Table of Contents

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv 1 Introduction to Test Measurement Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2 Introduction 1 Why and Where Test Measurement Instrumentation Is Used 2 Components of a Test Measurement System 3 Characteristics of an Ideal Test Measurement System 10 Differences between Test Measurement Instrumentation and Process Instrumentation 14 Smart Transducers 16

Static Transducer Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Hysteresis 26 Deadband 29 Linearity 32 Conformity 39 Repeatability 39 Accuracy 41 Resolution 42 Environmental Effects on Transducer Characteristics 43

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Dynamic Transducer Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 3.1 3.2 3.3 Frequency Response 47 Response Time 49 Damping 50

Transducer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Temperature Transducers 53 Pressure Transducers 67 Flow Transducers 77 Displacement Transducers 89 Velocity Transducers 99 Acceleration Transducers 100 Force Transducers 105 Strain Transducers 108

Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Voltage Amplifiers 119 Linearizing Amplifiers 122 Strain Gauge Amplifiers 123 Charge Amplifiers 126 Filters 128 Signal Isolators 129 Analog-to-Digital Converters 130 Differential versus Single-Ended Inputs 131

Transducer Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 6.1 6.2 6.3 Wiring and Cabling 136 Grounding 138 Connecting to the Test Rig 138

Data Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Digital Indicators 143 Recorders 146 Data Loggers 146 Data Acquisition Systems 147 Filters 151

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Data Reduction and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 8.1 8.2 8.3 Graphing 154 Sorting 155 Signal Analyzers 156

Equipment Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 Component Calibration 165 System Calibration 166 In Situ Calibration 166 Calibration Standards 167 Multifunction Calibrators 168 Calibration Records 169 Calibration Laboratory Requirements 171 Calibration System Software 172 Software Validation 174 Quality Assurance System Requirements 175 International, National, and Other Standards 176 Calibration Equipment Specifications 178

10 Pressure Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Dead-Weight Testers 183 Water Dead-Weight Testers 189 Oil Dead-Weight Testers 190 Pneumatic Dead-Weight Testers 190 Digital Calibrators 191 Manometers 193

11 Temperature Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 Temperature Calibration Baths 198 Dry Block Calibrators 203 Temperature Calibration Furnaces 204 Infrared Calibrators 205 Thermocouple and RTD Simulators 206 Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers 208 Triple Point of Water Cells 210 Metal Fixed Point Cells 212 Ice Baths 214 Boiling Point of Water 215

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12 Electrical Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Voltage 217 Current 219 Resistance 220 Thermocouples 222 Multifunction Calibrators 223

13 Force Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Dead-Weight Force Calibration 227 Proving Rings 233 Hydraulic Presses 234 Shunt Calibration 235

14 Flow Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Provers 241 Weigh Tank 243 PVTt Calibration Facility 245 Reference Flow Sensor 246

15 Displacement Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 15.1 15.2 Gauge Blocks 250 Dial Indicators 251

16 Vibration Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253 16.1 16.2 Shaker Table 260 Reference Accelerometer 262

17 Strain Gauge Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263 17.1 Bridge Shunt Calibration 264

18 System Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 System Accuracy Statistics 270 Root Sum Square Versus Sum of Errors 275 Standards Accuracy 277 Test Uncertainty Ratio 278 Uncertainty Versus Accuracy 279

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19 Transducer Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 Interpreting Manufacturers Specification Sheets 286 Transducer Type 297 Operating Principle 298 Accuracy (% of full scale vs. % of reading) 298 Linearity 299 Hysteresis 300 Environmental Operating Limits 300

20 Test Procedure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 Test Objective 304 Required Measurements 304 Accuracy Requirements 304 Frequency Response Requirements 305 Transducer Test Environment Limits 306 Transducer Connections and Space Limitations 306 Test Data Format 307 Test Data Analysis 308 Transducer Selection 309 Calibration Requirements 309

Appendix 1 Internet Links to Measurement Instrumentation Information. . . . .311 Appendix 2 Internet Links to General Engineering Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .323 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325