Thebuildingof masonry

Thebuildingof masonry
KonradZilch, Martin Schdtz

Thestandardof workmanship is a criticalfactor
that determines the load-carrying capacityand
serviceability of masonry, especially because,
in contrastto reinforcedconcrete,timbe.ror
steel,all the importantstructuraland building
sciencetasksare in thiscasefulfilledby one
singlebuildingmaterial.
Therefore,DIN 1053part 1 includesa separate
sectiondevotedto the buildingof masonry.
The aim of this sectionis notonlyto guarantee
thatthe aforementioned tasksare fulfilled,but
alsothatthe appearanceand aestheticsof
masonryconstructions complywithcertain
standards, In addition, thesepracticalconsid-
erationsare intendedto resistthe undermining
of qualitystandardsas a resultof the growing
pressureon costsand time,as well as the
declinein standardsof trainingevidenton site.
Consequently, the parameters for carefulplan-
ningand buildingof masonryensurethatthe
practicalrealization is as freefromflawsas
possible.
In the end,rationalization measuressuch as
buildingwith large-format units,withoutmortar
or with kit-typeelementsand so on, can lead
to moreeconomicmasonryonly if special
reouirements are olacedon the standardof
workmanshio of the wall.
Mixingand using mortar on site
Mixingmortar
lf mortaris to be mixedon site.the cement,
admixturesand additivesmustbe storedin a
dry placeprotectedfromthe weather.Aggre-
gatesmustbe storedundercleanconditions
so thatthey cannotbe contaminated by salts,
loam,organicsubstancesor largestones.
Gaugingthe quantitiesof mortaringredients
mustbe carriedout usingscalesor suitable
containers, e.g. bucketsor gaugeboxeswith
volumetricgradations,but neverwith shovels,
in orderto guaranteea consistentmortarmix.
Forsmallamounts,mixingis carriedout manu-
ally in a tub with a sandshovelor - particularly
withthin-bedmortars- with a mixingblade
attachedto an electric,drill.As a rule,however,
a suitablysizedelectrictilt or non-tiltdrum
mixeris employed. Mixinginstructions should
be attachedto the machinein a placewhere
they'areclearlyvisible.Therawmaterials should
be mixeduntitthemortarhasan evenconsis-
tencythat is suitablefor the intendedjob.
Premixedmortarsare becomingincreasingly
popularas an aid to rationalization and for
ensuringconstantmortarqualityin termsof
consistency, workability, strengthetc.
Accordingto theformof supply,we distinguish
betweenpremixeddry modar,premixed"coarse
stuff"and ready'mixedmortar(includingmulti-
chambersilomortar). On site,onlythe required
amountof waterneedsto be addedto pre-
mixeddry moftaror multi-chamber silomoftar,
or the requiredamountof waterplus cementto
premixed"coarsestuff".No aggregates,addi-
tivesor admixturesmay be mixedintopre-
mixedmoftars.Premixeddry mortarand pre-
mixed"coarsestuff"are preparedon site in a
mixer,but ready-mixedmortaris delivered
readyto use in a workableconsistency(see
"Mortarsfor masonry").
Differenttypesand groupsof mortarsmay only
be preparedand usedtogetheron site if mis-
takesin identificationcan be ruledout.This is
particularly
so in the caseof normalmortarsof
mortargroupsll and lla becausethey lookvery
similar.
Mortarnormallycontainscementas the bind-
ingagent,whichundergoes an alkalinere-
actionin the presenceof wateror moisture.
Therefore,protectskinand eyes.Uponcontact
withthe skin,rinsewithwater,uponcontact
withlhe eyes,consulta doctorwithoutdelay.
Using mortar
Thetrowelis stillthe besttoolfor layingsmall-
and medium-format masonryunits.Thetrian-
gulartrowelhas a favourablecentreof gravity
and puts lessstrainon the bricklayer's wrist
than.thesquaretrowel.The advantageof the
latteris, however,that ii is easierto lay and
spreadlargeramountsof mortarevenly.
The magonryand moftarindustrieshavede-
velopedthe so-calledmortarsledgefor econ-
omic construction with large-format masonry
unitsas wellas for one-brick-thick walls.This
tool matchesthe widthof the walland is pulled
alongthe bed joint,therebydepositinga con-
stantamountof mortarontothe bed joint
througha slit.Thismakesit possibleto applya
bed jointof constantthicknessup to 1Om long
acrossthe fullwidthof the wall in one opera-
tion.
Thin-bedmortarsrequirethe useof toothed
trowelsor mortarrollers,whichguaranteea
consistentapplicationof the mortarjLlst1 mm
thick.The masonryunitis frequentlymerely
dippedin the mortarandthenlaid.A com-
parativelylargeamountof wateris extracted
fromthe "green"mortarin the caseof high
absorbencymasonryunits,whichmeansthat
the hardeningprocessof the mortarmay not
be completedbecausethis requiresa
certainminimumamountof water.The mortar
driesout and the resultis pooradhesion
betweenmasonryunitand mortar.Thiscan
be preventedby adequateprewettingof high
absorbencymasonryunitsor by mixingan
additiveintothe mortarto increasethe water
retentioncapacity.The recommendations of
the mortarsuppliershouldbe followedin the
caseof premixedmortars.
Anotheradvantageof prewettingor using
water-retention additivesis that leachingof
water-soluble saltsfromthe cementin the
mortaris reducedor prevented.As the water
evaporates, the saltscauseefflorescence on
the surfaceof the masonryunitswhich,
althoughharmless,is unattractive and there-
fore mustbe removedby repeatedbrushing
(see"Buildingand cleaningfacingmasonry").
As mortarhardensit loseswaterand so is
subjectedto evermoresevereconditionsby
the masonryunits.Therefore,everytype of
pretreatment and subsequenttreatmentof the
masonry,e.g. prewettingthe masonryunits,
protectingthe newlybuiltmasonryagainstrain,
strongsunlightand prematuredrying-outby
coveringit withplasticsheeting, or spraying
the new masonrywithwater,benefitsthe
qualityof the mortarand hencethe masonry.
This is particularly true in the first3-4 daysafter
l a y i n g[ 1 6 4 ] .

14
 and qualitytests
Suitability

2.5.1 Arrangementof perpends Masonryd>115mm

lvlasonryd>115mm

Joint
Joint
mm

'Tipped Mortarin grooveonly No mortar,tongueand

and tailed" Fullmortarfilling grooveconnection

Protecting masonry against moisture on the masonryand to damage(e.9.spalling Quality control of prescribed masonry (RM)
causedby the formationof saltcrystals)[54, Suitabilityand qualitytestsare not requiredfor
Masonry unitsareusuallydelivered wrappedin 164,2141. prescribedmasonrybecausethistype of
plasticsheetingon palletsand henceare pro- masonryis basedon manyyearsof experience
tectedagainstsaturationup to the time of lay- of usinga "prescribed"combination of stan-
ing.As saturatedmasonryunitsdo not develop Suitabilityand qualitytests dard masonryunitsand standardmortar.. The .
adequateadhesionto the mortarand,further- buildingcontractormustcheckthatthe details
more,increasethe energyrequiredfor drying Accordingto DIN 1053,the properties of the on the deliveryslip or the packagingof mason-
outthe primarystructure,bricksand blocks buildingmaterials mustbe verified. This ry unitsfor prescribedmasonrymatchthoseon
awaitlnglaying,as well as the unprotected requirement is fulfilledby suitabilityand quality the buildingauthoritydocumentation. Mortar
toosand sidesof individual elements suchas tests.The suitabilitytest stipulateswhetherthe mixedon sitefor prescribedmasonryrnustbe
walls,spandrelpanelsand openings,mustbe typesand quantitiesof certainraw materials checkedregularly duringconstruction against'
protectedagainstprolongedrainfallby means aresuitablefor the production of a building tableA.1 of DIN 1053part 1 (seeLable2.1,25)
or plasticsheeting.
of tarpaulins Theseshould. materialwith definedproperties,e.g. strength, or usinga suitability testto ensurethatthe mix-
be securedagainstupliftby way of battens grossdensityetc.Thistest is carriedout ing ratiois beingmaintained. Forpremixed
naileddownor by heavymaterials.In addition, beforethe actualproduction of the building mortars,the detailsof the type of mortarand
temporarydrainagemeasuresshouldbe taken materialor the buildingof the masonry.The mortargroupon the deliveryslip or packaging
beneathroofguttersif the rainwaterdownpipes qualitytest is carriedout on randomsamples mustbe comparedwiththe technicaldocu-
havenotyet beenconnectedin orderto pre- of the buildingmaterialproducedfor useon mentation, and the gradenumberand the
ventlocalsaturationof the masonry.Following the buildingsiteand simultaneously withthe supplyingworkscomparedwiththe order.
theserecommendations will ensurethatthere actualconstruction, in orderto verifythatthe Mortarsof groupllla mustundergoa com-
is no damageto the masonryin the formof, for intendedmaterialpropertieshavebeen pressivestrengthtest accordingto DIN 18555
example,shrinkagecracks,efflorescence or achieved.The qualitycontrolof masonryunits part 3 carriedout on threeprismsfromthree
reducedstrength[175]. is carriedout withinthe scopeof the manu- differentmix batchesper storey,but at least
facturer'sown qualitycontrolmeasures,and every10 m3of mortar,and be checkedagainst
thoseof outsidecentres,at regularintervals. the requirements of Dl-N1053parl 1 tableA.2.
Layingduring cold weather The requirements for this are stipulatedin the Buildings withmorethansixfullmasonry
individualstandards coveringthe different storeysrequirea qualitytestto be carriedout
Masonrymay be builtduringfrostyconditions typesof masonryunits.The manufacturer's per storey,but at leastfor every20 msof mor-
onlyif certainprotectivemeasuresare carried ownqualitycontrolduringproduction include tar, evenfor normalmortarsof groupsll, lla
out.Theseincludecoveringthe aggregatefor constantmonitoringof the productionprocess and lll as wellas for lightweight andthin-bed
the mortarwith insulatingblanketsfor the tem- to guaranteethatthe masonryunitsproduced mortars.Thistakesaecount.ofthe higher
peraturerangefromOto +5'C; coveringthe complywiththe criticalteohnicalparameters. requirements placedon the load-carrying
masonry unitswaitingto be laidwithinsulating Monitoringby approvedoutsidecentrestakes capacityof such masonryand henceon the
blanketsfor the temperaturerangefrom-5 to the formof checkingthe manufacturer's quality requiredconsistencyof the mortarproperties
0"C;heatingthe mixingwaterand the aggre- controlmeasures duringproduction and en. in the lowerstoreys.As the increasedrequire-
gateandworkingin tentsor protectiveshelters. suringthatthe personnel and equipment used mentsdo not applyto the top threestoreys,
As the temperaturedropsstillfufther,develop- meetthe requiredstandards. this extraqualitytest is unnecessary for those
mentof the mortarstrengthslowsdownand In the caseof mortars,a suitabilitytest accord- sroreys,
practicallycomesto a haltat about-10'C. ingto DIN1053part1 appendixA.5 is neces-
Wheneveipossible,masonryshouldnot be saryonly if the serviceability of the aggregate
builtat such lowtemperatures. hasto be verifiedor if admixturesand addi- Quality control of masonry according to
Frozenbuildingmaterialsmay not be usedat tivesare to be used. suitability test (EM)
'1053part2
anytemperature. Furthermore,newlybuilt Furthermore, the suitabilitytest needsto be Suitability testsaccordingto DIN
masonry, delicateelements and columnsin carriedout as a preliminary testfor premixed are required to establishthe strength classof
particular,shouldbe protectedagainstfrost mortars,includinglightweight andthin-bed masonryaccordingto suitability test.This
and precipitation by a coveringof insulating modarsonlyfor structureswith morethansix involvesallocati;rgthe masonryto a strength
blankets.If suchmeasuresare not carriedout, fullmasonrystoreys(see2.1.28). classby way of a compressivestrengthtest
no furthermasonryunitsmay be laid on The buildingcontractoris responsiblefor car- carriedout on test samplesaccordingto DIN
masonryalreadyfrozen.Sectionsof masonry ryingout on-sitequalitytestsfor mortarwithin 18554part1 and the subsequent issueof a
damagedby frostmustbe removedbefore the scopeof checkingand assessing the qua- classification Thismustbe provided
certificate.
workcontinues,On no accountuse antifreeze lityof prescribedmasonry(RM)or masonry to the buildingsitepriorto commencing con-
agentsor de-icingsaltsbecausethis can lead accordingto suitability test (EM). structionworkwithsuch masonry.The suitabil-
to efflorescence (e.9.saltdeposits)appearing itytest mustbe carriedout by an approved
Thebuildingof masonry
respectto buildingscienceproperties andthe
resistance of anyrendering to drivingrainand
cracking.
Moftarshouldalwaysbe appliedoverthe full
bed jointbecausethisjointhas an important
structuralfunctionfor the loadbearingbehav-
iourof masonry,i.e.the uniformtransferof ver-
tical comoressivestressesas well as tensile
and shearstressesby way of adhesionand
friction.Voidsin the bed jointsand varyingjoint
thicknessesleadto stressconcentrations
whichin turnreducethe load-carrying capacity
and increase the riskof cracking.
Thethickness of the bed jointinfluences the
transverse tensilestressin the masonryunits
throughthe lateralstrainbehaviour and is
thereforepartlyresponsible for the compres-
sivestrengthof the masonry.Therefore, thick
2.5.2 Buttjoinl
bed jointsare structurally lessfavourable,but
on the otherhanda minimum thicknessis nec-
essaryto compensatefor the (permissible)
materialstestinglaboratory.lt mustbe repeat- deviations in the sizesof the masonryunitsand
ed if masonryunitswith a differentarrange- to allowfor practicalbuildingconsiderations.
mentof perforations areto be usedfor the Thethickness of the bed jointis about12 mm
masonryor if changesto the combinationof for normaland lightweightmortars,between5
raw materialsor the methodof productionof and 7 mm for medium-bedmortars,and
the masonryunitscouldinfluence the strength between1 and 3 mm for thin-bedmonarsin
of the masonry.Masonryaccordingto suitabili- conjunctionwith gaugedbrickwork.
ty test does not needto undergoa qualitytest. The peroendsaremuchlessrelevant thanthe
ln orderto checkthe rawmaterials on site, bed jointsin termsof structuralfunction
everydeliveryof masonryunitsmustincludea becausethey do not helpto accommodate
document whichincludesdetailsof the DIN tensileand shearstresses.Therefore,it is per-
designation of the masonryunit,EM designa- missible to eitherfillperpendscompletely with
tion,compressive strength(classification cer- mortar,only parilywith mortar("tippedand
tificate),type of mortarand mortargroup, tailed"),or leavethemwithoutany mortar.How-
masonrystrengthclass,classification cer.tifi- ever,it shouldbe notedthat resistanceto
catenumberand testingcentre.The delivery crackingdecreasesnoticeablywhenthe per-
slipor packagingis to be checkedto ensure pendsare onlyfilledpartlywith moftaror left
that it matchesthe technicaldocumentation. withoutmonarbecausethe masonryunitscan
Mortarmixedon siteshouldbe checkedat no longersuppofteachotheras is the case
regularintervalsduringconstruction to ensure whenthe perpendsarecompletely filledwith
that it continuesto complywiththe mixingratio mortar(seefig.2.5.1).
on the classificationcertificate.In the caseof
premixedmortars,the detailson the delivery
slip regardingtype of mortarand mortargroup, Laying with mortar to the perpends
the supplying worksand the gradenumber It is necessaryto providemortarin the per-
mustbe checkedto ensurethey complywith pendswhenbuildingreinforced masonry,
the detailson the classificationceftificate.As single-leaf unplastered masonry whichhasto
withthe qualitycontrolof prescribedmasonry, be sealedagainstwindand drivingrain,ln the
the compressive strengthof the mortarmustbe comoression zoneaboveshallowlintelsand in
determined accordingto DIN18555parl3 and externalbasement walls(butdependingon the
comparedwiththe requirements of DIN1053 loadbearing system).The perpendsareclassed
part1 tablesA.2,A.3 and A.4.Thesequality as fullyfilledwith mortarwhenat leasthalfthe
controlmeasuresmustbe carriedout for every wallthicknessis providedwith mortar.
10 m3of mortar,but at leastfor everystorey. The arrangement of mortarto the perpendsde-
pendson thetypeof masonryunitsused.A full
moftarfillingto the perpendis principally car-
Perpendsand bed joints ried outwith small-and medium-format mason-
ry units.Thethickness of the perpendsshould
The principaltasksof the jointsin masonryare be 10 mm for normaland lightweightmortars,
to ensurethatihe masonryunitsare uniformly and 1-3mm for thin-bedmortars.
loadedand to guaranteethe transferof forces Masonryunitswith mortargroovesin theirend
fromunitto unit.Furthermore, they compensate faceseitherhavemortaraooliedto the faces
forthe (permissible) deviations in the sizesof eitherside of the grooveto producevisible
the masonryunitsand play a majorrolewith perpendswiththicknesses corresponding to a
146
fullmortarfilling,or the unitsare laidbrickto
brickand the groovesfilledlater.In the brick-
to-brickmethod,the unitsare laidas close
togetheras the unevenness of the end faces-
due to the manufacturing process - will allow.
Generally, the gap betweenthe unitsshould
notbe morethan5 mm.lf thisdimension is
exceeded, thenthejointsshouldbe filledwith
mortaron bothsidesof the wall in orderto
guaranteean evensubstratefor plaster.
Laying without mortar to the perpends
Theperpendwithoutmortaris gainingin popu-
laritybecauseit speedsup construction and
requireslessmortar.However,certainmeas-
uresmustbe takento ensurethatthe reouire-
mentsto be met by the componentregarding
protection againstdrivingrain(e.9.rendering,
cladding); thermalinsulation (e.9.adequate
wallthickness,additionallayersof thermal
insulation); soundinsulation (weightperm2by
way of heavymasonryunits);and fire protec-
tion are stillmaintained. Masonrywithoutmor-
tar to the perpendsis constructedeitherwith
the brickssimplybutt-jointed togetheror by
usingmasonryunitswithan integral tongue
and groovesystem.Thislayingtechnique
achievesa masonryconstruction withoptimum
homogeneity.
Peroends widerthan5 mm mustbe filledwith
modaron bothsidesof the wall in orderto
guaranteean evensubstratefor plaster.In
termsof the structuralanalysisof masonry
withoutmortarto the perpends,it shouldbe
notedthatwhenanalysingshearthe permis-
siblereducedadhesiveshearstrengthooHS
mustbe halvedand that in the caseof base-
mentwallsthe earthpressuremay onlybe
carrieduniaxially in the verticaldirection.
Junctionswith intersectingwalls
Duringconstruction, the contractormustmake
surethat immovablesupportsfor a wall (sup-
portedon two,threeor foursides)as assumed
in the structuralanalysisare actuallyrealized
on site.An immovablesupportto a shearwall,
for example,is onlyguaranteed whenthe sup-
podingwall and the shearwall are bothcon-
structedof materialswith approximately equal
deformationbehaviour, the connection
betweenthe wallscan resisttensionand com'
pression,and whenseparationof the wallsas
a resultof severedifferentialdeformation is not
expected(see"Lateralrestraintto walls").
A tension-and compression-resistant connec-
tioncan be achievedby buildingbothwalls
simultaneously andfullybondedtogetherbut
alsovia a buttjoint.
 walls
Junctionswithintersecting

Bonded iunctions 2.5,3 Arrangementof wall intersections

A fullybondedjunction- alsovalidas such
duringconstruction - is guaranteedwith rack-
ingor toothedarrangements onlywhereihe
lengthof the returnis at leastone fifththe
heightof thewall(seefig.2.5.3).
Bothtypesof junctionconsumevaluablespace
on the buildingsiteand this is oftennot desir-
abledue to operationalreasons,e.g.for easier
erectionof scaffolds,to maintainunobstructed
accessroutesetc.
Therefore, to aid buildingoperationsthe struc-
turallyequivalent toothingor reversetoothing
maybe used(seefig.2.5.3).In thistypeof
bondedjunction, thewallsarenot builtsimulta-
neously- supportand bracingto the wall are
achievedat a laterdate.The tension-and
compression-resistant connectionis created
throughthe transferof compressionvia the
masonrybond and tensionwiththe aid of rein-
forcement. Thisshouldbe builtintothe bed
Wallto be supported
jointswith sufficientembedmentlengthand
protectedagainstcorrosion.lf tensileforcesdo
notneedto be transferred, thesetwo formsof
bondedjunctionare onlyconsideredto
accommodate comDression.

Butt-iointed junctions
Thebuttjointtechnique enablesthejunctions
to be simplified. In thismethodthewallsare
butt-jointed withouttakingaccountof the bond-
ing rules.Consequenily, they may be offsetlat-
erally (see'fig. 2.5.2).A tension-resistant con-
nectionis achievedby anchors(forwhicha
structural analysisis required)placedin the
bedjoints.lf the wallsare not builtsimultane-
ously,thenthe anchorsare leftprojectingand
bentasideuntilrequiredin orderto prevent
injuries (seefig.2.5.q.
Thebuttjointtechniquemay be usedonlyfor
internalwalls;externalcornersshouldalways
be formedas fullybondedjunctions.Buttjoints
arefullyfilledwithmortarin everycourseto
ensureadequatetransferof compressionand
continuity of the acousticinsulationproperties
of thewall.Theanchorsareto be designed
according to DIN1045section19.8.3in sucha
waythat 1/100of the verticalloadof the load- 2.5.4 Butt-jointedjunctionwith varioustypes of anchors
bearingwall can be transferredat eachof the
third-points of the wall height.Undersuch con-
ditions,the supportedwall can be analysedas
beingsupported on threeor foursides.The
anchorsmay be distributedoverthe heightof
the storeyto avoidan accumulation at third-
points,e.g.in all or alternate bed joints.
It is recommended thatwallssuppoftedon only
twosidesbe connectedto intersecting walls Perforatedflat bar
withnon-structural anchors.
Inthe structuralanalysisof the walls,only rec- Masonryanchor
tangularand notcompoundcross-sections may
be useddesoitethe inclusion of anchors. Mild steelto DIN 488
Thebestanchorshaveprovedto be perforated
flat barsof stalnlesssteelmeasuring300 x 22 x Wiretie
0.75mm or pairsof V4Asteelwireties (as
usedfor twin-leafwalls).

147
 Thebuildingof masonry

2.5.5 Chasesand recessespermissiblein loadbearingwallswithoutstructuralanalysis(dimensionsin mm)

Wall Horizontaland inclinedchasesrr Vertical chases and recesses Verticalchasesand recessesbuilt in masonrybond
thickness cut subsequently

Length of Depthat I Width of I Distance of Min. distance Min. spacing

chase ]<1.25mlong?t single i chasesand of chasesand of chasesand
unlimited I Depth chases' I recessesfrom recessesfrom recesses

> 1.15 > 115 >2xwidthof > width of

> 175 >115 chase ^L^^^

>240 > 115 or >24O

> 300 > 115
> 365 > 115
chasesare permissibleonly in an area < 0.4 m above or belowthe structural on one side of a wall.They are not permissiblein
horizontallyperforatedclay bricks.
2)Min. distancefrom openingsin longitudinaldirection> 490 mm, from next horizontalchase 2 x lengthof chase,
3)The depth may be increasedby 10 mm when usingtoolswherethe depth can be accuratelymaintained,e.g. masonrymillers,masonryslot saws,etc. When usingsuch tools,
chases10 mm deep on both sides may be cut in walls> 240 mm thick.
4)Chasesthat extendmax. 1 m abovefloor levelmay be cut up to 80 mm deep and 120mm wide in walls> 240 mm
thick.
5)The totalwidth of chasesaccordingto column5 and column7 pet 2 m of wall lengthmay not
exceedthe dimensiongiven in column7. Forwalls lessthan 2 m long,the valuesin
column7 shouldbe reduced in proportionto the lenqthof the wall.

The useof the buttjointtechniquehas several the masonry.At the very least,the arrangement To simplifystructuralanalysis,DIN 1053part 1
importantadvantagesfor on-siteoperations of chasesand recessesshouldbe checkedfor table10 specifies maximumdimensions for
and the laterbehaviourof the walls: theirstructuralimplications priorto construction. chasesand recesses.lf thesedimensions are
Plannedchasesand recessesformedwithin not exceeded,the effectof suchchasesand
'The wallscan be builtseparately without the masonrybond,or providedin the formof recesseson the load-carrying capacityof a
inconvenient toothingin oneoperation. The channelblocks,or serviceductor pre-chased wallis so minorthattheycan be ignoredwhen
omissionof toothingspeedsup operations units(see"Specialformats,specialunits"), designing the masonry(seetable2.5.5andfig.
quiteconsiderably. In addition,theflushwall shouldbe takenintoaccounton the working 2.5.6).In addition,an analysisis notnecessary
surfacesand avoidanceof shortreturns drawings.As a rule,theseare moreaccurate for verticalchasesand recessesifthe reduc-
easesthe erectionand movementof working and lesstime-consuming and costlythanchas- tion in the cross-section - per m of wall length
platformsand scaffolds. es cut subsequently. Whencuttingchases,it - is no morethan6% and the wall is not
' Theflushwall connectionmeansthatfewer mustbe ensuredthatthe intendeddimensions assumedto be supportedon threeor four
make-upunitsare requiredand thereare no are not exceeded.Chasesand recessescan sides.In thiscase,a residual wallthickness
bondingproblemsat intersections. considerablylowerthe load-carrying capacity accordingto DIN1053part1 table10 column
'The two intersecting wallscan be builtwith of a wall becausebesidesreducingthe cross- 8 and a minimumspacingaccordingto column
differentcourseheightswithoutbonding sectiontheyalsodecrease,in particular,the 9 mustbe maintained (seetable2.5.5).lf the
problems, i.e.its is easyto combinewallsof bendingstrengthof the walland alterthe dimensionsof the chasesand recessesdiffer
unitswith differentheightsand formats(but eccentricityin the remainderof the wall. fromthe valuesgivenin the tablesor fromthe
stillcomplyingwiththe "octametric" system). Verticalchasesin wallsspanningin onedirec- extrarequirement for verticalchases,they
. The buttjointtechniqueavoidsthe creationof tion onlyreducethe cross-sectional area;their mustbe takenintoaccountin the designof the
thermalbridgesat junctionsbetweeninternal influenceon the load-carrying capacityof the masonry.As the requirements of table 10
wallswithhighbulkdensityand external walls wallis henceof onlyminorlmportance. On the appearvery complicatedfor the practically
witha lowerbulk density. otherhand,verticalchasesin wallsspanningin mindeddespitethe graphicpresentation in fig.
' The use of differenttypesof masonryunitsin two directions,whoseincreasein load-carrying 2.5.6,thefollowing recommendations should
the two wallsmeansthatthe effectsof long- capacityis due to lateralrestraintand henceis be adheredto duringconstruction:
termdeformations are lesscriticalbecause relianton horizontal bendingmoments, can ' Chasesand recessesshouldbe positioned
the anchorspreservea certainverticaldefor- havea severeeffecton the horizontalsoan. well clearof heavilyloadedsectionsof
mationcapabilitywhileat the sametime pro- Therefore, theirinfluenceis takenintoaccount masonry, e.g.bearingsbeneathlintels, open-
vidinga tension-and compression-resistant whendetermining whethera wall is supported ings.Theyshouldnotbe positioned in piers
connection betweenthewalls171,211,2141. on threeor foursidesby usingonlythe resid- and chimneyjambs.
ualwallthicknessin the designof the section . The deothof a chaseor recessshouldbe as
adjacentto a verticalchase,or by assumingan smallas possible, max.30 mm,in ordernot
Chases and recesses unsupported edgeat thisposition. We also to weakenthe cross-section morethannec-
assumean unsupported edge if the residual essary,
Chasesand recessesare requiredfor all types wallthicknessis lessthan halfthe totalwall . Horizontalchasesshouldonlybe positioned
of buildingservices, e.g.heating, waterand thickness or < 115 mm. immediately belowfloor/roofsoffitsor immedi-
wastewaterpipes,electriccables,ventilation Horizontal chasesshouldbe avoidedif oossi- atelyabovefloorlevelbecausein these
ducts.Owingto theirsignificance for the stabil- ble becausetheyreducethe cross-sectional zonessuch chaseshavevery littleinfluence
ity of a wall,drawingsshowingthe sizesand area,and hencethe bendingstrength, along on the loadbearingbehaviourof the wall (sta-
positionsof chasesand recessesshouldbe theirfulllength.At the sametime,theyhavean bilityagainstbuckling).
providedat an earlystageso thatthey can be unfavourable effecton the eccentricitvin the . Walls< 175mm thickshouldnot be chasedif
takenintoaccountin the structuralanalvsisof restof the wall. at all possible.

148
I
!
L
 facingmasonry
Buildingandcleaning

. As chasesand recessesare detrimental 2.5.6 Diagramof chasesand recesses permissible in

to
the acousticand thermalinsulationproperties
of a wallas well as its loadbearingbehaviour,
"falsewall"installations are to be preferred
wherever possible,i.e.all servicesare
installedon the face of the wall or in service
shafts.Duringthe interiorworks,the services
are concealedbehindmasonrvor someother
facingmasonryis thatthe unitsshouldbe laid
loadbearingwallswithoutstructuralanalysis
and workedin a way appropriateto the mate- (dimensionsin mm)
rial.The differentsuctionratesof differentma-
terialsmustbe takenintoaccount.Absorbent. Chaseof unlimited Depth of
unitsmustbe prewettedbeforelayingso that length chase
they do not extracttoo muchmixingwater
fromthe mortar.The maximumratefor this is
1.5kg/m2lmin. Prewettingis not necessaryat O

formof cladding. lowersuctionrates.lf prewettingis not carried

outwhenrequired, shrinkage cracksbetween
unitsand mortaror dehydratedadhesion vo

Buildingand cleaningfacing masonry zonesin the mortarcanformand helpdriving -E

rainto penetratethe facingmasonry.Less

Certainruleshaveto be followedwhen plan- absorbentmasonryunits,however,mustbe i_c
ningand constructing facingmasonryand laiddry. In somecircumstances the plasticity 2c
facedwallsin orderto guaranteethe appear- of the mortarmustbe reducedin orderto pre-
ance,serviceability and durability of the ventsuch unitsfrom "floating"on the mortar
masonry.Thisis especiallythe casefor exter- due to theirlow suctionrate. O lL1zP Edgeorstance
nalwallsof facingmasonrywhicharefrequent- Completejointswithoutvoidsare producedby APZ-- ,
o Lengln oT cnase
ly exposedto drivingrain.In particular, the risk applyingthe mortarto the end of the masonry
of saturation due to inadequateworkmanship unitand thenpressingit againstits neighbour,
or thewrongchoiceof materialis frequently therebysqueezingout surplusmortar.Wall
jointsremainopenat firstand arefilledwith ffiquently
underestimated. The damagecausedto the
facingmasonryis oftenextensiveand necessi- grout upon completion of each course of
tatesmajorrepairs. m a s o n r [y1 6 2 ] .
Freshjointsmustbe curedfor at least3-5 days
(see"Mixingand usingmortaron site").
Construction principles Pleasereferto "Jointing"belowfor further
Facingmasonryandfacedwallsshouldonly detailsof joints.
be builtfromfree-standing scaffold,because
putlogor otherscaffoldfixingholesare difficult > 490 mm, from next horizontalchase 2 x length of '
cnase,
to makegood subsequently. Thetop courseof Cleaning facing masonry 3)The depth may be increasedby 10 mm Whenusing
masonry shouldbe coveredduringlonger First of all, for effective cleaning we must dis- toolswherethe depth can be accuratelymaintained,
interruptions in the workand duringrain.lf tinguishbetweenthe different typesof soiling. e,g. masonrymillers,slot saws etc. When usingsuch
possible, masonryunitsshouldnotbe laidin The mostfrequenttype of soiling,but the easi- tools,chases10 mm deep on both sides may be cut in
walls> 240 mm thick.
therain,and in coldweathershouldnot be laid estto remove,is that causedby mortarand
belowcertaintemperatures (see"Layingdur- cementduringconstruction. Second,efflores-
ingduringcoldweather") cenceand limestainingcan occuruponcom-
Facingmasonrymustbe builtvery carefully pletionof the facingmasonry.Finally;atmos-
becauseevenverysmallirregularities, e.g. phericpollution can spoilthe appearance of
misaligned perpendsaboveand belowa facingmasonryovertime.
header,are disagreeable to the observer- and Thesoilingof facingmasonryduringconstruc-
it is oftenviewedfromcloseouarters.Per- tion is mosteasilydealtwith by removingmor-
pendsor headers, whichaccordingto the tar droppingsand cementsplashesimmedi-
bondshouldbe alignedveftically, mustbe atelyas theworkproceedsor whenbuilding Opening
plumbed,becausedeviations of justa few mil- the nextsection.Water,brushesand sponges E
limetres can add up to considerable discrep- areadequatefor suchcleaning. 6+ -l-
anciesoverthefullheightof thewall.All the Theavoidance of soilingis alsoimportant in L> For d > 240:
dO L
depth of chase< 80
facingmasonryunitsrequiredfor a certainsec- this context:adequateclearancebetween 66 | width of chase< 120
tionof the construction shouldbe orderedfrom tubs of mortarand facade,newlybuiltmasonry - t s 1
:o I
onesupplierand intermixedbetweenseveral coveredwith plasticsheetingto protectagainst ; B I
oalletsin orderto avoidcolourvariationsin the mortardroppingsand cementsplashesor uJ6I tts
finishedwork.lf necessary,a referencepanel againstsplashesof concreteand plaster.
4'
\+- -l+ 4dge distance>
Widthof chase
for assessingmaterial(consistency of colour Efflorescence oftenoccurswhenlargerquanti-
and dimensional accuracy), bond,jointingetc. ties of water(e.9.mixingwaterfromthe mortar,
shouldbe producedon site. poorlydesigned/built eavesdetails,leaking Verticalchasesand recessescut subsequently
Facingmasonryunitsmustbe carefullytrans- copingsetc.)penetratethe masonryand wash
portedand stackedon pallets,in packagingor out efflorescent substances, e.g.calcium
in containersin orderto avoiddamagingcorners hydroxide, sodiumand magnesium sulphate, > 115
and edges.Furthermore, they are to be pro- chloridesand nitrates,fromthe mortarand > 115
tectedagainstthe weather,soilingand mech- masonryunits.The absorbencyof the units > 115
> 115
anicaldamage.Damagedunitsshouldbe allowsthe dissolvedsubstancesto be trans-
> 115
rejectedor used in sucha way thatthe dam- ported to the surface, where they are depo- max. 1 m abovefloor levelmay be
agedsectionis notvisiblein thefinishedwall. sitedat a pointwherethe watercan readily cut up to 80 mm deep and 120 mm wide in walls
Oneimportant condition for buildingdurable evaporate,e.g. at projectingpiersand at the > 240 mm thick.

149
Thebuildingof masonry
2.5.7 Formingflushand
"buckethandle"
joints
cornersof buildings, wherehigherwind
speeosoccur.
Efflorescence, whichoccursduringconstruc-
tion by the dissolvingof efflorescent substan-
ces in the mortar(calciumcarbonate),can be
avoidedby prewettingand hencereducing
the absorbencyof the masonryunits.Most
efflorescence disappearsaftera relatively
shortperiodof exposureto the weather.Other-
wise,the mosteffectivemethodfor removalis
cleaningthe masonrydry with spatulas,suit-
able smallwoodenboardsand bristlebrushes.
Sandblasting may be employedin certain
cases,althoughthis may placeseverestresses
on the facingmasonry;or cleaningwet with a
cleaningagent.In this casethe masonrymust
be prewettedstartingat the bottombeforethe
cleaningagentis appliedin concentrated or
dilutedform in accordancewiththe manu-
facturer'sinstructions. Thesemethodsare often
employedfor old limestainingand leachingof,
for example,calciumcarbonate.Veryeffective
cleaningagentsfor clay brickworkhave
provedto be thosebasedon hydrochloric,
phosphoricor formicacid.The masonryshould
be rinsedthoroughlywith wateraftercleaning
to makesurethat all impuritiesare removed.lt
alsopreventsthe masonryfromreabsorbing
the solution againas it dries.
Masonrysoiledby manyyearsof atmospheric
pollution shouldonlybe cleanedby specialist
contractors. lt is essentialto carryout a clean-
ingtestfirstin suchcasesto establishthe most
suitablemethodof cleaning- so thatthe
masonryremainscleanand does not suffer
anysignificant damage.
High-pressure jets of cold and hotwater,jets of
waterwithadditives,compressed-air waterjets
withadditives and chemicalcleaningprocess-
es involvingthe applicationof wettingagents,
acidicor alkalicleanersand subsequent rins-
ing haveall provedto be suitablemethodsof
cleaning.Whenchoosinga method,the effec-
tivenessof safetyrequirements and disposalof
the cleaningwatermustalso be.takeninto
account[52, 175].One commonproblem
thesedays is graffitismearedoverfacades.
150
Theycan generallybe removedby waterjets
with additivesbut softersurfaceswill suffer
underthistreatment.Specialgraffiticleaners
basedon y-butyrolactone haveprovedto be a
good alternativeto mechanicalcleaning.
Thisspecialplastic-dissolvingproductwitha
pH valuebetween5.5and 6.0 is appliedto the
facingmasonryand washedoff afterwardswith
cold waterwithoutdamagingthe surface.
2mm
Jointing
Jointingplaysa specialrolein facingmasonry
and facedwalls:it sealsthe masonryagainst
drivingrain,and lendsitthe desiredappear-
ance.The composition of the mortar,the set- .
back,consistencyand positionof the jointsur-
faces,and the way they are madeare crucial
to the weather-tightness
of facingmasonry
exposedto drivingrain.Therefore, to be effec- '
tive,jointsshouldbe water-repellentand fin-
ishedflushwiththe surfaceof the masonry-
wheneverpossible.Thejointsforma fine lattice
overthe wholesurfaceof the wall and so their
aooearancehas a decisiveinfluenceon the
characterand overallcolourof exposed
masonry. Jointingcan be carriedoutduring
construction,beforethe mortarhasfullyhard-
ened(e.9.flush,"buckethandle"), or later,
afterrakingoutthejoints(pointing) [162,164].
Flush and "bucket handle" joints
The flushjointrequiresthe visiblejointsof the
masonryto be filledcompletelywith mortar.
Surplusmortaris trimmedoff withthe trowel.
The "buckethandle"jointis formedafterthe , '
mortarhas startedto hardenby "ironingin"to a
depthof 2 mm, compactingand smoothing
with a sliverof wood,jointingironor pieceof
plastichose(diameterapprox.1.5to 2 times
thewidthof thejoint).Thesmoothing must.
alwaysbe carriedout at exactlythe righttime
and startingfromthe firstjointformedto ensure
a consistent jointcolour(see2.5.7).
The advantageof thesejointsis thattheyare '
carriedout immediately afterbuildingthe
masonryand so providehomogeneous, well-
compactedjointsformed"fromone mould",so ,
to speak,throughouttheirdepth.
However,thistype of jointingcan be carried
out properlyonlywhenbed jointsand perpends
are completelyfilledwith mortar,to avoidhav-'
ing to makegoodwhensmoothingthe joints.
Thispresupposes carefulbricklaying.
The disadvantage, thatthe facingmasonry
mustbe kept cleanduringconstruction
/

2.5.8 Pointing
becausesubsequentcleaningof the facade
couldleadto cementbeingwashedout of the
joints,can be avoidedby usinga mortarwith
goodcohesionand water-retention properties.
Thispreventsthe mortarrunningdownthe face
of the masonrywhen it inevitablysqueezesout
of thejoints.
Pointing
Thisrequiresthe jointsof exposedsurfacesto
be rakedout to deothof 15-20mm - but not as
far as the firstrow of any perforations in the
units- immediately afterconstructionby using
a slightlytaperedstripof hardwood.
Attempting to constructfacingmasonrywith
the mortarleftbackfromthe edge to saverak-
ingoutthe jointslateris not a properway of
preparingthe outerjointsubstrate,and is
thereforenot permitted.lt is alsoconsidered
ooorworkmanshio to rakeout the mortarV-
shaped.half-round or bevelledin the middleof
a joint,becausethenthe pointingmortardoes
notachievea properbondwiththe unitsand
the mortarof the joints,and consequently does
notprotectthe masonryagainstdrivingrain.
Afterrakingout,any loosepiecesof mortar
shouldbe removedfromthe facadesurfaces
andthejointsby brushingand rinsingwith
water,possiblywiththe additionof a cleaning
agent.Priorto pointing, the facadeshouldbe
saturatedwith water startingat the bottom.The
pointingmortar(mixedby machineto a "plastic"
consistency) is then pressedintothe jointsand
wellcompactedin two operations,and excess
mortarremoved,
Inthe firstoperationthe perpendsare first
compactedand thenthe bed joint;in the
secondoperationthe bed jointsfirstand then
theperpends(seefig.2.5.8).
Suitablemeasures,e.g. sprayingwithwater,
coveringwith plasticsheeting,shouldbe taken
to protectthe freshpointingagainstpremature
drying-out causedby draughts, sunshine etc.
Thecomposition of the pointingmortarshould
correspondmoreor lesswiththat of the mortar
of the joints,and shouldbe preferablyof mor-
t a r g r o u pl l a ,l l l o r l l l a .
The disadvantages of pointingarethat it
encouragesthe productionof masonrywithout
fullyfilledjoints,andthatjointingand pointing
mortarswith differentmixes,or pointingmortar
whichis too dry,leadsto diminished adhesion
betweenpointingand moftaror masonryunit.
Boththesedisadvantages weakenthe driving.
rainresistanceof the facingmasonryand, as a
result,impairthe durability of thewallconstruc-
tion.Therefore,pointingshouldbe usedonly
whena particulareffect(e.9.colour)is desired,
or whenthe surfaceof the masonrvunitis
unsuited to a flushjoint.
Jointdesign
Joint design
The componentsof a buildingare subjectedto
stressesand strainssuchas thosecausedby
temperature, creepand shrinkagedeforma-
tions;Preventingsuch deformations causes
restraintstresses,whichcan leadto cracks
appearingin the structure.Therefore, the
designershouldineludemovement jointsas a
preventivemeasureto avoidcracking.Besides
accommodating deformation,jointsmustcom-
pensatefor manufacturing and assemblytoler-
ances,and at the sametime complywith build-
ing sciencerequirements (thermal and sound.
insulation,weatherand fire protection),To do
this,theymustbe wideenoughand be filled'
with suitablematerials.
As jointsaffectthe appearanceof masonry,
they shouldbe consideredas architectural ele-
mentsin the planning. However, theyshould
be includedonlywhereabsolutelynecessary,
becausetheirconstruction and maintenance'
are costlyand involved.Jointsshouldbe
straightand positionedlogically,otheruuise
they becomecomplicatedand may not be fully
effective.
Types of joints
Jointsare dividedintomovementjoints,rigid
jointsand dummyjoints.
Movementjointsincludesettlement and expan-
sionjoints.Settlement joints(e.9.between
buildings)are calledfor whensignificantdiffer-
entialsettlementis exoectedbetweentwo or
moresectionsof a building.Theyextendover
thefullheightof thebuildingand alsopass
throughthe foundations.In such situationsit
mustbe ensuredthatthe separatepartsof the
buildingeachhavean independent three-
dimensionalbracingsystem.The riskof differ-
entialsettlementariseswhendifferentsections
of the buildingimposedifferentgroundpres-
sureson a subsoilsusceptibleto settlement or
whenthe type of subsoilchangesbeneaththe
building,Expansion joints(e.9.verticaland
horizontal jointsin facingwork)are requiredin
151
Thebuildingof masonry

2,5,9 Feasiblemovementjoint detail largecomponentsthat undergodeformation as alignedwiththe joint.As it attemptsto regain

a resultof shrinkageand temperature fluctua- itsoriginalsizeand shape,it pressesagainst
Wall expanded tions.As a rule,verticalexpansionjointscon- the sidesof the jointwith sufficientadhesionto
',/,/,/ tinuedownas far as the too of the foundations. sealit immediately. In doingso,the gasketalso
Wall contracted Thistype of deformation is lessdamagingto comoensates for the unevenness of the sides
,/././. foundations and undivided foundations tendto of the joint.Preformedgasketscompressedto
Roundclosed-cell
/2strc/cotd
compensatefor settlement. Rigidjoints(e.9. onethirdtheiroriginalsizeareadequateto
Primerforadhesion assemblyjoints,construction joints,joints createa dust-tightand airtightjoint;a gasket
7//. betweenprefabricated elements)ariseas a compressedto one fifthits originalsizecreates
Compressed gaskel
resultof the.typeof construction or building a watertightjoint.
<15mm operations.Suchjointscan alsoact as move-
mentjoints,in whichcasetheyshouldbe formed Cover strips
Compressedgasket and sealedas for suchjoints,Dummyjointsare A coverstripcan be clampedor gluedintothe
producedonlyfor appearanceand haveno jointto seal it, The contactpressureof cover
functionsregardingthe accommodation of stripsclampedintoplacemustbe adequateto
deformations or tolerances, preventthe stripdroppingout if the gap
widensas a resultof, for example,a drop in
temperature.
The sealing of ioints The adhesionof the glueto the substrateis
Sealingcompounds, preformed sealinggas- decisivefor gluedstrips.To improvethe adhe-
ketsand coverstripsare usedto sealjoints sion,the sidesof the jointmay be carefully
(seefig.2.5.9)[9]. paintedor, in the caseof a highlyabsorbent
material,sealedwith an epoxyresinsolution.'
Sealingcompounds
Here,the jointis sealedby permanently elastic Drained joints
and permanently elastoplastic one-and two- Verticalmovementjointsin facingmasonrycan
Self-adhesive
side
partcompounds, e.g.polysulphide, silicone be designedas drained,i.e.open,jointsin
rubber,polyurethane or acrylicdispersions. buildingslocatedin regionswherelessdriving
Thesematerialsare permanently elasticbut rain is to be expected,providedthe backing
deformplastically underthe influence of long- masonryand any insulationare permanently
term loadingand hencereducestresseswithin protectedagainstmoisture, e.g.an airspace,
thejoint.Theyareavailable in variouscolours plasteror plasticsheeting.Suchjointsare '
and can be expectedto last15-20years.Seal- restrictedto a maximumwidthof
ing compounds mustbe appliedin dry condi- 15 mm and reouirean outerleafthicknessof at
tionsat temperatures above+5"C.The mason- least90 mm.
ry jointson bothsidesof the movementjoint
shouldbe fullyfilledwithmortar,andthe open-
ing for the jointitselfmustbe freefrom dust, The spacing and width of joints
mortardroppings, oil and greasein orderto Thedesignof thejoints,i.e.establishing the
achieveoptimumadhesionbetweensealing widthsof the jointsand the distancesbetween
compoundand masonryand to avoidcracksin them,is carriedout by the structuralengineer
Cover strips variables: the
the longterm. and deoendson numerous
A roundbackingstripof flexiblefoamedmater- structuralconceptof the respecttvestructure;'
ial is insertedintothe openingbeforethe seal- the dimensionsof the structure;the stiffnessof
ing compoundso as to be ableto injectthe the construction with respectto changesin
compoundwith sufficientpressureand at the length;the arrangement of stiffeningelements;
sametimegiveit a suitableform.Thisso- temperaturechanges;the insulation to the
calledbackingcordmusthavea diameter of externalwalls;the shrinkageand creepbehav-
about1.5timesthewidthof thejoint,mustbe iourof the wallsand floors;the settlement i
compatible withthe sealingcompoundand anticipatedetc.
mustnot absorbanywater.Afterinjectingthe Outerleavesof masonryundergogreater
sealingcompoundusinga hand-operated or changesin lengththaninnerleavesbecause
compressed-air gun,thejoint,isgenerally sub- they are subjectedto greatertemperature
sequently givena slightlyconcaveprofile. changes.Addedto thiswe havethe differential
deformation of the leavescausedby different

ffi
\kp
Preformedsealinggaskets
Jointsmay be filledwithpreformed sealing
materialpropertiesand differentloadson the
innerand outerleaves.The advicebelow
shouldbe followedwhen designingmovement
& gasketsmadefromopen-cellplastic.foam jointsin outerleavesof masonry:
impregnatedwith a specialbitumenor poly-
' Verlicalmovementjointsare requiredat the
ffi acrylate.Therefore, the gasketsremainperma-
nentlyelastic,do not crackor becomebrittle, cornersof buildingsand alsoin longwallsat

ffi
W
alkalinesolutions.
radiationand
and are resistantto ultraviolet
The preforrnedgasketis
squeezedtogetherbeforebeing inserted,and
a spacingof max.6.0 m for lightweightcon-
creteunits,max.8.0 m for calciumsilicate
units,and 1O-16m for claybrickwork. These

152

differentfiguresdo not representdifferent
standardsbut arethe resultof the different
deformation propertiesof thesefacingmater-
ials.lf a facadeis takenaroundthe cornerof
the buildingwithouta joint,the returnshould
notbe longerthan5.0 m. In the caseof lintels
overlargewindowand dooropenings,move-
mentjointsarepositioned in linewiththewin-
dow and doorrevealsaboveand belowthe
openrngs.
. Horizontal movementjointsare required
beneathparapetsand roofoverhangs,below
balconyfloorsand beams,belowjoistsand
purlins, beneathwindowsandthresholds,
and belowsupportsfor outerleaveswhen
theyare morethan6.0 m highwith an outer
leaf< 115 mm thick,and whentheyare more
than12.0m highwithan outerleaf> 115 mm
thick.
Thewidthof the jointdependson the antici-
pateddeformation of the componentsand the
deformability
of the materialto be usedto seal
thejoint.Thewidthis usuallyfiveto seven
timesthe changein lengthto be accommo-
datedby the joint.Jointwidthsof 15-25mm
arenormallychosenand the jointsspacedto
suitthiswidth.Widerjointsare difficultto seal
propeny.
Gaugedbrickwork
Whenbuildingwithnormalor lightweight mor-
tar,the differentpositionsand heightsof the
unitscan be compensated for to a cedain
extentby adjustingthe thicknessesof the bed
joints.However,gaugedbrickworkand thin-
bed mortar(withjointthicknessesof 1-3 mm)
permitonlyminimaladjustmentof positionand
height.The resultof this is thatthe basecourse by a buitdingauthoritycertificate.
mustbe laidwith extremecare becauseit also Othertypesof fixing(anchorsand nailswithout
servesas the coursefor adjustingthe heightas certificates)
wellas the longitudinalandtransverse planari- tions.However,thesemay not be usedfor fix-
ry.
Thebasecourseis laidon a bed of normalmo- and floorslabsand also notfor attachingcur-
rtarof grouplll andthenalignedhorizontally. tainwallfacadesand thermalinsulationcom-
Small-and medium-format unitsor levelling
units- 50-125mm hlghand up to 500mm long
- areoftenused in the basecoursein conjunc-
tionwiththe actualgaugedbricks.
Oncethe basecoursehas hardened,the
gaugedbrickswiththeirassociatedthin-bed
mortarare used,startingfromthe second
course.Thebed facesofthe gaugedbricks
shouldbe brushedbeforethe thin-bedmortar
is appliedin orderto ensurea clean,smooth
bed face,whichhelpsto guaranteethe adhe-
sionbetweenunitand mortar.The thin-bed
mortaris appliedto the bed jointeitherby dip- criteria.
pingthe gaugedbricksapprox.
5 mm intothe mortaror by spreadingthe mor-
tar directlyontothe bed jointusinga special
trowel,rolleror mortarsledge,whichappliesa
constantlayerof mortarto the joint.Thewidth
fixingsin masonry
Mechanical
of the trowelor rolleror sledgeshouldmatch 2.5.10 Examplesof plasticand injectionanchors
the thicknessof the wall.Whenusinga trowel, coveredby buildingauthoritycertificates[15]
thethin-bedmortaris onlyappliedto the bed
ilil
jointtwo or threebricksaheadof the brick
beinglaid,butwhenusinga rolleror sledge,
rationalizationmeasuresdictatethatthe mortar
ww
be appliedto thewholelengthof wall.The
rollercan alsobe usedto placea glassfibre
mat betweentwo layersof thin-bedmortar
eachapprox.1 mm thick.Thehightearing
resistanceof the rnatincreasesthe compres-
sivestrengthof the masonryand the adhesive
shearstrengthbetweengaugedbricksand Plasticwall plugs
mortar.
Afterthe gaugedbrick is laid,the facesand
edgesare alignedaccuratelybeforetappingit
intoplacewitha rubberhammer. Anythin-bed
mortarthat squeezesout is trimmedoff with a
metalspatulaonce it hasstartedto harden.At
the sametime,anyflaws,e.g.unfilledper-
pendsor bed jointsor damagededges,are
madegood.
Fromtimeto time,aftera brick is laid it should
be removedagainimmediately in orderto
checkwhethera completebed of mortaris
beingachievedwiththe respectivemethodof
application.
Mechanicalfixings in masonry
Verymanydifferenttypesof neighbouring con-
structions,componentsand fittingshaveto be
fixedto masonryusinganchors,drivescrews
and nails.Thesearesubjectedto tension,
compression, shear,inclinedtensionand
bending.
Neitherstandardsnorguidelines areavailable
for assessingsuchconnections. Therefore,load-
bearingfixingsmay only use anchorscovered
may be usedfor minorapplica-
lng constructionsin the tensionzonesof roof
positesystems[43,49,78, 109,110]. lnjectionwall plugs
Anchors
Anchorsarefixingsinsertedand securedinto
holesdrilledintosolidmaterials. Theirmain
purposeis to permitthe attachmentof a whole
rangeof minoritemsbut they may also be
usedto anchorloadbearing components.
Regardlessof the type of application,they
shouldalwaysbe properlyplannedand sized.
Anchorscan be classified accordingto various
Onecommonmethodis to distinguish'
betweenthe type of anchoragein the drilled
hole- undercut, mechanical expansion, fric-
tion,grouting,a.dhesion - and the materialof
the anchor,Up to now,only plasticexpansion
anchorsand injectedgroutanchorshavebeen
153
Thebuildingof masonry

2.5.11 Methodof functioning

of anchors[13]

approvedfor fixingsin masonry(seefig. 2.5.10). geometryand the shapeof the substrate(see Anchors for autoclavedaeratedconcrete
Thereare alsospecialanchorsfor fixingther- f i g .2 . 5 . 1 1 ) . Plasticexpansionand injectionanchorswitha
mal insulationcompositesystemsand for cylindricaldrilledholeare not suitablefor auto-
anchoringwalltiesfor twin-leafmasonryand lnjectionanchors clavedaeratedconcretebecausethis material
facingmasonry.Theseanchorsystemsare in are insertedintothe wall beforeofferingup the is verysoft,is damagedby the expansion
turn basedon the plasticexpansionanchors itemto be attachedand up to now haveonly forcesand alsocannotaccommodateany
andthe injectionanchors.Finally,
thereare beenapprovedfor fixingsin hollowmasonry significantbondingforces.Therefore, special
specialwall plugsfor autoclavedaeratedcon- unrts. anchorshavebeendevelopedfor fixingsin
crete,whichpermitcomponentsto be attached Theywork by way of the bond betweenthe autoclavedaeratedconcrete.Theyare
to thisverysoftrnaterial. anchoror anchorsleeveand the substrate.The anchoredby way of conicaldrilledundercuts
bond is achievedby way of an injectedgrout virtuallywithoutany compression due to
Plasticanchors basedon rapid-hardening cementor artificial expansion,or injection,or a special?rfoflge:
can be usedfor fixingsin concreteas well as resin.However,injectionanchorsfittedin voids mentwhichallowslow expansionforcesto be
in masonryof solidand perforatedunits.They alsotransfer thetensionviathe mechanical transferred, thanksto a suitablesurfacedesign
are normallyinsertedthroughthe itemto be interlockof the injectedgroutforcedintothe and partialcompactionof the autoclavedaer-
fixedand intothe wall.The anchorsconsistof v o i d( s e ef i g .2 . 5 . 1 1 ) . ated concrete(seefig. 2.5.12).Thefixingof
a plasticsleeve,designednotto turnin the Whenusingrapid-hardening cement,the mor- componentssubjectedto heavyor dynamic
hole,and an associated screwor nail.The tar is mixedwith a prescribedamountof water loadsmay requirethe useof boltspassed
minimumdepthof anchorage is markedon beforebeingforcedintothe void by a hand- throughthe aeratedconcretewall.
the olasticsleeve.A collarat the outerend of operatedpump.The resultis thatthe void in In thiscasethewallis drilledrightthroughto
thesleeveprevents the anchorbeingpushed the masonryis moreor lessfilled.Theamount matchthe diameterof the boltand a wider
toofar intothe holeduringassembly. of mortarrequiredis minimized by using pocketformedon the rearface.The itemto be
The geometryand lengthof the screwor nail anchorssurrounded by a polyamidemesh. fixed is fittedoverthe bolt,whichpasses
are matchedto the internalgeometryand Injectionanchorsbasedon aftificialresincon- throughthe wall and is securedon the rear
lengthof the sleeveso thatthe anchoris prop- sistof a meshsleeveand a threadedbar with face,and pressedup againstthe autoclaved
erlyexpandedoncethe screwor nailis in nut and centeringring,or a metalsleevewith aeratedconcrete.Largewashersor anchor
place.However, expandingplasticanchors internalthread,plusthe artificialresinmortar. olatesare fittedto the bolton bothsidesof the
withnailsmayonlybe usedfor fixingfacades The separatecomponents,resinand hardener, wallto distributethe load
in concreteand solidmasonryunits. areforcedthrougha mixingtube and injected
Plasticanchorsmay not be usedfor pureaxial - thoroughly mixed- intothe meshsleeve.The lnstallinganchors
tension,butonlyfor inclinedtensionat an threadedbar or the sleevewith internalthread Anchorsrequirethe holeto be carefully drilled;
angleof at least10'. In solidmaterialstheten- is subsequently pushedintothe meshsleeve. lackof carewhen drillingcan leadto an over-
sionis transferredby friction.The expanded Anchoring thewallplugin theweb of a mason- sizehole,whichresultsin a rapiddecreasein
partof the anchoris pressedagainstthe side ry unitrequires the drilledholeto be carefully the pull-outstrengthof the fixing.Holesfor
of the drilledholeand henceactivatesthe fric- cleanedby brushingand compressed air in anchorsin masonrycan be drilledwith a nor-
tion.In hollowmasonryunitsthetensionis also orderto guaranteean adequatebondto trans- mal rotarydrill,a percussiondrill (rotationplus
transferredby the interlockbetweenthe anchor fer thetension. rapidpercussion action)or a hammerdrill

1U

(rotationplusslowerbut morepowerfulpercus-
sionaction). Percussion and hammerdrillsmay
be usedin solidunitswith a densemicrostruc-
ture,butoniyrotarydrillsmay be used in per-
forated,autoclavedaeratedconcreteand low-
strengthunitsso thatthe holeremainsthe
propersizeand the webs and wallsof per-
foratedunitsare not damagedby the percus-
siveaction.lt is recommended to grind normal
carbidedrills,whichare designedfor rotation
pluspercussion action,sharpin the direction
of rotation,similarto a steeldrill,to achieve
optimum progress whendrillinga holepurely
by rotation.
Withfew exceptions, the holemustbe drilledat
least10 mm deeperthanthe depthof anchor-
age.Thisleavesroomfor any dustor for the
pointof the screwto protrudethroughthe end
ofthewallplug,and henceguarantees the cor-
rectfunctioning of the anchor.
ln solidcross-sections, dust resultingfromthe
drillingshouldbe removedfromthe holedur-
ingandafterdrillingin orderto avoiddimin-
ishedfrictionand bond effects,and to guaran-
teethe load-carrying capacityof the anchor.
Therearevariouswaysof fixingthe actual
neighbouring construction, componentetc.
Theholescan be drilled(afterhavingfirstused
thefixingholesin the componentto establish
thepositionsof the holesin the wall)and the
anchorsinsertedbeforepositioning the com-
ponentagainstthe wall and screwingit into
place.Inthiscasethe anchorusuallyfinishes
flushwiththe surfaceof the wall and the diam-
eterof the holein the wall is largerthanthat of
the holein the component.Alternatively, the
holesin thewallcan be drilledusingthefixing
holesin the componentas a template(which
guarantees accuracy)and the anchors insed-
ed intothe wallthroughthe component.In this
casethe diameterof the holein the comoonent
is at leastas largeas that of the holein the
wall.Thisprocedure is particularlysuitable
wheneachcomponentrequiresmorethantwo
anchors andfor largenumbersof fixings.lt is
alsopossibleto attacha componentat a cer-
taindistancefromthe wall.A tension-and
compression-resistant fixingis achievedby
usingan injection anchorhavinga metricin-
ternalthreadintowhicha screw,bolt or
threadedbar with locknutsis fitted,
Modesof failure of anchors
Anchorscan fail as a resultof overloaded
anchoragepoints,incorrectinstallation or the
inadequate load-carryingcapacityof the sub-
strate.Plasticanchorscan fail by beingpulled
outof the substrate,althoughthis does not
seriouslydamage.A pull-outfailuremeansthat
an excessive.load has overcomethe frictionor
bondin the hole;a rupturedfixingmeansthat
thestrengthof the screwmaterialwas not ade-
quatefor the load.
Fractureof the masonrymaterialitselfis the
normalmodeof failurefor an iniectionanchor.
measures
Rationalization
Thishaooenswhenthe tensionloadsare too 2,5.12 Examplesof anchorsfor autoclavedaerated
high,the masonryis not strongenoughor the concrete
depthof anchorageis inadequate. A wall can
fractureif it is not largeenoughto carrythe
loadsor if the edgedistances or spacingsof
fixingsare too smallfor the expansionforces
introduced.
Expansionwall plug with compaction
Nail anchors
Nailsand drivescrewsare employedonlyfor
minorconstructions with low anchorageloads,
and primarilyin aeratedconcretemasonry.
Lightweightitems,e.g. battensfor wooden
panelling,arefixedin placeby drivingthe nails
or drivescrewsdirectlyintothe autoclaved
aeratedconcrete. Wall plug expandswhen expanding
The best nailsfor this aretapered,galvanized shell is forced over cone.
squarenails60-180mm longwitha roughsur-
face finish.Theyshouldbe hammeredhome
fromalternateangles.Othertypesof nails
includetwistednailsand specialnailanchors
and hammeredplugsfor autoclavedaerated
concrete.Thetwistednailgainsits anchorage
by way of frictionand expansion,the othertwo
formsby way of a mechanicalinterlock(see
fi9.2.5.13).
Through{ixingfor particu-
larlyheavyor dynamicloads
Rationalizationmeasures
Building to save space and costs
Therisingcostof buildingmeansthatthe opti-
mizationof costsand space in the housing 2.5.13 Nail anchorsfor autoclavedaeratedconcrete
marketis becomingincreasingly important. , masonry
The potentialfor optimizingthe use of the avail-
ablespaceis to be foundprincipally in exploit-
ingthe optionsfor optimizing the loadbearing
structureas containedin standardsand regu- Squarenail
lations.Theseootionsmustbe takeninto
accountearlyin the planningstageof a build-
ing project.
Onefundamental optimization optionfor the
loadbearingstructureis the regulararrange-
Twisted nail
mentof shearwalls.A regulararrangement
providesexcellent and minimizes
stability wall
thicknesses. the spansof thefloors
In addition,
can be madeequal,whichin turnminimizes
slab depthsand the amountof reinforcement
required.
Anothermeasurefor savingmoneyand space Pr+ Aerated concrete
nailanchor
is to reducethe thicknessesof loadbearing
wallsto the minimumdimension necessary to
satisfystructuraland buildingsciencerequire-
mentsby employingthe moreaccuratemethod
of analysis.Accordingto DIN1053part1, the
minimumthicknessfor loadbearinginternal
and externalwalls,as well as the loadbearing
leafof twin-leafexternalwalls,is 115 mm. How-
ever,a minimum wallthickness of 175mm is
recommended for single-leafexternalwalls
with a thermalinsulationsystemin orderto. P,-, Aerated concrete
hammeredplug
complywiththermaland soundinsulation P.-b,
requirements. Internalpartitions> 115 mm may
155
Thebuildingof masonry

2.5.14 Workinghoursguidancefigures[h/m3] be considered as loadbearing. Thegainin mortarfrom 50 l/m3for a thick joint to 5 l/msfor
floorareawhen usingmasonrywallswiththese a thinjoint.Moreover,the applicationof a con-
Conventional minimumthicknessesis aoprox.5-7o/o aom- stantbed of modarusinga modarsledgeor
- masonry paredto the commonwallthicknesses of 240- specialtrowel,and the resultinglayingof a row
2 D F/ 3 D F 365 mm. In addition,fewermasonryunitsand of masonryunits,achievesa time savingof up
/q
4.60 h/m' lessmortarare required.Furthermore, thin 1o25o/o.The bricklayers workin pairs,,one
masonryis moreflexibleand thereforeless spreading thethin-bedmortaralongthewall
4.O liableto crackthanthickermasonry, in which withthe mortarsledgeor specialtrowel,and
the structuralstressesare lower.The use of a the otherlayingrowsof masonryunitsin the
3.5 skimcoat insteadof 15-20mm "normalplaster" preparedmortarbed [75;.
can alsoachievean additional gainin floor in masonryconstruction
Furtherrationalization
areaamounting to approx.2% dependingon can be achievedby usingthevariousspecial
the sizeof the room.However,masonrywalls unitsand specialcomponentsproducedby the
2.5 with largeslenderness ratioscall for the use of masonryindustry(see"Specialformats,spe-
masonryunitswith high strengthand high cialunits").Theaimhere,in padicular, is to
2.0
grossdensity,as well as high-quality mortar integrateothermaterials- steeland concrete-
gauged elements ( M Gl l l ,M G l l l a ,D M ) .T h ea c t u abl u i l d i n o
gf requiredfor structuralreasonsintoan essen-
999 x 623 x 300 mm masonryat an optimizedcost is lessa question tiallyhomogeneous masonryconstruction,
of optimizingthe loadbearingstructurethana while reducingthe workrequiredto integrate
matterfor rationalized buildingoperations, the suchmaterials.
useof large-format masonryunitsand special
buildingmethods(e.9.prefabricated construc-
t i o n )[ 1 3 9 ,1 4 0 ] . The quantitiesof materialsand numberof
working hours required
can be determinedtheoretically but are subject
Rational laying techniques to considerable fluctuationinpractice.Organi-
The aim of rationalbricklayingis to minimize zationon the buildingsite is criticalfor this.To
the numberof operationsto be carriedout by calculate the numberof unitsrequired, it is
the bricklayer whenbuildinga wall,and at the important,for example,to knowwhetherthe
sametimeto adaptthe ergonomicsof the work unitswill be cut on sitewith a hammeror witha
to meetthe needsof the bricklayerbetter, saw.The amountof mortarrequiredis,for
The handlingof the masonryunitsthemselves example,approx.25-30o/o lowerfor masonry'
is crucialto manualbricklaying. for
Therefore, ' withoutmortarto the perpendsthanfor mason-
example, the calciumsilicateindustryhas ry with mortarto the perpends.In Germany,
developed grip aidswithgrip bar andthumb- comprehensive guidancefiguresfor working
holeespeciallyfor theirheavyblocksfor brick- hourshavebeenpublishedby the Federal
layersto be ableto handlethe blockseasily. Committeefor Performance-linked Pay.These
The bricklayerno longerhasto relyon the fric- includeancillaryworksuch as instruction, mix-:
tion betweenhisfingersand the surfaceof the ing mortar,movingscaffolds,settingout and
masonryunitto grip it. Apartfromthat,there buildingopenings, cleaningtheworkplace etc.
are also blockswith grip aids at the bottomfor Thefiguresclearlyrevealthe influences of the
whenthe bricklayerhasto workon sections sizeof the masonryunit;whetherbricklayingis
m o r e t h a n lm h i g h . carriedout by handor witha handlingdevice;
Above'acertainweight,handlingdevicesare the use of thin-bedmortarand the omissionof
usedto reducethe physicalstrainof lifting mortarto the perpends(seefig.2.5.14).The
such heavymasonryunits.At the sametime, speeding-upof operationswhen usinglarge-
productivityis improved(see"Large-format formatinsteadof small-format unitscan be
elements"). Furtherrationalization measuresfor attributedto the sizeof the unitsbut alsothe
bricklayingare the useof masonrywithoutmor- techniqueof layingrowsof unitsin thin-bed
tar to the perpends(see"Layingwithoutmortar modar.The economicadvantagegrowswith
to the perpends"), the useof thin-bedmasonry the manufacturing accuracyof the masonry
and the omissionof bondedintersections unitsbecauseas deviationsdiminishso the
betweenwalls(see"Butt-jointed junctions"). mortarbed can be reducedto a minimum:sav-
Buildingwallswithoutmortarto the perpends ings in time and materialsarethe result.At the
involvesusingmasonryunitswith an integral sametime,the wall becomesmorehomoge-
tongueand groovesystem,whichcan then be neous- withallthe advantages thisimpliesin
interlocked withoutusingmortar.Tiltedbricks termsof structure and buildingscience.
areavoidedby guidingeachtongueand
groovetogether, whichhelpsproducea.plane Organizing thebuitding site andbtuitding
wall surface.The construction of masonrywith operations
conventional 10-12mm perpendsand bed Rationalconstruction of masonryalsomeans
jointsmeansthat 55% of the bricklayer's time is carefulplanningof siteand operationsin order
spentwiththe mortar.The use of the thin-bed to avoidframeworkconditionsthat makeit
techniquein conjunction withtongueand unnecessarily Thisincludesthe right
difficult.
groovemasonryunitscutsthe consumption of use of personnel;choiceof materials; timely

156

I

organization and suitablelocationof stored
materials; preparations for optimumuse of
materials (theuse of premixedmortar,pretreat-
mentof masonryunitsetc.);and the rightuse
of resources for bricklayingoperations(e.9.
handlingdevices,workingplatforms,mortar
sledgeetc.).Disruptions to on-siteoperations
havea greatereffecton the degreeof rational-
izationwhenusinglarge-format masonryunits,
whichresultin fewerworkinghoursper m2of
wall,thanwhenworkingwith smail-format units.
Thecorrectprovisionof masonryunitsand
mortarat the righttime,in sufficientquantities
andat the rightplaceis especiallyimportantif
the bricklayeris to avoidunnecessary walking
andmovements whenworking.Thisis alsotrue
whenusinghandlingdevices.To achieveopti.
mumhandling times,it mustbe ensuredthat-
eachdeliveryof masonryunitsis stackedat
theplaceof work in a rowwithoutany gaps.
Thisguarantees thatthe optimumnumberof
unitsis laidper handlingroutinewiththe preset
handlingparameters. However,too many
materials storedwithinthe buildingcan alsobe
a disadvantage becausethis can hamperthe
movement of scaffoldsor handlingdevices.
Thedistancebetweenbricklayersshouldbe
about2,5-3.0m in orderto achievea regular
workingrhythm,One bricklayerper 3.0 m of
walllengthbringsabouta 25/o increasein per-
formanceoverone bricklayerper 2.0 m
becausethereare lessinterruptions to the
workingrhythm.
Theuseof a mortarsledgemeansthatthe dis-
tancebetweenbricklayersand to the tub of
mortarcan be increasedstillfurtherbecause,
withonefilling,longerlengthsof wallcan be
providedwitha constantbed of mortarthan is
thecasewhenusinga trowel.The bricklayer
hasto walkand movelessand so the working
rhythmis againmademoreconsistent.
Scaffolds
Theheightof the work is criticalto the perfor-
mance,fatigueand healthof the bricklayer,
particularlywhen layinglarge-formatmasonry
units.The timeand effortrequiredto lay a unit
is lowestfor workingheightsbetween600 and
800 mm.Scaffoldheightsshouldbe variable
so thatthis optimumworkingheightcan be
maintainedfor the entirewall.Modernsteel
scaffoldsare usefulherebeeausethey permit
scaffoldboardsto be placedevery500 mm in
height.In addition,eltensionbracketscan be
suspended500 mm beloweachworkinglevel
on thewallsideto avoidunnecessary bending,
Trestlesand scaffoldson screwsupportswith
infiniteheightadjustmentmeanthatthe work-
ing heightcan be adjustedto suitthe brick-
layer,and so improvesthe ergonomicsof the
WOTK.
ln contrastto scaffoldson adjustablesupports,
the bricklayer'splatformwith or withoutintegral
hoistprovidesa largerworkingareaenabling
the buildingof wallsup to 4.0 m long.Such
olatformsalsohavetheirown wheelsand so
can be readilymovedto a new location,or
easilyliftedby crane- representing a major
economicadvantage.Withan integralhoist,
evenlargermasonryformatscan be laid quick-
ly, accuratelyand withoutfatigue.
Templates
The buildingof cornersor windowand door
revealsare particularlycomplicatedoperations
becauseof the amountof plumbingand meas-
uringworkinvolved. Reusable cornerand
openingtemplates, whichindicatethe vertical
and horizontalpositionsof coursesand units,
can makesuchworkmucheasier.Buildingthe
cornersfirstwiththe associatedrackingback
is no longernecessary. Whenlayingthe base
course,in whichany unevenness in thefloor
hasto be comoensated for and so establishes
the basisfor the accuracyof subsequent
courses,a noticeablerationalization effectis
achievedwhenusinga template, aboveall in
the nextcourse.An increasein productivityis
particularlyevidentwhen doorsand windows,
or at leasttheirframes,are incorporated as
measures
Rationalization
prefabricated
elementsand simplybuiltaround
in oneooeration.
Rational working with large-format masonry units
Large-format masonryunitqand elementsare
thosewith lengthsof 498-998mm and heights
of 373-623mm.The lengthand heightresult
fromthe useof thin-bedmortarwith bed joint
and perpendthicknesses of 1-3mm.To
reducecostsstillfurther,the perpendsarefre-
quentlytongueand grooveunitsbuttedtogeth-
er withoutmortar(see"Large-format ele-
ments").
Thehighlayingrateswithhandlingdevices
and two-manteams,the useof thin-bedmortar
and the reductionin subsequentworkowingto
the simpleand accuratelayingof the unitsare
the rationalizationpossibilitieswhichcan be
expectedfromthe use of large{ormatmasonry
units.The rationallayingprocessmeansthat a
lengthof up to 1.25m of masonryin course
heightsof 375-750mm can be constructedin
one operation.Thiscorrespondsto ratesof up
to approx.0.94m2of finishedmasonryper
operation.Thisis especiallyworthwhile for
largeuninterrupted areasof wall,but in other
situationsthe rationalizationeffectcan stillbe
guaranteedby usingsupplementary formats,
make-uppiecesor specials.
Thetwo-manteamrationalizes bricklaying
activitiesbecauseone manoperatesthe han-
dlingdeviceand is onlyresponsible for
preparatorywork (supplyingmasonryunitsand
moftar,pickingup unitsand transporting them
to the placewherethey areto be laid),while
the otherman carriesout the actualbricklay-
ing,i,e.spreading the layerof mortarwitha
mortarsledgeor similartool,layingand align-
ing the units,Consequently, workingratesof
approx.0.33h/m2for uninterrupted flatwalls
andO.42h/m2'for otherwallscan be achieved.
In orderto limitthe physicalstrainon the brick-
layer,the useof large-format masonryunits
has led to the introductionof a maximumper-
 Thebuildingof masonry

2.5.15 Installation
drawingsfor modularmasonry

Calciumsilicategauged eiementwall with few interruptions

262O+ 1262O+
T:T x
oii
NI
3 ^l i2o+
It - - , - l - - .. 2 0 +
-TI FFL := FFL
-r-
N

Gable wall

6029+ 6029+
o'-l
6 s z t o+
t
yY $N
(,O
-13710+ o
2982+
.* 26T0 +
= ^ - ^ - + q9J 2
_ 7595
6 1 5+
^-^-
-
---- 3300 1200| 3300 I N

3900 3900 |

-- 7800 |
2.5.16 Prefabricatedsyslemwalls

missible weight- includinglevelsof moisture bricklayerdespitethe fact that improvedpro- bondingbecausethe lowernumberof per-
commonon site- for masonryunitswhen lay- ductivityis expectedfroma smallernumberof pends(andfrequently the useof perpends
ing by hand,Themaximum weightlimitsare bricklayers. Theuseof a handlingdevicein a withoutmortar)meansfeweropporiunities for
mandatoryand are stipulatedin an information two-manteamonly contributes to moreratronal compensation alongthe lengthof the wall.This
sheetpublishedby the Bau-Berufsgenossen- masonryconstruction whenthe perpends limitsthe load-carryingcapacityof the mason-
schaften(Building Employers' LiabilityInsur- makeuse of the tongueand groovesystem ry.
anceAssociations) [132],and are basedon withoutmodar(becauseseveralunitsare Consequently, large-formatunitsmustbe di-
extensiveergonomicstudies.The informa,tion grippedsimultaneously), whentheteamis fully videdwith a bolsterchiselor a mason'sham-
sheetdistinguishes betweenthe one-handand familiarwiththis systemand eachother,and meror betterstill- especially
for thin-bed
the two-handlift. whena continuoustransportchainfrompro- masonry- by accuratesawing.Handsawswith
The one-handliftmeansthatthe masonryunit ductionto placementis guaranteed. Therefore, a hardenedblade,diamondcuttingdiscs,
can be pickedup withone handand laidwith- the groupsof masonryunitsshouldbe aligned bandsawsor chainsawsmay be used.Clean
outunnecessary physicalstrain.Themaximum in rowswiththe tongueand grooveend faces edgescan be producedwiththe aid of guides
permissible weightof a unltis 7.5 kg for a grip interlocking so thatthey can be readilylifted and templates.Cutiingdiscsgenerallylast
widthof up to 70 mm, and 6.0 kg for a grip intoplaceby the handlingdevice.Thefastest longerthan bandsawsor chainsaws.
w i d t ho f u p t o 1 1 5m m . workingtimesareachievedwhenthe groupsof
Thetwo-handlift meansthatthe masonryunit masonryunitsare stackedbetweenthe han-
exceedsthe maximumvaluesfor the one-hand dlingdeviceandthe bricklayer. Modular
However, masonry
it
lift.The maximumweightof a unitis 25 kg. shouldbe notedthat a concentratedThe ideaof modularmasonrywas developed
arrange-
Suchunitsmustbe providedwithgripaidsor by the calciumsilicateand autoclavedaerated
mentof masonryunitsand handlingdevice
be designedin sucha way thattheycan be placesa heavyloadon the floorwhichmay
concreteindustries. The benefitthat modular
grippedin bothhandsusingsuitabletoolsand masonrybringsto rationalization
needto be carriedby temporaryadditional is thatthe
laidmanually, Heavyunitsshouldbe liftedand large-format
supportsbeneaththe floor.Adequatecircula- masonryunitsfor eachwallare
laidby meansof a handlingdevice. deliveredto siteas factory-made
tion zonesare necessaryin orderto be ableto wall "kits",
movethe handlingdevicefromplaceto place.
includingall make-upand complementary
Masonryunit handlingdevices units,togetherwith computer-produced
This is helpedby usingbutt-jointed wall inter- instal-
Theuseof liftingequipment or handling lationdrawingsfor a fixedprice(see2.5.15).
sections,whichavoidthe needfor projecting
devicesis necessaryfor masonryunitformats ln addition,the manufacturer
rackingor toothedreturns,so that crosswalls of the masonry
largerthan16 DFfor 240mm thickwallsand can be builtat a laterdate. unitsprovidesthethin-bedmortar,handling
10 DFfor 365 mm thickwallsor for masonry devicesand accessories.
unitsweighingmorethan25 kg.Travelling Thecuttingof large-formatmasonryunits Thedesignof thewalls(dimensions, layout
mini-cranes with a load-carryingcapacityof up The productionof propermasonrybonds,as and sizesof openings)mustbe coordinated
to 300 kg situatedon the respectivefloorare well as the needto constructgivenwall and withthe buildingsystemor the large-format
increasingly beingemployedfor thiswork. columnsizes,makesit necessary to divide, unitsin orderto minimize the numberof precut
Depending on the sizeof the units,up to five cut and bevellarge-format units.Whilesmall- make-upand complementary unitsand hence
large-format unitscan be grippedand laidside formatunitscan be cut with a brickor scutch the cost of materials.Flatpanelsof masonry
by sidein one lift,i.e.approx.1 m2of wallarea hammer, thisis nota suitablemethodfor large- withoutinterruptionsin cellularconstruction are
can be producedin two lifts.Handlingdevices formatunitsbecauseit wouldcreatetoo much advantageous.
are normallyusedin conjunctionwiththe two- unnecessary wastage.Moreover,cuttingwith a The installation drawingsand instructions sim-
manteamsdescribedabove.Theyconsider- hammeror similartoolis inaccurate. In mason- plifyand acceleratethe erectionof masonry
ablyrelievethe physicalstrainon the individual ry of large-formatunitsthis leadsto incorrect unitsdeliveredas kits.This leadsto a

158
 Rationalization
measures

2,5,17 Gable in the form of a clav brickworkoanel 2.5.18 Clayfacade elements(Schatz-Preton

system)

considerable reduction in labourcosts,also entirelength,wherebythe depthof bearingfor detachedhouseto be completedin just3-5

helpedby the complementary unitssupplied. wallswithfloorloadsto one side onlymustbe days.Onlyminimalsitefacilities arerequired
ln addition,cuttingthe unitson siteand the at leasthalfthe thicknessof the wallor 120mm, and at the sametimethe environmental pollu-
costlydisposalof wasteare avoided.The sim- Thefloors(alsoroofs)are to be formedas rigid tion due to noiseand dirtfromthe bllildingsite
ple installation
of wall kitscan also be carried plates- equivalent measures (e.9.structurally is minimized.Anothercost-savingresultsfrom
out by the unskilledin a "do-it-yourself"
type of designedcappingbeams)arenotpermitted. the fact thatfactoryprefabrication meansthe
construction, whichagainsaveslabourcosts. Thestability of drywallingshouldbe verified components areessentiallydrywhendeliv-
by way of variouscomponenttestsas well as ered,whichmeansthatlessenergyis required
Dry walling specialstructuralanalyseswith regardto buck- for dryingoutthe building(seefigs.2.5.16 and
is builtby layingmasonryunitsin a bondbut linglengths,bondsetc.[79]. 2.5.17).
withoutany mortarto the perpendsor the bed Besidestheirusefor loadbearing, single-leaf
joints.To achievethis,the masonryunitsmust Prefabric ated constru ction masonry,prefabricated elementsare increas-
exhibita veryhighstandardof qualitywith The advantagesand economiceffectiveness inglybeingusedfor curtainwallmasonry
regardto deviationsfromthe intendedheight of orefabricated construction lie in the rational facades.Suchfacadeelements - up to 8.0m
dimensions and in termsof theflatnessand prefabrication of wallelements underoptimum, longand 3.6m high- are producedrationally
parallelism of bed faces.Layingthe unitswith- industrial conditionsin the factory,thefasterec- and unaffectedby the weatherin the factory
outmortarto perpendsor bed jointsachieves tionusingcranesandthesubsequent simple accordingto the guidelines for reinforced
furtherrationalization in the constructionof structuralconnectionof elementson siteto masonrywithfrost-resistant facingor engineer-
masonry becausethe operations for supplying thusforma homogeneous wall or structure. ing bricks.Factoryproductionensuresa con-
themortar,applyingit and removingsurplus The elementsare manufactured in the factory sistentand high-quality outerleafwithrespect
mortarafterlayingthe unitsareall eliminated, as brickworkpanels,cast panelsor composite to jointpattern,colourof unitsand mortar,full
Thisimprovesthe ergonomicsof bricklaying panels(see"Prefabricated masonryelements") jointswithoutvoids,evenjointingetc.ln addi-
(number of bendingandturningmovements) to matchthe respectivestoreyheightsand tion,blinds,lintelsand archesas wellas
and hencemakesthe workingrhythmof the incorporateall necessaryopeningsand ser- specialtexturescan be incorporated (seefig.
bricklayermoreuniform.Thisleadsto lesstime vice ducts.Theyare reinforcedhorizontally 2.5.18).
beingrequiredto constructeachsquaremetre and verticallyfor transportand erectlon.Indus-
of wall.In addition, the omission of thin-bed trialprefabrication renderspossiblethe useof
mortarsavesnot only labourcostsbut material computer-assisted machinery (e.9.masonry
costsas well. robots)to achievea high dailyoutputwith a
As so far thereis very littleexperienceof dry consistently highstandardof qualitybut at the
wallingin practice,its useis currently regul- sametime low labourcosts.
atedby way of generalbuildingauthoritycer- Delivering the elements to the buildingsite"just
tificates,Theserestrictthe use of dry walling in time"andtheirrapidand economicerection
to buildingswith up to threestoreysor a speedsup progresson siteand requiresonlya
heightabovegroundlevelof max.10 m, to few personnel. Smootherectionon sitedemands
clearstoreyheightsof max.2.75m, and to good preparations (instrugtion of personnel,
floorspansof max.6.0 m, Apartfromthat, specification of erectionprocedure,prepara-
drywallingmay not be usedfor reinforced tion of cranehardstanding and temporarysup-
masonry, vaulting,arches,brickarchfloors portsetc.)and usuallythe useof a mobile
or cnrmneys. crane.Abovebasementlevel,this methodof
Drywallingmustbe loadedby floorsalongits construction allowsthe primarystructureof a

159