Preface

Power generation is an important issue today, especially on the West Coast. Demand is outweighing supply because of lack of incentives for the utilities industry to build additional power plants over the past 10 !0 years. "lectrical innovations #such as the personal computer$ were not accounted for in earlier predictions of power utili%ation and, now, the country is in dire need of streamlining the current power plants while pushing through as many applications as possible for new power plants. &n response to this situation, power generation engineers will be in high demand. 'hese engineers must have a thorough understanding of thermodynamics and, in particular, the (rayton cycle. &t is the backbone of power generation. &n order to deepen knowledge of how the (rayton cycle is applied at power generation plants, an interview was conducted via e mail with (rian )awson, who has obtained the P.". designation and is the *enior +echanical "ngineer for *ierra Pacific Power Company,s 'racy Power -enerating *tation. 'his station provides a total electrical power output of ./. +W and supplies the ma0ority of the population in northern 1evada. 'he italici%ed 2uestions and answers asked and obtained are integrated throughout the various topics to provide further insight and understanding for the beginning engineer entering the power generation field. 3urther, bolded words are defined in detail at the end of each paragraph.

INDUSTRY BACKGROUND AND ACTIVITIES

(4") is an integrated power plant e2uipment manufacturer and one of the largest engineering and manufacturing companies in &ndia in terms of turnover. &t was established in 156., ushering in the indigenous 4eavy "lectrical "2uipment industry in &ndia a dream that has been more than reali%ed with a well recogni%ed track record of performance. 'he company has been earning profits continuously since 1571 7! and paying dividends since 1576 77. With a workforce of about .5,850 it is one of the largest industry in &ndia 'hey are engaged in the design, engineering, manufacture, construction, testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and services for the core sectors of the economy, vi%. Power, 'ransmission, &ndustry, 'ransportation #9ailway$, 9enewable "nergy, :il ; -as and Defense. &t has 1/ manufacturing divisions, two repair units, four regional offices, eight service centers and 1/ regional centers and currently operate at more than 1/0 pro0ect sites across &ndia and abroad.. 'he high level of 2uality ; reliability of the products is due to adherence to international standards by ac2uiring and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world including -eneral "lectric Company, <lston *<, *iemens <and +itsubishi 4eavy &ndustries )td., together with technologies developed in their own 9;D centers. +ost of the manufacturing units and other entities have been accredited to =uality +anagement *ystems #&*: 5001>!00?$, "nvironmental +anagement *ystems #&*: 1.001>!00.$ and :ccupational 4ealth ; *afety +anagement *ystems #:4*<* 1?001>!007$. (4") has a share of /5@ in &ndiaAs total installed generating capacity contributing 65@ #approB.$ to the total power generated from utility sets #eBcluding non conventional capacity$ as of +arch 81, !01!.

'hey have been eBporting power and industry segment products and services for over .0 years. (4")As global references are spread across 7/ countries. 'he cumulative overseas installed capacity of (4") manufactured power plants eBceeds 5,000 +W across !1 countries including +alaysia, :man, &ra2, the C<", (hutan, "gypt and 1ew Dealand. Physical eBports range from turnkey pro0ects to after sales services. BHEL Hyderabad <s a member of the prestigious A(4") familyA, (4") 4yderabad has earned a reputation as one of its most important manufacturing units, contributing its lionAs share in (4") CorporationAs,overall,business,operations. 'he 4yderabad unit was set up in 1568 and started its operations with manufacture of 'urbo generator sets and auBiliaries for 60 and 110 +W thermal utility sets. :ver the years it has increased its capacity range and diversified its operations to many other areas. 'oday, a wide range of products are manufactured in this unit, catering to the needs of variety of industries like 3ertili%ers ; Chemicals, Petrochemicals ; 9efineries , Paper,sugar,steeletc. (4") 4yderabad unit has collaborations with world renowned +1Cs like +E* -eneral "lectric, C*<, +E* *iemens, -ermany, +E* 1uevo Pignone, etc. +a0or products manufactured include turbines, compressors, heat eBchangers, pumps, gear boB, oil rigs, switch gears etc.

I. INTRODUCTION A. General 'he +*6/?1(, a single shaft gas turbine, is mounted on a platform or base which supports the basic gas turbine unit. 'he various assemblies, systems and components that comprise the compressor, combustion and turbine sections of the gas turbine are described in the teBt which follows. B. De a!l Or!en a !"n (y definition, the air inlet of the gas turbine is the forward end, while the eBhaust is the aft end. 'he forward and aft ends of each component are determined in like manner with respect to its orientation within the complete unit. 'he right and left sides of the turbine or of a particular component are determined by standing forward and looking aft. 3igure 1 shows the compressor rotor half section. :n a drawing or picture, the forward end is usually on the left and the aft end is on the right. II. CO#PRESSOR SECTION A. General 'he aBial flow compressor section consists of the compressor rotor and the compressor casing. Within the compressor casing are the variable inlet guide vanes, the various stages of rotor and stator blading, and the eBit guide vanes. &n the compressor, air is confined to the space between the rotor and stator where it is compressed in stages by a series of alternate rotating #rotor$ and stationary #stator$ airfoil shaped blades. 'he rotor blades supply the force needed to compress the air in each stage and the stator blades guide the air so that it enters the following rotor stage at the proper angle. 'he compressed air eBits through the compressor discharge casing to the combustion chambers. <ir is eBtracted from the compressor for turbine cooling and for pulsation control during startup .

B. R" "r 'he compressor portion of the gas turbine rotor is an assembly of wheels, a speed ring, ties bolts, the compressor rotor blades, and a forward stub shaft #see 3igure 1$."ach wheel has slots broached around its periphery. 'he rotor blades and spacers are inserted into these slots and held in aBial position by staking at each end of the slot. 'he wheels are assembled to each other with mating rabbets for concentricity control and are held together with tie bolts. *elective positioning of the wheels is made during assembly to reduce balance correction.

<fter assembly, the rotor is dynamically balanced. 'he forward stub shaft is machined to provide the thrust collar which carries the forward and aft thrust loads. 'he stub shaft also provides the 0ournal for the 1o. 1 bearing, the sealing surface for the 1o. 1 bearing oil seals and the compressor low pressure air seal. 'he stage 17 wheel carries the rotor blades and also provides the sealing surface for the high pressure air seal and the compressor to turbine marriage flange. C. S a "r $. General 'he casing area of the compressor section is composed of three ma0or sections. 'hese are the> a. &nlet casing b. Compressor casing c. Compressor discharge casing 'hese casings, in con0unction with the turbine casing, form the primary structure of the gas turbine. 'hey support the rotor at the bearing points and constitute the outer wall of the gas path annulus. <ll of these casings are split hori%ontally to facilitate servicing. %. Inle Ca&!n' 'he inlet casing #see 3igure !$ is located at the forward end of the gas turbine. &ts prime function is to uniformly direct air into the compressor. 'he inlet casing also supports the F1 bearing assembly. 'he F1 bearing lower half housing is integrally cast with the inner bell mouth. 'he upper half bearing housing is a separate casting, flanged and bolted to the lower half. 'he inner bell mouth is positioned to the outer bell mouth by nine airfoil shaped radial struts. 'he struts are integral to the casting. 'hey also transfer the structural loads from the ad0oining casing to the forward support which is bolted and doweled to this inlet casing. Gariable inlet guide vanes are located at the aft end of the inlet casing and are mechanically positioned, by a control ring and pinion gear arrangement connected to a hydraulic actuator drive and linkage arm assembly. 'he position of these vanes has an effect on the 2uantity of compressor inlet air flow. (. C")*re&&"r Ca&!n'& 'he forward compressor casing contains the stage 0 through stage . compressor stator stages. 'he compressor casing lower half is e2uipped with two large integrally cast trunnions which are used to lift the gas turbine when it is separated from its base. 'he aft compressor casing contains stage / through stage 1! compressor stator stages. "Btraction ports in aft casing permit removal of 18th stage compressor air. 'his air is used for cooling functions and is also used for pulsation control during startup and shutdown.

+. C")*re&&"r D!&c,ar'e Ca&!n' 'he compressor discharge casing is the final portion of the compressor section. &t is the longest single casting, is situated at midpoint H between the forward and aft supports H and is, in effect, the keystone of the gas turbine structure. 'he compressor discharge casing contains the final compressor stages, forms both the inner and outer walls of the compressor diffuser, and 0oins the compressor and turbine casings. 'he discharge casing also provides support for the combustion outer casings and the inner support of the first stage turbine no%%le. Gas Turbine Functional Description: 'he compressor discharge casing consists of two cylinders, one being a continuation of the compressor casing and the other being an inner cylinder that surrounds the compressor rotor. 'he two cylinders are concentrically positioned by siB radial struts. < diffuser is formed by the tapered annulus between the outer cylinder and inner cylinder of the discharge casing. 'he diffuser converts some of the compressor eBit velocity into added static pressure for the combustion air supply.

-. Blad!n' 'he compressor rotor and stator blades are airfoil shaped and designed to compress air efficiently at high blade tip velocities. 'he blades are attached to the compressor wheels by dovetail arrangements. 'he dovetail is very precise in si%e and position to maintain each blade in the desired position and location on the wheel. 'he compressor stators

blades are airfoil shaped and are mounted by similar dovetails into ring segments in the first five stages. 'he ring segments are inserted into circumferential grooves in the casing and are held in place with locking keys. 'he stator blades of the remaining stages have a s2uare base dovetail and are inserted directly into circumferential grooves in the casing. )ocking keys hold them in place. IV. #ULTI NO..LE /UIET CO#BUSTOR CO#BUSTION SYSTE# A. General 'he combustion system is of the reverse flow type with the 6 combustion chambers arranged around the periphery of the compressor discharge casing as shown on 3igure 8. Combustion chambers are numbered counterclockwise when viewed looking downstream and starting from the top of the machine. 'his system also includes the fuel no%%les, a spark plug ignition system, flame detectors, and crossfire tubes. 4ot gases, generated from burning fuel in the combustion chambers, flow through the impingement cooled transition pieces to the turbine. 4igh pressure air from the compressor discharge is directed around the transition pieces. *ome of the air enters the holes in the impingement sleeve to cool the transition pieces and flows into the flow sleeve. 'he rest enters the annulus between the flow sleeve and the combustion liner through holes in the downstream end of the flow sleeve. #*ee 3igure .$. 'his air enters the combustion %one through metering holes for proper fuel combustion and through slots to cool the combustion liner. 3uel is supplied to each combustion chamber through siB no%%les designed to disperse and miB the fuel with the proper amount of combustion air. B. O0 er C")b0& !"n C,a)ber& and 1l"2 Slee3e& 'he outer combustion casings #3igure /$ act as the pressure shells for the combustors. 'hey also provide flanges for the fuel no%%le end cover assemblies, crossfire tube flanges, and, where called for, spark plugs, flame detectors and false start drains. 'he flow sleeves #3igure 6$ form an annular space around the cap and liner assemblies that directs the combustion and cooling air flows into the reaction region. C. Cr"&&f!re T0be& <ll combustion chambers are interconnected by means of crossfire tubes. 'he outer chambers are connected with an outer crossfire tube and the combustion liner primary %ones are connected by the inner crossfire tubes.

D. 10el N"44le End C"3er& 'he +*60013< multi no%%le combustor utili%es siB fuel no%%les in each combustion end cover in con0unction with provisions for water in0ection. 'ypical fuel no%%le and liner arrangements, for the end cover e2uipped with water in0ection, are illustrated in 3igure7, ? and 5.:n the multi no%%le combustor, the fuel no%%le is functionally integrated with the combustor end cover as shown in 3igures . and 7. &nternal manifolds within the cover supply atomi%ing air to the siB fuel no%%les. :il and water are delivered through breech loaded no%%le assemblies. Combustion air is provided by the outer gas tip. E. Ca* and L!ner A&&e)bl!e& 'he combustion liners #3igure 5$ use conventional cooling slots. 'he cap #3igure 5<$ has siB floating collars to engage each of the siB fuel no%%le tips. &t is cooled by a combination of film cooling and impingement cooling and has thermal barrier coating on the inner surfaces. 1. S*ar5 Pl0'& Combustion is initiated by means of the discharge from two retractable spark plugs which are bolted to flanges on the combustion casings and centered within the liner and flow sleeve in ad0acent combustion chambers. < typical spark plug arrangement is shown in 3igure 10. 'hese plugs receive their energy from high energy capacitor discharge power supplies. <t the time of firing, a spark at one or both of these plugs ignites the gases in a chamberI the remaining chambers are ignited by crossfire through the tubes that interconnect the reaction %one of the remaining chambers. G. Ul ra3!"le 1la)e De ec "r& During the starting se2uence, it is essential that an indication of the presence or absence of flame be transmitted to the control system. 3or this reason, a flame monitoring system is used consisting of multiple flame detectors located as shown on 3igure 8. 'he ultraviolet flame sensor contains a gas filled detector. 'he gas within this detector is sensitive to the presence of ultraviolet radiation which is emitted by a flame. < DC voltage, supplied by the amplifier, is impressed across the detector terminals. &f flame is present, the ioni%ation of the gas in the detector allows conduction in the circuit which activates the electronics to give an output indicating flame. Conversely, the absence of flame will generate an output indicating no flame. 'he signals from the four flame detectors are sent to the control system which uses an internal logic system to determine whether a flame or loss of flame condition eBists.

V. TURBINE SECTION A. General 'he three stage turbine section is the area in which energy in the form of high temperature pressuri%ed gas, produced by the compressor and combustion sections, is converted to mechanical energy. -as turbine hardware includes the turbine rotor, turbine casing, eBhaust frame, eBhaust diffuser, no%%les, and shrouds.

B. T0rb!ne R" "r

$. S r0c 0re 'he turbine rotor assembly, shown in 3igure 1!, consists of the forward and aft turbine wheel shafts and the first , second and third stage turbine wheel assemblies with spacers and turbine buckets. Concentricity control is achieved with mating rabbets on the turbine wheels, wheel shafts, and spacers. 'he wheels are held together with through bolts mating up with bolting flanges on the wheel shafts and spacers. *elective positioning of rotor members is performed to minimi%e balance corrections. %. 6,eel S,af & 'he turbine rotor distance piece eBtends from the first stage turbine wheel to the aft flange of the compressor rotor assembly. 'he turbine rotor aft shaft includes the F! bearing 0ournal. (. 6,eel A&&e)bl!e& *pacers between the first and second, and between the second and third stage turbine wheels determine the aBial position of the individual wheels. 'hese spacers carry the diaphragm sealing lands. 'he 1J! spacer forward and aft faces include radial slots for cooling air passages. 'urbine buckets are assembled in the wheels with fir tree shaped dovetails that fit into matching cut outs in the turbine wheel rims. <ll three turbine stages have precision investment cast, long shank buckets. 'he long shank bucket design effectively shields the wheel rims and bucket root fastenings from the high temperatures in the hot gas path while providing mechanical damping of bucket vibrations. <s a further aid in vibration damping, the stage two and stage three buckets have interlocking shrouds at the bucket tips. 'hese shrouds also increase the turbine efficiency by minimi%ing tip leakage. 9adial teeth on the bucket shrouds combine with stepped surfaces on the stator to provide a labyrinth seal against gas leakage past the bucket tips. 3ig 18 shows typical first , second , and third stage turbine buckets. 'he increase in the si%e of the buckets from the first to the third stage is necessitated by the pressure reduction resulting from energy conversion in each stage, re2uiring an increased annulus area to accommodate the gas flow. +. C""l!n' 'he turbine rotor is cooled to maintain reasonable operating temperatures and, therefore, assure a longer turbine service life. Cooling is accomplished by means of a positive flow of cool air eBtracted from the compressor and discharged radially outward through a space between the turbine wheel and the stator, into the main gas stream. 'his area is called the wheel space. 3igure 1. shows the turbine cooling air flows.

-. 1!r& 7S a'e 6,eel &*ace&

'he first stage forward wheel space is cooled by compressor discharge air. < honeycomb seal is installed at the aft end of the compressor rotor between the rotor and inner barrel of the compressor discharge casing. 'he leakage through this seal furnishes the air flow through the first stage forward wheel space. 'his cooling air flow discharges into the main gas stream aft of the first stage no%%le. 'he first stage aft wheel space is cooled by 5th stage eBtraction air ported through the !nd stage no%%le. 'his air returns to the gas path forward of the !nd stage no%%le.

8. Sec"nd7S a'e 6,eel &*ace& 'he second stage forward wheel space is cooled by leakage from the first stage aft wheel space through the inter stage labyrinth. 'his air returns to the gas path at the entrance of the second stage buckets. 'he second stage aft wheel space is cooled by 18th stage eBtraction air ported through the 8rd stage no%%le. <ir from this wheel space returns to the gas path at the third stage no%%le entrance. 9. T,!rd7S a'e 6,eel &*ace& 'he third stage forward wheel space is cooled by leakage from the second stage aft wheel space through the inter stage labyrinth. 'his air reenters the gas path at the third stage bucket entrance. 'he third stage aft wheel space obtains its cooling air from the

discharge of the eBhaust frame cooling air annulus. 'his air flows through the third stage aft wheel space, and into the gas path at the entrance to the eBhaust diffuser. :. B0c5e & <ir is introduced into each first stage bucket through a plenum at the base of the bucket dovetail #3igure 1/$. &t flows through serpentine cooling holes eBtending the length of the bucket and eBits at the trailing edge and the bucket tip. 'he holes are spaced and si%ed to obtain optimum cooling of the airfoil with minimum compressor eBtraction air. 3igure 1/ shows the +*60013< first stage bucket design. Cnlike the first stage buckets, the second stage buckets are cooled by span wise air passages the length of the airfoil. <ir is introduced like the first stage, with a plenum at the base of the bucket dovetail. <gain airfoil cooling is accomplished with minimum penalty to the thermodynamic cycle. *ee 3igure 16.'he third stage buckets are not internally air cooledI the tips of these buckets, like the second stage buckets, are enclosed by a shroud which is a part of the tip seal. 'hese shrouds interlock from bucket to bucket to provide vibration damping. C. T0rb!ne S a "r $. S r0c 0re 'he turbine casing and the eBhaust frame constitute the ma0or portion of the gas turbine stator structure. 'he turbine no%%les, shrouds, and turbine eBhaust diffuser are internally supported from these components. %. T0rb!ne Ca&!n' 'he turbine casing controls the aBial and radial positions of the shrouds and no%%les. &t determines turbine clearances and the relative positions of the no%%les to the turbine buckets. 'his positioning is critical to gas turbine performance. 4ot gases contained by the turbine casing are a source of heat flow into the casing. 4eat flow limitations incorporate insulation, cooling, and multi layered structures.18th and 5th stage eBtraction air is piped into the turbine casing annular spaces around the !nd and 8rd stage no%%les. 3rom there the air is ported through the no%%le partitions and into the wheel spaces. *tructurally, the turbine casing forward flange is bolted to the bulkhead flange at the aft end of the compressor discharge casing. 'he turbine casing aft flange is bolted to the forward flange of the eBhaust frame. (. N"44le& &n the turbine section there are three stages of stationary no%%les which direct the high velocity flow of the eBpanded hot combustion gas against the turbine buckets causing the turbine rotor to rotate. (ecause of the high pressure drop across these no%%les, there are seals at both the inside and the outside diameters to prevent loss of system energy by

leakage. *ince these no%%les operate in the hot combustion gas flow, they are sub0ected to thermal stresses in addition to gas pressure loadings. +. 1!r& 7S a'e N"44le 'he first stage no%%le receives the hot combustion gases from the combustion system via the transition pieces. 'he transition pieces are sealed to both the outer and inner sidewalls on the entrance side of the no%%leI this minimi%es leakage of compressor discharge air into the no%%les. 'he +odel 60013< gas turbine first stage no%%le #3igure 17$ contains a forward and aft cavity in the vane and is cooled by a combination of film, impingement and convection techni2ues in both the vane and sidewall regions. 'he no%%le segments, each with two partitions or airfoils, are contained by a hori%ontally split retaining ring which is centerline supported to the turbine casing on lugs at the sides and guided by keys at the top and bottom vertical centerlines. 'his permits radial growth of the retaining ring, resulting from changes in temperature, while the ring remains centered in the casing. 'he aft outer sidewall of the no%%le is loaded against the forward face of the first stage turbine shroud and acts as the air seal to prevent leakage of compressor discharge air between the no%%le and turbine casing.onthe inner sidewall, the no%%le is sealed by a flange cast on the inner diameter of the sidewall that rests against a mating face on the first stage no%%le support ring. 'he no%%le is prevented from moving forward by the lugs on the aft outside diameter of the retaining ring at 60 degrees from vertical and hori%ontal centerlines. (y moving the hori%ontal 0oint support block and the bottom centerline key and the 60K blocks, the lower half of the no%%le can be rolled out with the turbine rotor in place.

-. Sec"nd7S a'e N"44le Combustion air eBiting from the first stage buckets is again eBpanded and redirected against the second stage turbine buckets by the second stage no%%le. 'his no%%le is made of cast segments, each with two partitions or airfoils. 'he male hooks on the entrance and eBit sides of the outer sidewall it into female grooves on the aft side of the first stage shrouds and on the forward side of the second stage shrouds to maintain the no%%le concentric with the turbine shell and rotor. 'his close fitting tongue and groove fit between no%%le and shrouds acts as an outside diameter air seal. 'he no%%le segments are held in a circumferential position by radial pins from the shell into aBial slots in the no%%le outer sidewall. 'he second stage no%%le is cooled with 18th stage eBtraction air. 8. T,!rd7S a'e N"44le 'he third stage no%%le receives the hot gas as it leaves the second stage buckets, increases its velocity by pressure drop, and directs this flow against the third stage buckets. 'he no%%le consists of cast segments, each with three partitions or airfoils. &t is held at the outer sidewall forward and aft sides in grooves in the turbine shrouds in a manner similar to that used on the second stage no%%le.

'he third stage no%%le is circumferentially positioned by radial pins from the shell. 5th stage eBtraction air flows through the no%%le partitions for no%%le convection cooling and for augmenting wheel space cooling air flow. 9. D!a*,ra') (olted to the inside diameters of both the second and third stage no%%le segments are the no%%le diaphragms. 'hese diaphragms prevent air leakage past the inner sidewall of the no%%les and the turbine rotor. < honeycomb labyrinth seal is bra%ed into the inside diameter of the diaphragm. 'hey mate with opposing sealing teeth on the turbine rotor. +inimal radial clearance between stationary parts #diaphragm and no%%les$ and the moving rotor are essential for maintaining low inter stage leakageI this results in higher turbine efficiency. :. S,r"0d& Cnlike the compressor blading, the turbine bucket tips do not run directly against an integral machined surface of the casing but against annular curved segments called turbine shrouds. 'he shrouds, primary function is to provide a cylindrical surface for minimi%ing bucket tip clearance leakage. 'he turbine shrouds, secondary function is to provide a high thermal resistance between the hot gases and the comparatively cool turbine casing. (y accomplishing this function, the turbine casing cooling load is drastically reduced, the turbine casing diameter is controlled, the turbine casing roundness is maintained, and important turbine clearances are assured. 'he first stage stationary shroud segments are in two piecesI the gas side inner shroud is separated from the supporting outer shroud to allow for eBpansion and contraction, and thereby improve low cycle fatigue life. 'he first stage shroud is cooled by impingement, film, and convection. 'he second and third stage stationary shroud segments are a single piece configuration with a honeycomb seal bra%ed into the inside diameter to form the seal surface to the bucket seal tooth. 'he shroud segments are maintained in the circumferential position by radial pins from the turbine casing. Loints between shroud segments are sealed by spline seals. ;. E<,a0& 1ra)e 'he eBhaust frame is bolted to the aft flange of the turbine casing. *tructurally, the frame consists of an outer cylinder and an inner cylinder interconnected by the radial struts. 'he F! bearing is supported from the inner cylinder. 'he eBhaust diffuser located at the aft end of the turbine is bolted to the eBhaust frame. -ases eBhausted from the third turbine stage enter the diffuser where velocity is reduced by diffusion and pressure is recovered. <t the eBit of the diffuser, the gases are directed into the eBhaust plenum. "Bhaust frame radial struts cross the eBhaust gas stream. 'hese struts position the inner cylinder and F! bearing in relation to the outer casing of the gas turbine.

'he struts must be maintained at a constant temperature in order to control the center position of the rotor in relation to the stator. 'his temperature stabili%ation is accomplished by protecting the struts from eBhaust gases with a metal fairing that forms an air space around each strut and provides a rotated, combined airfoil shape. :ff base blowers provide purge air flow through the space between the struts and the forward diffuser to maintain uniform temperature of the struts. 'his air is then directed to the third stage aft wheel space. 'runnions on the sides of the eBhaust frame are used to lift the gas turbine when it is separated from its base. VI. BEARINGS A. General 'he +*60013< gas turbine unit has two four element, tilting pad 0ournal bearings which support the gas turbine rotor. 'he unit also includes a thrust bearing to maintain the rotor to stator aBial position. 'hrust is absorbed by a tilting pad thrust bearing with eight shoes on both sides of the thrust bearing runner. 'hese bearings and seals are incorporated in two housings> one at the inlet casing, one in the eBhaust frame. 'hese main bearings are pressure lubricated by oil supplied from the main lubricating oil system. 'he oil flows through branch lines to an inlet in each bearing housing. $. L0br!ca !"n 'he main turbine bearings are pressure lubricated with oil supplied, from the oil reservoir. :il feed piping, where practical, is run within the lube oil drain lines, or drain channels, as a protective measure. &n the event of a supply line leak, oil will not be sprayed on nearby e2uipment, thus eliminating a potential safety ha%ard. When the oil enters the housing inlet, it flows into an annulus around the bearing. 3rom the annulus, the oil flows through machined holes or slots to the bearing rotor interface. %. L0br!can Seal!n' :il on the surface of the turbine shaft is prevented from being spun along the shaft by oil seals in each of the bearing housings. 'hese labyrinth seals are assembled at the eBtremities of the bearing assemblies where oil control is re2uired. < smooth surface is machined on the shaft and the seals are assembled so that only a small clearance eBists between the oil seal and the shaft. 'he oil seals are designed with tandem rows of teeth and an annular space between them. Pressuri%ed sealing air is admitted into this space to prevent lubricating oil vapor from eBiting the bearing housing. 'he air that returns with the oil to the main lubricating oil reservoir is vented to atmosphere after passing through an oil vapor eBtractor.

6"r5!n' "f Ga& T0rb!ne

-as turbine engines are, theoretically, eBtremely simple. 'hey have three parts> C")*re&&"r Compresses the incoming air to high pressure C")b0& !"n area (urns the fuel and produces high pressure, high velocity gas T0rb!ne "Btracts the energy from the high pressure, high velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber 'he following figure shows the general layout of an a<!al7fl"2 gas turbine the sort of engine you would find driving the rotor of a helicopter, for eBample>

&n this engine, air is sucked in from the right by the compressor. 'he compressor is basically a cone shaped cylinder with small fan blades attached in rows #eight rows of blades are represented here$. <ssuming the light blue represents air at normal air pressure, then as the air is forced through the compression stage its pressure rises significantly. &n some engines, the pressure of the air can rise by a factor of 80. 'he high pressure air produced by the compressor is shown in dark blue.

C")b0& !"n Area 'his high pressure air then enters the combustion area, where a ring of fuel in0ectors in0ects a steady stream of fuel. 'he fuel is generally kerosene, 0et fuel, propane or natural gas. &f you think about how easy it is to blow a candle out, then you can see the design problem in the combustion area entering this area is high pressure air moving at hundreds of miles per hour. Mou want to keep a flame burning continuously in that environment. 'he piece that solves this problem is called a Nflame holder,N or sometimes a Ncan.N 'he can is a hollow, perforated piece of heavy metal. 4alf of the can in cross section is shown below>

'he !n=ec "r& are at the right. Compressed air enters through the perforations. "Bhaust gases eBit at the left. Mou can see in the previous figure that a &ec"nd &e "f cyl!nder& wraps around the inside and the outside of this perforated can, guiding the compressed intake air into the perforations. T,e T0rb!ne <t the left of the engine is the 0rb!ne section. &n this figure there are two sets of turbines.'he first set directly drives the compressor. 'he turbines, the shaft and the compressor all turn as a single unit>

<t the far left is a final turbine stage, shown here with a single set of vanes. &t drives the output shaft. 'his final turbine stage and the output shaft are a completely stand alone, freewheeling unit. 'hey spin freely without any connection to the rest of the engine. <nd that is the ama%ing part about a gas turbine engine there is enough energy in the hot gases blowing through the blades of that final output turbine to generate 1,/00 horsepower and drive a 68 ton + 1 'ank O < gas turbine engine really is that simple. &n the case of the turbine used in a tank or a power plant , there really is nothing to do with the eBhaust gases but vent them through an eBhaust pipe, as shown. *ometimes the eBhaust will run through some sort of heat eBchanger either to eBtract the heat for some other purpose or to preheat air before it enters the combustion chamber. 'he discussion here is obviously simplified a bit. 3or eBample, we have not discussed the areas of bearings, oiling systems, internal support structures of the engine, stator vanes and so on. <ll of these areas become ma0or engineering problems because of the tremendous temperatures, pressures and spin rates inside the engine. (ut the basic

principles described here govern all gas turbine engines and help you to understand the basic layout and operation of the engine. O ,er Var!a !"n& )arge 0etliners use what are known as 0rb"fan engines, which are nothing more than gas turbines combined with a large fan at the front of the engine. 4ereAs the basic #highly simplified$ layout of a turbofan engine> Mou can see that the core of a turbofan is a normal gas turbine engine like the one described in the previous section. 'he difference is that the final turbine stage drives a shaft that makes its way back to the front of the engine to power the fan #shown in red in this picture$. 'his )0l !*le c"ncen r!c &,af a**r"ac,, by the way, is eBtremely common in gas turbines. &n many larger turbofans, in fact, there may be two completely separate compression stages driven by separate turbines, along with the fan turbine as shown above. <ll three shafts ride within one another concentrically. 'he purpose of the fan is to dramatically increase the amount of air moving through the engine, and therefore increase the engineAs ,r0& . When you look into the engine of a commercial 0et at the airport , what you see is this fan at the front of the engine. &t is huge on the order of 10 feet #8 m$ in diameter on big 0ets, so it can move a lot of air. 'he air that the fan moves is called Nby*a&& a!rN #shown in purple above$ because it bypasses the turbine portion of the engine and moves straight through to the back of the nacelle at high speed to provide thrust.

< 0rb"*r"* engine is similar to a turbofan, but instead of a fan there is a conventional *r"*eller at the front of the engine. 'he output shaft connects to a 'earb"< to reduce the speed, and the output of the gearboB turns the propeller. T,r0& Ba&!c& 'he goal of a turbofan engine is to produce ,r0& to drive the airplane forward. 'hrust is generally measured in pounds in the Cnited *tates #the metric system uses 1ewtons, where .../ 1ewtons e2uals 1 pound of thrust$. < Npound of thrustN is e2ual to a force able to accelerate 1 pound of material 8! feet per second per second #8! feet per second per second happens to be e2uivalent to the acceleration provided by gravity$. 'herefore, if you have a 0et engine capable of producing 1 pound of thrust, it could hold 1 pound of material suspended in the air if the 0et were pointed straight down. )ikewise, a 0et engine producing /,000 pounds of thrust could hold /,000 pounds of material suspended in the air. <nd if a rocket engine produced /,000 pounds of thrust applied to a /,000 pound ob0ect floating in space, the /,000 pound ob0ect would accelerate at a rate of 8! feet per second per second. 'hrust is generated under 1ewtonAs principle that Nevery action has an e2ual and opposite reaction.N 3or eBample, imagine that you are floating in space and you weigh 100 pounds on "arth. &n your hand you have a baseball that weighs 1 pound on "arth. &f you throw the baseball away from you at a speed of 8! feet per second #!1 mph E 8. kph$,

your body will move in the opposite direction #it will reac $ at a speed of 0.8! feet per second. &f you were to continuously throw baseballs in that way at a rate of one per second, your baseballs would be generating 1 pound of continuous thrust. Peep in mind that to generate that 1 pound of thrust for an hour you would need to be holding 8,600 pounds of baseballs at the beginning of the hour. &f you wanted to do better, the thing to do is to throw the baseball harder. (y NthrowingN them #with of a gun, say$ at 8,!00 feet per second, you would generate 100 pounds of thrust.

Bray "n Cycle> T,e Ideal Cycle f"r Ga&7T0rb!ne En'!ne&

Bray "n Cycle C")*"nen &> -as turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as shown in 3ig. 3resh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the c")*re&&"r, where its temperature and pressure are raised. 'he high pressure air proceeds into the c")b0& !"n chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.'he resulting high temperature gases then enter the 0rb!ne, where they eBpand to the atmospheric pressure through a row of no%%le vanes.'his eBpansion causes the turbine blade to spin, which then turns a shaft inside a magnetic coil. When the shaft is rotating inside the magnetic coil, electrical current is produced. 'he eBhaust gases leaving the turbine in the open cycle are not re circulated.

:pen cycle -as turbine "ngine

Closed cycle -as 'urbine "ngine 'he open gas turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed cycle as shown in 3igure ! by utili%ing the a!r7& andard a&&0)* !"n&. 4ere the compression and eBpansion process remain the same, but a constant pressure heat re0ection process to the ambient air replaces the combustion process. 'he ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is the (rayton cycle, which is made up of four !n ernally re3er&!ble *r"ce&&e&> 8 1 ! 8 . ! I&en r"*!c compression #in a compressor$ 8 Constant pressure heat addition . &sentropic eBpansion #in a turbine$ 1 Constant pressure heat re0ection #!$

C")*re&&"r> "fficient compression of large volumes of air is essential for a successful gas turbine engine. 'his has been achieved in two types of compressors, the aBial flow compressor and the centrifugal J or radial flow compressor. +ost power plant compressors are aBial flow compressors. 'he ob0ect of a good compressor design is to obtain the most air through a given diameter compressor with a minimum number of stages while retaining relatively high efficiencies and aerodynamic stability over the operating range. Compressors contain a row of rotating blades followed by a row of stationary #stator$ blades. < stage consists of a row of rotor and a row of stator blades. <ll work done on the working fluid is done by the rotating rows, the stators converting the fluid kinetic energy to pressure and directing the fluid into the neBt rotor. 'he fluid

enters with an initial velocity relative to the blade and leaves with a final relative velocity at a different angle. <n <Bial 3low Compressor

C")b0& !"n?C")b0& "r>

Combustion is the chemical combination of a substance with certain elements, usually oBygen, accompanied by the production of a high temperature or transfer of heat. 'he function of the combustion chamber is to accept the air from the compressor and to deliver it to the turbine at the re2uired temperature, ideally with no loss of pressure. "ssentially, it is a direct fired air heater in which fuel is burned with less than one third of the air after which the combustion products are then miBed with the remaining air. 3or the common open cycle gas turbine, this re2uires the internal combustion of fuel. 'his means the problem of fuel operation, miBing and burning, must be addressed. 3uel is commonly gaseous or li2uid. *olid fuel has not yet advanced beyond the eBperimental stage. -aseous or li2uid fuels are usually hydrocarbons. -ases usually being natural gas, mostly methane, and butane. )i2uids may range from highly refined gasoline through kerosene and light diesel oil to a heavy residual oil #(unker C or 1o. 6 fuel oil$. Combustion itself is seldom difficult. 'he difficulty arises in the combination of combustion with low pressure loss in a si%e of combustor compatible with the high power weight, high specific output potentialities, or the rotating elements. <lmost any fuel can be burnt successfully if sufficient pressure drop is available to provide the necessary turbulence for miBing of air and fuel and if sufficient volume is available to give the necessary time for combustion to be completed.

Combustion Chamber Can T0rb!ne> -as turbines move relatively large 2uantities of air through the cycle at very high velocities. <mong the mechanical characteristics of gas turbine engines are very smooth operation and absence of vibration due to reciprocating action. 'he high rotational speeds utili%ed re2uire very accurate rotor balancing to avoid damaging vibration. 9otor parts are highly stressed with low factors of safety. (lades are very finely tuned to avoid resonant vibration. -as turbines have relatively few moving #and no sliding$ parts and are not sub0ected to vibratory forces. <s a result, they are highly reliable when properly designed and developed. 'he gas turbine in its most common form is a heat engine operating through a series of processes. 'hese processes consist of compression of air taken from the atmosphere, increasing of gas temperature by the constant pressure combustion of fuel in the air, eBpansion of the hot gases, and finally, discharging of the gases to atmosphere, in a continuous flow process. &t is similar to the gasoline and Diesel engines in its working medium and internal combustion, but is like the steam turbine in the steady flow of the working medium. 'he compression and eBpansion processes are both carried out by means of rotating elements in which the energy transfer between fluid and rotor is effected by means of kinetic action, rather than by positive displacement as in reciprocating machinery.

&nside combustion chamber

'urbine 1st *tage (lades A!r7& andard a&&0)* !"n&> <ssumptions that the compression and eBpansion processes are adiabatic #insulated$ and reversible #isentropic$, that there is no pressure drop during the heat addition process, and that the pressure leaving the turbine is e2ual to the pressure entering the compressor.

In ernally re3er&!ble *r"ce&&e&> 'hermodynamics states that, for given temperature limits, a completely reversible cycle has the highest possible efficiency and specific work output, reversibility being both mechanical and thermal. +echanical reversibility is a succession of states in mechanical e2uilibrium, i.e. fluid motion without friction, turbulence, or free eBpansion. 'hermal reversibility is a conse2uence of the *econd )aw of thermodynamics, which states that heat must be added only at the maBimum temperature of the cycle and re0ected at the minimum temperature.

I&en r"*!c> Processes held at constant volume or

constant ' s and P v Diagrams of an &deal (rayton Cycle

CNC Lan'0a'e and S r0c 0re

C1C programs list instructions to be performed in the order they are written. 'hey read like a book, left to right and top down. "ach sentence in a C1C program is written on a separate line, called a Bl"c5. (locks are arranged in a specific se2uence that promotes safety, predictability and readability, so it is important to adhere to a standard program structure. 'ypically, blocks are arranged in the following order>

Program *tart )oad 'ool *pindle :n Coolant :n 9apid to position above part +achining operation Coolant :ff *pindle :ff +ove to safe position "nd program

'he steps listed above represent the simplest type of C1C program, where only one tool is used and one operation performed. Programs that use multiple tools repeat steps two through nine for each. - ; + Codes show the most common - and + codes that should be memori%ed if possible. )ike any language, the - code language has rules. 3or eBample, some codes are modal, meaning they do not have to be repeated if they do not change between blocks. *ome codes have different meanings depending on how and where there are used.

While these rules are covered in this chapter, do not concern yourself with learning every nuance of the language. &t is the 0ob of the 0ob of the C<DEC<+ software P"& Pr"ce&&"r to properly format and write the C1C program.

Code G@ G$ G% G( G+ G%: G+@

Process 9apid motion. Csed to position the machine for non milling moves. )ine motion at a specified feed rate. Clockwise arc. Counterclockwise arc. Dwell. 9eturn to machine home position. Cutter Diameter Compensation #CDC$ off.

G+$ G+% G+( G-+ G-G-8 G-9 G-: G-; G:@ G:$ G:% G:( G:+ G;@ G;$ G;: G;;

Cutter Diameter Compensation #CDC$ left. Cutter Diameter Compensation #CDC$ right. 'ool length offset #'):$. 3iBture :ffset F1. 3iBture :ffset F!. 3iBture :ffset F8. 3iBture :ffset F.. 3iBture :ffset F/. 3iBture :ffset F6. Cancel drill cycle. *imple drill cycle. *imple drill cycle with dwell. Peck drill cycle. 'ap cycle. <bsolute coordinate programming mode. &ncremental coordinate programming mode. Drill cycle return to &nitial point #9$. Drill cycle return to 9eference plane #last D 4eight$

+ Codes

Codes that begin with + are called miscellaneous words. 'hey control machine auBiliary options like coolant and spindle direction. :nly one + code can appear in each block of code. 'he table below lists the most common + codes and their meaning. < complete list of + codes is included in <ppB D - + Codes 9eference.

Code #@ #$ #% #( #+

Process Program stop. Press Cycle *tart button to continue. :ptional stop. :nly eBecuted if :p *top switch on the C1C control is turned :1. "nd of program. *pindle on Clockwise. *pindle on Counterclockwise.

##8 #: #; #(@

*pindle stop. Change tool. Coolant on. Coolant off. "nd program and press Cycle *tart to run it again.

*ample codes>

APPLICATIONS
Ga& 0rb!ne& !n &0rface 3e,!cle&

'he 1567 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the &ndianapolis +otor *peedway4all of 3ame +useum, with the Pratt ; Whitney gas turbine shown.

< 156? 4owmet 'Q, the only turbine powered race car to have won a race. -as turbines are often used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, tanks, and to a lesser eBtent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles. < key advantage of 0ets and turboprops for aeroplane propulsion their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones is irrelevant in most automobile applications. 'heir power to weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important. -as turbines offer a high powered engine in a very small and light package. 4owever, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of 9P+s and powers needed in vehicle applications. &n series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the

electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. 'he turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. 'he emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem. 'urbines have historically been more eBpensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass produced in huge 2uantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are raritiesI however, turbines are mass produced in the closely related form of theturbocharger. 'he turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engineAs eBhaust gas. 'he centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. 'his wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying the turbine housingAs geometry #as in a G-' turbocharger$. &t mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost. 'urbo compound engines #actually employed on some trucks$ are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger eBcept for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engineAs crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one. Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses) < number of eBperiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles, the largest by Chrysler. +ore recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. 3or instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company (ladon Lets has secured investment from the 'echnology *trategy (oard to develop an Cltra )ightweight 9ange "Btender #C)9"$ for neBt generation electric vehicles. 'he ob0ective of the consortium, which includes luBury car maker Laguar )and 9over and leading electrical machine company *9 Drives, is to produce the world,s first commercially viable and environmentally friendly gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications. 'he common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative. 'he first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 15.6 when two engineers, 9obert Pafka and 9obert "ngerstein of Carney <ssociates, a 1ew Mork engineering firm, came up with the concept where a uni2ue compact turbine

Concept cars

engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. <fter an article appeared in Popular Science, there was no further work, beyond the paper stage. &n 15/0, designer 3.9. (ell and Chief "ngineer +aurice Wilks from (ritish car manufacturers 9over unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. 'he two seater L"'1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and eBhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 1.0 kmEh #?7 mph$, at a turbine speed of /0,000 rpm. 'he car ran on petrol, paraffin #kerosene$ or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. &t is on display at the )ondon *cience +useum. 'he first turbine powered car built in the C* was the -+ 3irebird & which began evaluations in 15/8. While the photos of the 3irebird & would indicate that the 0et turbineAs thrust propelled the car like an aircraft, the turbine in fact drove the rear wheels. 'he 3irebird 1 was never meant as a serious commercial passenger car and was solely built for testing ; evaluation and public relation purposes. *tarting in 15/. with a modified Plymouth, the <merican car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine powered cars from the early 15/0s through the early 15?0s. Chrysler built fifty Chrysler 'urbine Cars in 1568 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine powered cars. "ach of their turbines employed a uni2ue rotating recuperator, referred to as a regenerator, that significantly increased efficiency. &n 15/. 3&<' unveiled a concept car with a turbine engine called 1!a T0rb!na. 'his vehicle looking like an aircraft with wheels, used a uni2ue combination of both 0et thrust and the engine driving the wheels. *peeds of !?! kmEh #17/ mph$ were claimed. 'he original -eneral +otors 3irebird was a series of concept cars developed for the 15/8, 15/6 and 15/5 +otorama auto shows, powered by gas turbines. 'oyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 157/, the *ports ?00 -as 'urbine 4ybrid in 1575 and the -'G in 15?/. 1o production vehicles were made. 'he -'!. engine was eBhibited in 1577 without a vehicle. 'he fictional (atmobile is often said to be powered by a gas turbine or a 0et engine. 'he 1560s television show vehicle was said to be powered by a turbine engine, with a parachute braking system. 3or the 15?5 Batman film, the production department built a working turbine vehicle for the (atmobile prop. &ts fuel capacity, however, was reportedly only enough for 1/ seconds of use at a time. &n the early 1550s Golvo introduced the Golvo "nvironmental Concept Car#"CC$ which was a gas turbine powered hybrid car.

&n 1558 -eneral +otors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicleHas a limited production run of the "G 1 series hybrid. < Williams &nternational .0 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery electric powertrain. 'he turbine design included a recuperator. )ater on in !006 -+ went into the "coLet concept car pro0ect with Lay )eno. <t the !010 Paris +otor *how Laguar demonstrated its Laguar C Q7/ concept car. 'his electrically powered supercar has a top speed of !0. mph #8!? kmEh$ and can go from 0 to 6! mph #0 to 100 kmEh$ in 8.. seconds. &t uses )ithium ion batteries to power . electric motors which combine to produce some 7?0 bhp. &t will do around 100 miles on a single charge of the batteries but in addition it uses a pair of (ladon +icro -as 'urbines to re charge the batteries eBtending the range to some /60 miles. 'he first race car #in concept only$ fitted with a turbine was in 15// by a C* <ir 3orce group as a hobby pro0ect with a turbine loaned them by (oeing and a race car owned by 3irestone 'ire ; 9ubber company. R88S 'he first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by 9over and the (9+ 3ormula :ne team 0oined forces to produce the 9over (9+, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1568 !. 4ours of )e +ans, driven by -raham 4ill and 9ichie -inther. &t averaged 107.? mph #178./ kmEh$ and had a top speed of 1.! mph #!!5 kmEh$. <merican 9ay 4eppenstall 0oined 4owmet Corporation and +cPee "ngineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 156?, the 4owmet 'Q, which ran several <merican and "uropean events, including two wins, and also participated in the 156? !. 4ours of )e +ans. 'he cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set siB 3&< land speed records for turbine powered cars. 3or open wheel racing, 1567As revolutionary *'P PaBton 'urbocar fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend <ndy -ranatelli and driven by Parnelli Lones nearly won the &ndianapolis /00I thePratt ; Whitney *'6( 6! powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearboB bearing failed 0ust three laps from the finish line. 'he neBt year the *'P )otus /6turbine car won the &ndianapolis /00 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. &n 1571 )otus principal Colin Chapman introduced the )otus /6( 31 car, powered by a Pratt ; Whitney *'1 6E76 gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship winning cars, but had to abandon the pro0ect because there were too many problems withturbo lag. 'he arrival of the Capstone +icroturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with 4"G 1 by <G* of Chattanooga, 'ennessee in 1555, and closely followed by "bus and &*" 9esearch in California, and Design)ine Corporation in 1ew Dealand #and later the Cnited *tates$. <G* turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and 2uality control problems, resulting in li2uidation of <G* in

Racing cars

Buses

!008. 'he most successful design by Designline is now operated in / cities in 6 countries, with over 80 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to (altimore, and 1MC. (rescia &taly is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city. 'he +'' 'urbine *CP"9(&P" appeared in !000 #hence the designation of M!P *uperbike by +''$ and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine specifically, a 9olls 9oyce <llison model !/0 turboshaft engine, producing about !?8 kW #8?0 bhp$. *peed tested to 86/ kmEh or !!7 mph #according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test$, it holds the -uinness World 9ecords for most powerful production motorcycle and most eBpensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of C*T1?/,000. Gas turbine-electric locomotive and Gas turbine train *everal locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being (ombardierAs Let'rain.

Motorcycles

Trains

Tanks

+arines from 1st 'ank (attalion load a4oneywell <-'1/00 multi fuel turbine back into the tank at Camp Coyote, Puwait, 3ebruary !008.

'he -erman <rmyAs development division, the 4eereswaffenamt #<rmy :rdnance (oard$, studied a number of gas turbine engines for use in tanks starting in mid 15... 'he first gas turbine engines used for armoured fighting vehicle -' 101 was installed in the Panther tank. 'he second use of a gas turbine in an armoured fighting vehicle was in 15/. when a unit, PC!575, specifically developed for tanks by C. <. Parsons ; Co., was installed and trialled in a (ritish Con2ueror tank. 'he *tridsvagn 108 was developed in the 15/0s and was the first mass produced main battle tank to use aturbine engine. *ince then, gas turbine engines have been used as <PCs in some tanks and as main powerplants in *ovietE9ussian ' ?0s and C.*. +1 <brams tanks, among others. 'hey are lighter and smaller than diesels at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the e2uivalent diesel, especially at idle,

re2uiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. *uccessive models of +1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tankAs systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. ' ?0s can mount three large eBternal fuel drums to eBtend their range. 9ussia has stopped production of the ' ?0 in favour of the diesel powered ' 50 #based on the ' 7!$, while Ckraine has developed the diesel powered ' ?0CD and ' ?. with nearly the power of the gas turbine tank. 'he 3rench )eclerc +('As diesel powerplant features the N4yperbarN hybrid supercharging system, where the engineAs turbocharger is completely replaced with a small gas turbine which also works as an assisted diesel eBhaust turbocharger, enabling engine 9P+ independent boost level control and a higher peak boost pressure to be reached #than with ordinary turbochargers$. 'his system allows a smaller displacement and lighter engine to be used as the tankAs powerplant and effectively removes turbo lag. 'his special gas turbineEturbocharger can also work independently from the main engine as an ordinary <PC. < turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine, since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts eBperience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. 'he turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily. <n improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter, can damage the engine. Piston engines #especially if turbocharged$ also need well maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail. )ike most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi fuel engines.

Marine applications

Naval

-as turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power to weight ratio and their shipsA resulting acceleration and ability to get underway 2uickly. 'he first gas turbine powered naval vessel was the 9oyal 1avyAs +otor -un (oat MGB 2009 #formerly MGB 509$ converted in 15.7. +etropolitan Gickersfitted their 3!E8 0et engine with a power turbine. 'he *team -un (oat Grey Goose was converted to 9olls 9oyce gas turbines in 15/! and operated as such from 15/8. 'he (old class 3ast Patrol (oats Bold Pioneer and Bold Path inder built in 15/8 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion. 'he first large scale, partially gas turbine powered ships were the 9oyal 1avyAs 'ype ?1 #'ribal class$ frigates with combined steam and gaspowerplants. 'he first, 4+* !shanti was commissioned in 1561. 'he -erman 1avy launched the first "#ln class frigatein 1561 with ! (rown, (overi ; Cie gas turbines in the worlds first combined diesel and gaspropulsion system. 'he Danish 1avy had 6 S$l$ven class torpedo boats #the eBport version of the (ritish (rave class fast patrol boat$ in service from 156/ to 1550, which had 8 (ristol Proteus #later 99 Proteus$ +arine -as 'urbines rated at 5,/10 kW #1!,7/0 shp$ combined, plus two -eneral +otors Diesel engines, rated at 8.0 kW #.60 shp$, for better fuel economy at slower speeds. <nd they also produced 10 Willemoes Class 'orpedo E -uided +issile boats #in service from 157. to !000$ which had 8 9olls 9oyce +arine Proteus -as 'urbines also rated at 5,/10 kW #1!,7/0 shp$, same as the *UlUven class boats, and ! -eneral +otors Diesel "ngines, rated at 600 kW #?00 shp$, also for improved fuel economy at slow speeds. 'he *wedish 1avy produced 6 *pica class torpedo boats between 1566 and 1567 powered by 8 (ristol *iddeley Proteus 1!?! turbines, each delivering 8,!10 kW #.,800 shp$. 'hey were later 0oined by 1! upgraded 1orrkVping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in !00/.

 'he 3innish 1avy commissioned two 'urunmaa class corvettes, 'urunmaa and Par0ala, in 156?. 'hey were e2uipped with one 16,.10 kW #!!,000 shp$ 9olls 9oyce :lympus '+(8 gas turbine and three WWrtsilW marine diesels for slower speeds. 'hey were the fastest vessels in the 3innish 1avyI they regularly achieved speeds of 8/ knots, and 87.8 knots during sea trials. 'he 'urunmaas were paid off in !00!. "ar%ala is today a museum ship in 'urku, and Turunmaa serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for *atakunta Polytechnical College. 'he neBt series of ma0or naval vessels were the four Canadian &ro2uois class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 157!. 'hey used ! ft . main propulsion engines, ! ft 1! cruise engines and 8 *olar *aturn 7/0 kW generators. 'he first C.*. gas turbine powered ship was the C.*. Coast -uardAs Point Thatcher, a cutter commissioned in 1561 that was powered by two 7/0 kW #1,000 shp$ turbines utili%ing controllable pitch propellers. R.8S 'he larger &amilton class 4igh "ndurance Cutters, was the first class of larger cutters to utili%e gas turbines, the first of which #C*C-C &amilton$ was commissioned in 1567. *ince then, they have powered the C.*. 1avyAs Perry class frigates, Spruance class and !rlei'h Bur(e class destroyers, and Ticondero'a class guided missile cruisers. C** Ma(in )sland, a modified *asp class amphibious assault ship, is to be the 1avyAs first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. 'he marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels. Civilian maritime Cp to the late 15.0s much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took place in design offices and engine builderAs workshops and development work was led by the (ritish 9oyal 1avy and other 1avies. While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes, both naval and mercantile, continued to increase, the lack of availability of the results of operating eBperience on early gas turbine pro0ects limited the number of new ventures on seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon. &n 15/1, the Diesel electric oil tanker !uris, 1!,!50 Deadweight tonnage #DW'$ was used to obtain operating eBperience with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first ocean going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine. (uilt by 4awthorn )eslie at 4ebburn on 'yne, CP, in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by the <nglo *aBon Petroleum Company and launched on the CPAs Princess "li%abethAs !1st birthday in 15.7, the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the eBperimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high speed engines, as well as the future substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine 'he !uris operated commercially as a tanker for three and a half years with a diesel electric propulsion unit as originally commissioned, but in 15/1 one of its four ?!. kW #1,10/ bhp$ diesel engines J which were known as N3aithN, N4opeN,

NCharityN and NPrudenceN was replaced by the world,s first marine gas turbine engine, a ?50 kW #1,!00 bhp$ open cycle gas turbo alternator built by (ritish 'homson 4ouston Company in 9ugby. 3ollowing successful sea trials off the 1orthumbrian coast, the !uris set sail from 4ebburn on 'yne in :ctober 15/1 bound for Port <rthur in the C* and then Curacao in the southern Caribbean returning to <vonmouth after .. days at sea, successfully completing her historic trans <tlantic crossing. During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind. *he subse2uently visited *wansea, 4ull, 9otterdam,:slo and *outhampton covering a total of 18,!11 nautical miles. 'he !uris then had all of its power plants replaced with a 8,510 kW #/,!/0 shp$ directly coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power. Despite the success of this early eBperimental voyage the gas turbine was not to replace the diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships. <t constant cruising speeds the diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy. 'he gas turbine did have more success in 9oyal 1avy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and rapid changes of speed are re2uired by warships in action 'he Cnited *tates +aritime Commission were looking for options to update WW&& )iberty ships and heavy duty gas turbines were one of those selected. &n 15/6 the +ohn Ser'eant was lengthened and e2uipped with a -eneral "lectric .,500 kW #6,600 shp$ 4D gas turbine, reduction gearing and a variable pitch propeller. &t operated for 5,700 hours using residual fuel for 7,000 hours. 'he success of this trial opened the way for more development by -" on the use of 4D gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels. 'he +ohn Ser'eant was scrapped in 157! at Portsmouth P<. (oeing launched its first passenger carrying water0et propelled hydrofoil (oeing 5!5, in <pril 157.. 'hose ships were powered by twin <llison gas turbines of the P3 /01 series. (etween 1570 and 15?!, *eatrain Container )ines operated a scheduled container service across the 1orth <tlantic with four container ships of !6,000 tonnes DW'. 'hose ships were powered by twin Pratt ; Whitney gas turbines of the 3' . series. 'he four ships in the class were named N"urolinerN, N"urofreighterN, N<sialinerN and N<siafreighterN. 'hey operated a transatlantic container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the Cnited *tates and ports in north west "urope. 3ollowing the dramatic :rgani%ation of the Petroleum "Bporting Countries #:P"C$ price increases of the mid 1570s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. *ome modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel #i.e., marine diesel$. 'he modifications were partially successful. &t was proved that particular fuel could be used in a marine gas turbine but, savings made were less than anticipated due to increased maintenance re2uirements. <fter 15?! the ships were sold, then re engined with more economical diesel engines. (ecause

the new engines were much larger, there was a conse2uential loss of some cargo space. 'he first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the -'* ,inn%et, built in 1577 and powered by two Pratt ; Whitney 3' .C 1 D)3 turbines, generating //,000 kW #7.,000 shp$ and propelling the ship to a speed of 81 knots. 4owever, the 3inn0et also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. <fter four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to reduce running costs during the off season. 'he 3inn0et was also the first ship with a Combined diesel electric and gaspropulsion. <nother eBample of commercial usage of gas turbines in a passenger ship is *tena )ineAs 4** class fastcraft ferries. 4** 1/00 class Stena -.plorer, Stena /oya'er and Stena 0iscovery vessels use combined gas and gas setups of twin -" )+!/00 plus -" )+1600 power for a total of 6?,000 kW #51,000 shp$. 'he slightly smaller 4** 500 class Stena 1arisma, uses twin <((J*'<) -'8/ turbines rated at 8.,000 kW #.6,000 shp$ gross. 'he Stena 0iscovery was withdrawn from service in !007, another victim of too high fuel costs. &n Luly !000 the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in a Combined -as and *team 'urbine configuration. 'he liner 9+* =ueen +ary ! uses a Combined Diesel and -as 'urbine configuration. &n marine racing applications the !010 C/000 +ystic catamaran +iss -"&C: uses two )ycoming ' // turbines for its power system.

Ad3an a'e& "f 'a& 0rb!ne en'!ne&

Gery high power to weight ratio, compared to reciprocating enginesI *maller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating. +oves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine. 3ewer moving parts than reciprocating engines. -reater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high power output is re2uired Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the eBhaust. 'his results in a high temperature eBhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration. )ow operating pressures. 4igh operation speeds. )ow lubricating oil cost and consumption. Can run on a wide variety of fuels. Gery low toBic emissions of C: and 4C due to eBcess air, complete combustion and no N2uenchN of the flame on cold surfaces

D!&ad3an a'e& "f 'a& 0rb!ne en'!ne&

Cost is very high )ess efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed )onger startup than reciprocating engines )ess responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines. Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress.

Ad3ance& !n ec,n"l"'y
-as turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve. Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient engines. <iding in these advances are computer based design #specifically C3D and finite element analysis$ and the development of advanced materials> (ase materials with superior high temperature strength #e.g., single crystal superalloys that eBhibit yield strength anomaly$ or thermal barrier coatings that protect the structural material from ever higher temperatures. 'hese advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts. 'he simple cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating inter cooling, regeneration #or recuperation$, and reheating. 'hese improvements, of course, come at the eBpense of increased initial and operation costs, and they cannot be 0ustified unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs. 'he relatively low fuel prices, the general desire in the industry to minimi%e installation costs, and the tremendous increase in the simple cycle efficiency to about .0 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications. :n the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at the same time reducing peak flame temperature in order to achieve lower 1:B emissions and meet the latest emission regulations. &n +ay !011, +itsubishi 4eavy &ndustries achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 XC on a 8!0 megawatt gas turbine, and .60 +W in gas turbine combined cyclepower generation applications in which gross thermal efficiency eBceeds 60@. Compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1550s. 'hese can withstand over a hundred thousand startEstop cycles and have eliminated the need for an oil system. 'he application of microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled the development of commercially viable electricity generation by micro turbines for distribution and vehicle propulsion.

CONCLUSIONS
1. -as turbines have been successfully modified on C&-CC plant to burn low calorific value gases.-ases with CGs as low as ../ +LEm8 ,i.e.comparable to those likely to be produced in (&-CC plants, have been successfully burnt for over 10,000 hours in a gas turbine integrated into a combined cycle system. !. &n general, the can annular type combustion system with diffusion burners has eBperienced less operational difficulties. 'he silo type combustor systems such as those used by *iemens, and <((, had significant operational problems in their early stages of introduction. 4owever, it must be noted that at (uggenum, these problems have now been successfully overcome. 8. 'he gas turbines that have performed most effectively from the commencement of the test programmes were all tested off line prior to installation. &n this way, the burners are, therefore, modified and performance tests completed before installation on the plant. 'his approach greatly reduces the risk of later operational problems with the gas turbine combustors, which can lead to significant gas turbine down times and loss of revenue. .. 'he emissions of 1:B produced by the gas turbines meet all the necessary environmental re2uirements. 'he techni2ue of in0ecting diluent water or nitrogen to reduce peak flame temperatures in the gas turbine combustors to control 1:B has performed eBtremely well. /. 'he use of particle filters before the turbine is a useful back up tool to prevent eBtraneous material in the syngas duct work damaging the turbine. <lso, the use of in duct particle monitors to give early warning of dust leaks to allow the turbine to be switched to back up fuel seems to be an eBtremely useful piece of additional instrumentation. 6. Whilst not a direct turbine issue, careful attention to the operation of the gas clean up system prior to the gas turbine is essential to prevent damage to the gas turbine and reduce operational downtime. 7. <ll of the plant have separate start up fuels and the capability to switch from syngas to the back up fuel as necessary. +any of the plants regularly switch to their back up fuel to maintain their generation of electricity to the grid and ensure income generation for their plants in the event of gasifier or other plant problems. ?. *yngas is both toBic and eBplosive and ade2uate attention must be paid to the special safety features that are re2uired both during the design and operating phases of the C&-CC plant. Detailed safety procedures to prevent eBplosions and operator eBposures need to be put in place and back up monitoring undertaken to ensure that procedures are being followed closely. 5. 'he control logic for the turbine must be fast enough to deal with instantaneous plant changes. 'he control procedure for the turbine must be linked to a fast data ac2uisition system and the control procedures for the turbine integrated fully with the control systems and logic for the other C&-CC plant constituent components.