Family Literacy

Family Literacy
Vicky Zygouris-Coe, Ph.D. Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FLaRE) Center University of Central Florida College of Education
Document # 4-001 2001 FLaRE Center University of Central Florida
Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center College of Education University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 http://flare.ucf.edu
MISSION OF THE FLaRE CENTER The mission of the Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FLaRE) Center is to support the Florida Department of Education in its statewide implementation of the Florida Reading Initiatives by functioning as a principal informational delivery mechanism for improving the early literacy and reading instruction to children and families across the state of Florida. The Center will serve as an information clearinghouse for scientifically based reading and family literacy research a lighthouse for disseminating information on successful projects a research/development center to document effective practices based on rigorous research methods a development center for preservice and inservice teacher training a linkage for school districts, IHEs, community organizations that have a vested interest in family literacy and reading excellence.
ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON FLaRE RESEARCH DOCUMENTS

Richard Allington, Ph.D., University of Florida Joyce Fine, Ph.D., Florida International University Deborah Harris, Ph.D., Florida Atlantic University Susanne Lapp, Ph.D., Florida Atlantic University Robert Lemons, Ph.D., Florida A & M University Geri Melosh, M.A., University of Florida Charleen Olliff, Ph.D, Florida Gulf Coast University Barbara Palmer, Ph.D., Florida State University Rex Schmid, Ph.D., University of West Florida Nile Stanley, Ph.D., University of North Florida Gail West, Ph.D., University of Central Florida
Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center College of Education University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 http://flare.ucf.edu 2001 FLaRE University of Central Florida
Table of Contents
Section I Section II Section III Section IV Section VI Family Literacy What is Family Literacy? What Teachers Can Do What Principals/Schools Can Do Summary Page 4 Page 5 Page 15 Page 18 Page 20
Family Literacy
The family is the beginning point for the development of human resources within a culture. Families provide an intergenerational transfer of language, culture, thought, values, and attitudes throughout the formative years of their childrens lives. Families help children construct meaning about life, culture, language, learning, and literacy. The National Center for Family Literacy (NCFL) has compiled many statistics that point to the importance of family literacy in the United States of America. The following list of statistics paints a call to action for family literacy support and initiatives: Every 40 seconds a child is born into poverty and every 37 seconds a child is born to a mother who did not graduate from high school. 71% of children whose mothers completed college attended early childhood centers in 1996, compared to 37% whose mothers had less than a high school education. The more types of reading materials there are in the home, the higher the level of student proficiency. One in three parents contact the school about the childs academic program and belong to the PTA. Parents with higher socioeconomic status are more likely to do both. More schools with poverty populations and minority enrollments of 50% or more perceived the following issues to be barriers than schools low in these characteristics: o Lack of parent education to help with homework; o Cultural or socioeconomic differences; o Language differences between parents and staff; o Parent attitudes about the school; o Staff attitudes about the parents; and o Concerns about safety in the area after school hours. Adults participating in family literacy programs showed greater gains and were less likely to drop out of the program in literacy than adults in adult-focused programs. Children participating in family literacy programs showed greater gains than children in child-focused programs. Parents in family literacy programs reported more educationally supportive home environments.
The National Literacy Survey (NALS) of 1993the most comprehensive survey of the literacy skills of adults in the U.S.reported that the skills of 40% of all American adults are below the New Basic Skills benchmark (level 3 on the NALS 5-level scale). Children of adults who participate in literacy programs improve their grades, test scores, reading skills, and are less likely to drop out of school. Prisoners generally have significantly lower literacy skills than the general population. English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is the fastest growing area of the adult basic education system. Nearly 20% of children in America live in poverty. Until recently, literacy problems have been addressed by: (a) remediation programs for adults in the form of adult education or workforce literacy programs, and (b) early childhood initiatives for children who are considered to be at-risk for future school failure. Although both of these types of programs have had success, there is a tremendous need to work within the family unit to prevent the generational cycles of poverty and under-education. Family literacy programs have increased in numbers over the past few years.
What is Family Literacy?

The National Literacy Act of 1991 defines literacy as an individuals ability to read, write, and speak English, compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve ones goals, and develop ones knowledge and potential. The United States Congress defines family literacy as services provided to participants on a voluntary basis that are of sufficient intensity in terms of hours, and of sufficient duration, to make sustainable changes in a family (such as eliminating or reducing welfare dependency) and that integrate all of the following activities: Interactive literacy activities between parents and their children. Equipping parents to partner with their children in learning. Parent literacy training that leads to economic self-sufficiency. Appropriate instruction for children of parents receiving parent literacy services. (H. R. 1385, passed by the House in 1997).
This need for a common definition of family literacy resulted in the federal government adopting a federal definition for family literacy to be used by Adult Education, Even Start, Head Start, and Title 1 programs. For the purposes of this document, we at the Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FLaRE) Center, have adopted the previously mentioned federal definition for family literacy. In 1991, the Board of Directors of the International Reading Association (IRA) formed a Family Literacy Commission to: (1) investigate issues, questions in family literacy, (2) describe programs in schools and community agencies, (3) increase awareness about the relationship between family literacy and childrens literacy development, and (d) stimulate new developments in family literacy initiatives (Morrow & Neuman, 1995). The Family Literacy Commission views family literacy as the ways parents, caregivers, children, and extended family members use literacy at home in their community. Family literacy may occur purposefully by a parent or a caregiver, or may take place spontaneously as parents and children interact on a daily basis. Programs outside the home include parent involvement programs, (where parents learn to help their children in literacy and schoolrelated activities), intergenerational programs, (where parents and children are involved in literacy-type activities together), and studies that examine the many uses of literacy in families from different cultures (Morrow, Paratore & Tracey, 1994). There are four components of family literacy programs: Adult education Childhood education Parent and Child Together (PACT) Time Parent education
The adult education component is designed to extend basic education skills and lead to economic self-sufficiency and life experiences. Parents learn personal and family problem-solving skills, how to use information for lifelong
learning and self-improvement, negotiation skills, interpersonal skills, and how to apply those skills in their home and community. The childhood education component is designed to promote developmentally appropriate activities for children using current research in brain development and reading. It is recommended that programs endorse and practice the recommendations of the National Association of Young Children (NAYEC). These recommendations provide for the use of a developmentally appropriate curriculum, low teacher-student ratio and small group size, authentic assessment, the importance of culturally relevant curriculum, and parent involvement. Early education programs are offered through collaborative efforts with First Start, Head Start, Pre-Kindergarten early intervention, Even Start, and preschool programs with extended day services. The PACT component is a trademark of family literacy programs. The federal definition of PACT time is interactive literacy activities between parents and children. PACT sessions can take place in centers or at home and they allow parents to interact, play, and practice literacy activities with their children. It allows parents to observe modeled sessions, learn about child development, observe their children participate in different activities, and learn new ways to support childrens development. Many low-income parents desire to learn more about how to help their children in reading (Edwards, 1995). The goals of PACT time sessions include: Capitalizing on the strengths of parents and viewing them as primary leaders in their families; Enhancing parents awareness of how children learn and what activities or experiences are important to their learning; Providing parents with information about how to support child learning at home; and Providing opportunities for parents to practice their skills and provide modeling, feedback, and suggestions.
During PACT time sessions parents also receive specific information on how to support their childrens literacy development. The following are some of the literacy-related activities NCFL recommends parents engage in: Encourage oral language development (e.g., tell family stories, review classroom events, field trips, activities and encourage children to talk about their experiences). Model literacy skills (e.g., read stories, sing songs, cook together, write letters to relatives or friends, schedule reading time together, and involve the child in everyday functional literacy activities). Develop a sense of story (e.g., arrange pictures together, or ask the child to predict what will happen next in a story you are reading together). Write collaboratively (e.g., illustrate and write stories together). Use various tools of literacy (e.g., use games, finger play, color, draw, paint, or follow directions when making a craft together). Encourage thinking and creativity (e.g., ask questions while reading a story, or relate it to the childs personal experiences). Use language for fun (e.g., learn rhymes and jokes).
The parent education component is designed to invite parents to view themselves as the primary teacher of their children, inform parents, provide opportunities for support, offer services to families, and create avenues for parents to become active and full partners in the education of their children. Parental involvement initiatives should
help parents with issues of child development, working with the childs strengths and needs, teaching children strategies that promote critical thinking skills, creating a literacy environment at home, and dealing with discipline and problem-solving. Parental engagement can take many forms; the United States Department of Education describes the following types of parental involvement in the home: Active organization and monitoring of the childs time; Provide help with homework; Discuss school matters with the child; and Reading to/with young children.
The purpose of the Even Start Family Literacy program (Federal definition in the Even Start Legislation, Part B, Title 1 of Elementary and Secondary Education Act) is to create a unified approach to family literacy and to help break the cycle of poverty and illiteracy by improving the educational opportunities of the nations low-income families by integrating early childhood education, adult literacy or adult basic education, and parenting education. The program shall(1) be implemented through cooperative projects that build on existing community resources to create a new range of services, (2) promote achievement of the National Education Goals, and (3) assist children and adults from low-income families to achieve challenging state content standards and challenging state student performance standards. The main goal of family programs such as Even Start is to help maximize family involvement in literacy by combining adult, parent, family, and early childhood education in an interactive, comprehensive, and systematic manner. We know that parents or other caregivers are potentially the most influential people in the education of their children. Literacy begins at home. Childrens first experiences with literacy are shaped by parents and caregivers literacy. Childrens interactions with others at home create contexts for learning and childrens literacy is embedded in everyday life activities. Research supports a strong link between the home environment and childrens acquisition of school-based literacy. Such practices as shared reading, reading aloud, making print materials available, and promoting positive attitudes toward literacy in the home have been found to have a significant affect on childrens literacy learning (e.g., Cochran-Smith, 1984; Morrow, 1993). Childrens socialization, oral language development, and literacy development is first constructed at home (McGee & Richgels, 1996). Most families act together on literacy-related tasks and activities. Some families, however, do more than others. Research shows that the types of literacy practiced in some homes are incongruent with those that children face in school and consequently, the kinds of literacy practiced in classrooms may have little meaning for those children outside the school. However, there is evidence that the literacy contexts many low-income, minority, and immigrant families create help support family literacy (Auerbach, 1989). Therefore, it is very important that we begin to acknowledge multiple literacies (Morrow & Neuman, 1995, p. 550) found in the social practices of culturally diverse families. Family literacy is an umbrella term often used to describe a wide range of programs involving family members and literacy activities. The programs vary in intensity, types of activities, and duration. There are numerous local famFlorida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center College of Education University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 http://flare.ucf.edu 2001 FLaRE University of Central Florida
ily programs throughout the country that provide parents with skills that increase childrens literacy and educational development. Many programs are supported by the Federal Even Start Family Literacy Program, which was authorized in 1988 to fund local partnerships that provide local instruction to low-income parents. Other programs function as independent single-site centers that were created by local activists or educators in response to community needs. In addition, there are other family programs that receive funding from private organizations (Come & Fredericks, 1995; NCFL, 1994). Findings of the National Center for Family Literacy (1994) suggest that family literacy programs have been proven to be more effective than standard adult education programs with adult family members and more effective than child-focused programs with disadvantaged children. Parents success in a family literacy program provides them with cultural knowledge, relational knowledge (i.e., parent-child relations), and brings about more involvement in their childrens schooling. Family literacy describes a wide range of activities from a parent reading a book to a child to a formal program with many services for adults and children. Family literacy takes place in hospitals, clinics, summer camps, local libraries, community centers, workplace sites, jails, places of worship, and classrooms. Helping families engage in literacy activities will strengthen and improve the literacy skills of all family members. Researchers in adult literacy and literacy within K-12 schools recognize the role of the family as central to childrens attitudes toward school and childrens learning. Parental involvement in their childrens schooling influences student achievement, attendance, self-concept, motivation, and behavior. Two of the National Education Goals stress the important role of parents in childrens education (National Education Goals Panel, 1998). Goal 1, the readiness goal, emphasizes the role of parents as their childrens first teachers. Goal 8, aimed at schools, emphasizes the need to promote parent-school partnerships that will increase parental involvement in their childrens schooling. There is much research to support the importance of parental involvement in childrens education (see Henderson & Berla, 1994). Children whose parents are involved in their schools by attending school events, back-to-school nights, or volunteering are more likely to do well in school, and to exhibit fewer problems than children whose parents are not involved. Parents can become involved in their childs education in various ways. A synthesis of Epsteins (1990) work on parental involvement is presented below: Provide for the health and nutrition of children. Communicate with school. Volunteer and attend school events. Provide learning activities at home. Become involved in school decision-making. Collaborate with community organizations to increase family and student access to community resources.
The National Parent Teacher Association (PTA) acknowledges that effective parent and family involvement help create a strong support system for educators and families. The National PTA recommends that a successful parent involvement program include the following components:
Parents play a vital role in assisting student learning. Parents are welcome in the school, and their assistance and support are intentionally sought. Parents are full partners in the decisions that affect children and families. Regular, meaningful, two-way communication is established between home and school. Responsible parenting should be promoted and supported. Community resources are made available to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning.
Mikulecky and Lloyd (1995) in a study of NCFL programs in various states reported that parents who participated in parent involvement programs maintained many significant gains. A synthesis of those gains is presented below: Parents provided a wide range of literacy materials at home for their children: they took their children to the library every three weeks and bought or borrowed books for their children every one to two weeks. Parents engaged in a wide range of literacy activities at home with their children: they looked at or read books to their children almost every day, children asked their parents to read to them almost every day, and childrens book and magazine reading increased to more than once per day. Parent talk involved more explaining and less direct instruction about hygiene or manners/behavior. Parents and children played together with toys or games about 30% more often. Parents displayed their childrens writing and drawings every four to five days. Children saw their parents engage in a wider range of reading and writing activities at home. Parents learned that children learn through play. Parents spent time with their children and helped them read and write well. Parents believed that taking their children to the library or other educational programs would help their childrens literacy development.
Fredericks and Rasinski (1990) presented five essential criteria that contribute to the success of outreach programs. The following criteria are necessary for the effective implementation of long-term parental involvement initiatives: The program has to be built upon the expressed wishes of parents. Both teachers and parents have to promote a spirit of shared responsibility. Parents have to be actively involved in making decisions and following through. There has to be ongoing open communication between parents and school throughout the school year. A long-term commitment to continuous and sustained involvement needs to exist.
Effective family literacy programs reflect and respect cultural diversity and do not operate from a deficit model for disadvantaged parents; such programs value and appreciate parents knowledge and instincts as a foundation for further skills development (Taylor, 1993). Also, programs that show parents that their everyday ways of communicating with their children (e.g., conversations, oral-storytelling) are acceptable types of literacy activity (Heath, 1982). Various researchers have examined the component characteristics of family literacy programs (e.g., Butkus & Willoughby, 1995; Gadsden, 1996; Griswold & Ullman, 1997; Shanahan, Mulhern & Rodriguez-Brown, 1995). A synthesis of the curriculum components that have been found to contribute to the effectiveness of family literacy
programs is presented below: Comprehensive and diverse knowledge of child development. Comprehensive and diverse knowledge of literacy development. Knowledge of cultural differences. Respect for cultural differences. Provide mutual support. Identify and remove communication barriers. Build effective communication. Build strong interpersonal skills. Build meaningful interactions between staff and participants. Build the self-esteem of participants. Empower participants to direct their own learning to meet personal goals. Recognize the existence of multiple literacies and literacy behaviors. Examine the background knowledge and existing abilities of participants and use them as a foundation for learning. Use social and cultural issues as a context for learning. Identify unique needs of participants and help meet them. Invite parents to become partners in the collaboration. Become an advocate for parents and children. Build communities and networks for support, political, and social action.
There is significant research evidence that has shown that learning to read is a growth process that can be fostered at home. The following is a short list of studies that have examined childrens home literacy experiences: Baker et al. (1996) found that parents perspectives on literacy related to the experiences they made available to their children at home and to the way children responded to literacy experiences at school. Fitzgerald, Speigel, and Cunningham (1991) discovered that low-literacy parents perceived literacy development to be skill oriented and were less likely to participate in literacy modeling. Brody, Stoneman, and McCoy (1996) found that children whose parents demonstrated responsive behavior during literacy interactions enjoyed and were more actively involved in literacy activities in the classroom. Dickinson and Tabors (1991) reported that children who scored high on tests for vocabulary and comprehension were exposed to explanatory language. Hildebrand and Bader (1992) highlighted that children who were read to frequently and were provided with books on tape had higher emergent literacy measures than those who did not. They also found that children who scored low on literacy measures watched more television than children with higher measures. Giordano (1997) discovered that the availability of literacy-related materials at home affects the frequency of quality literacy interactions children are exposed to.
Cynthia Urwin (1995) worked for an entire year with a group of eight families and examined the effects of a homebased family literacy intervention on family literacy. She visited the families on a weekly basis, and collected information about various types of literacy events such as informal conversations with family members, observations of home environment, and reading and writing with children. Urwin worked closely with parents and helped them
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develop home environments that were consistent with a natural, developmental literacy model. She modeled to parents what happens when children are exposed to print and see it used meaningfully and showed parents how they can become actively involved in their childrens literacy development from an early age. She showed parents how to attract their childrens attention to print (e.g., by labeling objects in the house, by making book covers of cardboard and contact paper, and by having their children read, write, and draw every day.). Parents committed to reading to their children daily. She also visited the childrens classrooms, discussed their needs with teachers, and explained the childrens performance and needs to their parents. Urwin concluded that when resources and ideas are made available to parents, they learn to enjoy reading and learning with their children. Many parents do not know how to help their children. The school setting can be a threatening place for many parents who have had negative experiences in school. Developing alternative programs that are convenient and non-threatening can help us reach families who resist the school culture or feel unwelcome by the teachers and school. Edwards (1995) designed a programParents as Partners in Reading to teach parents how to read aloud to their children. This book reading program was designed to bridge together parents expectations about their childrens success in school and the schools expectations about parents being good literate models. Group discussion, book-reading practice, and group feedback comprised the components of the program. The positive environment, the absence of a condemning attitude, the ownership parents assumed, and the specific feedback the group leaders provided to parents contributed to the success of this program. Group leaders modeled effective book-reading behaviors (e.g., how to attract and guide a childs attention to a book, how to explore books with children, and how to relate information from text to a childs personal experiences). Edwards reported that parents were satisfied that someone had demonstrated to them what the school expected them to do at home with their young children, and they made personal decisions to further their education, developed a passion for literacy, shared their opinions in newspaper editorials, and some were offered employment in schools as tutors based on their commitment to literacy and their newly developed literacy skills. Come and Fredericks (1995) co-developed a program with parents. The Parents That Read Succeedprogram was designed to increase students reading achievement, improve both parents and students attitudes toward reading, increase parental involvement in school, increase the amount of quality time parents spend with their children, foster home-school connections, and create lifelong readers. This program encouraged parental involvement, created a forum for parents to express their ideas and questions, and offered realistic activities that contributed to the literacy experiences of children and parents. Come and Fredericks attributed this programs success to the involvement of parents in the planning. Parents and teachers were committed to this project. They organized telephone chains to announce the workshops, put out posters and flyers, and advertised on the radio stations and in church bulletins. Local businesses and various childrens book publishers supported this program by providing books that were used as giveaways, for children to borrow and share with their parents at home, and for classroom libraries. Parents received information on: The benefits of reading aloud; Selecting a book; Holding informal discussions about a book with their child;
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Creating reading games; Learning to value their culture and their own reading skills; Ways to contribute to their childrens literacy through storytelling; How to make books with their children; Reading with expression and inflection to attract and maintain a childs attention to a book; and Tips for monitoring television viewing.
At the end of the program, parents received certificates for their participation in the program and were given information about summer reading programs. Shanahan, Mulhern, and Rodriguez-Brown (1995) operated a family literacy program in Chicagos Latino neighborhoods for five years. The program served over 300 families. This program provided literacy training to parents and as a result mothers learned to speak and read English, and they became actively involved in their childrens education. The FLAME projectFamily Literacy: Aprendiendo, Mejorando, Educando (Learning, Bettering, Education)provided English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction to parents. Parents learned how to select appropriate books for their children, how to use the library, how to share books with their children, and how to draw their attention to print during cooking, shopping, and other everyday activities. Parents attended ESL classes twice a week and Parents as Teachers classes twice a month. As a result of the FLAME project, parents became more involved in their childrens education, volunteered more in school, attended school meetings, and implemented suggestions. They also showed more self-confidence in their literacy skills, in sharing their literacy skills with their children, and in helping them with homework. The Parents as Teachers sessions informed parents about school culture, structure, and demands, and helped create more open communication between home and school. During the Parents as Teachers sessions participants learned how to create a literacy activity center in their home, how to benefit from the public library, and how to teach letters and sounds. Parents also received information on childrens reading and writing development, games for reading and math, helping with homework, and the importance of classroom visits. Culturally-sensitive family programs can help parents view themselves as active participants in their childrens education. Griswold and Ullman (1997) created the Family Literacy Involvement Through Education (FLITE) program that utilizes health, stress, cooking, and discipline as curriculum topics. This curriculum not only provides parents with meaningful, necessary information, but it also helps them develop their own literacy skills. Parents wrote recipes, tried them out, and documented the entire process. In class, English and Spanish-speaking teachers work with children and their parents in a dual-language classroom. Some parents are taking English as a Second Language classes in the adult program. In addition, FLITE staff conduct home visits to provide a more personalized form of assistance to parents and children. Purcell-Gates, LAllier, and Smith (1995) conducted an ethnographic study in order to study the ways low SES families used print in their lives. The researchers concluded that children from low-SES homes experienced literacy in different ways than others. Some high-literacy families engaged in eight times more literacy activities than did some low-literacy families. Other differences existed in how much their lives was mediated by print. For lowliteracy families literacy events fell within the categories of entertainment or daily living activities. For highliteracy families, literacy experiences fell within literacy-learning, storybook reading, and entertainment. Teachers need to provide many opportunities for children to experience literacy in different ways. Purcell-Gates, LAllier, &
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Smith concluded that the key factor in how children will be able to benefit from formal literacy instruction at school is the family literacy practices children experience at home. These results carry significant implications for the literacy experiences teachers create in the classroom. The goal of all family literacy programs is to provide parents with the necessary knowledge and skills they need to become fulfilled and successful adults and to help them support and develop childrens learning at home and in school. Despite federal mandates, family programs vary greatly. One important difference among programs is the extent to which they adopt a deficit model for disadvantaged parents. This model views poverty and literacy deficiencies as a personal, rather than a social, situation. This approach leads to programs that attempt to correct parents skills and abilities, considers homes of low-income and immigrant families to be literacy impoverished, ignores the dynamics of immigrant families, and perceives cultural differences in attitudes toward school or childrearing practices to be obstacles to be overcome in order to meet school expectations (Auerbach, 1989). Poor parents, despite poor education, or bad school experiences, are still capable of supporting their childrens development through innate literacy activities. However, many parents may be unable to assist their children in ways that support the schools program and expectations (Taylor, 1993). Taylor calls for programs that recognize, appreciate, and use parents experiences and knowledge as building blocks for additional skills development. The importance of storybook reading on early language and literacy development has been extensively investigated. Parents have been encouraged to read to their children and provide meaningful language and literacy experiences for them (Morrow & Paratore, 1993; Strickland & Morrow, 1989; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). LeFevre and Senechal (1999) conducted an experimental study in order to investigate the role of home literacy experiences on childrens language and early literacy skills. They found that parents knowledge of childrens literature was related to childrens oral language development, whereas the amount of teaching about reading and writing reported by parents was related to childrens acquisition of early literacy skills. The researchers suggested that storybook reading and parent teaching might be independent experiences with different influences on the development of early skills and on literacy acquisition. Janes and Kermani (2001) conducted a three-year Family Literacy Tutorial Program that helped parents learn how to read storybooks. This project went through a metomorphosis after the researchers experienced a high dropout rate. The low-income Latino families that participated in the program reported during the first year that reading was a chore; they did not enjoy the reading style, the suggestions they had to follow, and they read without expression or enjoyment. When parents were told that they could create their own storybooks for their children, their attitudes and practices changed. Parents wrote and illustrated the stories collaboratively, and both parents and children enjoyed reading. Families have rich cultural backgrounds, and knowledge and literacy is constructed and shared in different ways. Nistler and Maiers (2000) developed a family literacy program that focused on creating a community of learners in her classroom. Parents were consistently recruited to participate in the program, became equal partners, shared decisions and responsibilities, supported one another, provided support for children in the classroom, engaged in a variety of literacy activities during the school day, and discussed personal issues and concerns with teachers and other parents. Handel (1999) examined what mothers thought about their participation in a family literacy program in a lowFlorida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center College of Education University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 http://flare.ucf.edu 2001 FLaRE University of Central Florida
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income neighborhood. During the Family reading program mothers of children in kindergarten through grade 3, read and discussed multicultural childrens books and learned reading and thinking strategies for adults and children. Mothers reported that they: (a) enjoyed the sessions because they had an opportunity to interact with teachers and other parents; (b) learned how to improve their own reading abilities; (c) learned how to supplement school instruction; and, (d) experienced a sense of togetherness. Handel highlighted the importance of examining the role of literacy in the lives of adults, particularly women, who constitute the great majority of participants in family literacy programs (p. 144). Another important element of successful family literacy programs is the staff. Effective programs are staffed by individuals who create a consistent, positive, environment, respect diversity and various kinds of knowledge, help parents overcome feelings of powerlessness, and address issues of class, race, and gender (Gadsden, 1996; Strickland, 1996). The following synthesis of suggestions indicates that staff can contribute to the success of a family literacy program by: Surveying parents needs and interests; Creating a network of community speakers, resource persons, and community resources; Facilitating discussions and problem solving; Maintaining contacts with other local service providers; Creating a warm, inviting, and culturally sensitive environment; Communicating respect for different family structures, values, ideas, and traditions; Inviting and acknowledging different perspectives; Involving parents in participatory decision-making; Developing a library of multi-cultural resources (i.e., childrens literature, videotapes, field trip events);
Family recruitment and involvement is also an important issue. Programs that utilize personal contact, previous program participants, and emphasize cultural diversity seem to be effective. Having a varied curriculum will help meet parents unique needs. Some parents may be interested in improving their English skills, others may need support with helping their children academically, and others may be interested in advancing their own literacy skills. Involving parents in the design and implementation of the program may increase parental involvement. Family literacy programs that build on collaboration provide better support to families. Tice (2000) developed a family literacy program that was built on collaboration between agencies. The program components included parenting skills, life skills (i.e., job readiness and budgeting), an Adult Basic Literacy Education (ABLE) instructor, a parent educator, a nutritionist, and early childhood education. The literacy program was located at a mutli-service site that included staff from mental health services, public housing, the Department of Human Services, the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program. A two-year evaluation of the family literacy program showed that trust, consistent community collaboration, shared goals, resources, and decision-making, ongoing joint training, and elimination of geographical barriers helped create a community atmosphere. Tice attributed the success of this collaborative family literacy program to the combination of adult education, skills training, and social support.
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What Teachers Can Do

Taylor and Dorsey-Gaines (1988) emphasized that If we are to teach, we must first examine our own assumptions about families and children and we must be alert to the negative images in the literature.Instead of responding to pathologies, we must recognize that what we see may actually be healthy adaptations to an uncertain and stressful world. As teachers, researchers, and policymakers, we need to think about the children themselves and try to imagine the contextual worlds of their day-to-day lives. (p. 203) Morningstar (1999) created home response journals as a way to include parents as true partners in their kindergarten childrens education. Through the home response journals, parents, teachers, and children experienced positive literacy practices, parents gained a better understanding of their childs literacy development, and strong, genuine partnerships were established between the teacher and parents. She exchanged journal entries with 13 families about their childs literacy activities. The journals allowed parents to raise questions about their childs literacy development, the school curricula and classroom activities, and provided a vehicle for teacher and parents to inform each other about their personal literacy beliefs. Morningstar (1999) explained her reading philosophy and classroom literacy activities via a weekly newsletter. Using parent information meetings, classroom observations and conferences with students, specific evidence from each childs literacy center folder, she was able to give parents specific examples and suggestions about their childs literacy. Parents and teacher worked together to assess the childs literacy development. The journals allowed parents to write about their own literacy practices at home, observations, and activities. Both parents and teacher focused on understanding the whole child through his/her literacy activities and experiences at home and school. Such efforts allow the teacher to use the parental feedback as a framework for curriculum planning (Hanson, as cited in Morningstar, 1999), provide the teacher with information about parents beliefs about their childs literacy development (Lazar & Weiberg, as cited in Morningstar, 1999), and help create a shared accountability between parents and teacher (Shockley, as cited in Morningstar, 1999). Richgels and Wold (1998) developed the Three for the Road program to create partnerships between school and home and encourage positive reading habits for young children through reading sessions at home. The families played a significant role in this collaboration. This backpacking program enabled children to go home with three leveled books they could choose from (i.e., easiest, in-between and most challenging) in one genre (e. g., adventure or fiction). The premise behind this program was that child and adult can learn together; the adult learns what the child knows, what areas he/she needs help with, and from what kind of activities and support the child can best benefit from. The backpack program involved four steps: selecting appropriate books (i.e., books which will invite conversations, have good illustrations and story structure, evoke responses for literacy activities, and are representative of the childs interests); categorizing books according to reading level (i.e., a read-by-myself book, a read-with-me book, and a read-to-me book); preparing support materials (i.e., a letter to parents, a response journal, writing
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and drawing materials, hand puppets for story conversations, a lost-and-found tag, and a checklist of the backpacks contents); and, scheduling use of the backpacks (i.e., each of the six first-grade classrooms rotated one of the six backpacks among its students for approximately one month). Teachers held introductory sessions with students and demonstrated how to use the backpacks, reading strategies (i.e., think-alouds, use of illustrations), and a response journal. As a result of this program, families reported that they discovered new ways to use reading and writing to further learning. Families and students used the backpacks according to their familys schedule and needs. As Richgels and Wold said, Thoughtful parent and child literacy interactions did not just happen. They were created by the programs explicit guidelines (1998, p. 6). Results from other take-home literacy programs show that explicit demonstrations on how to use materials helps parents and children benefit from the literacy activities (Rubert, as cited in Richgels & Wold, 1998; Reutzel & Fawson, as cited in Richgels & Wold, 1998). Genisio and Bruneau (1998) developed a two-step plan, as a result of a teachers focus group, to communicate emergent literacy practices to parents and families. Their plan focused on: (a) developing and implementing an inventory of at-home literacy activities, and (b) planning a number of public invitations to explain and demonstrate their philosophy and instructional activities to parents. The authors wanted to understand the natural literacy activities that occurred at home and use that information to develop parents knowledge about emergent literacy, philosophy, and instruction. The teachers sent photos of their classroom environment with brief explanations to parents. Genisio and Bruneau also explained to parent visitors how the classroom arrangement, materials, and activities related to teachers philosophy about emergent literacy. Visitors were also invited to observe a shared book reading experience. Teachers modeled shared reading, how to direct childrens attention to the book, how to invite children to make predictions, what kind of questions to ask to facilitate their critical thinking skills, how to note similarities and differences in letters, sounds, and word, and how to give children choices to respond to stories. The authors also involved the public, the local newspaper, parents, and caregivers, and helped all key stakeholders in childrens literacy understand their philosophy about reading and their instructional practices. Schools need to develop and implement a welcoming and supportive climate for all families and children. Families need to be viewed as the primary stakeholders in school improvement and quality and should be involved in the process. Schools and teachers need to re-evaluate how they work with families to foster student learning. Literacy providers need to listen critically to families concerns, and schools need to establish strong and effective networks with community agencies and make that information available to families. Spielman (2000) developed the Family Photography Project in her efforts to collect evidence about family learning, experiences, and practices. She collected numerous photographs from nine multicultural families. The photos pictured the following: parents and their children learning together at home; household routines; childrens learning moments; learning environments at home and outside the home; and, photographs reflecting parental values. Spielman categorized the photographs into seven categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. Family, friendship, and love. Growing up to become courageous and independent. Culture: religion, ritual, and play. Literacy.
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5. Technology. 6. Responsibility and daily routine. 7. The science of learning outside the community. (2000, p. 766) The photos became a resource for teachers. Parents presented their photos in graduate classes, at conferences, and to classroom teachers at their school. This project provided teachers with the support they need to become students of their students (Nieto, as cited in Spielman, 2000). Barillas (2001) brought parents voices into her classroom through interactive written homework assignments. This approach created a positive, collaborative environment for parents and teachers, and it invited parents to share, in their native language, how they supported their childs learning development. Parents and children were involved in meaningful literacy activities using topics such as: giving helpful advice to each other about life, I Am poems, and responses to the 1990 Nobel Prize acceptance speech of the Dalai Lama, as part of a multicultural unit. She gave parents and students directions about different ways to complete the assignments and requested their permission to publish their writings in a classroom publication. An authors reception at the end of each quarter allowed parents, family members, students, teachers, and administrators to enjoy the writings, appreciate one anothers culture and language, and celebrate literacy together. The following is a synthesis of types of parental involvement that schools need to consider when designing family involvement programs: Provide information to parents about child-rearing skills; Design multiple forms of communication to reach all families; Recruit and organize family assistance and support; Discuss with parents how they can best help their children at home; Recruit and train families to contribute in school governance and advocacy. Develop partnerships with organizations and individuals in the community.
Teachers/schools can create read-aloud parent seminars to help parents learn the importance of reading to their children. There are many suggestions about what we can do to establish strong school and home connections (e.g., Amstutz, 2000; Gadsden, 1996; Morrow, 1995). The following is a summary of core suggestions for creating partnerships among school, parents, and community gleaned from a variety of sources: Introduce quality storybooks to parents at kindergarten orientation or at parent conferences. Share with parents information on the benefits of regular reading to childrens literacy development. Allow children, parents, and caregivers to borrow books from the classroom or school library. Discuss the benefits of public libraries, how to use them, and how to benefit from programs that may be available for storytelling, reading, or parenting. Recruit high school, college, and community volunteers to read to children in the school library during parent meetings. Free child care can improve parent attendance. Invite the schools librarian to give sessions to volunteers and parents about the basics of reading aloud and choosing appropriate books. Teachers and librarians should identify childrens reading interests and involve parents in book-related projects.
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Establish rapport with all parents, especially those who might have had bad experiences with schooling. Send weekly newsletters about what is happening in your classroom. Invite parents to become involved in your classroom and at school. Create strong school-family partnerships. Hold day and evening parent conferences to accommodate parents work schedule. Hold parent conferences off-campus in places that are closer to the homes of parents and students. Involve parents in leadership positions; for example, a parent coordinator can manage Book Club programs. Create a homework club to provide help to students and their parents. Technology classes for parents and students can enhance parental involvement in the school and introduce parents to new ways of learning. Parents can acquire word processing skills while their children receive hands-on experience with computers. Create parent discussion groups to discuss topics, issues, and concerns parents or teachers may have about school success, curricula, testing, or changes in the school program. Help create more open positive, and not problem-focused, dialogue between home and school. Principals can coordinate such events. Teachers need to understand the numerous literacy environments their students come from and use this knowledge to foster strong home-school connections. Teachers may need to provide more reading opportunities in the classroom for children from low-literacy homes by enlisting an aide or parent volunteer to read to these children. Invite parents to support instruction by becoming teaching partners in the classroom: for example, parents can tutor individual students, can stimulate oral language about different topics, provide writing support, or provide after-school support. Invite parents to become resources in the classroom; for example, parents can share personal experience and events that relate to curricula objectives (i.e., cultural information, celebrations, etc.). Invite parents to become at-home teachers; for example, share books with children, talk about family history and family members, discuss family photos, and share family memories. Design publications in class to invite families to share information about their culture. Families can include books, photos, recipe collections, autobiographies, and family histories. Turn these publications into news of the week. Integrate family literacy projects into your curriculum (e.g., family trees, family reading week/month, plants, foods, poetry week/month) that encourage parent-child interactions. Invite parents to share information, ideas, and backgrounds about classroom topics/projects. Establish relationships with social service agencies to ensure access to non-educational services. Conduct ongoing evaluations of programs and initiatives by collecting feedback from parents about their perceptions and observations. Feedback can be obtained through individual interviews, recorded group sessions, or personal journals.
What Principals/Schools Can Do

Educators should build upon the early experiences and cultural knowledge of children (Edwards & Pleasants, 1997). Educators need to understand how socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic factors mediate schooling. Principals have many responsibilities in schools. They are responsible for creating positive, safe, learning environments,
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setting high standards for students and teachers, setting guidelines for teacher and student performance and behavior, and establishing positive relationships between the school and home, and the school and community. Parents need to feel wanted in their childrens school (Flood, Lapp, Tinajero, & Nagel, 1995). Many parents feel that they do not have the skills needed to help their children with homework or school-related matters. Some parents do not know the language, others have had negative experiences with schools, and many do not understand the school culture and structure. Creating positive and culturally-sensitive family literacy programs can help increase parental involvement and childrens and families literacy skills, improve relationships between home and school, and contribute to childrens success in school. Danridge, Edwards, and Pleasants (2000) presented the efforts of two urban school principals to work closely and effectively with their students and their respective urban and challenged families. They discussed the pressures and challenges urban principals face and presented an alternative approach to building learning school communities. Danridge et al. recommended that by increasing the connections between home and school literacies, principals can create a school environment that recognizes and respects the multicultural literacies of students and parents. The first principal organized several teacher meetings to examine their perceptions of parent involvement and discuss their literacy concerns. He also talked to families in the school and realized that many parents were caught in a viscous cycle of financial storms (e.g., evictions, lack of finances that threatened the security of the family unit). The second principal viewed the school as an integral part of the family, community, and other social institutions, and he decided to focus on parent stories in order to better understand families and help create a mentally healthy school environment. He invited parents to share stories about their family activities; he asked for stories that were dense in detail about their childrens literacy experiences at home. He encouraged parents to share information about what their family did together during the week, what parents did to help their children succeed in school, and what types of experiences their children have had in school. Danridge et al. (2000) described two principals who dealt with family literacy issues by viewing parents as the experts on the cultural heritage and practices at home. This approach increased teachers awareness of and respect for the nature of parental involvement, cultural practices, and family expectations about their children. The authors suggested that it is imperative that teachers and schools build upon the families cultural and literacy foundations to maximize literacy achievement and help transform literacy curriculum. Susan Akroyd (1995), an elementary school principal, initiated a parent reading-writing class in her efforts to understand and bring together cultures through writing. In her school there were families from 35 countries who spoke 21 different languages. She created opportunities for parents to write in English and Spanish while their children looked at library books. Parents wrote about personal cultural events, family stories, about deaths and loses, about moving to the US and leaving family behind. For ten weeks 15 participants wrote to their children. They wrote for 20 minutes and then read and responded in groups of two or three. Their writings took the format of photo journals, diaries, and memory books. They wrote in different styles, voices, and languages. As a result, several parents who were not fluent in English showed interest in learning to read and write. Volunteers and classes were created to help develop the parents literacy skills. When Peggy Milam (2000), a school librarian, discovered that many students in her school could not name the title of a favorite book, she sent a family survey with all the students in her school and asked students to report on how
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much time they spent watching television, playing on the computer, reading, or watching videos. To her dismay, she discovered that most students rarely read at home but spent most of their time either watching TV or playing on the computer. She then created a yearlong plan called, Literacy for LIFE (Leadership, Imagination, Family Values, Excellence) to involve families in literacy action at home and at school. This program was designed to promote literacy through interactions with all family members, friends, and neighbors. The Literacy for LIFE program provided individual and group activities, home and school activities, beforeschool, after-school, and evening events. Community volunteers visited classrooms and read to children, children wrote and published their own stories, family night events took place in the fall and spring, and The Reading Patch Book Club was created where children worked on a different genre each month. A year later, book donations and finances were given to the school to continue the program, circulation reports showed that checkouts had tripled, and parents participated in family night events and assisted in book fairs. Milam (2000) recommends that in order for any family-school literacy program to succeed, parents and the community need to be invited to become active participants.
Summary
Family literacy means a lot of things to a lot of people; in general, it refers to a continuum of programs that addresses the intergenerational nature of literacy. Under the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, Title II of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, family literacy programs include: Interactive literacy activities between parent and child; Training and support in parenting activities; Literacy training that leads to economic self-sufficiency, and Age-appropriate education to prepare children for success in school and life experiences.
The core of family literacy is that parents are viewed and supported as the first teachers of their children. We need to remember that when we refer to families, we refer to all family members and adults who are the primary caregivers for children, to children, to siblings, and extended family members. Parents are critical partners in the education of all children. Parents need to feel empowered by becoming active participants in the development of their childs literacy (Rasinski, 1989). Parents, teachers, schools, and communities, together can provide the cultural, linguistic, and academic support children need to succeed. Parents can be instrumental in helping educators understand the complexity of family and cultural diversity of children. Family literacy program developers need to draw on the interests, strengths, concerns, and goals of diverse families by involving them in the design, implementation, and evaluation of their own and their childrens learning programs. The curriculum needs to incorporate the naturally-occurring literacy activities, traditions, and intergenerational orientation of families. Such collaboration will help create a safe environment for parents to share concerns, and it will help create feelings of empowerment. Hoffman (1995) recommended authentic types of assessment such as family portfolios to be in the assessment of family literacy programs. She asserted that the family portfolio may reveal new possibilities about family literacy development. Hoffman described various ways programs developers can incorporate family and program data to
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document literacy development. Parents, teachers, staff, and children can all collaborate on the contents and uses of the family literacy portfolio. Possible family literacy portfolio data may include: Anecdotal records; Questionnaires; Photographs of parents and children working together; Audiotapes, and videotapes of parents and children reading to and with each other, talking about books, or acting out stories; Written samples of parent and child work; Childrens drawings/writings; Description of home literacy activities; Description of program components; and Feedback from community partners.
As educators and researchers we need to examine our assumptions about family literacy and revisit this fluid process. We need to become aware of the following important family-related issues: Low-income, minority, or immigrant families frequently see literacy and schooling as a way out, as a means of changing their status and providing a better future for their children. Literacy learning is developed by family members helping one another. Successful readers homes provide many ways for using literacy. Literacy is an integral part of family life and not just a set of tasks that are used at certain times. Literacy is socially constructed. Both language-rich classrooms with stimulating resources and enriching home literacy environments contribute to the acquisition and development of literacy. Schools need to accommodate family and community practices. Family and community should be seen not as obstacles to childrens learning in school but as central resources for learning. Allow what happens in families and communities to inform schooling (respect and access families funds of knowledge (Moll & Greenberg, 1990). Schools can help support parents in accomplishing their own goals and learn from their cultural experience to inform instruction.
Family literacy is not a set of skills parents need to master. Family literacy is not changing people but is rather a means for offering choices and opportunities to families, say Neuman, Caperelli, and Kee (1998, p. 224). It is about creating opportunities for families. It is about contexts, resources, and possibilities for growth and development. Family literacy is not a static phenomenon; it is not an outcome of certain steps or laws that are met; rather, it is a process which families use daily to communicate, learn together, and function as members of a larger community. Similarly, the ways families use literacy is constantly evolving. The fundamental issue in family literacy is that parents are supported as the first teachers of their children. Family literacy should be viewed by schools, community agencies, and society as one of the most important essentials in literacy development. Schools need to view family literacy as part of the curriculum, focus on understanding family issues, traditions, concerns, and goals and establish ongoing efforts to understand the knowledge base
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families possess as well as the challenges they face. Community organizations need to be educated about the importance of family literacy and be invited to become active partners in developing the literacy of children and their parents. We need to consider that when we deal with family literacy we may be dealing with adults who have had gaps in their own education and skills, adults who are unemployed or underemployed and face unique challenges when they go back to work, adults who may suffer from poor health, and adults who although they are speakers of other languages, may have high skills and educational levels in their first language but need English to access opportunities for themselves and their families. Family literacy programs can help parents and other caregivers: Work on their own literacy development. Use their own literacy to address family and community issues such as housing or immigration. Explore various ways to learn about ones own child. Address child-rearing concerns such as drug abuse, school violence, behavior management, or safety, and family relationships, including abuse. Learn about household management, including integrating employment into parents schedules. Acquire strategies for problem-solving, with particular attention to parent-child concerns. Develop strategies for transferring learning to various situations at home and at work. Understand and respond to school culture and school-related issues, collaborate with school personnel, and develop social networks for individual or group advocacy. Build on families existing skills, cultural knowledge and experiences.
Effective family literacy programs provide families with quality support, which includes: Information, ideas, and skills. Parents may need information about: o Legal issues o Health care and nutrition o Child and literacy development o Raising a child as a single parent o Budgeting time and money o Setting goals o Exploring a new career o Interpersonal and problem-solving skills o Pre-employability skills o Childrens curriculum o Cultural and local issues o Information about school structure, culture, and expectations Encouragement and support. Advocacy and referral to other services.
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Let us not forget that teachers also face many challenges. Early childhood educators are faced with instability and change in school structure and funding, pressures to raise the literacy standards, ongoing inequalities in childrens access to curriculum, and much local, state, and national pressure about literacy issues. Administrators can help create opportunities for teachers and families to work together toward student learning. As educators, we need to attend to the home, understand family literacy development, discuss and analyze the different ways parents help develop their childrens literacy, and help parents learn how to support their childrens learning. All successful programs share the belief that parents, despite their socioeconomic status, have the potential for making a significant educational difference in their childrens lives when offered the opportunities for becoming an important member of the educational team. Our current focus on family literacy includes a broad set of goals and populations ranging from intergenerational learning to life-span development. Because family literacy is not static, we can benefit from researching the relationship between family literacy and life circumstances. Although there is an abundance of family literacy programs, evidence about the effectiveness of the family literacy programs needs to be systematically collected. Longitudinal studies may help us better understand the relationship between family characteristics and childrens educational outcomes, the effects of changes or mobility in family attitudes behavior on children, the differences in the effectiveness of various programs, and the intergenerational transmission of literacy (see Hibpshman, 1989; Nickse, 1990). Auerbach (1989) emphasized that childrens motivation and achievement are influenced by family characteristics, values, standards, attitudes, and daily family learning activities. She proposed that we should view family literacy from a holistic perspective, involve as many family members as possible, and incorporate the community context. She also reminds us that illiterate or low-literacy families value literacy, and practice various forms of it daily for social and technical purposes. A single definition of family literacy is difficult; as Auerbach (1995) stated, family literacy has become a new buzzword in the last 10 years (p. 12). Our definition of family literacy will affect the design of a program, the curriculum, the instructional methods, the social interactions, and the methods and criteria used to evaluate program success. To some literacy is a set of skills, a tool for economic development and self-improvement, the Replication of school-like activities in home settings, or the daily social practices people use to empower themselves and construct meaning from their experiences. Instead of assuming a model for transmitting school practices into the home, programs should draw on parents knowledge and experiences to shape instruction (Auerbach 1989; Moll & Greenberg, 1990). We need to consider some of the definitional and research issues associated with family literacy. Family literacy exists as a potpourri of approaches and models with a wide range of empirical evidence and a thin theoretical framework. Improved and focused research will help all stakeholders better understand the complex process of family literacy and how families function. The following is a list of conceptual issues associated with family literacy: Can family literacy be situated within the existing body of research and practice on parent characteristics, family structure, and children? Should there be separate programs for adults, including parents, in which parental involvement in chilFlorida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center College of Education University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 http://flare.ucf.edu 2001 FLaRE University of Central Florida
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drens literacy is optional? Should we create a range of programs where adult education or parental involvement is an option? Is parental involvement the same as basic literacy? Are family literacy components distinctly different from child and adult literacy components? How does education in parenting skills affect the literacy skills of adults and children? Should family literacy be studied only under the umbrella of parental involvement? How do political changes and agendas affect family literacy?
From a research perspective, there is a plethora of studies on family literacy. The research ranges from descriptive studies, to theoretical reports, to reviews of literature, and empirical research. Effective family literacy programs must be based on sound research knowledge and practice. Hendrix (1999/2000) identified the following research concerns: (a) too often family literacy education is conceived and implemented as a compensatory model; (b) family literacy education targets only one child and one parent, generally a preschooler and his or her mother; (c) family literacy education does not effectively integrate adult education, literacy/ESL, or parent-child interaction time into programming; and (d) funding from grants does not provide a stable base on which to build lasting conditions around literacy. (p. 340) The following is a summary of recommendations for future research: Use random assignment, experimental methods, and quasi-experimental methods. Use clear definitions of parental involvement. Use specific measurements of parental involvement. Clarify which measures of parental involvement are being measured. Use objective, valid, and reliable measures of parental involvement (e.g., direct observation of parent behavior and standardized data collection tools). Use accurate methods for selecting families for programs. Take into account the complex interrelationships between parental involvement and outcomes. Avoid reliance on self-report data. Conduct rigorous research in family literacy programs. Obtain data from family literacy centers. Identify and evaluate alternative family literacy programs. Investigate issues of family participation, recruitment, and drop-out. Measure best practices in family literacy. Create programs for training teachers and school administrators on family literacy issues. More research is needed on the cultural and intergenerational knowledge of families, interagency coordination, staff development practices, identification of target audiences, and role of technology to assist family literacy training and effectiveness.
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We need to focus on the entire family unitmothers, fathers, grandmothers, grandfathers, and other adults, and children who are integral part of the family structure; We need to study the role of PACT time on childrens literacy development; We need to know more from states and local agencies about their impact on program design, data interpretation, and funding.
We, at the FLaRE Center, believe that educators, researchers, community leaders, and policy makers need to view family as a mediator for literacy and not as an obstacle. We need to better understand the family unit, context, and social practices within a family and contribute to the elimination of problems facing family members. Family literacy programs do not fix families. Respecting, understanding, and supporting the family unit will aid the educational success of all children and families and bring about a better future for all of society.
References
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Mikulecky, L. & Lloyd, P. (1995, May). Parent-child interactions in family literacy programs. Louisville, KY: National Center for Family Literacy. Millam, P. (2000, March/April). Recipe for remarkable reading results. Library Talk, 13, 6-8. Moll, L. C., & Greenberg, J. B. (1990). Creating zones of possibilities: Combining social contexts for instruction. Sociohistorical Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. Morrow, L. M. (1995) (Ed.). Family literacy: Connections in schools and communities. New Brunswick, NJ: International Reading Association, Inc. Morningstar, J. W. (1999). Home response journals: Parents as informed contributors in the understanding of their childs literacy development. The Reading Teacher, 52(7), 690-697. Morrow, L. M. (1993). Literacy development in the early years: Helping children read and write (2 nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Morrow, L. M., & Paratore, J. (1993). Family literacy: Perspectives and practices. The Reading Teacher, 47(3), 194-200. Morrow, L. M., Paratore, J., & Tracey, D. (1994). Family literacy: New perspectives, new opportunities. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Morrow, L. M., & Neuman, S. B. (1995). Introduction: Family literacy. The Reading Teacher, 48(17), 550551. National Center for Family Literacy (1994). The power of family literacy. Louisville, KY: Author.
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National Center for Family Literacy (2001). Research: Literacy facts and figures. Louisville, KY: Author. [On-line]. Available: http://www.familit.org/research/research.html National Education Goals Panel (1998). Data volume for the national education goals report. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Neuman, S., Caperelli, B. J., & Kee, C. (1998). Literacy learning, a family matter. The Reading Teacher, 52(3), 244-252. Nickse, R. S. (1990). Family and intergenerational literacy programs (Report No. 342.) Columbus: OH. ERIC Clearinghouse on Ault, Career, and Vocational Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 313 531) Nistler, R. J., & Maiers, A. (2000). Stopping the silence: Hearing parents voices in an urban first-grade family literacy program. The Reading Teacher, 53(8), 670-681. Public Law 102-73, the National Literacy Act of 1991. (25 July 1991). House of Representatives Bill 751. [On-line]. Available: http://novel.nifl.gov/public-law.html Purcell-Gates, V., LAllier, S., & Smith, D. (1995). Literacy at the Harts and the Larsons: Diversity among poor, inner-city families. The Reading Teacher, 48(7), 572-578. Rasinski, T. (1989). Reading and the empowerment of parents. The Reading Teacher, 43(3), 226-231. Richgels, D. J., & Wold, L. S. (1998). Literacy on the road: Backpacking partnerships between school and home. The Reading Teacher, 52(1), 18-29. Shanahan, T., Mulhern, M., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (1995). Project FLAME: Lessons learned from a family literacy program for linguistic minority families. The Reading Teacher, 48(7), 586-93. Speilman, J. (2001). The family photography project; We will just read what the pictures tell us. The Reading Teacher, 54(8), 762-770. Strickland, D. S. & Morrow, L. M. (1989) (Eds.). Emerging literacy: Young children learn to read and write. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Strickland, D. (1996). Meeting the needs of families in family literacy programs. In L. A. Benjamin & J. Lord (Eds.), Family literacy: Directions in research and implications for practice. Washington, DC: Pelavin Research Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 391 945) Taylor, D. (1993, Fall). Family literacy: Resisting deficit models. TESOL Quarterly, 27(3), 550-3.
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Taylor D., & Dorsey-Gaines, C. (1988). Growing up literate: Learning from inner-city families. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Teale, W. H., & Sulzby, E. (1986) (Eds.). Emergent literacy: Reading and writing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Tice, C. J. (2000). Enhancing family literacy through collaboration: Program considerations. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(2), 138-146. Urwin, C. G. (1995). Elizabeths story: The potential of home-based family literacy intervention. The Reading Teacher, 48(7), 552-557.
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Family Literacy Family Literacy Books Glossary

Adult Literacy The level at which adults must be able to read, write, and learn skills. Anecdotal Records A detailed report created with writings based upon the feelings and understandings of the writer. Basic Literacy Academic competence at the fifth-grade instructional level. Community People, establishments, organization, and bureaus located in the same area or that share the same interests. Deficit Model A model for disadvantaged parents that view poverty and literacy deficiencies as a personal, rather than a social, situation. Emergent Literacy A developing range of understanding about print and non-conventional reading and writing behaviors that begin before schooling and lead into conventional reading and writing. Employability Skills Skills that are related to a person getting and keeping a job, or making advancements in their current job. Even Start A program designed to create a unified approach to family literacy and to help break the cycle of poverty and literacy by improving the educational opportunities of the nations lowincome families by integrating early childhood education, adult literacy or adult basic education, and parenting education. Family Literacy Services provided to participants on a voluntary basis that are of sufficient intensity in terms of hours, and of sufficient duration, to make sustainable changes in a family (such as eliminating or reducing welfare dependency). Family literacy programs should contain activities such as having interactive literacy activities between parents and their children, equipping parents to partner with their children in learning, parent literacy training that leads to economic self-sufficiency, and appropriate instruction for children of parents receiving parent literacy services. (Federal Definition of Family Literacy)
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Family Literacy Involvement Through Education (FLITE) A program created by Griswold and Ullman (1997) that utilizes health, stress, cooking, and discipline as curriculum topics. Family Literacy: Aprendiendo, Mejorando, Educando (FLAME) A program that provides support to parents who are not proficient in English or how they can support their childrens literacy development. Functional Literacy Literacy skills that are considered at a practical level or competence. Literacy A process that includes reading, writing, thinking, and listening to communicate effectively. Parent and Child Together (PACT) Time Interactive literacy activities between parents and their children. PACT time capitalizes on the strengths of parents and views them as primary leaders in their families, enhances parents awareness of how children learn and what activities or experiences are important to their learning, provides parents with information about how to support child learning at home, and creates opportunities for parents to practice their skills and receive modeling; and feedback, and suggestions. Parent Any caregiver who assumes responsibility for nurturing and caring for children, including parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, foster parents, or step parents. Parents as Partners in Reading A program designed to teach strategies to parents on how to support their childrens reading development. Parent Education Training for parents about how to be the primary teacher for their children and full partner in their childrens education. Reading An active and complex process of constructing meaning from written text in relation to the readers experiences, knowledge, motivation, and the context of the reading situation. Readiness To be prepared for instruction.
Synthesized by: Vicky Zygouris-Coe, Ph.D. and Lourdes H. Smith, M.Ed., FLaRE Center
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