat
2nd masc.
i
,
,,
'
2nd
fern
etc.
etc.
etc.
I
Note.
f'
Inf.
X
;
(1)
IV Stem *Uf
Jf
' *
to
make bad
'
' ;
Aor. ^-*ri;
Imperative
>
*Ut
So too from
*U (for
f^*)
IV Stem
c<
to light."
PARADIGMS.
891
TABLE
'**,*
U, or *lx
(
XIII (A)
<*
(concluded).
' S
)
for *UA,
Inf.
Active
Preterite.
Passive
Preterite.
Aorist.
Participle.
Participle.
>or
3rd
fern.
2nd masc.
2nd
fern.
etc.
etc.
etc.
Note.
So from
*l* (for
U*), II
f>
;
Inf. *3j^.
or
*U
(for
**
" to wish"
Inf.
and
<xU.x).
(or
Aorist.
3rd fern.
lj
2nd masc.
892
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
(B.)
1st
^*3
" to guard
f"
' '
fi
O'
Inf. *jU[>
and
So, too,
^
^
f c
to be complete, to
fulfil (a
"
promise)
;
IV Stem
(and
"to
fulfil
vow," Aor.
^,
'
to be near," Aor.
^5.
PARADIGMS.
893
TABLE
II.
to
narrate";
a*^.
Active
Preterite.
Aoriet.
Jussive.
Imperative.
Passive
Preterite.
Participle.
Participle.
masc. Sing.
fern.
*,;,
(Passive
Aonst
2nd masc.
2nd
etc.
fern.
etc.
etc
"to be
Inf.
and ic3>
Sing.
etc.
2nd mas.
2nd
fern.
etc.
So,
etc.
too,
are conjugated
<j;>
"to be worth
"j^y
"to be
* '
strong
894
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
or
&
'
for j#^
" to
live
' '
Inf.
e.
II
Stem
"to
let live,
greet," Inf.
X Stem Umj " to <=*; " " be ashamed generally written with
>
one
^ ^
O
),
O"
as: L5**-*!
Aor.
PARADIGMS.
895
TABLE
PARADIGM OF TREBLY
XIV.
Jtrf
' '
Inf.
^.
i*
Note
(I)
II
Stem
453 f
"to show
hospitality to
'*?
f
"
;
IV Stem
^
is
(with
same meaning).
(2)
'
inflected like
and
weak
com-
(form
*) is
radicals that
in
mon
use.
896
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XIV
(continued).
'*
to promise."
and ^j.
PARADIGMS.
897
TABLE XV.
The negative substantive verb ^pJ " he is not" has no Aorist Imperative. It is inflected like verbs with the 2nd Radical j and ^.
or
2 fern.
2 masc.
3 fern.
3 masc.
Sing.
UL.J
UJ
x-0'
Dual.
Plur.
898
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XVI.
FORMATION OF VERBAL NOUNS FROM
WEAK
VERBS.
Novin of Time
Passive Participle.
Agent or
Active
Participle.
Verbal
Noun
or
and Place.
Infinitive.
Aorist.
Preteri
9 <,,
t
/
x-
JJU
ol
Uj
;^
APPENDIX
(Continuation of
B.
125.)
:
Vaqt~i
t^iA*)o>
ki
M\
^U3>
** *$
dar sdhra mi-raft did ki hama-yi darakhtha uftdda and here the plural verb gives *it> ^j** \j****)t> *j^;
ast
***#]
the idea
of
*&) would
also
be
correct.
&*.
did,
chi
might be used by Indians and Afghans, but not by Persians. The Perfect iM uftada-and shows Indefinite Past time. The Preterite
Vaqt-i ki
<X+A.
*$u A^JJJ^
is
^jl^jf^k
is
used
defined.
The
plural oJ^UJf
(3)
Khwahish-i
ma
raftan
bi-Bushahr
bud
llkin
bi
ta'mir
kardan-i
(
& jahaz rattan nami-shud jl^ &*j$ j*+*i ^Ju^j*. to to "we Bushire but wished it was impossible to do cs^ {>**) go Dar shab chunin awazha-yi muhib-i shunidlm so without repairing the ship.
^ ^J ^ ^^
*f
(*>*&
^^
ki raftan bi-sahil
& &&)
^^
c5 lA 3!jf
u^
terrible
it
>-*)* was
nouns *
;
namt-shud in Mod.
*j#
^*>o mumkin
na-bud.
Vulgarly in Persia vxlxw Ai*> cLl^ bi-aahil rafta nami shud is used. The Afghans frequently use this construction probably in imitation of
;
the Urdu.*
"
(4)
You ought
to
have acted on
my
advice'*
J^x*
Shi ghat harchi pay da ml-kunad duzdida va mi-ravad " the Here the Aorist jackal steals whatever it finds." **?.*)&
bi~kunad would signify that there was a doubt about the jackal &X*' mi-kunad shows that finding is its occupation. finding anything The copula j is wrong or at least a redundancy. Grammarians consider
<vij
;
the final
Ml-ravad could be used for did, but might be mistaken for the Future. "it is impossible to fight Taqdlr se lara nahln fata Ul^ tjJ 4^J*ftJ (Urdu)
^^
against Fate."
8
Or
classically
t^/j^o Jj^'
-owk
bn yi8t
,
qa
900
(6)
CONTINUATION OF
125.
Agar jandb-i *5G urd yak na%ar bi-farmdyid ummtd ast ki bi-zudl Here c**JLW ** ***** ***t *t*j** fi -& hj c^M** ,/!. shifd ydbad V^ *1 after the Subjunctive shows the doubt hope.' The Future cu'l$ **!> khwahad ydft could be substituted to show certainty; but in this case it would be better to substitute ^*' o*fy yaqin ast for cu^i ^x/of ummtd ast.
&
(7)
ajj
Ndm-i an mulk
ki
bud
fuldn
of
bud
the
c/T
ft
cjlU
for
(Afghan) ^4 *jj; ejb jlt which the ship was about to sail was So-and-so.'*
is,
a>
*f *J^*>
"the name
country
of
agency
imitation of
modern Persian at any rate, incorrect. Substitute ki jahaz the Urdu construction.
in
It is possibly
bi-ddnjd ml-bdyis.
UBUJJO
jl^
&f
or raftanl bud
t^ )
9
or
*^,
jahaz
da,1
o^^
j*
j^
or
mushrif
An-qadr
bi-tdli'
ast
ki
agar
baray-i
khwahad khushkld
is
vf c^fj^
** c^*
C^
;^
so unfortunate that were he to go to drink he c&&** ^* *->j+ tjj e>^^ v If bud were substituted for o~=l ast, water, the stream would dry up.
it
mi-raft and
^-i^
(9)
(
I did
j^of i^tyah.
or )
not think that he would come to-day y tf ***?* ^c^ u imruz ki >J^ jyo! bi-khaydl-am na-rasid
of
^"
mi-khushkid.
^^^
is
***
bi-yayad
it
the subordinate
tenses
clear
Shabhd nallda-am
4<
o~*f
>aA,j
mardm farzandbakhshtda ast \^ U ^ <WG (^ wept many nights till (God) gave me this son," be right. The Perfect ft ^U ndUda am signifies,
td
if
NdUdam f^k
it
is still present. the year or place had been stated, and could be followed either by the Preterite jj^iu bakhshid or by the
and
could be used
The Pluperfect ^^> ^t> ndUda budam, followed by the Pluwould mean that he had a long time ago wept and then received the The Pluperfect followed by the Preterite would signify that a blessing. long time elapsed between his weeping and receiving the blessing.
Perfect.
perfect,
(11)
man
bi-zdyad) (*$y>
^n c*H*y ^ ** ^^^ *+ m.c. both the Pres. and Past Subjunctive are used here with the same
*>jj5ij
vl
j^^ u^
v^
signification.
Instead of
chi
^H
" ii
vy^
chi-khftb ast,
the Future jy
used.
Agar J\
Better
lt
" that."
^ 4^^
CONTINUATION OF
(12)
126.
901
" Whatever people thought, they thought wrong" ^(^ j* ki* har khayal-i kardand ghalat bud the Preterite mardum ty *>&j kardand signifies on that particular occasion.' But in jj^y ^tfc^^A
: *
har khaydl-i karda-and ghalat ast, the Perfect signifies whatever they have thought in the past or are thinking now. Substitute the Past Subjunctive Av-U? ^/ karda bdshand and the meaning is "whatever
tali
*i|
1
o^|
mardum
they
" what." Similarly *j> ^^. ^/ thing) **>j* harchi u kard bi-kh-ud kard ever he did then, he did wrong/' Harchi u karda bdshad bi-khud karda (( ast OM*I itjS tj**~u *t %*j $\ **>*> whatever he may have (or have
not) done at any time,
(but they
may
or
may
was
anjl is
I
wrong."
fool
"
(13)
-- that
or
is
me
"
to say
am
8
it (if
you had
**
/
condition,
or
*
rather a condition
p*!}**
future.'
signifies a past ftjf*' that cannot be fulfilled; bi-kunam would I kard that should believe it in the signify
Here
p&
:
'
have said
pw
+*>}
;^f --- an
time
.
she might
is
qadr ahmaq
budam
ki
bi-kunam
you)?"
hala>
"where were you (when I called for <j-j# Kujabuda-i? S^ lJ "where have you been all this time?" murda Mj/o ill^ ^1 " he has just expired (I was present or the news has
Kuja budi
?
me)"
ast o^ot
jyc
J/t^
y *he
is
no longer
living,
he
is
already dead."
$^y "its not a cure you've fixed or mentioned (as yesterday, be used.
(16)
mu'jaza karda-i ^>^uix> ^Jb \^ -&c. &tf AJ done but a miracle." If the time were
last
month,
last year)
"I would
(not
f^!**il
" you man khudra baray~i shuma dar db u dtash mi-andazam J V' ^ mi-andakhtam which would refer to past time unless
go through
fire
and water
to serve
an adverb denoting present or future were used and the context showed that the clause was the apodosis of a condition), but vali agar fardd
bi-man
mi-guftid khud rd
(^
t*y j>\
to
tell
^J]
)$
bys*.
txxxA^o
^ me
Not ty
bud.
Ast ow*|
'
is
wrong
still'
cu|
8^
but
may
2
made up
by him
3
to
902
CONTINUATION OF
125.
to-morrow, I would go through fire to serve you"; transfer \^ fardd the second clause and *$** m^guffid will give either a past or a fut sense. In agar dtruz mi-gufttd mi-anddkhtam f^f<^l ^c ^AAK* Jv^
the whole supposition becomes past.
"
(17)
I forgot it
up
till
"
to-day
fl
'
^ td imruz fardm
[
karda
am
td-c&rUz
fardm
(Gul.) ff
*<xj>
^
wai
propitious
oJ "I have had a dream. He one; what did you see?'" Here the
said 'I
hope
is
it
Perfect
used as
time
chi
is indefinite.
mubdrak
&*> Later on the addressee says A^f v fjA> utyfo ki the d/idl. Here ast Preterite khipdb signifies that
^^
dream
also
" Would that that young man yesterday had proved to be y (19) %**tf j* brother Ghanim" U^j^j tsbjt* uAj* c;f ** <J& kdsh-ki
&
javdn-i diruzi barddar-i shumd Ghdnim dar dmada bud (or **ti dmad\: here the Pluperfect without diruzl shows that the time
dar
;
past the also Past alone refer to or future tii (as Habitual) might past Imperfect but the adjective c5*J^ diruzl clearly indicates past time. " Would that
I
is
young man (now present) were your brother Ghanim";^ ^j ^JU i^w kdsh In javdn barddar-i shumd Ghdnim bud (or
l
&[?*.
^^
budi
tenses
are indefinite as
;
to
time,
but
s
<xAl>
bdshad might be
future.
lie
stituted
(20)
"
darugh na-gi
HU.
'5
f*& az
vaqt-i mutavallid
shudam
id
Ml
am.
man an
&' I
ast
ki
&>
It
^w
Axti
jji)
jj)j*
my
^^
It
is
regularly.'
distres (22) "You ought to have sympathized with me in my *H&k **/' is*}*** &* ^ oox^ax) o^J^Jf ^ o^?l U* U& shumd mi-bdyist (ki) an vaqt-i musibat bd man ham-dard/i karda baahld? Instead of c*
can be substituted, followed by the Imperfect mi-kardid, but this construction is used in writing only. In ^ *$
Biida bud j^ ity is not used, but would be grammatically correct. Birkunid t^i^j might be used but could be incorrect. -
CONTINUATION OF
125,
903
vaqt-i
musibat
dil-i
tan
man
*S
bi-suzad, ay
in
as
ki
bud gives to ajr*. bi-suzad the idea of past time. this second sentence is the equivalent of Jt\ agar, the
J
clause introduced
by
it is
and
its
verb
can therefore correctly be put in the Imperfect, i.e. oA>* ml-sukht Mi-sukht o^* ^* however would in this instance instead of dj>H bi-suzad.
be open to the misconstruction
(instead of JuA r <^*^?f
cuaLj*.
ing with
me
in
<y
a&Jt
0^*0
bi-jihat-i Inki
ml-sukht
ogw
f/w-swMtf)
"
it
."
"
<jStf
<
&>(&
<j^t^
j^j>
would that he would come kash dlruz mi-amad (or d> ^/of amada bud)
bi-yayad)
]
come yesterday."
(24)
^x&b
Chi kar kunlm ki g&aflat na-karda bash%m ^C e^lii ya^n? &a*^ a^ kardan-i an kar gfraftat na-karda bashlm &*jS
^(^ ,jf
).
&
)\
t,
Here
if
(25)
Kag&azra
navishta kardl
(s^
AXwy
fj
**ti
(Afghan)
for you
"
*'have you
?
Similarly
"
(26)
How
or
)
^i^j
did you imagine that I would agree to this ? J^AJ fj ^iu^ ^j( ^x) *^ <x^/ chiguna tasavvur kardid ki
(or &J* ptyj^
"
man
in sukhan
r<*
qabul bi-kunam
khwaham kard
) ?
Shaytan shavad *t f\ %***& jSj* Here ^lisxi wpJti? ijfJ "I have never heard of any one loving Satan." a>& shavad gives the idea of indefinite time, past or present, but *xb *<* shuda bashad would mean '* I have never heard that any one ever has been " in love with Satan (past time only).
(27) Hargiz na-shuriida-am ki kas-l
talib-i
>>j
(28)
C>WM!
shuda
;
ast (not
^ shud
*3j))
) ;
tt
ft
or
zalzala
ast.
shud
or cu*t
3^;
<UA. 6^
AJ^
zalzala
(29)
"I
Aat?e
seen
for
a long time"
^5^/0 $j <UA^ b OWMI tiJ^ ^^JUA^ *^ Jukj ^^ ^>c pa barahna rah mi-raw (m.c.): here *HJ
man mi^Knam
kash
may
;
with <j!
only.
Shitd
is
904
CONTINUATION OF
125.
person addressed is still barefooted. Substitute meaning may be that the person now has shoes.
(30)
ft
fcxj^
cKda
am and
" *n
o^
manner shall
is
"
p*\j*>
*
^^V
v^-
w^
primarily
cant
kill
'
but substitute ,*&& bi-kusham and the meani: it and secondarily I intend to kill it, but
*
;
what manner
(31)
shall I
do so
Wa'da mt-kunam ki biydyam fj(# * (*&** but wa'da ml-kunam ki khwaham amad ** come," I that will (and shall) come." promise
(32)
***j
"
promise
In sadd~yi pa az u khwahad bud *# *Afy* j jt wtwatf (I feel certain) be his footstep", but x*U jf jt ^ (t be not this to bashad u ad az (but may be) his footstep." ought bay pa
Turki bi-danad
*xi|xj
? Here the Aori there anyone here who knows Turki (to know Turki) In m.c. however the Present is oft( is correct as it indicates uncertainty.
lapuui
"
incorrectly substituted,
is
who
<f
The
-'I hope yc shumd bi-yayid A*5U> U ^>fjA^f ummidvar-am shumd khwdhld amad U^ pfj ** may be able to come " I that you will come.' Umidvdr budam shun know and j^of ^Afy^ hope 2 " come ummidvdr buda 1 **3(+> U< hoped you might bi-ydyid f&# fo***) 'I felt certain you wou shumd khwdhid amad &*>1 *HA|^ U^ ^.jy j\) ^/ot<
Ummid'Vdr-am
' '
is
to be preferred
"They
illdh
Had
AJJ> ^o mi-bdyist b'ism illdh gufta bash and, na-gufta-an< the speaker been present at the occasion, he would have said -*x&
na-guftand.
Dar qadim Injd darydcha-t buda ast o**t ^-^> lu^f /^^^ been (was) a lake here formerly" bud ay would signify th has "there the writer has, or had, lived near the lake or else that he knew by traditic
(36)
:
(37)
Ma%anna
ct*;U **\j*
shuda ast
^U^l
&
AJJfe
" " the c$y goods in the wagon have probably been stolen here the Perfect, even after the word probably/ signifies it is the con vie tic
'
jantft
In neither case
Should be
in m.c.
is it
known whether
the person
c-**f
*-
came
or not.
aet is really
<xL
*a
shuda baehad;
shuda
wrong thoug
common
CONTINUATION OF
125.
905
of the speaker that they have been stolen, that he has no doubt of the matter. Shuda bdshad <xtj *> would mean ' they may have been stolen.'
(38)
'ariza-i
*vT u<
j^j*
cri *&
re
l
indefinite
shows that the speaker was not present. substituted, but would not indicate whether the speaker was present or not.
time
:
d)l)>^
\*
^f^J&i
uj*' mi-dmada
*'->
H
ast
oH ^^ tof*
&Uj*
dada
ast signifies
Gush dadam, dldam hamdn tawr ast ki khaydl karda am f*xo foM <Jj$ ** ^^\ C^UA " I listened and found out it was even as I had f\ Ittjf thought." Here the Perfect fi ^/ JU^ khayal karda am signifies 'as
(39)
J^
the Pluperfect would signify I had thought previously and still think had thought' (but probably do not do so now). Kardam (*<i/ would mean Mi-kardam {*** as I had thought as I had thought on one occasion.
I
'
:
'
for
some time, or
(40)
frequently.
bdd-i tund
magar bi-jubha-yi kuchak va nahr-hd-yi khurd safar-karda mi-bashi AJ^/OJOJ^ ^<J <& ^b (^ ^jf ^t^U ^\ ^IA j^ j ^-^ L5 t?>^ (Afghan) "Simpleton! this ^*U* jtu. is not called a gale. Your voyages have been confined to streams and
Ay nadan In rd
nami-guyand
l
canals,
Safar karda mi-bdshi ^kyo jj^ yu. is apt to mislead the student safar-karda j>y j& is a compound adjective like *I?U valo najdt-ydfta and ^U^^ mi-bdshl is simply the Present Tense.
:
"
" 2 dushndm dada ast o^of ^f^ fUj> &&* So-and-so abused me yesterday." Here the Perfect shows that the speaker was abused behind his back and that the abuse was reported to him. Had he been present and heard the abuse, he would have said ^l^^UJi^ dushndm
(41)
Fuldn
dUruz
^^
dad.
**he didn't Ndml-danist ki kujd mi-ravad j>j^ {*** ** ^ >'^ tf ki nami-ddnist where know he was going ov-*i|<H^ kujd mi-raft CU^A/O l^/ Didam ki (not so good and more uncommon) has the same signification.
(42)
' ' :
mutag&ayyir mi-shavad va nasihat-i mard bi-kardhat mi-shinavad j*&*> &$ f**t "I saw that he was getting angry and ^i^jj/o o^>(^j \j*> osv.^0) j ^^Mg* was taking my advice in ill part " here the Present 2>j^ mi-shavad might indicate Future time, 'I thought he would get angry'; but *&** mi-shud
:
would
be*
(43)
Payybambar
" " the Prophet used often to say (the speaker might have been present).
' '
' '
j*+*ty
"Has
been coming."
Or
fularii.
906
CONTINUATION OF
(44) Ihtimdl ml-ravad ki
125.
&*)?*>
probably come." Though the Future is often used in such cases after ki, both in speaking and writing, it is incorrect. The Pres. Subj. should be used after .y^* jUI^f ihtimal ml-ravad, as there is a doubt.
will
" he
*$
However
(45)
**f^ y
^
t
j>
ki
u khwahad amad
is
correct.
khwahad
J>j
bud
<x
^j
*^
yAu v |y
vaqt-i (ki
mi-amadam dldam
ki chiragh-i
shuma mi-sukht
(or mt-suzad)
anja mi-raftam "Had I not been afraid that " were I now not afraid that it it was too late I would have gone there," or would get late I would go there." The adverbs )jj& dtruz or f^i farda would fix the time as past or future; also if miravam were substituted
yuf
(46)
Agar nami-tarsldam
ki dir shavad
^.
This
may
signify
either,
^^
for
f**/**
(47)
ft
man
bachcha buda
am
*-j )\ Here vJja*. ^^t"* f*!foy *sy ^x>. continuance of the action up to the present.
*x^
4 *^
/0
^j** mi-zada
am *^> am shows
(48)
Az
<>*
an
ki ruz-i padishah-i bi-shikar mi-rafta &$ c>Axx/o ruz ruz-i 'Id buda ast ^AU^l A^jfy jf
^^
^.^
according to what the ^^*** ^jb* used to say ') that Darvish was saying (either on a particular day or as a certain king was going out hunting, he saw a jackal, that day must
siMt
%ty
jjj
jjtr*^
*^^
^^^f
**
fe**?
ld" Mi-rajta ast o~>! ai^v shows that the Darvish might have been present on the occasion the Imperfect viJ>jA/o mi-raft could be Instead substituted but would indicate that the darvish was not present.
have
been
1
l ;
of
ovwof
jjj>y
buda-ast,
it
to say
*^
to>?
bayad
buda bashad*
*' it is not 'Ajab nist ki ( or agar) bi-ravad ^> ( j!\ or ) *$ &~& v?^ " ti khwahad if he but nist ki ***&> ^?^ raft, 'ajab (not agar) strange go " it is not will he strange that he will (or should) go (as oJ; AAJ^ (J\ not)
(49)
go).
(50)
(
/U>o
or
Muddat-l banda munta$ir-i mulaqat-i sharif buda am (or mi-basham) -AJ/A &($&'Cjia&'0 >Jj (j?**> but muddat-Vst banda niuntaz.ir-i j*l B^J
)
/*U
1 In Afghan Persian, the perfect participle is prefixed to buda ast to give the sense of " he must have done." " he must have must, as: rafta buda oat gone*' karda buda aat But buda buda ast cannot be said, though by analogy it would be the correct form.
;
Or
mirbayist bashad.
CONTINUATION OF
(
125.
907
f|
tty not
be written,
(51)
^AJO,X>
it
" I have long been expecting to meet must be followed by buda am.
you"
if
muddat-l bud
ptij
Uof
a&f
\\
***
&k>\
l+j "
will
here
^
\
inform you of
raftam
:
my
going"
also vulgarly
^U
<*>;
rafta basham.
(52)
t
tarilch
" the letter *!ty *i^y (j-*.j ^-^13 ^&i j& &&**^ you wrote me on such and such date arrived to-day." Here the Pluperfect is used to indicate a time previous to the Preterite, and the Preterite is used to indicate an action
just completed.
(53)
^M))9jM
Gumdn mi-kunam
) f*;f<*J
ki chlz-1 az
31
an qism na-ddram
(^b
Al^tyj or
(t I dont think I have anyL&S- ** p*# &^ p~>* Na-daram f;f*> is here Present Tense, Indicative.
^T
THE END.
INDEX.
A
interj.=/i5, q.v. ; a or e, vulg. for ast, p. 218 (c), Bern. 465, poet, for 6a, p. 322, footnote 2. Abar, poet, for bar, p. 322, footnote 4. Abbreviations and contractions, p. 38 ; arts _ of, vide Number of Words. JLbdari, mule with saddle-bags, etc., p. 409
t
without izafat, precede nouns to form (g) compounds, p. 151 (h) a series may be connected by izafat, or by conj. av, p.
;
and footnote 2. Abjad, p. 32. Ablative case, p. 464. Able, to be, expressed by Passive, p. 253 (e) danistan, p. 254 (g) yarastan, p. 254 (g) shudan, p 253 (d) tavunistan, p. 248; paraphrases, p. 254 (i). Abna* with izafat, p. 43Q (/). Accent or stress, p. 45; on verbs, p. 237;
;
(i) ; may follow in apposition, p. 152 if (i) (3); with affixed pron., p. 152 (/) predicate is a noun qualified by a simple adj., latter may precede or follow its noun, p. 152 (/); adjocs. used as subs, may be pi., p. 152 (m) ; pi. adjecs., Pers. and Ar., occasionally used to qualify a dual to qualify pi. subs., pp. 153-4 (n) dual, 154 (10); Ar. fern sing., lifeless noun, how qualified, if ending in o, Ar. fern, rational noun with of unity how
;
151
qualified (11); sing. Ar. subs, denoting rational being, how qualified (12); summary of rules of concord, p. i ~>4 (o) ; Pers.
adj. treated as subs., may be qualified by another adj., p. 155 (p) a few subs, used as adjecs. in Mod. Pors., p. 155 (q) ;
;
falls on last syllable of either stem or on prefix, p. 237 (/). Accusative case, p. 451 ; has two forms; ra=def. article, p. 451 (d) (1) and (2); ra must be added to direct obj. of Impera. p. 452 (3) ; when a phrase is in apposition, p. 452 (4); ra in app. of qualification, p. 453 (5); after the indef. art. 3/5, p. 453 (5), Rem. II and (&) ; ra usually omitted after cardinals, p. 454 (7) ; noun in app. to a def. noun in the ace. does not take ra, p. 454 (8) ; ra added
,
Noun
Part, used as 156 (r) mast, dust, plr and plra, p. 15J (s) (1); kamma, p. 157 ($) (2); broken pis. gen. fern., p. 157 (t) (1) and (2) if fern, rational noun is Pers. or
of
adjecs., p.
; ;
Ar. , or
it
is
(t)
(3)
if
Ar. adj.
is
added to last only (10); added to indof. nouns to avoid ambiguity (11) old form
of ace., p. 455 (12); omission of ra does not always make noun in def. pp. 455-6 (13); omission of ra, pp. 456-8 (14) to
,
separated from its noun or is predicative, it is preferably in masc. form (4) optional
;
(21 ); in
dat.
Ar. adj. in mod. Pers., in speaking J generally omitted, but inserted adin uniting (5); za'tf^&nd za'ifa (~>) ; vantage of adding S p. 158 (t) (6); in
to
X
add
to
ace., p. 456 (14); omitted after cardinals (15): after generic nouns, p. 457 (16) ; with compound verbs (17) ; in Clas. Pers. often omitted after affixed pronouns, p. 457 ( 18) ; omitted in familiar language, p. 458 ( 19) ; cognate ace. rare, p. 458 (20) vulgar form of ace., p. 57 (d). Adam, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4), and p.
;
and
part, in common use seldom take fern. Jj, p. 158 (7) ; maqbul,
and
, p. 158 (7) ; guft u gu-yi sabiqa, fern ?, p. 158 (8); musammat, fern., and 'ulya-jah, p. 158 p. 158 (9) ; 'all-jah (10); Ar. fern, elative with Pers. or Ar. noun, p. 15') (11) ; Ar. Part, used as noun
why
takes
a,
p. 159 (11),
Hem.
p. 167 (13),
Rem.
'Adim, in cornp. adj., p. 167 Adlna, p. 210, footnote 1.
;
(13).
Adjectives pp. 141) to 181; Comp. Adjecs., pp. 161-9 Intensive, pp. 169-171 Adjecs. Num., pp. 199-200; adjecs. generally indeclinable, follow their noun with izafat, in old Pers. preceded noun, p. 149 fa) of unity inverted epithet, noun takes Ar. adjecs. follow their noun, Turk(6) ish precede their Turkish subs., p. 150 (c) l&h.ayU and biftyar, take sing, or pi.; " much " with chandan, sing, or pi., and with neg. verb, p. 150 (/) in m.c. one or two adjecs. precede their subs., p. 160
;
;
for sing. subs, adj., p. 160 (w) (I) and (3) ; hull, Ar. subs., kulll Pers. subs, and Ar. adj., p. 160 (w) (2); husn and w% p. 160 160 (w) (w) (3) huan-i jchubi-yosh, m.c. , p. f sukhan-i amm, class, and sufehanri (3) 'umumi, mod., p. 161 (x) ; izafat, after some part, in place of prep., p. 161 (y) ;
; ;
(y)
pak
and
-ana, p. 161
p. 161
;
(a a):
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES,
=adj.,
a phrase
noun,
p. 161 (a); compound of adj. p. 162 (6) (1) and (2), and of noun adj. (b) (2), Rem. ; adj. compound qualifying two nouns, p. 162 (6) (1), Rem.
noun -h noun, p. 663 (3) ; noun + II Pers. verbal, p. 163 (4); adj. or adv. + Pers. verbal, p. 164 (.>) ; subs. + Past
;
910
INDEX.
Interrogation expresses denial, p. 293 (e) '* emphatic denial Never," p. 293 (/) na for "no," vulg., na-Jskayr, etc., 294 (g) (1); ifehtiyar darld, polite affirmation or negation (2) adv. of affirmation, p. 294 mana and hamana, p. 295, Rem. I (i) in sha 9 Allah, p. 295 (4) ADVERBS OP INTERROGATION, pp. 296 (/)-299 DOUBT., pp. 299-300; COMPARISON, pp. 300-302; PLACE, pp. 302-5; QUANTITY, 305-8; QUALITY, MANNER, pp. 308-311; TIME, PRESENT, p. 312-3; PAST, p. 313-4; FUTURE, p. 314-5 other methods of expressTIME INing time, p. 315 (4) jakhi (5) DEFINITE, etc., pp. 315-9; ORDER AND NUMBER, p. 319-320; EXCEPTION, p. 3201 Adverbs, QUALIFICATION, p. 321 SYNTAX of, pp. 495-7 adv. qualifying a noun, p. 495 (a) position of adv., (b) substituted for nouns, p. 497 (d) one (c) adv. with 2 or more verbs, p. 497 (e) ; 2 negatives= an affirmative, p. 497 (/) adv. rejoined to Inf. by izajat, p. 497 (g) a subj. garded as part of the Inf. (h) after a prohibition requires a negative (*'). Adverbial Clauses, p. 545-573, 128, 129,
;
Part., Ar. or Pers., p. 164 (6); prep. + subs., p. 164 (7); kam, + subs, or Pers. verbal, p. 165 (8); kam + subs., p. 165 (g); na, + adj., subs., Pers. verbal, or
Past Part., p. 165 (10); ghayr-i, prefixed to nouns, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 la,
;
167 (12), Hem. *adim and ma*dum, + Ar. subs., p. 167 (13) compound Ar. adj., 167 (14) ; Ar. pi., p. 167 (15); adj. of
; ;
resemblance, and br.pl. qualifying adj., p. 168 (16) words commonly used to form Comp. adj., p. 168 (c) verbal adjec. in 5, rare in comp., p. 169 (16) ADJECTIVES, INTENSIVE, pp. 169-171 formed by adding -5, p. 169 (a) (2); by adding adj. or adv., pp. 169-170 (b) (1); intensified by
; ;
ya of unity,
repetition gives continuative or intensive sense, p. 170 (c) (1) (3); meaningless appos. may be intensive, 140 (a), Rem. shah, fthar dev, preCOMPARISON of ADJECfixed, p. 170 (e)
; ; ;
TIVES and COMPARATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 171-181 vide under Comparison of Adjectives: Adjectives ending in t, compara.
,
and
pp.
132, 133.
199-200;
VERBAL ADJECTIVES,
in
-var. -ana,
p.
Adverbial Numerals,
dinals
Pers. or-
234:
ADJECTIVES
genefootnote 4:
and cardinals,
nition of quality, p. 490 (a); 'a little' or 'few* changes negative into positive, kam and kam-tar, as negap. 490 (b) tives (b} adjecs. implying unity or in comparisons noun plurali by, p 491 (c)
;
should
be
repeated
(d)
some
adjeos.
joined to same subs., p. 493 (?) and footnote; non- repetition of adj., cause of obscurity, Rem. one adj. qualifying two nouns (k) two or more adjecs. with one
;
;
Adverbial Participles, p. 528 (2) note (3). Adverbial Verbs, p. 247 (a). Adversative clauses, p. 582 (c) to p. 584 conjunctions used, afterthought, p. 582; examples, pp. 582-4. Affirmation, polite form of, p. 294 (g) (2); m.c. phrases, p. adverbs of, p. 294 (i) 295 (5) (6). Afkanidan, obs., p. 283 (d) (3). Afrlnama and afrln, p. 368 and footnotes I
;
p.
izafai, p. 494 with prep.=adj.j (I); some adjecs. followed by gen. (n) ; adv. used for adj. p 495 (a) all adjecs. can be used as adverbs, p. 495 (b) VERBAL ADJECTIVES in -5, p. 534, Remark ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 600 (g). Adjunctive Clauses, p. 577 (c), vide under Co-ordinate Clauses; ADJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION, p. 577 (c). Admiration, Ar. forms, p. 368 and footnote 4. 'Aduv-i a'da 9 and dushman-i dushmanan,
(I):
(5).
p.
adj. (p) (1) (2); in Mod. Pers. rare, gen. a mere adj., p. 534 (gj ; Afghan
noun or
have
note 3. Adverbs, with comp. and sup. suffixes, p. 176 (o) (2); ADVERBS and ADVERBIAL PHBASES, pp. 288-321; adjectives and participles as adverbs, p. 289 (b), and p. 414 and footnote 4 subs, with or without preps,, with pron., adj., subs., adv., phrases, p. 290 (3) to (6) Ar. phrases, p. 291 (7) and (8); adv. with prep., p. 291
;
idiom, p. 535 (2). Aghazldan, obs., p. 256 (6) and footnote 4. Aghlab, p. 125 (o) with izafat, p. 444 (I). Ahad-l=Yak-i, p. 101 (c) (2) br. pi. ahad,
;
;
p.
(6).
102
(c)
(2),
p. 106
Ahl, p. 435
(c).
Ahfan
wa
Rem.
4.
Ahsan,
interj., p.
(4).
<A'id. p. 559
(c)
SCARCELY,
p.
293
(3)
and
p.
396
(4).
INDEX.
aWk and and footnote 2. a monster, p. 387 and footnote 4. -an, p. 312 and footnote 2. aat. p. 430 (q) and footnote 1. -hal, p. 291 (8), and p. 312 and footnote 2. I, every, p. 112 (i) and p. 119 (;'). la, interj., p. 373 and footnote 3. literation, p. 6:28 (;*) p. 033 (k) and footj&
,
911
;
and
alshavl, p. 64 (n);
Andak and
inter]., p. 367
in neg.
aote 3.
II,
one attribute
1.
footnote
if,
significations and names, pp. 11-3; maqsura, p. 10 (/), Bern. II, and p. 20 and footnote 3 ; mamduda, alif i
alif-i
pp. 20-1,
and p. 25, footnote 2; names of final alif, p. 169 (a) (!) (2), and foot;
note 2; added to qualified subs, in old Pers., p. 169 (a) (2) alif-i nudba, p. 366, Footnote 2; abst. nouns and adjecs. 'ormed by, p. 398, footnote 2; FORMATIVE ALIF, p. 147 alif-i rabita, oxs. and p. 626 (5) (6) and footnotes 1-2. ll-jah and 'ulya-jah, pp. 158-9 (10). liq, p. 503 and footnote 3. manacs, two kinds of, p. 11, footnote 2. phabet, pp. 1-27; Morphological, p. 2. bernative Clauses, pp. 579 (d) to 582 oined by ya etc., (d) (1) (2); other alternative conjs., p. 580 (3); negative alternation, p. 581 (4). bhough, p. 345 and footnote 3. u balu and gilas, p. 466 and footnote 6. tadan, as defec. verb, p, 249 (c), Bom. mala, used as sing., p. 69, footnote 3; amala jat ditto; pi. of 'umil, p. 60 (/),
;
Elem.
ibiguity,=i&7iam, p. 631 (d) ; examples in idjecs., p. 493 (/), Bom. and (k) (I); in idvs., p. 495 (b) (c) and Bern.; p. 497
c) by omission of and,' p. 500 (d) a often ambiguous, p. 500 (e) and footlotos 5-6; p. 503 (6); p. 505 (a) (1) and botnote 2 participial, p. 531 and p. i48 (3); ambig. words, p. 653 (a)-654; fine writing' unbig. phrases, p. 654 (b) i source of Vide obscurity, p. 655 (4). ilso under Obscurity and Incoherence. mil, pis. of, p. _66, footnote 3.
* ;
Andar=dar, p. 324 (g). Andarun, adv. and noun, p. 303 and footnote I, and p. 331 and footnote 4. Andun or azun, p. 311 (13). Anfiya, Pers. for Ar. anfiyyah, p. 410 and footnote 5. Anl, rel. adj. terrain., p. 402, Bern. VI. Anjuman, p. 569 and footnote 2 ; p. 653 and footnote 1. Ant, p. 87 (p). Antanaelasis, p. 655 and footnote, and p. 668 (i) and footnote 1. Antecedent, how styled, pp. 559 and 560 (4). Anticlimax, p. 670 (m) (2). Antlka, p. 572 (13) and footnote 3. Ahtiphrasis, p, 633 (/) and footnote 1. Antithesis, p. 631 (e) and footnotes 6 and 7; p. 632 (e); p. 638, Bern.; faulty or incomplete, p. 670 (I). Antonomasia, p. 632 (c) and footnote 1. Anvar-i Suhayll, best portions, criticisms on, pp. 642 (0-4. Aorist and Preterite, in class, and in Mod. and 6 ; Aor. Pors., p. 516 and footnotes both Indie, and Subj., p. 505 in CLASSICAL PERSIAN, pp. 505 (a)-8 as Pres. Indie, (a) (1); as Indef. Fut. (a) (2); as Pres. Subj. or Condit., p. 506 (a) (3); Dof Put. and Aor. in same sentence with same moaning, p. 506 and footnote 2 in MODERN PERSIAN, p. 508 (6) as Pres. tense (6) (1); as Indef. Fut. (b) (2); as Pres. Subj., p. 509 (3) takes place of Eng. infin., p. 509 (4); used optatively (5); for Impera., p. 510 (6); for Pret. Indie, in Eng. (7) Irif. can be substituted, p. 510, Bern. II Aor. of DASHTAN, p. 511 Bern. Appendix A, Arabic, p. 675; Appen. B
.'> ;
of 125) examples of use of tenses, p. 899. Apodosis, of command and oath, p. 545 (a), Bern., and p. 651 (2) and footnote 4. Apposition, adjecs. following in, p. 152 (i} of Qualification, position of ra, p. (3)
(contiri.
;
\riiin,
vide
'
'Amma.
izafat, p.
437 (a), mr, p. 450 and footnote 5 and p. 453, ootnote 1. TIM, p. 371 and footnote 2.
ilr,
without
453 (5); pp. 614-22; in Ar., p. 674 Exs., Pron. and Adj., p. 615 (6) Noun and Adj. or Phrase (2); Adj. Phrases in, may follow verb (2); indef. nouns in Ace., p. 616 (3);
(a); (1);
nouns
in
Nom.
(4)
EXPLANATORY APPO-
nma,
20)
;
subs,,
and *otmm,
adj., p. 118-9
*aml, adj., vulg., p. 119 (20) (21). ima, p. 345, footnote 2. n(m)l, vide' 'Amma. long and Amidst, p. 503 (d). ' to learn,* to teach,' in m.c.= \uWbtan, ormer only, p. 244, Bern, and footnote 4. as adv. termination, p. 198, footnote , an-i niebat, p. 416 and footnote 4 ; >a'3-l baran-and, idiom, p. 83 (d). agram, p. 9 (A), footnote 1. chi, p. 123 (5). d=odd, p. 198 (3). i=fa, p. 348 and footnote 2.
*
5
SITION, (4) Bern. I; tofc&aZZw?, Bern, II; in Voc., p. 616 (5) and footnote 3; noun or pron. understood (6) CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION (c) ; ta*kid-i lafzi, p. 617 (1) ; tcfkld-i ma'navi, p. 617 (2) tamyiz, etc. further exs. of exs. of tabi*, Bern. (3) t<?kld-i lafzi, p. 618; ra with def. or indef. no\m in appos. (d) ; words connected by certain particles considered, by Arabs, to be in appos., p. 619 (e), but not if connected by particles of exception, footnote 6; Pers. app. for Eng. gen. , p. 620 (/) ; vice versa (g) with Ar. interj. ya, correct Ar. construction better, iz&fat in m.c. often incorrectly in(g)
;
912
sorted,
;
INDEX.
Aya,
p.
Rem. qualifying words with numerals or signifying quantity in appos. , p. 621 (h); pron. in appos. to subs, or adj. may or may not take izafat (i) and footnotes; not used after pron. u, p. 622; pi. prons. and adj., p. 622; appos. is brief, p. 652 (s). 'Appositive Meaningless,' p. 426 (d) and footnote 6 Appositive Clauses, p. 576
;
p. 238 (a)
354
(14)
in inten. clauses
only,
in direct narration place in m.c., p. 579 (2), footnote 4; p. 580 (2) and foot-
magar takes
note
2.
Ay an
'Ayn,
(a)
and
(6).
2nd pers., p. 68 (a). beginning of words, p. 27; 'Ayn-i yakRabi'u'l-avval, p. 200 and footnote 4; 'ayn with izafat. p. 310
ki, class voc. of
letter, p. 16; at
'Aqab for
footnote
II.
'aqib,
5.
and
(5).
Rem.
Aqall, with 3rd pers. sing., p. 70 (c). Aqsam, followed by pi., p. 470 (m); qism
Arabic Noun
by
sing.
(I).
of," p. 172 (c) (2), Rem.; ki^az, az shahr dar amadan, p. p. 172 (c) (3) 276, Rem. p. 504 (h) Az an-i denote possession, p 76-77 (/) (g). Az an ja-l ki , p. 357, footnote 1.
; ; ,
"one
p.
172
(c)
(1);
of Relation, p. 61,
(6),
Rem.
;
p. 65 (e),
p. 436
Az bas ki, pp. 306 (3) and 360 (6). Azmar qablaz-zikr, p. 612 (10) and footnote 2. Az vaqt-l ki az an gah ki etc., p. 361
,
,
(11).
Aray
(g)
and footnote 1 Arl, p. 294 (i) and p. 295 'An, of prose, p. 638.
Article, p. 48.
B.
(2).
Ba,
p. 363
p.
Ba and
Babr
'As long as/ p. 362 (13). As much as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much for' as, in compar. between
clauses, p. 179 (v) (4). Ash and shan, these prons. classically used for animates only, but in Mod. Pers. for inanimates also, p. 71 (a) (2) ash substitute for shan, p. 75 (k). Ash'ar-i razm, p. 635. 'Ashiq-baz, player with kuncklebones, p. 441 (6). * Ashiq- kushltidy-kiMer , etc., p. 441 and
;
; 65, p. 504 (/). tiger," vide' Shir. obs. form of bachcha=" sprout," p.
"
3.
in
=Urdu
compounds,
ko,i hai t
p. 227 (d).
their subs., p. 149 (6). Ba'd with izafat or az, p. 331 (5) ; ba'd as an ki, etc., vide After that.
k., p.
Ashura*, p. 192, footnote 5. Aspak, p. 396 and footnote 1. Asses of Bahrayn, p. 467 and footnote 5. Astaghfir* 'Uah, etc., p. 293 (/) (1) and footnote 7. 220 (c) Aste=a8t, p. 219 (h) p. 546 and footnote 5. Astl, p. 232, VIII, Rem. Asyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Atabaki, variety of pomegranate, p. 377 and footnote 1. I and 'At.f-i bayan p. 614 and p. 616, Rem. (4), footnote 2; 'a// or simple appos., p. 619 (c) 'a&f-i nasaq and apj-i bi {writ/ (c) and footnote 4. 'Aj&ar, sells Persian medicines, ginger, paper, etc., p. 459 and footnote 1. Autq or awla, elative without a positive, not to be confounded with ula fern, of awwal, p. 172, footnote 3. Auxiliary Verbs, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem. Awcfil, p. 193 (g).
; ; f
;
Jootnote
2.
178 (v) (1) and footnote 4; and p. 380, footnote 4. Bah bah, inter j., p. 368 and footnote 1. Bahman (or Pashmadan), p. 107 (2); fulan as adj., fulanl not, p. 108 (2) fulan u bisar, for things, p. 108 ("2) bahman, p. 639 and footnote 2. Bahrayn Island, cesses of, famous, p. 467 and footnote 5. Bastar, p. 108 (4). Ba,ldan, obs., p. 266, footnote 5. Bajl, p. 371 and footnote.
;
Balagha eloquence, p. 629 (a). Balance in sentences, p. 638, Rem. Balanced sentences, vide under Sentence.
Baliyh and fasih p. 629 (a) and footnote 1 Balki, p. 299 (k) (2) ; p. 345 (7) ; p. 582 (e). Ballads, p. 635. Baluchis, p. 393 and footnote 1. Banda, etc., for 1st and 3rd pers. prons., pp. 69 (c) and 70, Rem. p. 476 and foot, . ;
note
1.
Banu,
II.
Rem.
Awal&ir,p. 193
Awla-tar,
(g).
how
written, p. 21.
pi. of,
Awwal,
adj.
by
izafat, p.
Baqiyya.p. 120 (2). Bar, in class. Pers. indicates a superlative, p. 176 (n) (6); p. 324 (e) and footnote 1. Barabar, p. 303 and footnote 4.
INDEX
J3ar5?y,p. 331
(3).
1.
913
Bard"' 'l-'Ajiiz, p. 210 (d). Bar&h-i, p. 126 (7) p. 308 (9). Baa, baa-l, basa, p. 123 (w) bas, etc., az baa ki, p. 306 (3).
;
and
bar, p. 358 (2). Bi-nisbat, with compar. adj , p. 172 Blrun, p. 331 (6). Bisar or bistar, p. 108 (2) (4). Blah, as cornpar., p. 175 (5).
Bina
(c) (2).
228 (/) baah bash for afterthought, p. 582 (e), and 684 and footnote 4. Bashad= perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3. Baat, p. 393 (g). Balar, class, and colloq. for bad-tar, p. 175, footnote 1. Bd vafif-l ki, p. 360, footnote 4; 65 vasf-l in ki, p. 361 (9). Bd vujud-l ki-, p. 360 (7). Ba yiatan (and ba*idan obs.), p. 266, etc.; substitutes for, 272 (r); =should, p. 271 (o) ;=imi8t have, p. 271 (p) p. 540 (d).
p.
;
;
Ba/i="halt,"
Bish-tar, blsh-tarln, p. 125 (o) ; bish-tar^ihe greater part, p. 304 (o) ; with or without
izafat, p. 444 (d). p. 418 and footnote 2. BismVllah, interj,, p. 381 and footnote 1. Bisqumot, sing, or pi. p. 66 (g) and foot-
Bt-#t5n==mcome,
pi.
;
noun
latter can;
p.
150 (d)
bisyar,
Baz,m.c.
;
better, p. 175(fc); p.
;
345, foot-
note 2 p. 653 and footnote 4. Ba'z and ba'z-i, pp. 127-8 (q) ba'z-i bar an-and, p. 324 (/).
Bazm,
*
Be, tr., verb, pp. 217-221. Before that' followed by Pres. subj., 502 (').
Begam, fern, of beg, p. 50 (d). Belt, zardushti, p. 15, footnote 4. Besides, including, p. 502 (c). Better than the best,' p. 176 (ri) (4). Between or betwixt, p. 503 (e). Bezoar stone, p. 180 (w) (4) and footnote 4 p. 657 and footnote 2. 7?i-, gen. prefixed to Impera. in Mod. Pers., gen. omitted beforo shaw and always before bash, p. 230, footnote 2 can be prefixed to Past Condi t., p. 231, VI Rem. when omitted in verbs, p. 223 (3) with ml-, p. 223 (4) p. 237 (6) before tavan, p. 252 (a), Rem.; before Def. Fut., p. sometimes used with sim2.">9, Rem. I ple, but not with compound verb, p. Vide Ba-, and On. 275 (d).
;
Bisyari and bisyar-i,p. 124 (n) (1); p. 306 (2) and footnote 2. Bisyar-tar, not much used, p. 304 (4). Blue, wards off evil eye p. 392 (/). Blows, three, how expressed, p. 189,|Rem. I. Bombast, p. 630 (c) and footnote 1. Both, and neither of two, p. 108 (/) isnayn, indirect ways of expressing, p. 109 (3) p. 109 (4) expressed by Ar. dual, p. 109 (5) p. 190 (I). Brevity, p. 644 (a) (6). Budam, budaml, mi-bud, p. 548 and footnote 2. Budan, paradigm., p. 2231; Contin. Im;
;
Rem.
;
buvam
used by Afghans, p. 224 bad, bada, harchi bad-a-bad, p. buvad, p. 227 (d) ruz-i ma bada, p. 228 (e) 227 (d)
; ;
mabada,
p.
;
228
(e)
(i)
6as/i=halt, p. 228
ki, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Bulbul, p. 351, footnote 4. Bulls, Irish, and Incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2). But, p. 345 (9). Buvad, old = bcid, p. 227 (d). Buz, female goat vide Chapish.
Bu
'
Bibliomancy, Divination, superstitions, pp. 390 to 394 istibhara, p. 390 (a) fa/a^ul, geomancers,etc., David, p. 391-2 p. 391 unlucky days, p. 392 (d); omens (c) (c) bast, 393 (g) Nau-Ruz, (h); evjl eye (/) revolution of heavens and misfortunes, and Qadar (i). Qaza
:
(5)
;= expenditure,
2.
p. 391 and footnote 2. Bi-gard-ash naml-rasad, p. 293 (/) (12) and footnote 8. Begin giriftan, pp. 254-6; other verbs, p. 256 (b) Afghan idioms, p. 257 (c) ; uftadan, m.c., p. 257 (d). Bih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i) (1); as optative in poetry, p. 174 (*) (4). Bih bih, interj., p. 36s and footnote 1.
Bi-/arma*id= please,
Bi-har J^aL p. 365 (20). Bi-mujarrad, etc., p. 361 (12). Bin (son) without izafat, p. 437 438 (3).
(a)
and
p.
Calling, vide Etiquette. Cardinals, p. 182 (a); noun in sing, with, to cardinals and p. 469 (6); predicate noun, p. 469 (h) and footnote 2. Carpets, p. 188, footnote 4. Cases of Nouns, pp. 445 to 464. Causal Clauses, p. 574 (c) ; -Vide' also under Final Clauses. Causal Verbs, pp. 282-4; how formed, p. 282 (a); intransi made trans, by causal termination, and trans, causal, p. 283 verbs with two roots have two (6) forms, p. 283 (c); verbs with stem ending in n change it to y, p. 283 (/) ; in m.c. shorter form of causal preferred, p. 283 (/); some verbs have no causal, p. 213 (g); a few causals only used in m.c., p. 283 (h); examples in use, p, 284 (2); passive of causals, p. 284 (2), Bern.; other methods of expressing causation,
;
58
914
p. 284
;
INDEX.
Chihil-var, vide Qamfo. Chilla or chilla, p. 205 (6).
'
'
(i) qabulanidan^ (/) ; simple verb takes place of causal, usually, p. 284 (k) ; p. 574 (c). Gha, dimin. terrain., p. 396 (5). Chakavuk, desert lark, p. 656 and footnote
various
(I)
;
names
Chira 298
,
p.
5.
Chaman,
Chand, inter, "how many?" for nouns animate or inanimate, p. 96 (w); "how ta chand "how much?" p. 97 (w) " chand-sala " of a few long ?, p. 97 (w)
;
p. 411
and footnote
1.
chi,
Chist,
vide
'
under
;
chi.
;
Chiz and chiz-i, p. 86 chiz-i ~qadr-i, p. 86, footnote 3 chiz or chiz-i with neg. p. 107 (7) chi chiz or c/tiz-i= what's his
,
how many years ? ", p. 97 (w), Rem. I. chand ta 56, p. 97 (w), Rem. II. Chand and Chand-i "a few, some," page 109 (g) followed by sing, subs., p. 110
years or of
;
name
4
?, p.
108 (3)
:
p. 29(5
and footnote
(2); Afghans use a pi. subs., p. 110 (4); in m.c. chand-i or yak chand $=a little while, p. Ill (5) ; chand-i in m.c.=c/iandgah, chand bar, etc., p. Ill (5), Rem. I; yak chand a few, p. Ill (5), Rem. II ; tani chand, class. few individuals, p. Ill
bi chun u chand, p. 345 and footnote 1. Chun and chun ki, p. 345 (8). Chunan, in India and Afghanistan (but not in Persia) followed by the demons. 4^,
p. 148
(s);
=a
(6)=m.c. chand nafar yak chand, sing, noun, pi. verb, p. Ill (8) and 5, Rem. II, but with ta sing, verb; connected with and and andak, p. Ill (9), Rem. I p. 199 (c): chand-sala= either "of a few years or of how many years ?," p. 97 (w), Rem.
; ;
sian, p. 148
p. 89 (h) and 90 (2) chandan-i, p. 90 (2); chandin, p. 90 (3); both precede a sing, noun, p. 90 (3), Rem. chandan in India and Afghanistan fol; ;
lowed by the demons. chanp. 148 dan = much, many, followed by sing, noun in Mod. Pers. by negative, p. 150
,
;
Chandanchi, obs. p. 363 (13), Rem. Chandan-ki, p. 307 (8) chandan-i ki, Afghan, p 308 chandan-ki=zos soon as, p. 357, footnote 2 p. 362 (12) (13), footnote
; ;
;
1 ; pp. 363 4 (16) and footnotes 5 and 6 p. 364 and footnotes 3 and 4 p. 578 (1) and footnotes 5 and 6. Chunan ki, p. 363 (16) 344 (6). Chunin and chunan, p. 88 (a) (1) (2) and (6) k. = to procrastinate (c) ; chunan u chunin 89 (e). p. 89 (d) pi. of, not used, p. Chuza, obs., p. 379 and footnote 6. Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and 646 (/). Clauses, comparison between, pp. 178-9 (v) Clearness in style, p. 631 (d). Climax, p. 670 (m) (I). Coherence, ride Incoherence. Collective Nouns and Nouns of Multitude^ concord of, p. 586 470 (k) when
pi., p.
1.
Chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Chapish or nari, he-goat; buz she-goat, p. 379 and footnote 2. Chapter, p. 613, Rem. Ill and footnote 1. Charand u parand, p. 156 (n), Rem. Chawush, p. 652 (t) and footnote 3. Chit what, which etc. ?. p. 93 (k) sing, or
;
Collocation faulty, examples of, in advs. and adjecs., pp. 495 to 497 p. 49o,Rem. Pers. and footnote 1 p. 498 (5) Rem. errors in, p. 610 (n) ; exs. of, p 608 (m) follow adjecs. or phrases in appos. may the verb, p 615 (b) (12); faulty collocation, p. 648 (2) and footnote 2. Commentary, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. how Comparatives, Past Part, of kardan, used by Afghans, p. 280, Rem.
;
(e)
chi-san, p. 94, Rem. I; ay chi, m.c., Rem. II; dat. chira and chira ki, p. 94 (J);=of course, (I) ; ace. with ra rare, (m) ; in m.c. gen. followed by chiz or harf, etc. (n) ; common colloquialisms with chi (o) ; chi what ?, p. 95 (p) ; chi how, what (q) ; chi how ? (r) ; chi biidi would to God (a) and 550 (e); chiha, pi., p. 96 (t); chi-chi, (u) ; chi-yi musavat, (u) Rem. ; used also for animates, (v) ; various names for chi, p. 97 (x); chi-chiz=z what's his name?, p. 108 (3); chi^chi, p. 218, footnote 4; chi and aya, p. 298 (9) ; chi f arz mi-kunam, evasive reply, p. 294 (g) (3); chi mipi.,
(k)
chist,
Comparison
not
pi.
of Adjectives
in
and Comparative
sup.
Rem
how formed,
much used
sup none, p. Past Parts., (a) Rem.; Ar. elativ'e, how formed, (b) (1) comp. and min, but sup. and gen (6) (1); as comp., makes no conchange for gen. and num., (6) (2) structions with some Ar. superlatives, after Ar. pp. 171-2 (6) (3) cognate br. pi.
; , ;
;
sup., p. 172
(6)
p. 172 (b) (6) ; -in, p. 172 (6) (6) ; double comparatives, Pers. suffix added to Ar. elative, p. 172
(c);
ehavad, p. 300 (7) ; p 346 (11) p. 580 and footnotes 5, 7 and 8. Chiasmus, p. 638 and footnote 5. Ghiguna, p. 98 (a).
;
(3)
j
how
expressed,
p. 172 (d) ; by az (d) (1) ; by bi-nisbat, (d) followed by (2); by ki (d) (3); comp. Pers. or Ar. iza/at, p. 173 (d) (4); Sup.,
INDEX.
with gen., gener. pi., p. 173 (e) (1); sup. treated as ordinary adjec. (e) (2); " the nearest village," how rendered, p. 173 (e) "one of the most," p. 174 (4); (3); comp. strengthened by prefixing adv., can stand alone (g) Pers. comp. p. (/) and sup. of kamil, p. 174; positives bih, mih, kih, karri used as comparatives, (i) bih as optative in poetry (i) (2) positive
;
915
Q.
phrase as a comp.
Concise Style, p. 644 and footnote 5. Concord, Subject and Verb, pp. 585-91 rational beings in class, Pers. p. 585
; ;
(a)
irrationals
(6)
two or more
pi.
sing,
(c);
verb
ziyad and ziyada (i) (4); afzun, blah, plah are comp., p. 175 (5); "more," methods of expressing, p. 175(6); too, p. 175 (/) comp. between person and thing and rest of the class, either pos. or sup. is used (I) comp. followed by positive, m.c. vulgarism (m) other methods of expressing sup., pp. 175-6 (n) sup. followed by comp. p.
for compar.
(e) (3)
;
;
;
sing, irrrational nouns of distinct genera and pi. verb (d) ; nouns of multitude and collective nouns, p.
two or more
586
(e)
and footnote
(/)
1
;
of
pi.
noun preceded
; sup. expressed by pos. (n) bar, class., indicates sup. (n) (6); comp. and super, suffixes added to par-tarln tics., preps., subs, (o) (1) (2) (3); seldom added to Pers. particips. , (o) (1) Rom. ; -tar, where added to compound of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) comp. sometimes gives meaning of sup., (7) (1) ;comp. with az hama used in Mod Pers. for sup.
176 (n)
(5);
(4)
neu. nouns, material things, with sing, verb, p. 587 with pi. verb (2) and p. 688 (3) (h) (1) several abstract nouns and sing, verb, p. 588 (4),; pi. of respect (i) exs. of mood, slovenly concords, p. 589 (/) and footnotes: ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 591, vide under Errors NOUNS of MULTITUDE p. 464 (a), vide under Generic Nouns. Conditional Clauses, pp. 545 (a) to 552 (h) three classes (6); tense moat used clas-
by cardinal
;
(g)
sically
(c)
;
for
"IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS"
time past or future (c) and footnote 4, and p. 547 and footnotes 3 and 4; Imperf. Indie, substituted for Past time past or fut., Habit., p. 548 (2)
;
stranger still," how rendered, p. 178(r); progressive double positive, how rendered, p. 178 (s); two or more comparatives or superlatives, suffixes where added, p. 178 (t) (1) (2); the quicker tho better, (u) COMPARI(#) (3);
;
"what was
Sentences, pp.
Composition and Rhetoric, notes on. pp. Vide under Rhetoric. 629-44. Compound Adjectives, p. 161, vide under
Adjectives.
Sentences, pp.
;
Compound Substantives,
pp. 425-30 of two subs., p. 425 (6) (c) (d) pi. of, p. 475 (w). Two Ar. nouns, p. 427, Rem. II; contracted Infs., or Inf. and Impera (e)
; ,
;
(g)
Impera. root (h) Pres. Part, Pers. noun of instrument, Rem. 428 (/) II contrac. Inf or Pret. with subs, or adv., p. 428 (/) prep, or adv. + subs, (k) prep. + Impera. root (A;) (2); prep. +contrac. Inf. (3); ad j 4- Impera. root(J); na with an Inf., p. 429 (m) comp. adjecs. as nouns, (n) phrase as subs. (<?) ; Turk; ;
ish
Compounds
(p)
548 and footnote 3 and Rem. I pp. 548-9 and footnotes 1 and 2; Plup. can take place of Imperf. in protasis ; Optative Clauses, p 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5, and p. 53 (/) and footnotes 1 and 2; Conditional changed into Predicative Clauses, p. 551 (g) apodosis sometimes placed first, p. 552 (h) POSSIBLE CONDITIONS, p. 552 (a) to 556 (g); tense most used Pres. 'Subj.; gen. supposes the condition may be fulfilled whereas the Imperf. Indie, for a fut. condition does tho reverse, p. 552 (a) and footnote 3 Indie, can take place of Subj /if there is no doubt, examples, p. Pres. and not 552 (a) and p, 553 (6) Aor. of bhwastan used after agar, p. 554 in conditions, the past tense in m.c. (6) other used for the Pres., p. 550, Rem.; alternative construction in unrealized conditions, p. 554 (c) ; Fut. Indie, used use of for Pres. Subj. classically (d) Pret., p. 555 (e); similar construction in temporal clauses (/) and p. 556 (g), Rem. ; Clause may be converted into a Rel. Clause (g) Conditional Particles, p. 545 and footnote 3. Conditional Pluperfect, p. 527, Rem. Conjunctions, Adjunctive, p. 577 (c) Alternate, p. 579 (d); Adversative, p. 582
p.
;
;
p. 492 (q).
(e).
examples
of,
p. 274 (6) (1) ; faru (2); fara (3); faraz, p. 275 (4) ; prep, incorporated with verb,
.
verbs in compounds
may give
Rem.
I;
tr.
meaning,
p.
279,
vulg.
Conjunction [add], pp. 497-502. Conjunctive Participle, called mazi-yi ma* Vide tufi, p. 229 (b) and footnote *9. under Participle Past. Continuative Tenses, formed from Present Part., p. 533; Contin. Perfects, p. 536 (t) and Rem.; Conti >. Plup., not used, p. 536 (u); Contin. Impera., p. 537. Continuative Verbs, p. 257 (e). Consonants, Weak, p. 22 (d}.
916
INDEX.
datives in two clauses should balance, Rem. for locality, dative in bi used, (4); when ra cannot be substituted for bi- (5) ; duration of time expressed by ra, p. 450 (6); ra added at end of several nouns in the dative, p. 450 (7); affixed pronouns take place of dat. in ra, p. 450 (8) ra of dat. and noun or phrase in appos. pp. 450-1 (9) dat. in ra with mar, dat. as logical subj., p. 451 (10) and Rem. ro=prep. bar ay, p. 451
6
;
Construction louche or 'Squinting Construction,' p. 660 and footnote 4. Construction, new not to be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k). Contractions and Abbreviations, p. 38. Contrast or Tazadd, p. (531 (d). Coins, current in Persia, p. 212 (a) to (d). Co-ordinate Clauses, pp. 576-84; how classed, p. 576 (a) examples of APPOSI;
p. 449,
TIVE CLAUSES (6) Adjunctive ConjuncADJUNCTIVE CLAUSES tions, p. 577 (c) if adjoined clause implies a (c) (I), etc. logical sequence of thought, pas may be substituted fo?* va, p. 578 (2) apparently adj. clauses introduced by 'therefore,'
;
;
Dava
medicines, p.
Rem.
Corroborative Apposition, p. 616 (c), vide Apposition. Crow, Royston, p. 556 and footnote 3. Crowding of Circumstances, p. 607 (/).
313 and footnote 1. of the heavens and circulation of the wine cup, p. 367 and footnote 4; dawr-i sar-at, etc., p. 385 (/) and footnote 4. Day, name of month or of day, pp. 207-8
Dawn,
Dawr=z re volution
(c).
Days
of
of
month,
(6)
;
(c)
names
day begins
at sunset,
261 (e) c. exs. of dadan, p. 262 (d) dih interj., p. 262 (d) (3) bi dih, subs., p. 262 (d) (5). Dah u du, =12 in Shah-Nama, p. 182, foot;
p.
;
(d).
Decimals, p. 196 (/). Declension of Pers. noun, pp. 51 and Defective Verbs, p. 249 (e) Rem.
;
56.
note 3. Dallja mallja, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Dam, prep., p. 328 (4); dam-i darm.c.,= threshold of the door, p. 176, footnote 7. Dam~rahiior sar-raht, p. 392 and footnotes. Dana, in counting, p. 188, and p. 189
Rem.
II.
Danariidan, obs., p. 283, footnote 2. Dancing, vide Music. Danq, =the 6th part of anything, p. 216
Definite Article, etc., p. 130; expressed by ra, p. 130 (a) proper names, certain pronouns, etc., and interrog. ki, are definite and require ra (6), so also yak-% in Gulistan, ra may be owing to exigencies of rhythm, footnote 4; certain other dof. words, pp. 130-1 (c), Rern. expressed by the pi., p. 131 (d) demons. .c with ki makes nouns def (c) demons.
; ; ;
.
(d).
Daniel, discoverer of geomancy, p. 392 (c). Danistan=:to be able, p. 254 (h). Dar, p. 324 (e) dar wrat-i ki, p. 365 (19). Dard-i sar and sar-dard, p. 438 and foot;
pron.=def. article, p. J31 (g). Demonstrative Pronouns, Simple, pp. 827 im old for In, as in imruz, etc., p. 82 (6) pis. in -an, anha ki and anha^-l ki
: ;
note
2.
dozen, p. 189 (h). Daahtan, pp. 263-6; Aor. used for Pres. Indie., and Perf. Subj. for Pres. Subj., pp. 263-4 (a); dashta bash, p. 264 (a) and 265 (6), Rem IV Imperf rare, p. 265 (d) contin. signification, p. 265 (e) =hold, consider, p. 265 (/) Afghan colloquialism, p. 265 (g); darad=there are, pp. 265-6 (h) lazim dashtan, p. 266 (c) Aor. of, p. 511, Rem p. 543 (h). Dast andar kdr shudanto help, p. 271 and footnote 2; dost bi-kar sh.zzto begin, p. 256 (b) dast-i shuma dard nakunad, p. 384 and footnote 4. Dast-kash, p. 188, footnote 2. Dast-pacha, p. 309 and footnote 3. Dastur, p. 508 and footnote 1. Dative case, p. 448 (c) two forms (c) (1); in m.c. dative with bi- used (c) (2) two forms not always interchangeable (c) (3) either form u*ed after dadan, p. 448, footnote 2; not necessary with impersonal 9 verbs, footnote 3; sa ir "remainder" used for the "whole," p. 448, footnote
; ; ; ; ;
Darzhan
(not tshan ki (6); pi. in -ha, p. 83 (c) ; azan-i man and ba z-l bar an-and, (d) ; In latter and an former (c) azan for that purpose (/) idiomatic uses of an anan (but not man) ki used in Mod. (g) in mystic Pers. writings, footnote 1 In u an poetry an is a subs p. 84 (h) in mc.= various things (i), na In u na In an, In man-am ki, Inak ust, etc. (i) a^=here I arn, p. 85 (j) In kujd va an chun ay In ki dar in-am, Af. , kuja (k) demons, follows its noun for em(I) In=in spite of (n) (1) 3n= phasis (m) he over there (n) (2) bi-din rasid matters
(
such a pitch, (n) (3) other idioms, pp. 85-6 (to 13); Inak, p. 87 (o); ant (p) DEMONSTBATIVE PRONOUNS, EMPHATIC, pp. 87-8; Aam5n=when, as soon as, p. 87 (a) Aawm=the same, p. 87 (b) hamin, as soon as, p. 88 (c\;
reached
; ; ; ;
(2),
Rem. and
(/);
(c)
ham=chunln,
etc.,
p.
89
hamchu,
6.
INDEX.
Dervish, cries of, p. 375 (c) and p. 376, footnotes 1 and 2. Dev, khar, shah, give idea of size, p. 170 'Vide' Dlv. (e) (1). Dialects, Persian, p. 630. Dlda 'bhwahad shud or d\da mi-shavad, m.c. dida shud in m.c. used instead p. 287 (5) of Act. Voice, p. 286 (d) (2) and footnote
,
;
917
p. 119 (;') ; with sing, or pi., verb, p. 597 (e). Earnest, in, p. 295, footnote 4. Either or Neither, distributive pronouns, 'either or,' p. concord of, p. 599 (/)
Each, every,
Diffuseness, p. 644
(a)
and
(6)
and
foot-
498 (b) (4) and Rem to (5). Elegy, p. 635. Ellipsis, examples of, p. 526
(k)
ex.
from
note
5.
99 (1); adv. Digar,digar-i, dlgar-gun, p. otherwise, etc., p. 99 (1), Rem. I yak-l" the one the other," p. 101 (k) dlgar-i 138 (p) dlgar and digar-l, p.
;
(c)
(1);
dinar, vulg. used for forming ordinals, p. 193 (j) 206 (d) and footnote 4.
;
Gulistan,p. 595, Rem., and p. 596 (d) ; p. 649 (I). Else =warno, etc. and introduces a condit. clause in a contracted form, p. 581 (4). Emphasis, p. 645 (d) (2) p. 669 (/). Enallage, Figure of Syntax, p. 495 (a) and footnote 3.
, ;
Digression, p. 646
(/).
D&.
interj.,p. 262 (d} (3). Rem. Dihlavl, relative termination, p. 402, V. DimayhnoxQ in m.c., p. 385 and footnote
3.
fc,
ka, h,
pisar and bachcha dim in. dimin. of ju and jav., (c) Rem. I; (c) innk -Icha and -isha. p. 397 (6), Rem. and -anak, p. 398, Rem. kuchulu and kuchull, m.o. (e); gak (/); mashkula (g). p. Diminutive wav, p. 50 (e) p. 57 (d)
(b) (5),
;
395, Rem. II, p. 394 (b); pisaru, etc., p. and 398 (c) and p. 50 (e) and p. 57 (d) ; -cha or -za, p. 396 (5) ; -zha- -cha, p. 397
Rem.
Epic, p. 635. Error of Errors in Concords, pp. 591-600 proximity,' p. 591 (a) and footnotes, apparent violations of concord in Gulistan, several nouns p. 592 and footnote" 3 or" or " nor," p. with the disjunctive 593 (b) (1) to (5) and footnotes when the nom. is a relative, the antecedent determines the number of verb, errors, p. 595 a demons, or pers. pron, used that (c) does not refer to the true antecedent, p. 596 (2) one predicate has two or more
'
subjects,
ellipsis,
(d)
"each" and
pi.
"Every"
(e);
with sing, or
398
and dma-shab, p. 313 and footnote 5. at beginning of Diphthongs, p. 22 (e) words, p. 25 (e}. 631 (d). Diqqat-i 'ibarat or Abstmsoness, p. Diranda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Direct Narration, vide Narration. Dirge, p. 635. Distance, vide Measure of Length. Distributive Numerals, p. 198. Vide' of, p. 59, footnote 2. etc.,
Dlna-rtiz
;
(e).
CONCOBD OF AD"neither," p. 599 (/) JECTIVES and PKONOTJN with noun. p. 600antecedent of pi. pronoun should (g) not be a singular or collective noun (i) GOVERNMENT of VERBS and PREPOSITIONS, errors, p. 600, vide under Govern;
:
ment
der
errors
in
COLLOCATION
in
vide un-
RHETORIC
(h)
and
Dw, Dm.
pi.
48.
p. 635.
;
Euphemism
Divination, vide Bibliomancy. Dlwanl or Siyaq figures, p. 34; diwani hand writing, p. 36 and footnote 2. form, Diyanldan, caus. of didan, doubtful 3. p. 283, footnote
or husn-i ta'bir, p. 631 (e), and and footnote 1 p. 632 (/) and p. 632 (e) footnote 4 p 646 (/). Euphonic rules and accents in verbs, p.
;
237.
Ever,
misplaced,
Drinking Songs, p. 635. Drum, p 297, footnote 3. of verb, Du'a-gu, da'i, with 3rd pers.
(c).
;
Whatever,
p. 119 (/)
and
p,
70
;
Dual, Ar., p. 63 (m) in speaking, p. 66 (i) dual of some Pers. words, p. 67 (*) Turkish pi., p. 67 (/). Du char shudan, p. 189 (/). Dukhtar unmarried girl, p. 395, footnote 1.
597 (e). pi. verb, p. Evil eye, p. 392 (/). Examples of Concessional Clauses, p. 558. Excellence, affectation of, p. 655 (4) Excessively,' how expressed, p. 176 (n>
'
(3).
(e)
p. 395,
46")
Rem.
;
II.
(4)
and footnote
p.
(c)
f
3.
Duahman,
ent significations, p. 61
(15).
footnote
3,
3.
Parts., p. 156
(r)
in
du
sad^.p. 183.
918
Pal giriftan, Fara p. 274
9
INDEX.
p. 390, etc.
(6) (3)
v
and
p. -287 (/)
I.
and
foot-
note 5;
p. 322,
(4)
Rera.
p.
Faraham,
p. 311 (7).
;
Faraz, p. 275
305
(6)
p. 322,
Rem.
I.
Farda, p. 383 and footnote 3. Farld-tar, m.c. but ydkta-tar not used,
;
Pers., Fut. Perf. and Past Subj. are identical (/) (1) and footnotes 1 and 2 ; in Mod. Pers. preceded by bayad (2) and footnotes 5 and 7; expressed by Past Part, and Dof. Fut., p. 522 and foot-
note
p.
(4);
(5)
174
(h).
Farj&hunda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Farmudan, p. 282 (/). Farrash, definition, p. 187, footnote 3. Faru, p. 274 (6) (2) and footnote 4. Fash bi-gu, p. 309, footnote 1. Faslh, vide Baligh. Fate, p. 288, footnote 4. Fates, the, p. 288, footnote 4. Feminine of Ar. Past Part., p. 51 (g) of certain compounds with ghayr-i p. 166
'
1 and Rem. certain m.c. idioms PRESUMPTIVE PAST in Mod. Pers. and p. 523 and Rem.
;
(3)
p.
G
Gah,
*
vide' Hargah.
Gah
(11),
Rem.
p.
658
(c).
and
foot-
note
Final
6.
and Causal Clauses, pp. 573-6; deal with end or reason, p. 573 .(a) examples
;
627 (33) and footnote 6. Gak, dimin. termination, p. 308 (/). Oal-i mikh, etc.. and gul-mifeh, p. 309, footnote 4. Gardanidan, p. 281 (e). Gardldan, p. 282 (,?). Gashtan. p. 282 (g). Gave no more than (I) could help,' p. 501
*
to).
p. 573
and footnote 3
;
CAUSAL CLAUSES
usually precede the prin. clause, correlatives, p. 574 (c) examples ('/); Fut. Indie, for Pres., p. 575 (c) conj. omitted of causal clause precedes the prin., p. 576 (/). Fine writing,' p. 655 (4). Fiqra-yi tabi'a, p. 636 (ri), Fir'aun, 135, footnote 1. Fold, p. 197 (a). Foxes, eaten by Baluchis of Bampur, p. 393 and footnote 1. Fractions, p. 194 (a) and footnote 1 ; for f etc., the Ar. fractions must be used, p. 194, Rem. I ; followed by the izafat, p. 194, Rem. II; si-yak not used, p. 194, Rem. II ; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6); duals and pis. rarely used, p. 195 (b) ; a quarter to, p. 195, Rem. ; per cent., p. 196 (c) : DECIMALS, 196-(/); other method of expressing fractions, p. 196 (g). Fuhah-i madar u pidar, p. 388 and foot; '
General terms, brief, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1. Generic nouns, p. 457 (16) and footnote 1 denoting rational beings preferably in the pi., p. 465 (d) (1) unqualified by an with nouns adj. usually sing, (d) (2) qualified by much,' footnote 1 concord of generic noun, p. 586 (e) and Rem. Genitive, absolute, expressed by mal, p. 55 subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) (/) (4) and p. 448 (6) gen. case, p. 446 (b) two subs, coupled by izafat used for subs. and adj., p. 447 gen. of material, p. 447 and footnote 2 gen. for subs, and prep. used with a governing Inf. pp. 447-8 special exs., p. 443 ; vide also Izafat, pp.
; :
'
433-5.
p. 391 (c). Qhalat. kardan^sbalki , p. 355, footnote 2.
Geomancy,
Qbamazat, obscurity,' p. 631 (d). Ghayn, found in Ar. and Pers. words,
p. 9
Qharabat, p. 631 (d) and footnote 1. Qbayr. prop, subs., p. 100 (a) (2) privative
;
note 7. Future Definite, how formed, p. 513 (e) ; used in Condit. sense for Pres. Subj .of Mod. Pers., p. 514 and .footnote 1 Fut. Def. reg. used by Indians and Afghans, indicates certainty, p. 514 (e) (1); used classically in Condit. sentences (e) (2) not much used in Mod. Pers. (/) ; "I do not and mill not," how expressed, p. 526 (k); Fut. Indie, used for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2 Fut. Indie, used
;
;
in class. Pers. where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj., p. 542: FUTURE and AORIST in same sentence with same meaning, p.
va-ghayra, (a) (2) Rem. ; izafat after ghayr, (a) (2), Rem. and footnote 3 ghayr and ghayr-i, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 ; ghayr-i inaqbuza, shayr-i manqula, ghayr-i malfu/a. why fern., p. 166 (11), Rera. p. 331 (6). Qbayat, p. 307 (4) and footnote 1, and p. 311 (12). Qhayratt p. 359, and footnote 1. Qbazl, p. 635. Qbuluv, a div. of Hyperbole, p. 630 ($) and footnote 2. G6wrra.=first of fche month, etc., p. 193 (h). Gi, termination, p. 398 (a) and footnote 1 ghayr, (a)
(2),
; ; ;
;
Rem.
PAST,
p.
233
^ although,
p. 556
(c) (4); p.
621
(;);
in Class.
and footnote
8.
INDEX.
<Giriftan, tr.
919
and
intr.,
pp. 254-6;
=to
be-
gin, pp. 254-6 (6) (2) ; =to suppose, admit, p. 255 (6) ; pleonastic (c) ; intr. or reflex.
(d);
attractiveness, p. 256 (/); vugiriftam =to caase, p. 256 (g) intr. =to begin, p. 256 in m.c. =to buy (i). (h) Gw, name of the son of Gudarz. God, attributes of, p. 190, footnote 1.
;
=eclipsed, p. 256
(e)\
glrandagl
Hadiqa, p. 323, footnote 1. Hajis, signature of, p. 70 (c), Rem.; hajl for hajiyy, etc., p. 525, footnote 2.
Hajv, p. 635.
or hala and al-fial, p. 291 (8) and footnote 2 p. 312 and footnote 2 p. 618 and footnote 1 hal an ki, p. 365 (18). Ha/**, with nunation in m.c., p. 314, footnote 4. Halva-yi arda. p. 376 and footnote 7. Ham, p. 302 (7); 342 (3); ham and nlz, difference between, p. 339, Rom. Hama, the whole, also=/iar, p. 112 (i) classically precedes or follows its subs., in Gulistan, verb and subs, in the sing, or pi., p. 112 (i) (1) with; pi. noun, with
; ; ; *
' ;
Hal
of trans,
verbs should be in obj. or ace. case, p. 600 (a) objects connected by conjunct, should be in the same case, also nouns
and prons.
and
(c)
one relative may do duty for more than one clause, relative in different cases must be repeated (e). Greeting, Muslim, to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p.
382 (g) and footnotes 3 to 5 of Persians, p. 382 and footnote 5 ; Muslim, p. 382-3, footnote 5, Gu and ku, p. 234 (i) pp. 345-6 (10). Gufta, for alif, 'vide,' p. 13 (8); p. 231, footnote 2. Guftan 9 ~to think, p. 247 (6), footnote 2. Guftl, p. 346 (6) ; p. 507 and footnote 5. Gu,*l, p. 346 (6) p. 507 and footnote 5. Gurg u mlsh, p. 313 and footnote 1. Guruh i, a number, p. 124 (n), and (n) (2). Gusfand-i farangl, p. 393 and footnote 1. Gusht-i bulbul, p. 393 and footnote 1. Giiya,p. 363 (15). Guz_anhtan, guzarldan, etc., caus. or trans, forms, p. 283 (d) (1) (2).
;
; ;
of unity, p. 113
class,
hama
tii-yi
;
structions with, p. 113; in Indian Pers. , hama is an ordinary adj., p. 113; construcs. in Mod. Pers., pp. 113-4 (2) and (3) Rem.; before suffixed -ash, p. 114 (3); hama chlz, hama kas, etc.; hama kas with sing, or pi. verb, p. 114 (4);
kasan, Afghan, p. 115(5); hama ham, m.e.=" all together," p. 115 reg. pi. hamagan, old, hamginan (6) usual pi., p. 115 (7) hama with compar. followed by sup. p. 175 (I) hama si, m.c.
;
, ,
:
for har si, p. 109 (/) (I), Rem. Hamagl, subs., followed by pi., verb, differs
from hamginan, p. 115 (8); by some, said to equal an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Haman, p. 302 (8) and p. 361 (12) and footnote
3.
(6).
H
H,
silent,
;
p. 295 (1) and Rem. I and footnote 2 ki may be omitted after it, but not after mana, p. 295, Rem. I. Hamchin, colloq. for hamchunin, p. 319 and footnote 1. Hamchu or hamchiin, p. 9 (h) hamchun u hamchm, p. 89 (h) (1), Rem.
Hamaria,
elided,
dimin., pp. terminal, pp. 404-6; silent h silent and aspirated, p. 404 (a) added to nouns, p. 405; to stem of verb to form adj. or (6) (2); to adj. (b) (3); adv. of time, number, etc., (6) (4); to Ar. Past Part., p. 406 (5) ; ha-yi liyaqat, p. 406 (6); other uses of h, p. 406 (c) ; ha-yi *at.f, p. 406 (c) (1); ha-yi fa'iliyyat, ha-yi tank, p. 406 (2) (3) final h becomes
Ill, p. 395,
(5);
Rem.
Rem. IV;
Hamchunan-l ki< correct, Pers., p. 148 (). Ham-chunln and ham-chunan, emphatic forms of chunin and chunan, etc., p. 89
Ham-digar and yak-digar
99(1); p. 101
(b) '2).
(/) (<7>
t
394 (a)-396
recip.
pron., p.
or ml-, p. 224, Rem. I; p. 225 and ; p. 230, III B p. 257 (e). Hamila. p. 119(w). Hamln and haman, p. 302 (8); p. 361 (12)
Hamlr
footnote 2
and footnote
2.
Hamln
note
(g)
in
(c) (4),
Hamln
Ha and
Ha
(1).
Ham-rah,
a, p. 371,
p.
504
(/).
Rem.
Hamza,
Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a, interj., p. 375, Rem. I. ball, p. 582 (e) or ha bash bash, p. 584 and footnote 4, introducing afterthought. Habitual or Past Potential tense, p. 519 (i) and footnote 4 with prefix bi- and mlor haml-t p. 520 is class. Pers. used for Imporf. (1) ; in poten. sense (2) ; in class Pers. used in Condit. and Opt. sentences
; ;
pp. 23-7; silent; vide under 'Ayn a, p. 16; alif-hamza, 1st letter of alpha(c)
;
bet, p. 25 p. 400.
^ of unity,
120
(/)
(3).
karan
(ki)
(1); used for hama, (j) (1); (j), Rem.; har yak, har yak-l.
920
INDEX.
Huan^i ta'blr or euphemism, p. 631 (c). Husayn, a name of, p. 201 and footnote 5
p. 378
har Teas, har kudam, take sing, or pi verb (2) har whatever (3) har kudam ki, har an ki, p. 121 (k) (1) (2) and p. 122 har kas-l ki, har ki, hama kas-i (3) (4) ki, etc., p. 121 (3); har an chi, p. 123 Vide also Harchi, Har ki, Har du. (5). Harchand. harchand ki, harchi, p. 358 (1); < Vide also Harchi. p. 363 (13). Harchi har ch^z, har an chi. an, chi, p. 121 (Z)(l)(2)andp. 123(5); anchi,p, 123(5); harchi= any thing, p. 258 (b) and footnote 1 harchi bad-a-bad, p. 535, footnote 4
;
; ;
and footnote
635.
pi. of
1.
Hymns,
and
2.
Hyperbaton
Hyperbole,
or Trajection, p. 605 (*"). respect a form of p. 588 footnote 4 p. 630 (c.) and footnote
,
;
'
harchi tamam-tar=aup. , p. 175 (n). 108-9 (/) (1); har st=m.c. 109 (/) (1), Rem, ; with neg. =neither of two, p. 109 (2).
yak q.v. Ibham or ambiguity, p. 631 (d). Ibn and abu disappear when ya-yi nisbat is added to kunyat, p. 402, Rem. V. Vide
also Bin,
'Ids, p.
/, for
2, p. 203, foot-
Hardly, p. 300(5).
note
'Id*
HarK="one"
II
in def. pron., p. 104, Rem. takes the place of the indef. pron. p. 178 (u) and footnote 2. Harf-i zarf = particle, p. 289; harf-i ta'lil, p. 574 and footnote 7. Hargah^ii, p. 361 (10); az an gah ki, etc.
" one/'
'Irfifr, p. 202 (10) and footnote 2; 5'cfa 'l-azha, p. 202 (12) and p. 203, footnote 1.
and footnote 4. and footnote 2. Iham, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Ihtikar, p. 661 and footnote 4.
Idmaj,
p. 632 Jghraq, p. 630
(/)
(c)
d'l).
(d)
(1)
(b)
and footnote
Haahv,
7.
;
HStim, p. 135, footnote 2. Hay, contin. particle, p. 230 III B (e) and 537, footnote I. Hayf, interj., p. 367 and footnote 7. Heavens, revolution of, p. 343 (*'). Help, gave no more than (I) could
*
Ijaz-i majazl, p. 663 (d). Ikhtiyar darld, polite form of affirmation or negation, p. 294 (i). 7Z,T.,pl. of.p. Oft(/). c. =1 hope, p. 373 and footnote. Ilahi, Ilia, p 345. footnote 2; p. 584 (4). Ilti/at, change of persons, p. 533 and foot-
p. 257
help,' p. SOI (g) Hlch, for slzdah, p. 182, footnote 4. Hlch kas, etc., hlch na, p. 104 (d); hich as adj. and subs., p. 105, Rem.; =some any, p. 105 (2); =nothing, p. 105 (3); hlch-tar, p. 106 (d) (3) ; =at all, ever, p 106 (4); hlch u puch, p. 106 (4), Rem. ;
note 3. Imala, p. 38. Imperative, pp. 536 (v)-7 in m.c. used prein class. Pers., 2nd catively, p. 536 (v) can begin a clause, pers. so used, p. 537
;
hich
kudam,
p. 106 (5).
(/).
Hijrah, p. 203
p. 183,
footnote
1.
Hope,
*
= Ilahl,
other methods of expressing Inipera., p. 233 (i) Imperative CONTTNUATIVE, p. 537 p. 224, Rem. I p. 230 III B kanda mi-bashad, apparently incorrect, p 233 (c) (3) Imperfect tense, jrives a pi. sense to sing, noun, p. 475 (x), but with Pret. pi. must be used (x) Imperf. tense, pp. 517 (h)~ 619; denotes frequency or duration, may take the place of Eng. Pret., 517 (h) (1) and footnotes 4 and 5, p. 518 (2) ^bep. 605 (/)
; ;
;
p.
gan to"
perf.
rendered by Imperf.
,
(3);
Im;
However
(13).
the more (or less),' how rendered pp. 180-1 (w). Hubara and hubarq, p. 626 (11) and footnote 3. Hwma, p. 400 and footnote 1, and p. 407, footnote 2.
4 ;
How much
Pass gives pot. senses, p. 618 (4) used in m.c. used for Pres. p. 519 (5) for conditions, its place sometimes taken by Contin. Perf. (6) Imper. Indie, substituted for Past Condit., p. 548 (2); time past or future, p. 548, Rem. I and
;
footnote 3, and footnotes 1 a/id 2, p. 549; class use of Imperf. for Pres. Subj.,
Rem.
II.
;
Hurmuz,
p. 208.
;
c. exs. of Impersonal Verbs, p. 266, etc. some verbs used impersonally, p. 273 (a) Pers. verb with cognate noun = sing,
;
(v).
mu'jama
630 (d) p. 631 (d). Inak, p. 87 (o) ; p. 305 (5)._ Inchunin, etc., vide Chunln.
Impropriety
4,
hiistyle, p.
and footnote
and
(i)
huruf-i
'illat,
p.
22
(d)
and
p.
573
(a).
Huan and
Including, vide Besides. Incoherence, p. 659 (a); avoid illogical 671 (o); incohercompound sentences, p. ence due to misuse of * and,' p. 672.
INDEX.
Indefinite Article, p. 131 ; yak place, p. 131 (a); and may
of unity, pp. 131-2 (a)
is
;
921
use of with certain verbs, p. 540
may
take
its
inf.,
(<*).
have the
the
^
;
after har
probably the
of unity
demons, ya,
132
Rem.
deriv.
from
Indirect Narration, vide Narration. Inhiraf or digression, p. 646 (/). Innuendo or Insinuation, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Insan, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4). Inaha, p. 630 (6). In sha* Allah t =l hope, p. 383 and footnote
3.
(e)
and footnotes
and
Int, p. 87 (p).
sometimes added to adjs., p. 133 (3), I in old Pers. added to the qualified noun, but in Mod. Pers. to the adj., p. 133 (3), Rem. II and pp. 136-7 (k) (1) sometimes with ast in pronunciation, how written, p. 133 (e) exs. of this ya and
(3)
;
Rem.
significations, pp. 134 (/)-5; in m.c. often preceded by yak for emphasis, pp. 135-6 (g) does not admit of the izafat, p. 136 (h) ; a noun before an adj. or another noun in construction may discard ya, p. 136 (i) ; concrete nouns, in % may take the ya of unity, p. 136 (/); sing, abstract nouns do not admit of ya, in yak is substituted, p. 136 (;), Rem. Mod. Pers. in added to qualifying adj., can be referred to a pi. noun, pp. 136-7 (k) (I) (2); indef. art. in Eng. before a numeral, expressed by ya, p. 137 (2); if the adj. is simple and can precede its noun, ya is added to the nonn (3) in Mod. Pers., both jam*-l and jam* I az
its
;
; ;
Intend, expressed by Ishwasian, p. 260 (e). Intensive Adjectives, pp. 169-71. Interjections, etc., pp. 366-90; simple, p. 366 (1); exs. 367; verb=interj. t p. 368,. Rem. Admiration, p. 308 exs. of, p. 369 Lamentation, p. 369 (3) Hatred, Attention, WarnAversion, Contempt ing, p. 370 (5); Impatience, p. 371 (6);
;
;
Distress,
Want,
p. 371 (7)
;
Fie, for
shame,
372 (9); Miscellaneous, p. 372 (10) Imitative sounds. Dervish Cries, p. 375-6 (c) and p. 375 (6) p. 276, footnotes 1 and 2; Street cries, 376 (d) Greeting to Guests, p. 380 (e) ; Wife, how referred to, p. 382 (/) Greeting to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) Calling, etc., etiquette of, p. 383 (h); Complimentary Phrases, p. 384 (2) Expressions of Tenderness, p. 385 (;) AdjuraShi* as and Sunnls, p. tions, p. 386 (k) 386 (m) Maledictions, p. 387 (2) Abuse, Examples, p. 388 (4). p. 387 (3)
p. 372 (8);
;
Repentance,
p.
used
adj.
art.
(I);
"a "a (m); spoonful of milk," glass of water," etc.. how rendered (m) ex. of omission after generic noun in Pers. (in def. art. in Eng.), pp. 137-8 (n) ; added both to noun and adj., p. 138 (o) ; dlgar and digar-i, p. 138 (p) m.c. exs.
; ;
end
p.
(p)
(q)
a series of nouns, p. 139 () first noun, in m.c., may be prein Mod. Pers. ya ceded by yak (s) added to second only of two adjs., Rem. I; class. E. of ya added to both adjs., 125 (c), p. 511 does not, as a rule, take ra, exs. (t) ; can be added to some pers. not added to ma, prons p. 140 (u)
to last only of
; ;
Interrogative Verbs, p. 238. Inversion, p. 605 (i) (1) to (5) Invitation, to accept is a sunnat, p. 383 and footnote 3 p. 383, footnotes. Iqllm, meanings of, p. 586 and footnote 2 Ir and Tur, song of Farldun, p. 416 and footnote 5. Irony, p. 633 (/) and footnote 1. Irrelevancy, p. 646 (/). Isha, dimin. terra., p. 397 (b), Rom. 'Ishqiyya, love song 638, p. 635. 4 and Ishtiqaq, figure, p. 638 and footnotes
;
6.
Islian (u) ; yak-l man-am and man yak-i am, (v); can be added to subs, qualified by churiin, etc , and chandan (x) ;
with ace. of
man
(y); 'can
be added to
Iam-i mawsul, p. 559 (4) and p. 56). Ism i mu kabbar, p. 170 (e) (1). Ism-i sawt, p. 275 (6). " Itnayn both," p. 109 (3). Isti'ara-yi 'inadiyya, p. 632 (e). Istibhara, p. 390 (a) and footnote 2. 4. Istiqbal, p. 380 and footnote Istiqbal, p. 314 and footnote 4. 4. Istitbagh, p. 632 (/) and footnote Itnab or Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and p. 646 (/). after Izafat, kinds of, p. 52 (e), Rem.; after 'silent h, how written, p. 54 (/) (1 ) aspirated h (/) (1), Rem. ; after final vav, after after final ; p. 55 (/) (3) ;
;
(/) (2)
verb often used intransitively (3) class. used for subj., p. 539 (6); shortened
;
(2);
;
after
alif-i
922
INDEX.
Jallali Year, p. 209 (d). Jama-ak, dimm., p. 396, footnote
nounced by Indians L and Afghans, p. 55 (g) (h); with man*, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem.;
with other pers. prons., 71 (/), Rera. I after kar du t p. 72, footnote 2; with with verbs, p. affixed prons., p. 73 (/) 74, Rem. I some modern vulgarisms* p. 75 (i) after khud, p. 80 (e) after yhayr
;
5.
Jaml', followed by
izafat,
majmu* occa-
privative, p. 100 (a) (2). Rem. and footnote 3 may connect a series of adja., p. 151 () (1): after some Parts, instead of incorrectly inserted prep., p. 161 (y) before Ar. verb, pp. 167-8 (15), Rem.; with Ar. sup., p. 171 (6) (3) and (e) (I); before compar. adj., p. 173 (d) t in India omitted after name Hatim, p. 177 (p) and footnote 1 ; after f*ad-ha< Afghan, p. after subs, avval, p. 193 (g); 190 (k) with fractions, p. 194, Rem. II nlm-i
; ;
-
Janab-i "All* followed by 2nd or 3rd persons pi., p. 282 (/)(!) and footnote 2. Janan, sing., p. 386 and footnote 2. Jaras, p. 297, footnote 3. Jarr and majrur, p. 322 (11).
ju, dimins. of, p. 397 (c). Javab-i Amr t p. 65 (r) and footnote 4. Javak-t, dimin., p. 396 and footnote 4.
Jav and
397,
Rem.
and
p.
396
Afghan, p. 206, footnote 3 USE and OMISSION of IZAFAT, pp. 433-45; cases in which IZAFAT must be INSERTED, pp. 433-4 between prop, name and profesroz,
;
;
Jlm-i yak=zjamad<} 'l-ulq, p. 201 and footnote 1. Jinas vide Tajnis. Jingling sounds vide under Repetition, etc.
Jlra, p. 3 and footnote 3. Job, patience of, p. 171 (4). Joking phrase expressing affirmation, p. 295 (5) and footnote 4. Joseph, beauty of, etc., p. 179 (4) and footnotes 466. Ju and jav, dimins. of, p. 97 (c), Rem. I. Juft and linga, p. 189 (h) p. 469 and foot;
p 433
(a)
before the words * country river, city, etc.,' in titles of books, for patronymic, with fractions, with superlative, p. 434 (c) (d) (e) (/) (g) and footnote 2 ; before a phrase is inserted in Mod. Pers. but omitted in Indian, p. 435 (h);
,
note
3.
Juja
IZAFAT after PABTICULAB WORDS, p. 435 after Janab and Hazrat, mablagh and ahl,
;
Jum
p. 435 (a) (b) (c);' after arbab, p. 436 (rf) with marhiim, p. 436 (e) abna* (/), sahib
i
chicken, p. 379 (16) and footnote 6. banidan, word avoided in m.c., p. 181 (9) and footnote 1. Jumla whole, usually followed by izafat,
'
FAKK-I IZAFAT, p. 437 omitted "with amir, mlr, vali, bin, sar, sahib, p. 437 further exs. of, pp. 441-2 (b) (a) to 441 (c) ; IZAFAT-I MAQLUB! p. 149 (b) and p. 150 (g) ; p. 442 cases in which IZAFAT must be OMITTED, pp. 442-3; none between prop, name and title, p. 442 (a) none between compound words, seldom after measures of length, etc., (b) (c); further examples, pp. 443-51 with nisf but not with mm, p. 443 and footnote 6 after blm but not after maslahat, p. 444 and footnote 1 ; biahtar, aghlab, aksar, p. 444 (d) ; before an Inf. governed by a prep., p. 444 (e) gen. subjective and not used after voc. objective, p. 445 (/) in -5, p. 463 in m.c. wrongly inserted in appos., p. 620 (g) and Rem. man-i banda and man banda, footnote 3; after mablagh and muvazi, p. 621 (h), Remark; with pronoun in to noun or adj., appol. is inserted or omitted, p. 621 (i) and footnotes not used after pron. w. with not used when the pi. prons., p. 622; predicate is pi. footnote 2 repetition of same subs, with izafat, p. 625 (h) izafat possibly expressed in writing by $, p. 156
(g)
; ; ; , ; ; ;
; ; ;
p. 115 (9); in apposition, p. 116 (9). Jumla-yi zarftyya, p. 570 (a), Rem. ; jumla-
yi 'atfiyya, p. 577 (c) and footnote 3 jumla-yi jumla-yi tardidiyya, p. 579 (d) izrabiyya, p. 582 (c) ; jumla-yi mu'tariza, jumla-yi baslfa p. 618 and footnote 3
; ; ;
Jumlagl, jumlahi
116(10); "all come,*' different ways of expressing, p. 116 (10), Rem.; by some, said to=an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Jurra, a water measure, p. 215, footnote 3. Juzv-i and juzvi, p. 137 (8) and Remark.
K
K, dimin.
2.
Ka, dimin.
terrain., p. 396 (4) and (5). terrain., p. 395 (2) and footnote
Ka'bah, p. 144, footnote 5. Kabisa. Leap Year, p. 207, footnote 1. Kaf-i islifham or kaf-i kudamiyya, p. 92 (/), Rem.; before -am, etc., how written, p. 92 (g) pi. kiyam and kl-ha, pp. 92-3 (h)
;
;
ki bi-klst
disorder, p.
kaf-i
1)3 (i)
sag-i kist,
93
(;');
tarahhum,
'
p.
397,
*
Rem.
?. I
kaf-i
mawaul or
Kaffa, not
117(13).
common,
Ka/-gu,a, shovel,
Jacob, p. 179 (4) and footnote 6. " Jafang, m.c. = bosh," p. 596 and footnote
J=just now,
p.
Kam,
315
(5).
kam-i, kam-tar; kam-i, p. 126 (4); kam, positive for compar., I74(t); kam
INDEX.
and kam-tar, as negs. p. 231 (;") p. 304 kam and kam-tar, p. 490 (b). (5) Kam 6Sr,=" seldom" in class. Pers,, but in m.c. "of light weight," p. 196 (d) and
, ;
;
923
footnote
4.
Kamlna,
positive
and
sup.
p.
51
(/)
kamina, banda,
etc.,
note 3;=mabada, p. 365 (24); or usually introduces subj., p. 539 (a), Rem. when, p. 570 (6), 'vide' KI. Ki-ki " who ?," p. 218 (d) and footnote 4. Kih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i). Ko,i hai=bachcha'ha, p. 373 and footnote 7. Ku and ku*h, p. 297 (2) and p. 290, foot;
69 (c) ; fern, in Mod. pera. prons. , p. Pers., p. 157 (s) (2); in class, Pers. positive masc. (a) (2).
note
5.
Kamil. Pers. compar. and sup p. 174 (h). Kandaatl, old form of 2nd pers. sing Perf. p. 232, VIII, Bern. Kanlz and kanizak, p. 69 (c) and footnote 3. Karahiyat, not rel. noun, p. 400, footnote 3. Karavan saray, shops in, p. 430 and footnote 4. Karbala*l, form of address, p. 370 and footnote 4 Kardan, p. 280 (a) (6) Past Part, of, used by Afghans with comparatives, p. 280 (6),
, , ;
Kuchulu and kuchuli, p. 398 (e). Kudam or kudamln, etc., p. 91 (a); used in both direct and indirect questions, p. 91 (a); ktc/i kudamhich yak (b); kudam kudam, used for ace. pi. yak-i, mod. (c) of ki (c), Rem, har kudam (d); used by '* some one " Afghans for Hindustani ko,i
;
(e).
Hem.
Kai,
kas-l, p.
102
(c)
;
kas u na-kas^high 102-3 (c) (3), Kern and low, bi-kas friendless, kam-tar kas-i, p. 103 (c) (3); kas with neg. verb=no-
(19),
Rem.
I.
ono,p. 104
(d) (1).
Kull^n and kulliyyatn, p. 307 (5). Kulll, Pers. abstract noun and Ar. adj., p.
118 (19)
;
Kaxh and optative, p. 550 (c). Kushi, adj.=of Kashan, p. 402, Rem. V. Kara sunZsin, construction, p. 661 and footnotes 1, 2 and 5. KVr// = when and how?, p. 293 (e) and footnote 2. Kayf, p. 385 and footnotes. Kevtril, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. KhUnam, fern, of Khan, p. 50 (d).
bi-kulll
and
kulliyyafan different
meanings, p. 118 (19), Rem. I'; kullu-kum used by Afghans in m.c. (19), Rem. II;
p. 160 (w) (2).
Kumaj dan
copper
cooking-pot,
p.
410
and footnote 4. Kurur, cardinal, p. 184 and footnotes 3, and p. 185 (b).
JFCw#=drum,
p. 297,
and and
footnote
3.
/ar,
shah, dev, give idea of size, p. 170 (e) tehar, signifying "ass," in com(I);
pounds, p. 171 (2). Kbarabat, kharabati, p. 344, footnote 2. Kfrak bar sar-am, p. 463 and footnote 4. Khariyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. fCharus-i Larl, p. 379 and footnote 5. KJhatfci musnad, p. 9, footnote 3 ; khatfci
shagari or W&att-i
f*arvi, p. 36.
khwah ma-khtvah,
p.
311 (14).
Khivabanldan,
Khwafa
1
;
p. 248 and footnote 3. Mod. Pers., address to Armenians and Hindus, p. 473 and footnote
.
in
Mula.
than
1.
followed by sing, or pi. subs., bhayli, cannot follow its noun, p. 150 (d) p. 306. //im/r=no, should not be used alone, p. 294 (00 (1) footnote 3. Khirsak, p. 615 and footnote 5. Khifiba, oratory, p. 629 (a). Khud, pp. 77-9 (a) ; khud-ha and bhudhayi-man, etc., p. 79, Rem. II p. 80 (e) ;
biftyar,
;
Khayli and
JK&wasta
ml-
followed by apoco;
^d
(a)
by unapocopated
p. 81, Rem. II. Ij&tida hafizl kardan, p. 373 JK&urandan p. 284, Rem.
,
and footnote
2.
258 (6): bi-khwahad raft, p. 259, 1; Subj. after, p. 259, Rem. II; preceded by Inf., Afghan, p. 259 (c) ; tr.=to summon, followed by Subj. (c) desire, love, pp. 259-60 (d);=to intend, requires, p. 260 (/); =it is p. 260 (e); necessary, p. 260 (/) =should, p. 261 (g). Kfrwish, p. 78 (4), p. 79 (c) in m.c. a subs,
Inf., p.
Rem.
KJburda-l
only, p. 81
(/).
&&?^
##*> p.
90
(h) (1).
;
declined, p. 92 (/) ay with compar. of adj. or noun, p. 172 chunan (d) (3) and p. 353 and footnote 1 ; ast H, p. 179 (v) (3);=so as, (?;) (5); " whether ?," interr., p. 238, (6) and footnote 3 ; ki conj., significations of, p. 349 (13), etc. ;=< saying that, p, 351 and foot-
fQynsliawand, p. 81 (/). ^htplshtan, applicable to rational beings only, in compounds, p. 80 (d) p. 81 (g).
;
La, in comp.
adj., p. 167 (12); la-ttball "careless," really Ar. verb, p. 167 (12),
Rem.
924
Labbayk, p. 373 and footnote
5.
INDEX.
Malla, gana, gharlb-gaz, p. 273, footnote Mamduda (alif), pp. 20-1.
6.
Labbe, p. 294 (*) (4) and 'footnote 5. La-bud, p. 295 (1) and footnote I. L5-hawl<*, etc., p, 633 and footnote 1. Lak (for lakh) cardinal, p. 184 and footnote
2,
1.
and
p. 185 (6).
Man,
man
ra vulg. and
dash=inverted commas, p. 37. La&&*-*=a short time, p. 127 (9) and p. 308
La]$ht or
(9).
man-i ra correct,
and
(/),
poppy, p. 394 and footnote 2. Lammergeyer, p. 400 and footnote 1. Lar or for, Turkish pi., p. 67 (?) and p. 429
Lala
(P).
and footnote 3;
mon in poetry, p. 71. Rem. II; voc. of man as a possess, pron., p. 76 (6), Rem, Mana must be followed by ki p. 295 ,
y
(g).
tablet, p. 227, footnote 1, and p. 422, footnote 1. Lazim and Z52ra?,=intr., p. 221 and footnote 1 , and p. 574 (d) ( 1 ) and footnote 8 lazim dashtan, p. 266 (i) ; lazim shudan, p. 269, footnote 5.
Lawh, the
Rem. I. Manand, p.
156
(r),
Rem.
=like, in comp.
;
Mandan, tr., Afghan idiom, p. 262 (/) kam manda bud foctkam mand. m.c. p.
,
4.
Vide also
Leap Year,
p. 207 (a)
and footnote
;
1.
of alphabet Letters, change of, p. 10 (m) and significations, pp. 11-21; solar and lunar, p. 31 ; comparisons if poetry, p. 34.
Like, w equal
to,
in
comparison
between
clauses, p. 179 (v) (3). Linga, odd one of pair, etc., p. 108, footnote 3; p. 189 (b). Local Clauses, vide under Temporal Clauses. Love Songs, p. 635.
Manistan and mandan, amongst Afghans, tr., =to place, p. 242 and footnote 1. Ma qabl and ma ba'd, p. 21. Maqbul and maqbula, p. 158 (7). Maqsura (alif) as used by Indians, p. 10 II p. 20 and footnote 3. (/)', Rem. Maqula, p. 563 (6).
;
2.
M
Ma,
neg., p. 235 (b)
(c) (e),
(e)
p.
before dative, particle, p. 67 (c) 299 (2) and footnote 5; p. 322 (6) p. 455(12). Mardaka, p. 370, footnote 1. Mardaku, p. 398 (e). Mardum, pi., also marduman, p. 465 (b) and footnote 3. Mardumiyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Marhaba, p. 369, footnote 1. Marhiim, in m.c. precedes its subs, with an izafat, p. 436 (e) and p. 151 (q).
Mar,
p.
Marsiya, p. 635. Marvazl and Marghazi, p. 402, Rem. V. Mast and dust, once Past Parts., p. 166
(r)
Ma dam
Madar, Magar,
.
interj., p.
Ma'dum,
note note
2.
adj., p. 167 (13). interr., p. 238 (a); p. 298 (8) and 299 (k) (1), p. 343 (5) ; p. 345 (9) and foot-
in
comp.
Vide
Ay a.
p.
Allah, p. 369 and footnote 2. Ar.. and mash'ala Pers., p. 410 and footnote 1. Mashjiadi, pilgrim, p. 300, footnote 1; p. 370 and footnote 4. Mashkula, dimin. of mashk, p. 398 (g). and ma'shiiqa, p. 159 ().
Ma sha*
(6).
MasKal
Ma'ahuq_
Maggots
1.
and nightingales,
p. 70 (e).
276, foot-
Ma<hazja,p. 365(21). Mahalla-yi Jshamushan and sJiahr-i Ishamushan, p. 435 and footnote 2. Mafrbub, and mahbuba, p. 159 (u). Maty, p. 310 (6);=6anty, p. 311; p. 338, footnote 2; p. 361 (12) footnote 4. Majaz-i mahall bi-iami fyal, p. 667 (h) and footnote 3. Majaz-i mursal, p. 631 (e). Majhul sounds, p. 23.
559
(4)
( raji or
Mazanna,
Majnun, p. 179 (4) and footnote 5. Majrur vide Jarr. Mai, absolute gen., p. 35 (4) in m.c. used for "mine, thine, etc.," p. 77 (g).
' ' ;
Ma/mi?=/awi,p.
116(11).
M.C. ss Modern Colloquial. Meaningless Apposttive, p. 616 (a) and p. 622 (a) p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II. Measures of length, p. 213 tasu, Afghan, = and footnote 2; inch, p. 214 (b) "square," p, 214 (d): Ar. measures, Appen. E. Metaphor, briefer than lit. statement, p. 650 (m) false, p. 666 (g) (1). Metre, p. 634 (m).
;
Ml =zhami,
q.v.
(t).
Matfuzl
letters, p.
(h).
Mih,
INDEX.
Million,
925
how expressed,
milyftn,
etc., pp.
p.
184
(6).
Milyun or
p.
French,
=
;
Mufawwal,
1,000,000,
= diffuse,
'
p.
644
(a)
and
foot-
note
5.
'
184.
76-7 (/) in m.c. expressed by mal-i, p. 77 (/). Min ba'd, p. 360 (5). Minnat mi-daram, etc., p. 310 (3). * Ir vide Amln. Mlrza, p. 437 and footnote 3. Misfortune, attributed to the revolution of the sky, p. 238, footnote 4 good to Allah, ditto, Misl-i ham, p. 82 (i). Misrelated Participle, p. 531 (n) to 532. Miyan, may take place of bayn, but not always vice versd, p. 503 (d) and footnote 4, and p. 504 footnote 2.
Mine, thine,
p. 174
(i) (1)
and footnote
1.
,
p. 10
(i).
'
N
nasal, none in Persian; in Ar. occurs before certain letters, p. 18 and footnotes. Nfr, and na- t p. 165 (10) and p. 166 (10); preferred to ma, m.c., p. 231, III, c and footnote i ; na in compounds, p. 231 (g) with bayad, na, p. 235 (a) (d) (e) (/) na and not na position of, p. 231 (i) used with a part, that is an adj., p. 235, footnote 4; na for "no," vulg., nafehayr polite, p. 294 (g) (1); no and andar, p. 322 and footnote 5; p. 343 and footnote 1 p. 347 footnote 4 ; na and na in neg. parts, p. 531 (1). Nabat sugar-candy, p. 377 and footnote
N,
Modal Clauses, vide under Temporal. Money, various coins current, p. 212 (a) how sent by post, p. 213 (c). (c) (d) Month, first and last of, p. 193 (h).
;
(6)
j i
208-9;
Yazd-gardi,
More, how expressed, p. 175 (6). Mubalagha, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Mubtada*, = subject, p. 636 (n). Muchal, T., cycle of Turki year,=Pers duvazdah sal-i turkl, p. 204 (c).
4.
and footnote 2. and footnote 4. Muqhul, Muhal-i mumkin, vulg. p. 161 (y). Muhammad and Umar Year, p. 200 and
Mudam,
p. 316 p. 639
Nabzja, p. 127 (10), Rem. Nafar, p. 187 (g) and p. 189, Rem. II. adv., p. 289. Nafl. Na-$hafil, m.c. for ghaflat, p. 166 (10),
Rem.
I.
Na
footnote
1.
Muhtamal*
note
4,
'z-ziddayn, p. 632
p. 9 (h).
(/)
and
foot-
only used in m.c., p. 458 (e) and footnote 6. Na Jshushi, m.c. =-. sickness, p. 385 and footnote 2. Namaz-l pishin, namaz-i digar, Afghan,
ib> pi.
Mujama letters,
t,
p. 206.
women
(a)
unveiled,
Namudan,
p.
280
4
(c).
p. 38. brief, p.
644
and footnote
and footnote vide Chapish. Narl, Narration, direct and indirect, p. 502
= he-goat,
jan, p. 374
'
3.
(a)
Mula or
note
fc&wa/a
3.
p. 35.
Multiplicative numerals, p. 197Mftmiytfi, p. 657 and footnote 1. ' Mumayyaz vide Tamiz.
,
634 (m).
Ncuta'liq, p. 36.
(/) (1) and footnote 6 Nawafehtan, p. 245 (3) and footnote 4, Naw-Ruz, p. 205 (e) p. 393 (h). Nay, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 4; nay nay =balki, p. 355 and footnote 2. Nazakat, Pers. word on Ar. measure, p. 404,
;
Munajat-i manzuma,
Muqaddam
Murawa*,
= antecedent! p.
(o).
p. 635.
560
(4).
MurajjaZf p. 637
prose, p. 637 (o) and footnotes. hen, p. 379 (16) and footnote 5; Murgh', mur/ih-i dawlat, p. 400 and footnote 7.
Musallasa letters, p. 10 (i). Musanriat letters, p. 10 (i). Musajja* or muqaffg, prose, p. 637 (o). Mush-i fctfr, = bat (not mole), p. 173, footnote 1. Mushkil and iahkal, p. 159 (v) (1) mushkil =hardly, p. 300 (5). Muahkula, p. 398 (g). Music and dancing, waving the arms in,
;
Rem.
I.
Nazd, used for persons only, NaztKk, p. 332 (9). Nazm-i zarlfana, p. 635.
;
p. 333 (o).
507 and footnote 4; forbidden, p. 552, footnote 1. Mustafl and Mwfafavl, p. 402, Rem. V. Must have, =:bayad with Fut. Perf., p. 271 (p) p. 233 (c) (5). Mutaradif, p. 645 and footnote 2. utawazl, of prose, p. 637 (o).
p.
;
Necessary, expressed by khwastan, Afghan, paraphrase for, p. 273, Rem. p. 260 (/) andak Negatives, p. 235 (a) to (i) fcam and as negs., p. 236 (i); ad vs. of negation, 294 (g) polite form of neg., p. p. 292 (d) (2) neg. subj. after verb of prohibition, after ta, p. 500 (e) and footp. 497 (i) note 6; neg. participles, p. 531 (11). Neither nor, p. 498 (6) (5) and Rem neither and either, distrib. pronouns, concord of, p. 599 (/) ; neither of two,
;
;
p. 108
(/).
926
INDEX.
tional beings preferably pi. (d) (I); unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 46$ (d) (2); pi. gives prominence, p. 467 (e); wheat, butter, etc., pi. or sing., p. 46& (/); pi. for Ensj. sing., p. 469 (g) ; after subs, 'pair* and card. no. in sing, (h) of compounded verb is sing, (i) ; pi. for
;
Never, emphatic denial, how expressed, p. 293 (/) too many negatives a source of Vide Ever, error, p. 663 (e).
;
Nightingale, p. 276, footnote 1 ; p. 351, footnote 4. Vide also under Riza-khwani. Nihayat* 'Z-amr, p. 366 (22). Nik and niku, rare in m.c., p. 162 (b) (1),
Rem.
p. 149
dual
(k)
;
(?)
collectives,
when
pi.,
p.
470"
(6).
Nim, nlma,
footnote
p. 194 (a) and footnote 2, and p. 195 (e) (d) ; nlrn-shab and nlma, p. 313 and footnote 2 nlw-i roz, Afghan, p. 206,
;
qism and aqsfim with sing, and pi noun used fig. may be sing, with (I) (m) pi. of shutur-bachcha, pi. meaning, (n) etc. , p. 475 (') sing, and pi. nouns with
;
;
3.
Nwf and
n?w,
p. 194 (a)
Nlz, incorrectly used as a correlative of w(z and ham, differagarchi, p. 556 (b) ence between, p. 339, Rem. Nizd, not adv., prep, only, p. 303, footnote
;
subs, repeated in pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) ; sing, in Pers. before two inconsistent qualities, pi. in* Eng., p. 493 (;'). Vide also under Nouns. Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, pp. 644-52; three forms of diffuseness,
hamm
(x)
;
hamm
qadr and
qadr-ha
(y)
2.
p. '
65
*
(c),
Rem.
1
or
p. 644 (b); Tautology, Pleonasm, Redundancy, Circumlocution, p. 645 (b) justifiable Tautology (c) ; dual tautological
;
'
'
dered, p. 557
(c).
Nominal verbs,
p.
275
(e)
and
;
p. 274, foot-
note 2. Nominative case, pp. 445-6 used absolutely, p. 445; subj. of passive verb, 'in Urdu and Indian Persian sometimes put in the accusative, p. 446. No sooner than,' p. 501 (h) and footnote
3.
prolixity (h) ; SOURCES of BREVITY selection of aptest words, use of Figures, p. 647 (i) and footnotes 1 and 2; METHODS of ABBREVIATION, one predicate for several subjects, etc. (i) ; employment of participles, (/) (1) parts, as
(g)
; ; ;
expressions (d) (1) (2); refrain of song, 646 (3) emotion expressed by repetition (e); circumlocution, examples, euphemism, is used in tafslr (/) verbosity
p.
;
:
equivalents of
(z);
relative
clauses,
(3);
p.
648
and derived, def. and indef., p. 56, Rem. II; Pers. noun of instrument usually a compound, p. 428, Rem. II; NOUNS of MULTITUDE, concord of, pp. 464-476 and take sing, or pi. verb, pi. after p. 586 (e) 3/3 of unity, p. 464 (a) ; mardum^pi., p. 465 generic nouns (b) ; dushman^ sing, (c) denoting rational beings or preferably, unqualified by adj. are (d) (I); pi. usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. for sing.
; ; ;
equivs.
;
of phrases
(I)
;
"being"
briefer
omission of verb,
ELLIPSES
METAPHOR
;
than
lit.
than particular, 1 phrase expressed by one word (o) 'a statement briefly implied, Impera. for (p); conjuncs. omitted, (q) r "if APPOSITION is brief, p. 65 ( )
briefer
footnote
Eng., p. 469 (g); COLLECTIVES, when pi., noun used fig. may be sing. p. 470 (k) with pi. meaning (n) noun repeated in noun pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) should be repeated in comparisons, but not so in superlatives p. 491 (d) (e) sing, in Pers. before the inconsistent to be qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (;') repeated after each adj., p. 494 (I) ; concord of collectives, p. 586 (e) NOUN of AGENCY in -anda, vide' under Agency; NOUN of POSSIBILITY or FUTUBE PART., GENERIC NOUNS vide under p. 535 Vide also Number of Nouns. Generic. Number, a number repeated has a distributive, continuative or intensive sense, p. 623 (b) ; when repeated in Afghan, but not in mod. Persian, p. 627 (32) and footnote 4.
;
parenthesis, p. 652 (t) CLEARNESS consideration. Rem. Numerals, pp. 182-203; CARDINALS, p. 182 Ar. numerals I to 10 (and ordinals (a) up to 20), p. 184; system ceases at
(s);
;
the
first
constr. of
Ar.
pi.
with card., p.
1 ; as predicate (e) ; after hard, sad-ha^etc., (e); no ra (/) harsi.etc., (/) qualifying or determining words used with numerals, p. 187 (g) ya of unity and cardinal, p. 189, Rem. II; juft, zauj\ linga, darzhan, p. 189 (h) du char shitdan (/) ; sad-ha, hazar-la (k)
; ; :
;
Jcarur and lak, (b) nouu with card, (c) 786 (e) and footnote noun in pi. after
;
:
sadha-yi
mardum
(Af.), p.
;
190(fc);
year
;
things
commonly
accompanied by nos., p. 190, footnote 1 ORDINALS, p. 191 Ar. ordinal* up to 20, p. 184 formative suff. added to last only, p. 191 (6) suffix in -in added, (c) card, for ord. in poetry, (c), Rem.; may b made by adding dlgar, p. 193 (/); FRAC;
; ;
TIONS, Pers., how formed, p. 194 (a); for Ar. frac. to be used, Rem, I ; , si^/ak not used, Rem. II; nltn and m>/,
INDEX.
p. 194, footnote 2; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6) ; duals and pis. rarely used (6); minus J, Rem. ; per cent, p. 196 (c) ; DECIMALS, p. 196 (/) ; other methods of expressing fractions (g}\ ADVEBBIAL,
927
NUMERALS,
p. 197
;
196; MULTIPLICATIVE, p. Ar. seldom used (6) and (a) DISTRIBUTIVES, p. 198; yaganyagan, p. 198 (1) and footnote 2; RECURRING, p. 198; APPROXIMATE, p. 199; numeral prefixed to noun forms comp. adj., p. 168 (17) and
;
Rem.
Pair,
I.
Pah, interj.,
p. 369.
p.
469
(6).
(h)
and
Rem.
Numerical Adjectives, pp. 199-200
;
formed
Story
Paluda and faluda; p. 243, footnote 4. Paliidan and palidan, amongst Afghans
by
silent
(h),
55
(a),
p.
199;
idioms (6); obs. idioms from Tuzuk-i Jahanglrl, (6); Ar. num. adjs., p. 200 (c). Numerical Figures, p. 33.
Tellers
to search, p. 243, footnote 4. Panja-yi duzdlda, or fthamsa-yi mustariqa, names of, p. p. 206 (a) and footnote 7
;
Nun-i munfaeil,
p. 343, footnote I. Nuqra*i, etc., how written, p. 400. Nuvvab, p. 458 (e) and footnote 6.
209 (&)(!). Paradise, four grades of, p. 180 (w) and footnote 1 p. 190, footnote 1.
;
Paragraphs
and chapters,
(2).
p.
613,
Rom.
Pardak&tan,p. 244, Rem. and footnote Parenthesis, p. 652 (t) and footnote 2. Parikah-i, p. 127 (12).
Objective genitive, p. 448. Obscurity, = ghamazat, p. 631 (d) p. 654 great length or brevity (6) (1) to (4) causes it, p. 659 (6). Vide Ambiguity and Incoherence. Odd,' or more, p. 198 (3). Odes, p. 635. Omens, p. 392 (c). On = immediately after, = &**-, p. 504 (g).
;
;
5.
'
used conjunctively, final n considered a copulative conj., p. 527 (m) (1); redundant vav with, p. 528 can take place of adv. (2) and footnote 3; of subs., p. 5.9 (3) and footnotes 1 and 4; of a
:
clause (4) of an adj. (5); as pass, part., p. 530 (6) ; used for pres. part, in Eng. , and in Pers., with slight p. 530 (7);
;
Once again,
p. 197
(e).
p.
change of meaning
(9);
indicates state (8) ; of certain trans, vbs. is used passively, p. 531 (10); neg. formed with na- t
clauses, 550 (e); is form of condit. clause, introduced by leash chi budi, etc., p. 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5 ; Opt. and Past Opt., represented by same tense, p. 551 (e), Rem. ; in Mod. Pers., both can be represented by the Aor. or the Imperf.. and the Past
;
with na (11); as a means o condensa' tion, p. 531 (n) ; misrelated,' p. 531 Ar. fern. Past (n) to 532 ; p. 166 (r) (4) Part., p. 51 (g); Perf. Part, prefixed to " " buda cwJ must in Af. Pers., p. 906
;
Opt. by the Plup. also, p. 551 (/). Or, p. 342 (4). Order of Words, and Errors in, pp. 604-13 formal order, p. 604 (a) dat. follows the words denoting time placed ace. (6) first (c) when complement is a sentence,
;
1 ; PART. PRES., p. 532 -an not much used, always for contin. action, p. 532 (o) to 533; contin. tense may be formed by it, p. 53 {; p. 15(3 (r) (I) and (3); VERBAL
(48;
and footnote
(o); part, in
ADJEC.
in -a, p. 54,
Rem.
ADVERBIAL
PART., p. 528 (2) and footnote 3; vide above: PARTICIPLE FUTURE, p. 535 (r), how formed used in pi. (r) and footnote
2.
it
comes last (d) when obj. is qualified by a rel. clause it can precede (<?) more
;
;
than one verb at end of sentence, p. 605 (/) Impera. can begin clause (/) in m.c. a few verbs precede their dat. (g) position of first portion of comp. or pot. verb Inversion (i) exam, of, pp. 605-7 (h) avoid crowding circumstances together, p 607 (/) circumstances should not be placed between two capital members (k) corresponding order to be assigned to circumstances (I); examples of collocation, pp. 608 (m) (n), 613 adjs. and phrases in
;
;
p. 628 (/) and p. 655 (6) (2) Vide also Tajnls. footnote 1. Parais, Indian, how divided, p. 401, footnote 3. Pafi for va, p. 578 (2). Pashmadan so-and-so, such and such,
Paronomasia,
p. 107 (2).
>
p. 129,
Rem.
(2).
Oxymoron,
7.
Passive Voice, pp. 285-88 methods of expressing, p. 285 (&) not every verb admits of a Passive, p. 286 (c) ex. of gram, trans. Inf. used for pasa. , p. 286 (d) pass., p. 286 (3); pass, to express possibility for impossibility, p. 286 (4); pass, expressed by Ar. Past Part., p. 287 (e) by
;
; ; ;
928
;
INDEX.
Plup. not used, p. 638 (u) and p. 232 (c) a little used form of (2) and footnote 3
;
3rd pers. pi. of trans. (/) pass, of neut. verb to express impossibility, App. B, p.
891
and footnote
2.
;
Eng. Past Indie, expressed by Pers. Aor. p. 539 (c) PAST HABITUAL, for mere supposition, p. 547 and footnote 3 ; for future but impossible suppositions, p. 547 and footnote 4; PAST POTENTIAL vide Habitual; PAST SUBJ. and PAST PRESUMPTIVE, p. 531 (;')'; CONTIN. PAST SUBJ., p 523. Pathos, p. 622 (g) and footnote 3. Paya thunder, vulg., p. 274, footnote 1. Per, p. 322 (11) and footnote 9. Percent., p, 1<6 (e). Perfect Tense, old form of 2nd pers. sing., p 232, VIII Hem.; contin. Perf., p. 232 its use (c) (1) ; Perf. tense, pp. 523 (fc)-7 in Eng. (k) (1) expressed by Pers. Pret., pp. 52.J (fc)-4 Pers. Perf. indicates that an act is past but its effects continue, p. 524 indicates time indef and anterior to Pret., p. 524; indicates as recently finished if time is indefinite, p. 525 (1) h dropped in 3rd pens, sing., (2); ast omitted (3) subs, yerb of other persons omitted in certain sentences (3) some emphatic statements, p. 526; oxs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I) CONTIN. PERF., p. 536 (t) and Rem. PERF. PROGRESSIVE, how expressed, p. 513 (8); PERF. SUBJ., p. 542 (/). Periphrasis, p. 646 (/) and footnote 3. Permit, pp. 261-2. Persian, dialects of, p. 636 (p) prose works, p. 639; Mod. Pers. simpler, but lax (r) rhetorical style, p. 642 (t) styles to be compared, p. 644 (u).
,
Plup., p. 232, IX, Rem. Pioce, p. 655 and footnote , and p 668 (i) 1 ) and footnote ( Plural, formation of, in CLASS. PERS., pp. 58-64 of nouns ending in a or u, p. 59
I I .
(c); of
words ending in
silent (A), p.
69
aspirated h, p. 60 (e), Rem.; Ar. words take Pers. pi., p. 60 (/) ; br. Ar. pis. (/) ; reg fern. Ar. pi. (0) used for neu. nouns, p. 61 (g) ; pi. of pis. (h) ; barbarous form, p. 62 (i) Pers. words with Ar. br. pi. (?) Ar. fern. pi. added to some Pers. words (k) br. pi. and bar(d) (e); in
;
,
barous
pi.
may have
;
in m.c.
p. 64; a few br. pis. used even by the vulgar, p. 65 (c) incorrectly used as sings., p. 1 (c), Rem. Pers. fom., Ar. pis. used in m.c. (d) words with imitation, Ar. fern. pi. (d) reg. pis. of pis. used in m.c., p. 66 (e) br. pi. rnasc. Ar. pi. in speaking (h) treated as sing., Pers. pi. added, p. 469
; ; ; ; ;
footnote
(p)
;
pi.
to give
(e);
prominence to a word,
;
used for sing, to avoid a pointed allusion, p. 473 (g) Eng. pi. trans, by Pers. sing., p. 473 (r) pi. after cardinal with several nouns, pi. termination (s) added to last, p. 474 (v)\ pi. of shuturwith Pret. or bachcha, etc., p. 475 (w) Tmperf. difference (x); hamln qadr and
467
:
royal pi., p. 476, foot(y) subs, repeated in pi. to indicate superlative (z) pi. dama* "bloods" for excess, p. 350 and footnote 1 ; pi. used in
;
hamln qadr-ha
note 2
:
Perspicuity, p. 631 (d). Pidar-sag, p. 387 and footnote 5. Pig in stables, p. 393 and footnote
1.
foot-
(s) (1);
plra, fern., p.
Afghan,
p. 151 (g).
;
Pisar, as dimin., p. 397 (c) pisar-bazzaz young cloth merchant, p. 441 and footnote 3: pisar farangi, p. 442 (b): pisaru, vulg., p. 5 (1) and p. 95, llem. II. Piah,p 331 (6); plsh-i man of place, and pish az man of time, p. 303 and footnote 3 m.c nazd-i man t pish-i man Af. p 86, footnote 3; pish, a compar. ,p. 175 to set a door ajar, (5); pish kardan p. 336, footnote 4; pish az an ki, followed by Pres. Subj. even when referring to past time, p. 502 (i). Pista*i, p. 400 and footnote 5. Pithy, p. 644 and footnote 5. * Please, vide Bi-farmayid. Pleonasm, p. 645 and footnote 1. indicates time Pluperfect, pp. 526 (Z)-7 anterior to Pret.,,used in Condit. sentences, after kashki, Eng. Plup. expressed by Pers. Pret., p. 526 (I): exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup. (I); Old Condit. Plup., p. 527, Bern. ; Contin.
;
p. 288 (h) the Fates as a possible pi. subject, footnote 4. Poetry, p. 634 (m). Polysyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Posh posh, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 and footnote 3. Possession, expressed by dat. p. 77 (g), Rem. by mal, * vide under Mine. Possible, expressed by shudan, p 248 (6) as quickly as possible, p. 627 (23) and
and footnote 3
'
footnote
I.
'
Potential, Past tense, vide Habitual. Prayer, times of, p. 206 (d). Precative, class., p. 231, Rem. p. ,233 (/). Precision, lack of, p. 658 (a). Predicate Widbar, p. 636 (ra). Predicative Clauses, pp. 562-70; in class. Vera., the statement that completes the predicate is indirect nom., p. 562 (a); but in Mod. Pers. in indirect (6) after verbs of commanding, for bidding, etc.. indirect preferred (c); exs. of direct, p. 564 (d); m.c. exs. of indirect, p. 565 (e) same sentence may be rendered by direct or indirect and have different meanings, exs., p. 566 (/) and p. 567; the 2 con;
structions may account for the difference in tenses in some subor. clauses,
p.
567,
Rem.
II;
exs.
of other Pred.
INDEX,
clauses, p. 568 (g) to p 570; Pred. clauses changed from Condit., p. 651 (g).
929
Prepositions, pp. 322-38; noun preceded and followed by a prep., p. 322 (c) prep, added for emphasis, p. 323 (c) (2); 2 preps., or prep, and adv., joined (d); andarzsdar, p. 324 (g); exs. of simple preps, (h) ; Particles of exception, p. 330
;
man ra (vulg.) and man-i ra, footnote 3 ; with preps., p. 69 (a) for 3rd pers., the demons, sometimes used, p. 6'J (6); u used for an (b) ; banda mufehlis, kamina, vide also Aqall, Du'a-gu, Da'i, Haqu ; (b) 3rd pers. pi., polite forms, p. 70 (d) (e)
;
(/)
Syntax
of, p.
476;
pi. of
ahema
;
(e);
AFFIXED PRONOUNS,
p.
71
-ash
and
), Rem. may be used adverbially (/) words that may be preceded by simple
(
I
-shan for animates, and inanimates, p. 71 (a) (2); how enunciated, p. 72 (3);
after final -i (4) ; after alif-i maqeura (5) ; vowel poetically omitted (5), Rem.; after final hamzah (6) ; after silent h, p. 72 (b) and p. 73 (/) ; joined to conj. ki (6), Rem.; after -5 or -w (c) ; exs. (d) ; pi. affixed prons. not much used in class.
Pers., p. 73 (c) ; not followed by ra, p. 74, Rem. II; ambiguity of, p. 74 (g); in m.c. affixed to some preps. , p. 75 (h) ; not affixed to bar, ba, bi, ta, juz, zabar,
t
preps., p. 331 (2); the subs, that take the place of preps, in m.c., p. 332 (n) ; exs. of common preps., p. 333 (o); nazd, used for pers. only ; some preps, in-
terchangeable, p. 338 (20); compar. and sup. suffixes added to, p. 176 (o) (2); preps, syntax, pp. 502-5; may be expressed by izafat, p. 502 (a) repeated
;
Vide also Pish, Ba d. Present Tense, dramat. pres., p. 299 (2) and footnote 4 pres. ten?e, p. 510 (c) in class. Pers. chiefly used for Def. or Contin. Pros., rarely for Fut., p. 511 (c); in Mod. Pers. as a Pres. Def. or Indef. (d) in Pot. sense, p. 512 (1), as Fut. (d) (2) in dram, narration in quoting (4) (3) inconsistent to change time from (5) Pres. to Past (5) u c ed in Persia for Eng. Past, p. 513 (6); for propositions that
l
and not repeated (b) among and amidst between and betwixt (e); govern(d) ment of, p. 600, vide under Government.
; :
etc. (h)
when
possess.
joined to qual.
;
to noun, p. 152 (/) affixed take the place of the dat. in ra, p. 450 (8j ; ra omitted after noun in class. Pers.,
p. 457 (18); ra omitted when the pron. POSSESSIVE PROis the obj., p. 458 (21) NOUNS, p. 75; affixed prons as posses;
and not
are always
Perf.
(8)
;
for
Eng.
Fut.,
Rem.
used only after 3rd pers., footnote 2; cases formed by preps., p. 76 (a); suffixed to last of a series of nouns, expressed by pers. prons. (b); (o), Rom.
;
sives, p. 75 classically ra
(a)
followed by ra (a)
'! do
sep. pron. in
last (b),
not and will not" and "is and always has," how expressed, p. 526 (k).
formed by ra or
dat.
;
Rem.;
with
pron.
come Rem.
(d)
;
possession
(e)
demons,
;
"mine, thine."
mine, etc., p. 77 (g) possession expressed by the dat. (g), Rem.; 612 its noun, (10) and po^s. preceding p. footnote 2. REFLEXIVE and RECIPROCAL Pronouns, p. 77 (a); refer to subj. () Miud for animate or inanimate nouns khud or khwish but not bhwish(a) ( ) tan with immaterial things, p. 78 (4)
etc.
;
man,
etc.,
(/)
malri
Plup., p. 526 (I); exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (/); takes place of Eng. Inf., p. 530, footnote 3 used for Aor. and Pres. in conditions, p. 251, footnote 1; used for Pres. Subj., p. 539 (b), Rem. and p. 543 (2) in conditions, p. 555 (e) ; Pret. and Impcrf. with sing* and pi. noun, p. 475 (x) ; class. Pret. forms of 3rd pers. sing., as gu/ta,p. 231 footnote 2. Prose, p. 634 (m); three kinds, p. 637 (o) 8; impassioned Eng. prose has rhythm,
;
;
kh.ud
common
in
compounds,
p. 79 (o),
etc.,
tity, in
Rem., Prosody, accent and quanEng. and Ar., p. 635 and foot-
Rem.
1; Miud-ha jpl., (a), II; feliudha-man, etc., ditto; bi^na/si-h* (b) fehwish for fchitd (c) Ishipishtan, poss. arid reflex., unlike khwlsh can stand alone, occurs in compounds, used for in m.c. rational beings only, p. 80 (d) in Mod. Pers. is a subs, only, p. 81 (/) can be expressed by affixed pronouns, p. 81 (h) ; khud (e) ; in m.c. reflex, does not always refer to subj., p. 81, Rem. I ; khud-ha, Rem. II; bi-febud-am and 6ibhud, Rem. Ill; Icl&wisha-wand , subs., reflex, pron. (g) ; fcbtwishtan p. 81 (/) in Mod. Pers. reflexives can be expressed by affixed prons., p. 81 (h) ; RECIPROCAL pronouns, p. 81 (i) and p. 100 (6) DE;
Rem.
Rem.
MONSTRATIVE
for
;
pronouns
Pronouns, Personal,
man
(a]
ma
ay
vulg.
fin ki (a)
sion, pp. 76 (/)-7 ; im ancient In, p. 82 (6) ; pis. (6) ; un-ha classically=
may =
possesform of
59
930
they
INDEX.
Pronunciation of consonants, p. 11; sum-
(6); idioms with 4n, p. 83 (d) (/) ; in = latter () ; an in certain phrases (g) ; u an an in mystic poetry, p. 84 (h) ; In m.c. ss various things (*) about to in =r here I am, p. 85 (/) ; old idiom (*') with In (I) In kuja va an kuju (k) position of (w) ; added exs. of demonstratives (n) ; Inak, anak. p. 87 (o) ; ant
;
m
;
p. 130 (6).
DEMONSTRATIVE proHamln and Hainan COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 'vide Ohunin, Chunan pp. 88-90, Hamchu, etc., Chandln, Chandan; IN(p)
;
EMPHATIC
Prophets, number of, p. 190, footnote 1. Pun ' vide Tajnis. Punctuation, p. 37. Pusht ptisht, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 (10) and footnote 3; pusht-i ham, p. 337, footnote 2. Pvstin darldan, etc., idioms, p. 416 and footnote 1.
Puzzles, Persian, in points, etc., p. 44.
inserting diacritical
TERROGATIVE pronouns, pp. 91-8 ki ? is and requires ra p. 130 (6). 'Vide* Kuddm, Ki Chi, Chand, Chlm; SUBSTITUTES for INTERR. pronouns, p. 9S; chiguna, p. 98 (a); chun (b); INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, pp. 98-129; hama "is def. and " one can often requires ra, p. 130 (6)
;
def.
be rendered by har ki, p. 104, Rem. II expressed by 2nd pers. sing. Aor. or Past Vide' Yak-i, Habit, (c) (6). Digar jg&at/r, Ahad-l, Kas, kas-l, Adam, Tnsan, Shafchs-i, Hick, etc., clilz, clilz-l, Fulan, So-and-so, Such and such, Both, Neither of two, Chand (a few), Qadr-i, etc., Hama,
; '
Qabl, p. 331 (6); qabl az an ki, followed Pres. Subj., p. 502 (i). Qabulariidan, m.c., p. 284 (;'). Qadr-l. In qadr, etc., p. 112 (h). Qahwa-chl. p. 409 and footnote 5. Qajar, p. 653 and footnote 5. Qalam-dan, p. 410 and footnote 3.
by
QalU and
note 4
'
qalll-i.
vide
'
Andak-l.
Qamls and
and
foot-
etc.,
Jumla,
etc.,
Jaml
( ,
Sa*ir, Kaffa,
etc., Kull, etc., 'Amma, Har, etc., Bas-i, etc., GuruJi-i, Aksar, Para-i,
Tamam,
Qand loaf sugar, p. 377 and footnote 4. Qaslda-yi madhiyya, p. 635. Qa&iba, not common, followed by iza/at,
p. 117 (13).
p. 393 (**). ' vide Yilaq. Qism and Jwr. p. 470 (I) aqsam, pi. (m). Qizit-bash, p. 653 and footnote 5. Qiziljih, qizilcha, dimin., p. 396 and foot-
Andak-i, faraf-l, Khurda-it Kam-%, Lafeht-i, Shamma-i, Barkh-i, Juzv-l, Nabza, Zana, Par-i kah-t, Ba'z-i, Bis-
SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS, yar, Baql, etc. pp. 476-90; pers. prons., Shah and pi., prons. should follow their p. 476 (a), etc. nouns without the intervention of
: ;
QiMaq,
'
another noun, p. 479; "it" prospective, impersonal, p. 480 pronoun should not refer to a noun following, p. 480, Rem.
;
are in
II
(b)
pers
;
and p. 612 (10) and footnote 2; 1st more worthy than 2nd, etc., p. 481
if
;
antecedent to prons. is not known ambiguity results, p. 482 (d] (1) position of ra with an affixed pron. often deter' ' mines antecedent (2) former and 'latter,' p. 483 ()(!) and (2); pros, and ' such = of unity, retros, p. 484 (3)
; '
;
3 )-
Rem.
484 (4) an ki, te ki and accusatives omission of pers. pron. when not (/) emphatic, p. 485 (g) (h) noun repeated to avoid use of ambiguous pron., Rem. ; pers. pron. inserted when emphatic (i) ; each other ' and one another/ every,' pp 479-80 (I) either, neither Cm) ; self
p.
; ;
'
'
Ra, of .ace., after proper names, ^certain prons hama, interr.of, ki, yak-l, etc., in Gulistan, footp. 130 (b}; omitted note 4 ra of dat. cannot be omitted (c) in Mod. Pers. the affix possessive prons. rare in usually have ra, this construe, ra and def. nouns that class. Pers. (c) ra = of unity, p. 131 (/) have the
,
:
;
both (p) RELATIVE PRONOUNS, syntax of, pp. 487 (?)~900 'which' referring to a clause = ki, p. 487 (q) (1) 'that/ for 'who,' and Pers. paraphrase
(n)
;
all
(o)
(q) (2)
(3);
(4)
;
that
'
'
'
ra with baray, p. 463 and footnote 5; def. and indef. noun in appos., p. 618 (d). Vide Accusative and Dative cases. Radd kardan and shudan, p. 334, footnote to pass by, 1; in m.c. radd shudan miss the mark, p. 176 (o) (3) and footnote
1.
relatives should be placed to avoid ambiguity (6) ; transition from a rel. clause to one of affirmation, p. 489 (8) ; errors in the use of the relatives (8) ; errors in concord of, p. 600 (g) ; pron. of
rel.
how
p.
263
(a)
raw
k.
(/)
Afghan,
to be on the
(o)
clause,
how
styled, p. 559
(4).
and
foot-
INDEX.
Raji*
(4).
931
in restrictive rel. clauses
and
559
noun
may be
Ram,
popular note 3.
Rasta-bazar, p. 65 fi
and footnote
179
(v)
'Rather
than/
p.
(2);
zinhar.
3.
Rawza, meanings
footnote
1,
of,
Indian
70
(c),
k.,
substituted
for,
Redundancy, p. 645 (6) and footnote 1 p. 668 (;). Reflexive Verbs, p, 285 (I). Refrain of Song, p. 646 (d) (3). Relative Pronoun, and Demonstrative or Relative Ya, pp. 141-9, so rel. pron., particle ki takes its place, p. 141 (a)
;
preceded by demonstrative pron. or followed by ya, footnote 4; antecedent and pron. of relative clause, how termed, excessive susp. 559 ; exs. p. 660 (5) pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and rei. clause may be converted p. 562 (c) one relative may da into condit. (d) duty for more than one clause, if in different cases the rel. repeated or otherwise, p. 601 (e) ; exs. illustrating the government of some verbs and preps., p. 602 (/). Relative Noun, Ar., p. 400 (3) and footnote imitations, ditto. Vide also '6; Persian Appendix A. Repetition of Word or Phrase, Jingling Sounds, Alliteration, pp. 622-8; exs. of jingling words, p. 622 (a) MEANINGLESS APPOSITIVE (a) and Remarks I and II the same number repeated has a distri,
: ; ; ;
clause omitted or inserted, (a); noun before a rel. clause may be considered def. even if preceded in Eng. by in def. article, p. 141 (6) and footnote 4, and p. 142 (d); noun made
pron in
rel.
butive, continuative, or intensive sense, other words (6) Ar. Sing, followed by its two different measures br. pi. , p. 624 (c) from same root (d) Pers. pi preceding
;
; ;
specially; ;def. by ya (6); is possibly an extension of the izafat, p. 142 (6) this ya corresponds to the Eng. restrictive rel. names of this ya (c) how pron. (c) written (c) pron. in rel. clause expressed or understood, pp. 142-4 (d) another way of declining the rel., p. 144 (e) ex. of incorrect modern construction (e) and footnote 5 rel. cannot be joined to sing, of demons, prons. an and In, or to kar t pp. 144-5 (g)', may be added to pi., should not be joined to pers. p. 145 (g) can be omitted when noun prons (g) is made def. by demonstr. pron., exs.
;
; ;
Profess. Story-tellers repeat same word for continuation (/) repetition of word or phrase for emphasis (g) ; repetition of substantive with izafat, p. 625 (h); Exs. of repetition (i) (1) to
Pers.
sing,
(e)
repeat Present but not 627 (26) and footnote 2; Afghans repeat Past Part. (28); ALLITERATION, p. 628 (/). Require, expressed by Ishwastan, p. 260 (/). 213 (c). Registered post.
(37)
;
Persians
p.
Past Part.,
Resemblance, adjectives of, p. 168 (16). Rhetoric and Composition, pp. 629-44
definition of Rhetoric, oratory, etc.
;
p.
how
divided
(h)
no Ar terms exactly " Rhetoric"; how divided by sponds to COMPOSITION, = the Arabs, p. 629 (a) insha, p. 630 (6); Style, kinds of (c)
;
corre-
employment with proper names after an and In (i) with noun qualified by a simple adj. (;) ex. from Sa'di and its mod. (k) (1) equiv., p. 146 (m) with subs, and num.,
:
; ; ;
p. 146, footnote
ex. of its
to
:
all
styles
(d)
(/);
variety, p. 632 (/); pathos ludicrous style (h) humour (i) ; wit melody or harmony, p. 633 (k) taste composition divided into Prose and
(e)
;
az qarar-i ki ma'lurn mip. 147 (n) xhavad (o) if noun is indef. verb precedes ki (h) exs of omission in non-restrictive demons, ya before ki rel. clauses (r) may represent the Eng. indef. art., p. J48, Rem.: chunan and chandan used with demons, ya in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia (a) abstract sing. nouns do not admit of rel. ya may be used with pi. abstract nouns, concrete nouns take ^, p. 14!) (v) ^, added to
;
rhythm, rhyme, metre, p. 634 2 p. 635 and footnote Bazm and Razto^, what they include divisions of Eng. poetry, p. 635; Prose; simple, compound, and complex senPoetry;
(m)
;
git
not nazm,
tences, p. 636 (n) (1); balanced sentence Muperiodic or loose sentences (3) rajjaz prose, Musajja* or Muqaffa. Saj' and its divisions, Murassa" p. 637 (o) ;
(2)
; ; ,
two nouns coupled by (w) RELATIVES introducing the SUBJUNCTIVE, p. 538 (a); RELATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 558-62; introduced by "who, what, etc.,' p 558 (a) (1) position of relative, antecedent to ki may be a p. 559 (2) (3) demons indef., or pers. pron., or comlast
of
'Art prose, p. 638 (o) Eng. prose and rhythm, balance, exs. of Antithesis, Ishtiqaq, Tajms, Taqllb, the Fa*ana-yi 'Aja''ib coun(o) ; Persian, the language of several
;
mon
common
dialects, some Indian prose 639; Mod. Pers. prose simple but lax, p. 640 (r) quality, preferable to quantity, long and short sentences, rhetorical style of the Persians, p. 641 the Anvar-i Suhayll, p. (542-4; comparison of works suggested for students,
tries (p)
;
works,
p.
932
p.
INDEX.
644.
EBBOBS in RHETOBIC, pp. 659incoherence, p. 659 (a) ; length and brevity, source of obscurity (6) ; construetion that looks to the implied sense proa to sZmainomenon and katasunMn, p. 660 (c) zeuqma, p. 663 (d) negatives, too many (e) : exs. of further errors, p. 664 (/) ; metaphor, false, p. 665 (g)(i) ; Irish bulls, incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2) and footnote 2; confusion as to topical subject (h) ; majaz-i maliall bi-ism-i hal (h) and footnote 3; skilful use of same word in different senses, p. 668 (') (1); unskilful Rem. TAUTOLOGY or HASHV-I use, QABI^ (2) ; a new construction should not be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k) ; ANTITHESIS, faulty, incomplete, p. 670 (I); CLIMAX, (m) (1); ANHCLTMAX (m) (2); RULE OF SUSPENCE, violation
72
;
Salam, kardan and Ishwandan, p. 604 and footnote 2; aalam un 'alay-kum, etc., p. 382 (g).
Salatat-i 4 ibarat or simplicity, p. 631 (d). last of the month, p. 193 (h). Salkh, ' Salu, vide Shila. Salutation, of Jews, p. 382 and footnote 4 ; of Muslims, p. 382-3 and footnote 5.
San, T., = total, p. 419 and footnote Sana*i or Figures, p. 631 (e).
l
Vide Greeting.
3.
COHERENCE,
p. 671 (o)
;
illogical
pound sentences,
commistaken use
of 4 and,' p. 672 (o). Rliyth, p. 634 (m). Rice, grains for weighing drugs in India, p. 214, footnote 3. Ridan, coarse, polite phrases, p. 241 and
Sang-i ab, p. 215 (6). anl, not rel. adj., p. 401, Rem. II. Saql-nama, p. 635. Sar 9 without izafat, p. 437 (a) and p. 438 Sar-i shuna, p. 386 and footnote 3; (4) sar-i sar-i ash, etc., Af. idiom, p. 310 (4) bbar, intruder, p. 386 (I) sar-afganda, in Mod. Pers, = ashamed class. = head cut off, p. 174 (i) (2) and footnote 3. Sar-a-bala, p. 304 and footnote I. Sarahat, clearness, style, p. 631. Sar-daralchtl, p. 440 and footnote 4.
; ; ;
Sarf, p. 48
Sarf-i saghlr
and
sarf-i kablr,
(30)
and
3.
nightingale, p.
380 and
Pers. verbs, 239; of Arabic, Appendix A. on an average, p. 355, Ru-yi ham, m.c., footnote 4 ; p. 302 (7) and p. 304. Rud-khana, p. 413 and footnote 1. Ruq'-ah handwriting, p. 36. Rustam, p. 179 (4) and footnote 2. Rvz~i> jawza*, longest day, p. 210 (c) ; ruz-i
Sar-k&war, of wife, p. 440 and footnote Sarma-yi pir r.al, p. 210 (d). Sar-rahl, vide Dam-rahl.
'
Satires, p. 635.
Savar and Savara, p. 308 and footnote 2. Saya-yi shuma kam na-sha'ad, p. 384 and
footnote 3. Sayyid, signature of, p. 70 (c). Sazidan, p. 266, etc. scarcely ever, vide Scarcely, p. 293 (3) Ever. Sea-cunny, p. 666 and footnote 1. Seasons, p 205: yilaq and qishlaq, p. 200
;
iskamba-shuy
(c)
ruz-i
(e).
mabada
and
p. 228
(;)
foot-
(c).
Sects of Islam, etc., p. 190, footnote 1 ; pi. of, from Ar. rel. noun, p. 400 and foot-
note
*
3.
3*5, suffix, prob. connected with Hindi sa, p. 419 and footnote 1. Sad, written with s to distinguish it from Ar. sadd, p. 183,' footnote 3 and p. 184, Rem. II ; du fad class, for duviat, p. 183 ; tadha, hazar-ha, etc., p. 189 (k) aadha-yi 'mardum, Af., p. 190 (k). Saf and pale, p. 161 (z). Safar, Prophet died in, Last Day, p. 392
;
Sa and
and footnote
2.
Sag-i ki*t, p. 293 (/) (2) and footnote 9. Sahib, with izafat, p. 436 (g) fern, and pi. of (q) ; without izafat, p. 437 (a) ; p. 440 (5). " the Scfir, prop. remainder/' also whole" ; followed by izafat, p. 117 (12).
;
'
SaJchta bash, p. 265 (6), Rem IV. Sakhtaji, adulteration, p. 281, footnote 2 and (d) (2). Salshtan, as kardanin compounds, p. 245 (3) and footnote 3; p. 281 (d); intr, "to
put up
if ever,' p. 50 (/). Semi- vowels, p. 22 (d). Sentences, order of, pp. 612-3. Remarks I and II; BALANCED Sentence, p. 636 (n) PEKIODIC or LOOSE sentence (3) (2) sentences not to be extended beyond their natural close, p 658 (d). Sentimental vide Mandhir. Sha, corrup. of cha, dimin., p. 396 5). 8hab-^ chahar Shabi yalda, p 210 (c) shamba, etc., p. 211; ahab-guz_ashta, in m.c., izafat often omitted, p. 313 (6). Shabash.'p. 368 and footnote 3. Shab-bhun and ahab-i &hun, p. 425 and footnote 4. Shayird chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Shah, how addressed, p. 70 (c), Rem. look fortunate, right to see any woman unveiled, p. 392 and footnote 3. Shah-i chiragh, for castor oil, p. 378 (6) and footnote 3. Shah, Jshar, div, give idea of size, p. 170 (e). Shahr-i fchamuahan and mahaUa-yi ehan, p. 435 and footnote 2.
Seldom
INDEX.
a,
Bern. I
Shan, Sharminda,
indef. prons., p. 103 (c) (4) shamma-i, p. 127 (10). ; affixed pron., vide Ash.
p. 156
(r) Rem. 184, Rem.
9
and
p. 350, footnote 1 expressed by 63, p. 504 (/). Square, so many yards square, p. 214 (d).
;
II.
Shavanda, p. 248, footnote 2. Shayad, = should, p. 287 {/) and footnote 6; p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1 always
;
followed by Aor., p. 300 (3) p. 365 (24). Vide also Shayista Shayista and shayad, the only parts of shayistan, q.v., used in coll., p. 541 (d) and footnote 1. Shayistan, p. 266, etc. ; p. 540 (d). Shi' aha* oath, p. 296 (i).
;
Shikaata, hand writing, p. 36. Shila, vulg. for shilla, the Indian
Strange still,' how expressed, p. 178 (r). Street cries, p. 376 (d). Style, p. 630 (c) (d) ; rhetorical style of Persians, p. 642 (t) ; further observations on style, pp. 652 (a)-8; better known word preferable to less known, a concrete term to an abstract, etc.* (a); Persians fond of obsolete and out-of-the-way exs. of ambiguous terms, p. 652 (a) words, p. 653-4; phrases or words susceptible of 'different interpretations or
*
;
salu, p. 378 (7 ) and footnote 5. ' ' Shilla, vide Shila. Shinawanidan, not used in Persia, p. 283
(c) (2).
used successively in different senses, skilful use of same word in p. 654 (b) different senses, p. 655 (b) (2) inconsistent words or phrases to be avoided (3) ;
;
;
affectation of excellence or
(4)
;
Shir,
p.
fine writing
'
261 (g) by bayad, p. 271 (o) by shayad, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6. Shout's distance, p. 213 (a) and footnote 5. Shudan, aux. verb, p. 248: for forming grammatic pass, (c) idioms with p. 249 = tavanistan, p. 253 (d) p. 540 (d). (d)
; ;
; ;
the marvellous, puerile, profound styles, p. 656 (c) (1); lack of precision, sentences not to be extended p. 658 (2) beyond their natural close, p. 658 (d) figurative language, p. 658 (e). "Subject, confusion as to logical subject of discourse, p. 667 (h); subject and verb, concord of, vide Concord.
; ;
pis.
of
shuma,
p. 343, footnote 1. Si, si-sad (class.) and si- sad, p. 183. Sifr, in Ar. not a numeral, p. 182, foot-
Shutur didi
Na;
note.
389-90. Signs and Signals, pp. ' Sila, kaf-i aila, vide Maws&l. wire, p. 415, footnote 3. Sim, Simile or Tashbih, p. 631 (e).
'
salasat-i 'ibarat. p. 631 (d). Simplicity, Since, p. 523 (k) and footnote 4 and p. 525,
Subjective genitive, p. 448. Subordinate clauses, p. 545, etc. p. 636 (n) Vide Conditional, Optative, Con(1). cessional, Temporal, Local, Modal, Relative and Predicative Clauses. Subjunctive Mood, pp. 538-44; indicates uncertainty conjs. and rels. that introduce it; gen. employed to express condition, intention, desire, doubt, end, p. 538 (a); introduced by ki, p. 539 (a), Rem. when 2nd verb is Inf. in Eng., Pers. Subj.
; ; ;
is
used for
;
it,
even
;
if
principal verb
is
Remark.
Sipas, p. 331 (4) and (7). Siyahat> probably implies pilgrimage, p. 585, footnote 1. Siyag or Diwani, p. 34. Sizdah, unlucky to say, p. 182, footnote 4. So As, in compar. between clauses, p. 179
(5).
past, p. 539
So-and-so, or such and such, pp. 107-8; fulan for person or thing, fulana or fulan, fern., p. 107 (c)'; yaru, vulg. m.c. Rem. Fulan u II fulani, persons only (2)
; ;
pi.
of
in class. Pers., Inf. also exs. of Pers. Pres. Subj. for used (6) Eng. Past Indie., pp. 539 (c) to 540; after tavanistan, bayistan and shayistan either subj. or shortened Inf. used ; Fut. Indie, for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2; in class. Pers. Fut. Indie, used where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj p. 542 ; Perf. Subj. used to express doubt where the Pres. obviously could not be used (/); Past. Subj. used for Pres., p. 543 (1); Pret. Indie, used for Aor. (2); Aor. " ' to have of dashtan (h) ; Past Habit.,
(6)
,
may b
indef., latter def., p. 108 (2); chi chiz, etc., SB what's his name (3); Bastar u bistar, practically obsolete (4) ; fulan for chandin, Rem.
Imperf. Indie., and Plup. Indie., take the place of certain tenses of the Subj. Afghan Imperfects, for Pres. Subj. (i) and (m); COTIN. f/) ; exs., p. 644 (k) PAST SUBJ., p. 523; CONTIN. PBBF. Vide also Aorist STJBJ., p. 536 (t), Rem.
;
So ranch
Solar,
, p. 362 (13). year, p. 206 (a); solar months, p. 207 (b) ; solar letters, p. 31. Solecism, p. 630 (d) and footnote 3 and p. 631 (d). " Somehow or other," how rendered, p. 370
and Future
;
Perfect.
(e).
Song, comic,
p. 635.
Substantive, p. 48 ; def. and indef., p. 49; gender (6) Ar. nouns forms of, p. 50 (c) in old Pers. -a added to subs, qualified by intensive adj. in -5, p. 169 (o) (2)-; compar. and super, suffixes added to subs., pp. 176-7 (o) (3) and p. 178, footnote 1.
934
Substantive Verb vide Verb to Such and such, vide So-and-so.
Suffixes, ban, van, etc.,
etc., pp. 406-20.
INDEX.
be.
Sufta, past part, and sifta adj., p. 247 (6) and footnote i. Suhayl, p. 205, footnote 3. Sukkan, p. 666 and footnote 1. Sukun or Jazm, p. 28.
coarse,"
5 and 6 ; ex. of, p. 654 and footnote 655 (b) (2). Takallu, p. 321 (1) and footnote 1. Tafehiallus in Persia joined by izafat but not in India, p. 616, Rem. II. Tak&fif, p. 29 (d), Rem. I. Ta*kid or mvbalagha, exs. of, p. 534 and footnote 1 ta*kid-i lafzl and tWM-i ma'navi, p. 616 (c) to p. 618; p. 645 (d)
3, 4,
1
;
p.
(2).
1
;
oath
of,
Superlative latter term of compar. should riot include former, p. 491 (e) ; followed by pi. or used as a simple adj., p. 492 (/) if Ar. and precedes noun, izafat sometimes inserted (/) ; compar. used as
;
p 279, footnote 1. handwriting, p. 35. Tamam both subs, and adj., has the same izafat constructions as hama, p. 117 (14)
Ta'-liq
}
super., double comparatives and supersome adjecs. strictly latives, p. 492 (g) speaking do not admit of super. (h] ; order in sentence is num., subs., adj., p. 493 (*") ; to avoid repetition, inconsistent qualities may be added to the same noun, sing, in Pers., pi. in Eng. (/); nonrepetition of adj. cause of ambiguity (/), Rera. ; subs, with prep. adj. (m) ; some
;
mam precedes its subs., p. 117 (14); harchi tam,am-tar, p. 117 (14), Rem. I;
tamm u tamam p. 118 (15). Tamamat, class subs., still used by Indians and Afghans, p. 118 (17). Tamaml, subs., p. 118 (16). Tameness, p 630 (c) and footnote. Tamm, class. = tamam, tamm u tamam emt ,
tamam-i rdz and tamam-i ruzha, p. 117 (14); no izafat in class. Pers. when ta~
adjs. followed
by gen.
= adv.,
p. 617 (3)
tamyiz
p. 289.
Tan, contrac. of tavan, p. 252 (a), Rein. Tan-i chand, = a few individuals, class.,
p. 111(6). Tanslq-i sifat, p. 151
(i) 1.
p. 311 (10). Surfthi'ss.rati, p. 214, footnote 3. Surma'i, p. 400. Suspence,' Rule of, p. 641, footnote 4; p. 607 (6) and footnote 1 ; excessive suspence, p. 561 (b) and footnote 5, and and footp. 562 (6); also p. 647 (/) (1) note 3 ; violation of rule, p. 671 (n).
4
= disguise,
Tanwin,
p. 30.
Synchysis, p. 607
(5),
Rem.
1.
Syndoche, p. 632 (e) and footnote Syntax, etc., pp. 433 to 672.
and footnote 5. Tar and farm, added to participles, preps., ad vs., subs., adjs., p. 176 (o) (1) (2) and tann seldom added to Pers. parts., (3) Rem. tar, where placed p. 176 (1), after compound adj. of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) and Rem.; where added after two or more Comparatives or Superlatives, p. 17#() (1) (2) and footnote.
Taqllb, p. 638
;
;
290
(5)
Ta,
p. 189, Rem. 11;=' and,' p. 348 and footnote 2 ; ta-yi ibtidaHyya, p. 348, footnote 3 ; ta^yi tajahul, p. 258, last line and footnote 4, and p. 259 and footnote 2 ; and p. 349 and footnote I ; ta-yi takidi or zinhariyya, p. 349, footnote 2 ; pp. 347-8
(12)
44
bi-
Tabi
, ex., p. 617 (3), Rem.; tabi'-i muk. mat, p. 615 (a); and p. 622 (a); and Vide also p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II.
Tashabih, = vagueness, p. 631 (d). Tashbih or Simile, p. 631 (e). Tashdld, p. 29; loss of, p 30; for poetical licence, p. 84 (h) and footnote 2. Taenif (ballad), p. 635. Taste, p. 633 (/). Tasu, Af., = inch, p. 214 (6) and footnote 2. Tatimma, = mizan "balance of account," p. 129, Rem. I; tatvll diffuseness, p. 644
and footnote 4. Tarjl'-band, p 646 and footnote 1. flascha or iasak, measure of water, (c) and footnote 3.
p. 215
(c)
and footnote
4.
Tautology, p. 534 and footnote i = hashv-i gabih, p. 631 (d) and footnote 4 p. 644 (b) p. 646 (e) p. 658 p. 645 (c) and (d) and footnote 1 (exs. of gkuluv) p. 668
;
;
(a)
and
(2) and p. 252 (a), Rem. tan contrac., p. 252 (a), Rem. Tavanad ki- 9 p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Tavanistan, p. 249; class, constructions, p. 249-52 (a); Mod. Pers. constructions,
INDEX.
tavan, pp. 250-1 (2) and p. 252 ti&n contrac. , p. 252 (a), Kern. ; need not be repeated before two verbs, p. 252 (4) ; trans, or trans, verb understood, p. 262 (4); tavanad bud, Indian before a comp. verb, idiom, p. 253 (c) position of, p. 254, Hem.; tavana, etc., p. '.54 (/); p. 540 (d) ; tawr-l K, p. 365
p.
935
252
(6)
(a),
Rem.
= to
of,
(g),
k
begin, p. 257
(d).
an address
in preaching, p. 60
Via, p. 193
Rem.
'
Ulu
'l-amr, p. 445
"Ulya-jah,
5.
vide
Umar, name,
p.
450
(7)
and footnote
p. 209, foot-
Tazadd u jabaq, p. 631 (d). Vide Antithesis. Tawjlh or muhtamal^ *z-ziddayn, p. 632 (?) and footnote 4. Tawriya, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Temporal Clauses, p. 535 (/) and pp. 570-2; normal shape and order, p. 572 and footnote 2
or other" "before that" and "after that," (e); exs. (g). p. 571 (/) Tenses, some rarely used, p. 232 (c) paraphrases for (g) USE of TENSES, pp. 506Vide Aorist, etc., etc. EXAMPLES 37. of use of TENSES, App. B, p. 898. Terse, style, p. 644 and footnote 5. 'That* for 'who,' and POPS, paraphrase, that' restrictive, (q) (3) p. 487 (q) (2) that which' and c what,' p. 488 (4). * The quicker the better,' how rendered, p. 178 (u). Thirteen, unlucky number, p. 182,' foot(c/);
; :
;
'Umda,
subs,
and
ki ; correlatives
= when
(6)
ta
= until
(c)
"somehow
a tenth," p.
195,
V
Va, vide Pas. Va, p. 274 (b) (1) and footnote
'
'
3.
'
note
4.
Vagueness, = tashabih, p. 631 (d). Vdli, without izafat, p. 437 (a) (1) (2). Vail ha or ha ball or bash bash, for afterthought, p. 582 (e). Vangahi, Vungahi. p. 315 and footnote 3.
footnote 2; = "or," and footnote 1 and p. 340 and footnote 3; va hal an ki, how written, p. 357 and footnote 4.
368.
Tikran or Tikran, p. 19, footnote 5. Tilism, p. 392 and footnote 5. Times, twenty times as much, etc.,
(a).
Vasma,
10.-
= indigo,
p. 378 (11)
and footnote
p. 197
Tiryaq and tiryak, p. 180 (w) (4) and footnote 4. Too, how expressed, p. 175 (/). Toward, p. 505 (i). Trajection or Hyperbaton, p. 600 (i). Transliteration, Exercise in, p. 41 puzzled in, p. 44 (d). Tu U-miri, p. 299 ( 10). Vide Marg-i shuma. fufayl, p. 330, footnote 4. Tufu, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. gufu liyyat, not rel. noun, p. 400 and footnote 3. Tvghra handwriting, p. 36. Tula, p. 651 (n) and footnote 2.
;
Ttman,
and Turan,
Vav, pronunciation of, p. 340 (2) and footnote 2; indicating state, p. 341; =2/5, with several adjs. qualifying one p. 341 noun, pp. 341-2; point in punctuation, p. 351 and footnote 3; as dimin. termination, p. 50 (e), and p. 398 (e) ; vulg. and dimin., p. 50 (e) and Rem. and final, as consonant, p. 50, p. 57 (d); Rem. I; redundant after Past Part., p. 528 (w) (1). Verb, pp. 217-88 Verb To BE, simple form how written (a) to (c) of, p. 217 (a) neg. of, p. 219 (g) separate subs, verb, p. 219 (a) ; verb TRANS, and INTBANS., BUDAN paradigm of, pp. 221-8; p. 221 karchi bad-a-bad, bad, bada, p. 227 (d!)
;
=a
1,
p. 639 and footnote Turk-bachcha, p. 151 (g). Turk! year-cycle, p. 203 (a)
Tuv K&uda,
4
p. 227 (d) ; ruz-i mabada, p. 218 (e) ; 3 forms of Pres. tense " to be," p. 228 (g) ; chi bu dl, p. 228 and footnote 1 (h) ; Pret. used for Imperf. in Mod. Pres., p. 228 (i) ; " halt " in m.c. bash (/) Afghans use Pres. tense for "to dwell," p. 229 (?) ;
!
m.c. for tura bi-Kfruda, p. 71, footnote 2 tuv-khudaH vulg. for muft, p. 71, footnote 2. Twice two makes four,' etc., p. 197 (/).
;
TRANS.,
some VERBS are both TRANS, and INp. 229 (/); ACTIVE VOICE of
KANDAN, p. 229; old form of 2nd pers. sing. Perf., p. 232, VJII ; Past Condit. can take bi~, p. 231, VI Rem.; bi- and
p. 230, footnote 2; another form of Plup., p. 232 IX, Rem. NEG. VERBS, pp. 235-7 ACCENT, pp. 237-8 INTERR. VERBS, p. 238 STEMS or ROOTS
U
&, dimin. form in, p. 398 (c). &, pers. pron., class, used for an,
p. 69 (b). Uf> interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. Uftad, perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and foot-
Impera.,
note
of simple verbs, p. 239; HYBRIDS, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem.; AUXILIARY verbs, 248-9 Rern. SHTJDAN, p. 248 pp. (c),
(a)
;
3.
= possible
(b)
936
;
INDEX.
Whoever, whosoever, har kudam
kas-l ki, p. 121 (k).
ki>
by (c); idioms with, p. 249 (d) DEFECTIVE verbs, p. 249 (e), Rem. ; TAVANIJgbwastan, q.v., STAN, q.v., p. 249.
p.
tr.,
har
257; GUZASHTAN,
;
DADAN, MANDAN,
q.q.v.; PERMIT, to, other verbs for, KAFTAN q.v., continue, 262 (e) = to be on the point of doing, p, 263 (a) m.c., p. 263 (h) ; DASHTAN, q.v M p. 263 IMPERSONAL verbs, p. 296 BAYISTAN, SHAYISTAN, SAZIDAN, ZIBIDAN, q.q.v. COMPOUND verbs q.q.v., pp. 274-80; some common verbs in compound, kardan, namudan sa&htan, pp. 280-2 gardanidan, farmudan, p. 280 (a) sabhgashtan garditagl, sabht, saz, p. 281 (d) dan, p. 282 (g); CAUSAL verbs, q.v., pp. 282-4 REFLEXIVE verbs, p. 285 (I) PASSIVE VOICE, q.v., pp. 285-8 SYNTAX of verbs, two or more verbs at end of sentence, p. 559 (3), p. 560 (5) and footnote 3, and p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 and footnote 2; p. 561 (6); GOVERNMENT of verbs, q.v. p. 600 ; in m.c. a few verbs may precede dat. p. 605 (g) position of Comp. Pot. verb, h Verbal Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 421-5 Irapera. root, p 421 (a) subs, in -an (b) in -ok (e) ; suffixed -ya (e) Inf. alone = noun (h); Inf. used in pi., p. 422 (h) comp. nouns from Tmpera. stem,
p.
Wife, etc., p. 382 (/). Wit, zarafat, p. 632 (;). World, age of, p. 190, footnote 1. Worse and worse, how rendered, p. 178
how mentioned,
Y, elided in dimin., p. 395, Rem. IV; sometimes added to Ar. past parts., Vide' Ya. p. 167 (ii), Rem. and p. 399. Ya, formative <jr, pp. 398-404; kinds of formative -I, p. 398 (a) [abs. nouns and adjs. in -5, p. 398 and footnote 2]; Pers. -? added to Ar. Past Part. ya-yi p. 399 masdar, ya-yi musdhabat and ya-yi musha*
;
,
added
(i)
Pret. Stems,
;
two (/) (k) (I) 423 (m) (n) (o) noun suffixed to Inf. and
; ;
Pers. or Ar. Past Part. == neg. (q) noun, p. 424 (r) some Pers. nouns of instrument, p. 425 (r), Rem.
Uh\ p. 399; ya-yi nisbatl, p. 400 (3) and footnote 2 hamzah substituted for (3) Hindi ?, p. 401 (3) ; ya added to nativesanl not city of person, p. 401, Rem. I rel. adj., Rem. II; bayzl, bayzavi, Basravl, Rem, II and footnote 2 ; "pleonastiadded to cally added to adjs. Rem. Ill affixed to kunyat, p. 402, Infs., Rem. IV Rem. V Ar. terrain, -am, Rem. VI; ya-yi maf'ul, (4) ; ya-yi fa'il, p. 402 (5) other descriptions of y (b) ya-yi ma'ruf p. 403 (9); ya-yi majhul, p. 403 (10) ya substituted for alif, p. 404 Rem. II; Arabic abstract nouns of quality in-iyyat,
; : ; ; ; ; ; ;
;
not fol57 (e) lowed by izafat (e) and p. 463 sing, only, nouns in silent (h) do not adp. 462 (g) mit of this vocative, p. 58, mana voc. of
; ;
463; poetically, dat. in ra voc., p. 463; nouns in voc. in apposition, Vowels, p. 21 (a); short, at p. 616 (5). beginning of words, p. 24 (b); long, at beginning of words, p. 25 (d).
man,
p.
Ya
added to Pers. words, (c) (c) (1) no tashdid on ya when fern, h is suffixed, Rem. II: ya of unity, to form nouns of number, p. 189, Rem. II; after Ar. sup., p. 172 (6) (3): ya after har, is ya prob. demonstrative ya 9 p. 120, footnote 1 and vide also rel. ya for detail of ya of unity, vide Indefinite Article.
p.
404
:
(2)
(4).
Yagan yagan,
p. 198 (1) and footnote 2. Yahudl Yahud, etc., p. 401. Rem. II. Yak, yak-l; I for yak is obs., p. 182, footnote 2; yak-l; indef. pron., p. 101 (c) ;
W
Walad-izina. p. 388 and footnote 1. War Songs, p. 638. Wara, adv. and prep., p. 305 (7). Warning, particles of, p. 292 (d). Water, how measured, p. 215 (b) borrowed or brought (c). Waalah, p. 31.
an (or In) yak-l, m.c., pi. (c) ; yak-l " the one the other" (o) (1); dlgar-i " one in ten " yak-l dar dah (c) (1) Rem. ;
(c) (1) Rem; yak-l requires 130 (b) requires ay, p. 136 (i) requires sing. verb. p. 592 and footnote 1 p. 606 (1) and footnote 2 p. 609 (12) and footnote 3. Yaka u tanha, p 189 (i). Yak-dlgar and ham-dlgar, recip. pron., p. 81 not to be con(i) p. 99 (1) p. 100 (b)
idioms with
ra,
p.
Rem.
how
Week,
vide
Days
of
Week
Vide Water. that which/ p. 488 (4) (5). Whatever, each, all, every, p. 119 (?) and
= the
(b),
Rem.
I.
Yak-ear, p. 119(24).
Yakum,
less
1.
common than
avval p.
191,
What and
p.
footnote
1203.
(I).
'
&*, p.
487
2.
INDEX.
Yazd-gardi Year, p. 209 months of, p. 209 " Stolen (6) days," names, (6) (1). Ye or yay or yeg, vulg. for yak also yazza, duvazza,QtQ. p. 184, Rem. III. Year, anoient Persian, p. 206 5 (panja-yi duzdida) days added (a) leap year, p. 207 (a) and footnote 7 Day or Farvardln, the first month, (a) ; names of Persian
; ;
;
937
(5).
&anabu 'S-sirhan, "wolf's down, p. 313 and footnote Zanaku, p. 398 (c).
Zaniyyat, p. 00, footnote 3. Zar, p. 415 and footnote 3. garafat vide Wit.
* '
tail"
1.
false
YEAR, v., p. 209 (&) TURK! YEAR, p. 203 (a); to find the MUSLIM or A.D. YEAR, p. 34. Yes, p. 295 (2) and (4). YUaq and Qishldq, p. 206 (o) and footnote
:
Urmuz and days (c) Day, p. 208 SYRIAN JALALI YEAR, p. 209
;
;
(1).
1.
Zagh, magpie, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zaghcha, chough, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zahmat and taklif p. 279, footnote 1. Zaid, p. 453 and footnote 1.
;
,
Zanj, p. 189 (h). Zengma, p. 663 (d). Zha, dimin. termination, p. 397 (6), Hem. Zl, prop., obs., p. 322, footnote 8. &, vide Zu. Zibidan, p. 273 (*). Zinhar, pp. 370-1. Zir-dast, p. 304 and footnote 2. former pos. and latter Ziyad, ziyada; ziyada = slzdah, compar., p. 174 (i) (4) ziyad and ziyada, p. p. 182, footnote 4 301 (2) and footnote 1, and p. 300 (I) (1), footnote 2 ziya, p. 384 and footnote 1. Zodia, p. 204 (a) (b) (c) formed 2000 B.C., p. 205 (e). Zoroaster, p. 207 (a). Zu and zl, etc., how used in Persian, p." Vide also Appendix A. 445. Zuma'niyayn, p. 633 (/) (1).
'
'
;