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“Architecture and Programming of 8051 Microcontrollers” 

Learn in a quick and easy way to program 8051 microcontroller using many practical examples we have
provided for you. Despite its relative old age, 8051 is still the most commonly used microcontroller at present. Beside Intel, many
other renowned companies manufacture this model - Philips, Siemens, etc. The book contains details of its architecture and many
practical examples, both simple and complex, useful program routines, instructions on handling the programmer for Atmel 51 series,
and the guide on using the development systems for Atmel microcontrollers. In the appendices you will find detailed assembler
instructions with examples, glossary and much more...

Author: Milan Verle

Table of Contents
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Microcontrollers  
• Chapter 2: 8051 Microcontroller Architecture  
• Chapter 3: The 8051 Instruction Set  
• Chapter 4: The AT89S8253 Microcontroller  
• Chapter 5: Program Language Assembler  
• Chapter 6: Examples  
• Chapter 7: Development Tools  

 
 

Easy8051B development tool is compatible with 14, 16, 20 and 40 pin microcontrollers (it comes with AT89S8253). USB 2.0
Programmer is supplied from the system. [more]

USB 8051prog2 is USB 2.0 IN-SYSTEM programmer for 8051 microcontroller family. It can program all of 8051 microcontrollers.
[more]

Universal Development system for PIC, PSOC, AVR, 8051 and ARM MCU. It is enough to switch the card and continue work in the
same development surroundings, but with different microcontroller. [more]
Chapter1: Introduction to Microcontrollers
• Introduction
• 1.1 What are microcontrollers and what are they used for?
• 1.2 What is what in microcontroller?

Introduction

It was electricity in the beginning....The people were happy because they did not know that it was all around them and could be
utilized. That was good. Then Faraday came and a stone has started to roll slowly...

The first machines using a new sort of energy appeared soon. A long time has passed since then and just when the people finally got
used to them and stopped paying attention to what a new generation of specialists were doing, someone came to an idea that electrons
could be a very convenient toy being closed in a glass pipe. It was just a good idea at first, but there was no return. Electonics was
born and the stone kept on rolling down the hill faster and faster...

A new science - new specialists. Blue coats were replaced with white ones and people who knew something about electronics
appeared on the stage. While the rest of humanity were passively watching in disbelief what was going on, the plotters split in two
groups - “software-oriented” and “hardware-oriented”. Somewhat younger than their teachers, very enthusiastic and full of ideas, both
of them kept on working but separate ways. While the first group was developing constantly and gradually, the hardware-oriented
people, driven by success, threw caution to the wind and invented transistors.

Up till that moment, the things could be more or less kept under control, but a broad publicity was not aware of what was going on,
which soon led to a fatal mistake! Being naive in belief that cheap tricks could slow down technology development and development
of the world and retrieve the good all days, mass market opened its doors for the products of Electronics Industry, thus closing a magic
circle. A rapid drop in prices made these components available for a great variety of people. The stone was falling freely...

The first integrated circuits and processors appeared soon, which caused computers and other products of electronics to drop down in
price even more. They could be bought everywhere. Another circle was closed! Ordinary people got hold of computers and computer
era has begun...

While this drama was going on, hobbyists and professionals, also split in two groups and protected by anonymity, were working hard
on their projects. Then, someone suddenly put a question: Why should not we make a universal component? A cheap, universal
integrated circuit that could be programmed and used in any field of electronics, device or wherever needed? Technology has been
developed enough as well as the market. Why not? So it happened, body and spirit were united and the first integrated circuit was
designed and called the MICROCONTROLLER.

1.1 What are microcontrollers and what are they used for?

Like all good things, this powerful component is basically very simple. It is made by mixing tested and high- quality "ingredients"
(components) as per following receipt:

1. The simplest computer processor is used as the "brain" of the future system.
2. Depending on the taste of the manufacturer, a bit of memory, a few A/D converters, timers, input/output lines etc. are added
3. All that is placed in some of the standard packages.
4. A simple software able to control it all and which everyone can easily learn about has been developed.

On the basis of these rules, numerous types of microcontrollers were designed and they quickly became man's invisible companion.
Their incredible simplicity and flexibility conquered us a long time ago and if you try to invent something about them, you should
know that you are probably late, someone before you has either done it or at least has tried to do it.

The following things have had a crucial influence on development and success of the microcontrollers:

• Powerful and carefully chosen electronics embedded in the microcontrollers can independetly or via input/output devices
(switches, push buttons, sensors, LCD displays, relays etc.), control various processes and devices such as industrial
automation, electric current, temperature, engine performance etc.
• Very low prices enable them to be embedded in such devices in which, until recent time it was not worthwhile to embed
anything. Thanks to that, the world is overwhelmed today with cheap automatic devices and various “smart” appliences.
• Prior knowledge is hardly needed for programming. It is sufficient to have a PC (software in use is not demanding at all and is
easy to learn) and a simple device (called the programmer) used for “loading” raedy-to-use programs into the microcontroller.

So, if you are infected with a virus called electronics, there is nothing left for you to do but to learn how to use and control its power.

How does the microcontroller operate?

Even though there is a large number of different types of microcontrollers and even more programs created for their use only, all of
them have many things in common. Thus, if you learn to handle one of them you will be able to handle them all. A typical scenario on
the basis of which it all functions is as follows:

1. Power supply is turned off and everything is still…the program is loaded into the microcontroller, nothing indicates what is
about to come…
2. Power supply is turned on and everything starts to happen at high speed! The control logic unit keeps everything under control.
It disables all other circuits except quartz crystal to operate. While the preparations are in progress, the first milliseconds go by.
3. Power supply voltage reaches its maximum and oscillator frequency becomes stable. SFRs are being filled with bits reflecting
the state of all circuits within the microcontroller. All pins are configured as inputs. The overall electronis starts operation in
rhythm with pulse sequence. From now on the time is measured in micro and nanoseconds.
4. Program Counter is set to zero. Instruction from that address is sent to instruction decoder which recognizes it, after which it is
executed with immediate effect.
5. The value of the Program Counter is incremented by 1 and the whole process is repeated...several million times per second.

1.2 What is what in the microcontroller?

As you can see, all the operations within the microcontroller are performed at high speed and quite simply, but the microcontroller
itself would not be so useful if there are not special circuits which make it complete. In continuation, we are going to call your
attention to them.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory used to permanently save the program being executed. The size of the program that
can be written depends on the size of this memory. ROM can be built in the microcontroller or added as an external chip, which
depends on the type of the microcontroller. Both options have some disadvantages. If ROM is added as an external chip, the
microcontroller is cheaper and the program can be considerably longer. At the same time, a number of available pins is reduced as the
microcontroller uses its own input/output ports for connection to the chip. The internal ROM is usually smaller and more expensive,
but leaves more pins available for connecting to peripheral environment. The size of ROM ranges from 512B to 64KB.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of memory used for temporary storing data and intermediate results created and used during
the operation of the microcontrollers. The content of this memory is cleared once the power supply is off. For example, if the program
performes an addition, it is necessary to have a register standing for what in everyday life is called the “sum” . For that purpose, one of
the registers in RAM is called the "sum" and used for storing results of addition. The size of RAM goes up to a few KBs.

Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

The EEPROM is a special type of memory not contained in all microcontrollers. Its contents may be changed during program
execution (similar to RAM ), but remains permanently saved even after the loss of power (similar to ROM). It is often used to store
values, created and used during operation (such as calibration values, codes, values to count up to etc.), which must be saved after
turning the power supply off. A disadvantage of this memory is that the process of programming is relatively slow. It is measured in
miliseconds.
Special Function Registers (SFR)

Special function registers are part of RAM memory. Their purpose is predefined by the manufacturer and cannot be changed therefore.
Since their bits are physically connected to particular circuits within the microcontroller, such as A/D converter, serial communication
module etc., any change of their state directly affects the operation of the microcontroller or some of the circuits. For example, writing
zero or one to the SFR controlling an input/output port causes the appropriate port pin to be configured as input or output. In other
words, each bit of this register controls the function of one single pin.

Program Counter

Program Counter is an engine running the program and points to the memory address containing the next instruction to execute. After
each instruction execution, the value of the counter is incremented by 1. For this reason, the program executes only one instruction at a
time just as it is written. However…the value of the program counter can be changed at any moment, which causes a “jump” to a new
memory location. This is how subroutines and branch instructions are executed. After jumping, the counter resumes even and
monotonous automatic counting +1, +1, +1…

Central Processor Unit (CPU)

As its name suggests, this is a unit which monitors and controls all processes within the microcontroller and the user cannot affect its
work. It consists of several smaller subunits, of which the most important are:

• Instruction decoder is a part of the electronics which recognizes program instructions and runs other circuits on the basis of
that. The abilities of this circuit are expressed in the "instruction set" which is different for each microcontroller family.
• Arithmetical Logical Unit (ALU) performs all mathematical and logical operations upon data.
• Accumulator is an SFR closely related to the operation of ALU. It is a kind of working desk used for storing all data upon
which some operations should be executed (addition, shift etc.). It also stores the results ready for use in further processing.
One of the SFRs, called the Status Register, is closely related to the accumulator, showing at any given time the "status" of a
number stored in the accumulator (the number is greater or less than zero etc.).

A bit is just a word invented to confuse novices at electronics. Joking aside, this word in practice indicates whether the voltage is
present on a conductor or not. If it is present, the approprite pin is set to logic one (1), i.e. the bit’s value is 1. Otherwise, if the voltage
is 0 V, the appropriate pin is cleared (0), i.e. the bit’s value is 0. It is more complicated in theory where a bit is referred to as a binary
digit, but even in this case, its value can be either 0 or 1.

Input/output ports (I/O Ports)

In order to make the microcontroller useful, it is necessary to connect it to peripheral devices. Each microcontroller has one or more
registers (called a port) connected to the microcontroller pins.
Why do we call them input/output ports? Because it is possible to change a pin function according to the user's needs. These registers
are the only registers in the microcontroller the state of which can be checked by voltmeter!

Oscillator

Even pulses generated by the oscillator enable harmonic and synchronous operation of all circuits within the microcontroller. It is
usually configured as to use quartz-crystal or ceramics resonator for frequency stabilization. It can also operate without elements for
frequency stabilization (like RC oscillator). It is important to say that program instructions are not executed at the rate imposed by the
oscillator itself, but several times slower. It happens because each instruction is executed in several steps. For some microcontrollers,
the same number of cycles is needed to execute any instruction, while it's different for other microcontrollers. Accordingly, if the
system uses quartz crystal with a frequency of 20MHz, the execution time of an instruction is not expected 50nS, but 200, 400 or even
800 nS, depending on the type of the microcontroller!

Timers/Counters

Most programs use these miniature electronic "stopwatches" in their operation. These are commonly 8- or 16-bit SFRs the contents of
which is automatically incremented by each coming pulse. Once the register is completely loaded, an interrupt is generated!

If these registers use an internal quartz oscillator as a clock source, then it is possible to measure the time between two events (if the
register value is T1 at the moment measurement has started, and T2 at the moment it has finished, then the elapsed time is equal to the
result of subtraction T2-T1 ). If the registers use pulses coming from external source, then such a timer is turned into a counter.

This is only a simple explanation of the operation itself. It’s somehow more complicated in practice.
A register or a memory cell is an electronic circuit which can memorize the state of one byte. Besides 8 bits available to the user, each
register has also a number of addressing bits. It is important to remember that:

• All registers of ROM as well as those of RAM referred to as general-purpose registers are mutually equal and nameless.
During programming, each of them can be assigned a name, which makes the whole operation much easier.
• All SFRs are assigned names which are different for different types of the microcontrollers and each of them has a special
function as their name suggests.

Watchdog timer

The Watchdog Timer is a timer connected to a completely separate RC oscillator within the microcontroller.

If the watchdog timer is enabled, every time it counts up to the program end, the microcontroller reset occurs and program execution
starts from the first instruction. The point is to prevent this from happening by using a special command. The whole idea is based on
the fact that every program is executed in several longer or shorter loops.

If instructions resetting the watchdog timer are set at the appropriate program locations, besides commands being regularly executed,
then the operation of the watchdog timer will not affect the program execution.

If for any reason (usually electrical noise in industry), the program counter "gets stuck" at some memory location from which there is
no return, the watchdog will not be cleared, so the register’s value being constantly incremented will reach the maximum et voila!
Reset occurs!

Power Supply Circuit

There are two things worth attention concerning the microcontroller power supply circuit:

Brown out is a potentially dangerous state which occurs at the moment the microcontroller is being turned off or when power supply
voltage drops to the lowest level due to electric noise. As the microcontroller consists of several circuits which have different
operating voltage levels, this can cause its out of control performance. In order to prevent it, the microcontroller usually has a circuit
for brown out reset built-in. This circuit immediately resets the whole electronics when the voltage level drops below the lower limit.

Reset pin is usually referred to as Master Clear Reset (MCLR) and serves for external reset of the microcontroller by applying logic
zero (0) or one (1) depending on the type of the microcontroller. In case the brown out is not built in the microcontroller, a simple
external circuit for brown out reset can be connected to this pin.

Serial communication

Parallel connections between the microcontroller and peripherals established over I/O ports are the ideal solution for shorter distances
up to several meters. However, in other cases, when it is necessary to establish communication between two devices on longer
distances it is obviously not possible to use parallel connections. Then, serial communication is the best solution.

Today, most microcontrollers have several different systems for serial communication built in as a standard equipment. Which of them
will be used depends on many factors of which the most important are:

• How many devices the microcontroller has to exchange data with?


• How fast the data exchange has to be?
• What is the distance between devices?
• Is it necessary to send and receive data simultaneously?

One of the most important things concerning serial communication is the Protocol which should be strictly observed. It is a set of rules
which must be applied in order that devices can correctly interpret data they mutually exchange. Fortunately, the microcontrollers
automatically take care of this, so the work of the programmer/user is reduced to a simple write (data to be sent) and read (received
data).

A byte consists of 8 bits grouped together. If a bit is a digit then it is logical that bytes are numbers. All mathematical operations can
be performed upon them, just like upon common decimal numbers, which is carried out in the ALU. It is important to remember that
byte digits are not of equal significance. The largest value has the leftmost bit called the most significant bit (MSB). The rightmost bit
has the least value and is therefore called the least significant bit (LSB). Since 8 digits (zeros and ones) of one byte can be combined
in 256 different ways, the largest decimal number which can be represented by one byte is 255 (one combination represents zero).

Program

Unlike other integrated circuits which only need to be connected to other components and turn the power supply on, the
microcontrollers need to be programmed first. This is a so called "bitter pill" and the main reason why hardware-oriented electronics
engineers stay away from microcontrollers. It is a trap causing huge losses because the process of programming the microcontroller is
basically very simple.

In order to write a program for the microcontroller, several "low-level" programming languages can be used such as Assembly, C and
Basic (and their versions as well). Writing program procedure consists of simple writing instructions in the order in which they should
be executed. There are also many programs running in Windows environment used to facilitate the work providing additional visual
tools.

This book describes the use of Assembly because it is the simplest language with the fastest execution allowing entire control on what
is going on in the circuit.

Interrupt - electronics is usually more faster than physical processes it should keep under control. This is why the microcontroller
spends most of its time waiting for something to happen or execute. In other words, when some event takes place, the microcontroller
does something. In order to prevent the microcontroller from spending most of its time endlessly checking for logic state on input pins
and registers, an interrupt is generated. It is the signal which informs the central processor that something attention worthy has
happened. As its name suggests, it interrupts regular program execution. It can be generated by different sources so when it occurs,
the microcontroller immediately stops operation and checks for the cause. If it is needed to perform some operations, a current state
of the program counter is pushed onto the Stack and the appropriate program is executed. It's the so called interrupt routine.

Stack is a part of RAM used for storing the current state of the program counter (address) when an interrupt occurs. In this way, after
a subroutine or an interrupt execution, the microcontroller knows from where to continue regular program execution. This address is
cleared after returning to the program because there is no need to save it any longer, and one location of the stack is automatically
availale for further use. In addition, the stack can consist of several levels. This enables subroutines’ nesting, i.e. calling one
subroutine from another.
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Chapter 2 : 8051 Microcontroller Architecture
• 2.1 What is 8051 Standard?
• 2.2 8051 Microcontroller's pins
• 2.3 Input/Output Ports (I/O Ports)
• 2.4 8051 Microcontroller Memory Organisation
• 2.5 SFRs (Special Function Registers)
• 2.6 Counters and Timers
• 2.7 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter)
• 2.8 8051 Microcontroller Interrupts
• 2.9 8051 Microcontroller Power Consumption Control

2.1 What is 8051 Standard?

Microcontroller manufacturers have been competing for a long time for attracting choosy customers and every couple of days a new
chip with a higher operating frequency, more memory and upgraded A/D converters appeared on the market.

However, most of them had the same or at least very similar architecture known in the world of microcontrollers as “8051
compatible”. What is all this about?

The whole story has its beginnings in the far 80s when Intel launched the first series of microcontrollers called the MCS 051. Even
though these microcontrollers had quite modest features in comparison to the new ones, they conquered the world very soon and
became a standard for what nowadays is called the microcontroller.

The main reason for their great success and popularity is a skillfully chosen configuration which satisfies different needs of a large
number of users allowing at the same time constant expansions (refers to the new types of microcontrollers). Besides, the software has
been developed in great extend in the meantime, and it simply was not profitable to change anything in the microcontroller’s basic
core. This is the reason for having a great number of various microcontrollers which basically are solely upgraded versions of the 8051
family. What makes this microcontroller so special and universal so that almost all manufacturers all over the world manufacture it
today under different name?

As seen in figure above, the 8051 microcontroller has nothing impressive in appearance:

• 4 Kb of ROM is not much at all.


• 128Kb of RAM (including SFRs) satisfies the user's basic needs.
• 4 ports having in total of 32 input/output lines are in most cases sufficient to make all necessary connections to peripheral
environment.

The whole configuration is obviously thought of as to satisfy the needs of most programmers working on development of automation
devices. One of its advantages is that nothing is missing and nothing is too much. In other words, it is created exactly in accordance to
the average user‘s taste and needs. Another advantages are RAM organization, the operation of Central Processor Unit (CPU) and
ports which completely use all recourses and enable further upgrade.

2.2 Pinout Description

Pins 1-8: Port 1 Each of these pins can be configured as an input or an output.

Pin 9: RS A logic one on this pin disables the microcontroller and clears the contents of most registers. In other words, the positive
voltage on this pin resets the microcontroller. By applying logic zero to this pin, the program starts execution from the beginning.

Pins10-17: Port 3 Similar to port 1, each of these pins can serve as general input or output. Besides, all of them have alternative
functions:

Pin 10: RXD Serial asynchronous communication input or Serial synchronous communication output.

Pin 11: TXD Serial asynchronous communication output or Serial synchronous communication clock output.
Pin 12: INT0 Interrupt 0 input.

Pin 13: INT1 Interrupt 1 input.

Pin 14: T0 Counter 0 clock input.

Pin 15: T1 Counter 1 clock input.

Pin 16: WR Write to external (additional) RAM.

Pin 17: RD Read from external RAM.

Pin 18, 19: X2, X1 Internal oscillator input and output. A quartz crystal which specifies operating frequency is usually connected to
these pins. Instead of it, miniature ceramics resonators can also be used for frequency stability. Later versions of microcontrollers
operate at a frequency of 0 Hz up to over 50 Hz.

Pin 20: GND Ground.

Pin 21-28: Port 2 If there is no intention to use external memory then these port pins are configured as general inputs/outputs. In case
external memory is used, the higher address byte, i.e. addresses A8-A15 will appear on this port. Even though memory with capacity
of 64Kb is not used, which means that not all eight port bits are used for its addressing, the rest of them are not available as
inputs/outputs.

Pin 29: PSEN If external ROM is used for storing program then a logic zero (0) appears on it every time the microcontroller reads a
byte from memory.

Pin 30: ALE Prior to reading from external memory, the microcontroller puts the lower address byte (A0-A7) on P0 and activates the
ALE output. After receiving signal from the ALE pin, the external register (usually 74HCT373 or 74HCT375 add-on chip) memorizes
the state of P0 and uses it as a memory chip address. Immediately after that, the ALU pin is returned its previous logic state and P0 is
now used as a Data Bus. As seen, port data multiplexing is performed by means of only one additional (and cheap) integrated circuit.
In other words, this port is used for both data and address transmission.

Pin 31: EA By applying logic zero to this pin, P2 and P3 are used for data and address transmission with no regard to whether there is
internal memory or not. It means that even there is a program written to the microcontroller, it will not be executed. Instead, the
program written to external ROM will be executed. By applying logic one to the EA pin, the microcontroller will use both memories,
first internal then external (if exists).

Pin 32-39: Port 0 Similar to P2, if external memory is not used, these pins can be used as general inputs/outputs. Otherwise, P0 is
configured as address output (A0-A7) when the ALE pin is driven high (1) or as data output (Data Bus) when the ALE pin is driven
low (0).

Pin 40: VCC +5V power supply.

2.3 Input/Output Ports (I/O Ports)

All 8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each comprising 8 bits which can be configured as inputs or outputs. Accordingly, in total
of 32 input/output pins enabling the microcontroller to be connected to peripheral devices are available for use.

Pin configuration, i.e. whether it is to be configured as an input (1) or an output (0), depends on its logic state. In order to configure a
microcontroller pin as an input, it is necessary to apply a logic zero (0) to appropriate I/O port bit. In this case, voltage level on
appropriate pin will be 0.

Similarly, in order to configure a microcontroller pin as an input, it is necessary to apply a logic one (1) to appropriate port. In this
case, voltage level on appropriate pin will be 5V (as is the case with any TTL input). This may seem confusing but don't loose your
patience. It all becomes clear after studying simple electronic circuits connected to an I/O pin.
Input/Output (I/O) pin
Figure above illustrates a simplified schematic of all circuits within the microcontroler connected to one of its pins. It refers to all the
pins except those of the P0 port which do not have pull-up resistors built-in.

Output pin
A logic zero (0) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE transistor is turned on, thus connecting the appropriate pin to
ground.
Input pin
A logic one (1) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE transistor is turned off and the appropriate pin remains connected to
the power supply voltage over a pull-up resistor of high resistance.

Logic state (voltage) of any pin can be changed or read at any moment. A logic zero (0) and logic one (1) are not equal. A logic one
(0) represents a short circuit to ground. Such a pin acts as an output.

A logic one (1) is “loosely” connected to the power supply voltage over a resistor of high resistance. Since this voltage can be easily
“reduced” by an external signal, such a pin acts as an input.

Port 0

The P0 port is characterized by two functions. If external memory is used then the lower address byte (addresses A0-A7) is applied on
it. Otherwise, all bits of this port are configured as inputs/outputs.

The other function is expressed when it is configured as an output. Unlike other ports consisting of pins with built-in pull-up resistor
connected by its end to 5 V power supply, pins of this port have this resistor left out. This apparently small difference has its
consequences:

If any pin of this port is configured as an input then it acts as if it “floats”. Such an input has unlimited input resistance and
indetermined potential.

When the pin is configured as an output, it acts as an “open drain”. By applying logic 0 to a port bit, the appropriate pin will be
connected to ground (0V). By applying logic 1, the external output will keep on “floating”. In order to apply logic 1 (5V) on this
output pin, it is necessary to built in an external pull-up resistor.

Only in case P0 is used for addressing external memory, the microcontroller will provide internal power supply source in order to
supply its pins with logic one. There is no need to add external pull-up resistors.
Port 1

P1 is a true I/O port, because it doesn't have any alternative functions as is the case with P0, but can be cofigured as general I/O only.
It has a pull-up resistor built-in and is completely compatible with TTL circuits.

Port 2
P2 acts similarly to P0 when external memory is used. Pins of this port occupy addresses intended for external memory chip. This time
it is about the higher address byte with addresses A8-A15. When no memory is added, this port can be used as a general input/output
port showing features similar to P1.

Port 3

All port pins can be used as general I/O, but they also have an alternative function. In order to use these alternative functions, a logic
one (1) must be applied to appropriate bit of the P3 register. In tems of hardware, this port is similar to P0, with the difference that its
pins have a pull-up resistor built-in.

Pin's Current limitations

When configured as outputs (logic zero (0)), single port pins can receive a current of 10mA. If all 8 bits of a port are active, a total
current must be limited to 15mA (port P0: 26mA). If all ports (32 bits) are active, total maximum current must be limited to 71mA.
When these pins are configured as inputs (logic 1), built-in pull-up resistors provide very weak current, but strong enough to activate
up to 4 TTL inputs of LS series.

As seen from description of some ports, even though all of them have more or less similar architecture, it is necessary to pay attention
to which of them is to be used for what and how.

For example, if they shall be used as outputs with high voltage level (5V), then P0 should be avoided because its pins do not have
pull-up resistors, thus giving low logic level only. When using other ports, one should have in mind that pull-up resistors have a
relatively high resistance, so that their pins can give a current of several hundreds microamperes only.

2.4 Memory Organization

The 8051 has two types of memory and these are Program Memory and Data Memory. Program Memory (ROM) is used to
permanently save the program being executed, while Data Memory (RAM) is used for temporarily storing data and intermediate
results created and used during the operation of the microcontroller. Depending on the model in use (we are still talking about the
8051 microcontroller family in general) at most a few Kb of ROM and 128 or 256 bytes of RAM is used. However…

All 8051 microcontrollers have a 16-bit addressing bus and are capable of addressing 64 kb memory. It is neither a mistake nor a big
ambition of engineers who were working on basic core development. It is a matter of smart memory organization which makes these
microcontrollers a real “programmers’ goody“.

Program Memory

The first models of the 8051 microcontroller family did not have internal program memory. It was added as an external separate chip.
These models are recognizable by their label beginning with 803 (for example 8031 or 8032). All later models have a few Kbyte ROM
embedded. Even though such an amount of memory is sufficient for writing most of the programs, there are situations when it is
necessary to use additional memory as well. A typical example are so called lookup tables. They are used in cases when equations
describing some processes are too complicated or when there is no time for solving them. In such cases all necessary estimates and
approximates are executed in advance and the final results are put in the tables (similar to logarithmic tables).

How does the microcontroller handle external memory depends on the EA pin logic state:
EA=0 In this case, the microcontroller completely ignores internal program memory and executes only the program stored in external
memory.

EA=1 In this case, the microcontroller executes first the program from built-in ROM, then the program stored in external memory.

In both cases, P0 and P2 are not available for use since being used for data and address transmission. Besides, the ALE and PSEN pins
are also used.

Data Memory

As already mentioned, Data Memory is used for temporarily storing data and intermediate results created and used during the
operation of the microcontroller. Besides, RAM memory built in the 8051 family includes many registers such as hardware counters
and timers, input/output ports, serial data buffers etc. The previous models had 256 RAM locations, while for the later models this
number was incremented by additional 128 registers. However, the first 256 memory locations (addresses 0-FFh) are the heart of
memory common to all the models belonging to the 8051 family. Locations available to the user occupy memory space with addresses
0-7Fh, i.e. first 128 registers. This part of RAM is divided in several blocks.

The first block consists of 4 banks each including 8 registers denoted by R0-R7. Prior to accessing any of these registers, it is
necessary to select the bank containing it. The next memory block (address 20h-2Fh) is bit- addressable, which means that each bit has
its own address (0-7Fh). Since there are 16 such registers, this block contains in total of 128 bits with separate addresses (address of
bit 0 of the 20h byte is 0, while address of bit 7 of the 2Fh byte is 7Fh). The third group of registers occupy addresses 2Fh-7Fh, i.e. 80
locations, and does not have any special functions or features.

Additional RAM

In order to satisfy the programmers’ constant hunger for Data Memory, the manufacturers decided to embed an additional memory
block of 128 locations into the latest versions of the 8051 microcontrollers. However, it’s not as simple as it seems to be… The
problem is that electronics performing addressing has 1 byte (8 bits) on disposal and is capable of reaching only the first 256 locations,
therefore. In order to keep already existing 8-bit architecture and compatibility with other existing models a small trick was done.

What does it mean? It means that additional memory block shares the same addresses with locations intended for the SFRs (80h- FFh).
In order to differentiate between these two physically separated memory spaces, different ways of addressing are used. The SFRs
memory locations are accessed by direct addressing, while additional RAM memory locations are accessed by indirect addressing.
Memory
expansion

In case memory (RAM or ROM) built in the microcontroller is not sufficient, it is possible to add two external memory chips with
capacity of 64Kb each. P2 and P3 I/O ports are used for their addressing and data transmission.
From the user’s point of view, everything works quite simply when properly connected because most operations are performed by the
microcontroller itself. The 8051 microcontroller has two pins for data read RD#(P3.7) and PSEN#. The first one is used for reading
data from external data memory (RAM), while the other is used for reading data from external program memory (ROM). Both pins
are active low. A typical example of memory expansion by adding RAM and ROM chips (Hardward architecture), is shown in figure
above.

Even though additional memory is rarely used with the latest versions of the microcontrollers, we will describe in short what happens
when memory chips are connected according to the previous schematic. The whole process described below is performed
automatically.

• When the program during execution encounters an instruction which resides in external memory (ROM), the microcontroller
will activate its control output ALE and set the first 8 bits of address (A0-A7) on P0. IC circuit 74HCT573 passes the first 8
bits to memory address pins.
• A signal on the ALE pin latches the IC circuit 74HCT573 and immediately afterwards 8 higher bits of address (A8-A15)
appear on the port. In this way, a desired location of additional program memory is addressed. It is left over to read its content.
• Port P0 pins are configured as inputs, the PSEN pin is activated and the microcontroller reads from memory chip.

Similar occurs when it is necessary to read location from external RAM. Addressing is performed in the same way, while read and
write are performed via signals appearing on the control outputs RD (is short for read) or WR (is short for write).

Addressing

While operating, the processor processes data as per program instructions. Each instruction consists of two parts. One part describes
WHAT should be done, while the other explains HOW to do it. The latter part can be a data (binary number) or the address at which
the data is stored. Two ways of addressing are used for all 8051 microcontrollers depending on which part of memory should be
accessed:

Direct Addressing

On direct addressing, the address of memory location containing data to be read is specified in instruction. The address may contain a
number being changed during operation (variable). For example:

Since the address is only one byte in size (the largest number is 255), only the first 255 locations of RAM can be accessed this way.
The first half of RAM is available for use, while another half is reserved for SFRs.

MOV A,33h; Means: move a number from address 33 hex. to accumulator


Indirect Addressing

On indirect addressing, a register containing the address of another register is specified in instruction. Data to be used in the program
is stored in the letter register. For example:
Indirect addressing is only used for accessing RAM locations available for use (never for accessing SFRs). This is the only way of
accessing all the latest versions of the microcontrollers with additional memory block (128 locations of RAM). Simply put, when the
program encounters instruction including “@” sign and if the specified address is higher than 128 ( 7F hex.), the processor knows that
indirect addressing is used and skips memory space reserved for SFRs.

MOV A,@R0; Means: Store the value from the register whose address is in the R0 register
into accumulator

On indirect addressing, registers R0, R1 or Stack Pointer are used for specifying 8-bit addresses. Since only 8 bits are avilable, it is
possible to access only registers of internal RAM this way (128 locations when speaking of previous models or 256 locations when
speaking of latest models of microcontrollers). If an extra memory chip is added then the 16-bit DPTR Register (consisting of the
registers DPTRL and DPTRH) is used for specifying address. In this way it is possible to access any location in the range of 64K.

2.5 Special Function Registers (SFRs)

Special Function Registers (SFRs) are a sort of control table used for running and monitoring the operation of the microcontroller.
Each of these registers as well as each bit they include, has its name, address in the scope of RAM and precisely defined purpose such
as timer control, interrupt control, serial communication control etc. Even though there are 128 memory locations intended to be
occupied by them, the basic core, shared by all types of 8051 microcontrollers, has only 21 such registers. Rest of locations are
intensionally left unoccupied in order to enable the manufacturers to further develop microcontrollers keeping them compatible with
the previous versions. It also enables programs written a long time ago for microcontrollers which are out of production now to be
used today.

A
Register (Accumulator)

A register is a general-purpose register used for storing intermediate results obtained during operation. Prior to executing an
instruction upon any number or operand it is necessary to store it in the accumulator first. All results obtained from arithmetical
operations performed by the ALU are stored in the accumulator. Data to be moved from one register to another must go through the
accumulator. In other words, the A register is the most commonly used register and it is impossible to imagine a microcontroller
without it. More than half instructions used by the 8051 microcontroller use somehow the accumulator.

B Register

Multiplication and division can be performed only upon numbers stored in the A and B registers. All other instructions in the program
can use this register as a spare accumulator (A).

During the process of writing a program, each register is called by its name so that their exact addresses are not of importance for the
user. During compilation, their names will be automatically replaced by appropriate addresses.
R Registers (R0-R7)
This is a common name for 8 general-purpose registers (R0, R1, R2 ...R7). Even though they are not true SFRs, they deserve to be
discussed here because of their purpose. They occupy 4 banks within RAM. Similar to the accumulator, they are used for temporary
storing variables and intermediate results during operation. Which one of these banks is to be active depends on two bits of the PSW
Register. Active bank is a bank the registers of which are currently used.

The following example best illustrates the purpose of these registers. Suppose it is necessary to perform some arithmetical operations
upon numbers previously stored in the R registers: (R1+R2) - (R3+R4). Obviously, a register for temporary storing results of addition
is needed. This is how it looks in the program:

MOV A,R3; Means: move number from R3 into accumulator


ADD A,R4; Means: add number from R4 to accumulator (result remains in accumulator)
MOV R5,A; Means: temporarily move the result from accumulator into R5
MOV A,R1; Means: move number from R1 to accumulator
ADD A,R2; Means: add number from R2 to accumulator
SUBB A,R5; Means: subtract number from R5 (there are R3+R4)
Program Status Word (PSW) Register

PSW register is one of the most important SFRs. It contains several status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. Besides, this
register contains Carry bit, Auxiliary Carry, two register bank select bits, Overflow flag, parity bit and user-definable status flag.

P - Parity bit. If a number stored in the accumulator is even then this bit will be automatically set (1), otherwise it will be cleared (0).
It is mainly used during data transmit and receive via serial communication.

- Bit 1. This bit is intended to be used in the future versions of microcontrollers.

OV Overflow occurs when the result of an arithmetical operation is larger than 255 and cannot be stored in one register. Overflow
condition causes the OV bit to be set (1). Otherwise, it will be cleared (0).

RS0, RS1 - Register bank select bits. These two bits are used to select one of four register banks of RAM. By setting and clearing
these bits, registers R0-R7 are stored in one of four banks of RAM.

Space in
RS1 RS2
RAM
Bank0 00h-
0 0
07h
Bank1 08h-
0 1
0Fh
Bank2 10h-
1 0
17h
Bank3 18h-
1 1
1Fh

F0 - Flag 0. This is a general-purpose bit available for use.

AC - Auxiliary Carry Flag is used for BCD operations only.

CY - Carry Flag is the (ninth) auxiliary bit used for all arithmetical operations and shift instructions.

Data Pointer Register (DPTR)

DPTR register is not a true one because it doesn't physically exist. It consists of two separate registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and
(Data Pointer Low). For this reason it may be treated as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers. Their 16 bits are
primarly used for external memory addressing. Besides, the DPTR Register is usually used for storing data and intermediate results.
Stack
Pointer (SP) Register

A value stored in the Stack Pointer points to the first free stack address and permits stack availability. Stack pushes increment the
value in the Stack Pointer by 1. Likewise, stack pops decrement its value by 1. Upon any reset and power-on, the value 7 is stored in
the Stack Pointer, which means that the space of RAM reserved for the stack starts at this location. If another value is written to this
register, the entire Stack is moved to the new memory location.

P0, P1, P2, P3 - Input/Output Registers

If neither external memory nor serial communication system are used then 4 ports with in total of 32 input/output pins are available for
connection to peripheral environment. Each bit within these ports affects the state and performance of appropriate pin of the
microcontroller. Thus, bit logic state is reflected on appropriate pin as a voltage (0 or 5 V) and vice versa, voltage on a pin reflects the
state of appropriate port bit.

As mentioned, port bit state affects performance of port pins, i.e. whether they will be configured as inputs or outputs. If a bit is
cleared (0), the appropriate pin will be configured as an output, while if it is set (1), the appropriate pin will be configured as an input.
Upon reset and power-on, all port bits are set (1), which means that all appropriate pins will be configured as inputs.

I/O ports are directly connected to the microcontroller pins. Accordingly, logic state of these registers can be checked by voltmeter
and vice versa, voltage on the pins can be checked by inspecting their bits!

2.6 Counters and Timers

As you already know, the microcontroller oscillator uses quartz crystal for its operation. As the frequency of this oscillator is precisely
defined and very stable, pulses it generates are always of the same width, which makes them ideal for time measurement. Such
crystals are also used in quartz watches. In order to measure time between two events it is sufficient to count up pulses coming from
this oscillator. That is exactly what the timer does. If the timer is properly programmed, the value stored in its register will be
incremented (or decremented) with each coming pulse, i.e. once per each machine cycle. A single machine-cycle instruction lasts for
12 quartz oscillator periods, which means that by embedding quartz with oscillator frequency of 12MHz, a number stored in the timer
register will be changed million times per second, i.e. each microsecond.

The 8051 microcontroller has 2 timers/counters called T0 and T1. As their names suggest, their main purpose is to measure time and
count external events. Besides, they can be used for generating clock pulses to be used in serial communication, so called Baud Rate.

Timer T0

As seen in figure below, the timer T0 consists of two registers – TH0 and TL0 representing a low and a high byte of one 16-digit
binary number.
Accordingly, if the content of the timer T0 is equal to 0 (T0=0) then both registers it consists of will contain 0. If the timer contains for
example number 1000 (decimal), then the TH0 register (high byte) will contain the number 3, while the TL0 register (low byte) will
contain decimal number 232.

Formula used to calculate values in these two registers is very simple:


TH0 × 256 + TL0 = T
Matching the previous example it would be as follows:
3 × 256 + 232 = 1000

Since the timer T0 is virtually 16-bit register, the largest value it can store is 65 535. In case of exceeding this value, the timer will be
automatically cleared and counting starts from 0. This condition is called an overflow. Two registers TMOD and TCON are closely
connected to this timer and control its operation.

TMOD Register (Timer Mode)

The TMOD register selects the operational mode of the timers T0 and T1. As seen in figure below, the low 4 bits (bit0 - bit3) refer to
the timer 0, while the high 4 bits (bit4 - bit7) refer to the timer 1. There are 4 operational modes and each of them is described herein.

Bits of this register have the following function:

• GATE1 enables and disables Timer 1 by means of a signal brought to the INT1 pin (P3.3):
o 1 - Timer 1 operates only if the INT1 bit is set.
o 0 - Timer 1 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT1 bit.
• C/T1 selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 1:
o 1 - Timer counts pulses brought to the T1 pin (P3.5).
o 0 - Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.
• T1M1,T1M0 These two bits select the operational mode of the Timer 1.

T1M1 T1M0 Mode Description


0 0 0 13-bit timer
0 1 1 16-bit timer
8-bit auto-
1 0 2
reload
1 1 3 Split mode

• GATE0 enables and disables Timer 1 using a signal brought to the INT0 pin (P3.2):
o 1 - Timer 0 operates only if the INT0 bit is set.
o 0 - Timer 0 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT0 bit.
• C/T0 selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 0:
o 1 - Timer counts pulses brought to the T0 pin (P3.4).
o 0 - Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.
• T0M1,T0M0 These two bits select the oprtaional mode of the Timer 0.

T0M1 T0M0 Mode Description


0 0 0 13-bit timer
0 1 1 16-bit timer
8-bit auto-
1 0 2
reload
1 1 3 Split mode
Timer 0 in mode 0 (13-bit timer)

This is one of the rarities being kept only for the purpose of compatibility with the previuos versions of microcontrollers. This mode
configures timer 0 as a 13-bit timer which consists of all 8 bits of TH0 and the lower 5 bits of TL0. As a result, the Timer 0 uses only
13 of 16 bits. How does it operate? Each coming pulse causes the lower register bits to change their states. After receiving 32 pulses,
this register is loaded and automatically cleared, while the higher byte (TH0) is incremented by 1. This process is repeated until
registers count up 8192 pulses. After that, both registers are cleared and counting starts from 0.

Timer 0
in mode 1 (16-bit timer)

Mode 1 configures timer 0 as a 16-bit timer comprising all the bits of both registers TH0 and TL0. That's why this is one of the most
commonly used modes. Timer operates in the same way as in mode 0, with difference that the registers count up to 65 536 as
allowable by the 16 bits.

Timer 0
in mode 2 (Auto-Reload Timer)
Mode 2 configures timer 0 as an 8-bit timer. Actually, timer 0 uses only one 8-bit register for counting and never counts from 0, but
from an arbitrary value (0-255) stored in another (TH0) register.

The following example shows the advantages of this mode. Suppose it is necessary to constantly count up 55 pulses generated by the
clock.

If mode 1 or mode 0 is used, It is necessary to write the number 200 to the timer registers and constantly check whether an overflow
has occured, i.e. whether they reached the value 255. When it happens, it is necessary to rewrite the number 200 and repeat the whole
procedure. The same procedure is automatically performed by the microcontroller if set in mode 2. In fact, only the TL0 register
operates as a timer, while another (TH0) register stores the value from which the counting starts. When the TL0 register is loaded,
instead of being cleared, the contents of TH0 will be reloaded to it. Referring to the previous example, in order to register each 55th
pulse, the best solution is to write the number 200 to the TH0 register and configure the timer to operate in mode 2.

Timer 0
in Mode 3 (Split Timer)

Mode 3 configures timer 0 so that registers TL0 and TH0 operate as separate 8-bit timers. In other words, the 16-bit timer consisting
of two registers TH0 and TL0 is split into two independent 8-bit timers. This mode is provided for applications requiring an additional
8-bit timer or counter. The TL0 timer turns into timer 0, while the TH0 timer turns into timer 1. In addition, all the control bits of 16-
bit Timer 1 (consisting of the TH1 and TL1 register), now control the 8-bit Timer 1. Even though the 16-bit Timer 1 can still be
configured to operate in any of modes (mode 1, 2 or 3), it is no longer possible to disable it as there is no control bit to do it. Thus, its
operation is restricted when timer 0 is in mode 3.

The only application of this mode is when two timers are used and the 16-bit Timer 1 the operation of which is out of control is used
as a baud rate generator.
Timer Control (TCON) Register

TCON register is also one of the registers whose bits are directly in control of timer operation.
Only 4 bits of this register are used for this purpose, while rest of them is used for interrupt control to be discussed later.

• TF1 bit is automatically set on the Timer 1 overflow.


• TR1 bit enables the Timer 1.
o 1 - Timer 1 is enabled.
o 0 - Timer 1 is disabled.
• TF0 bit is automatically set on the Timer 0 overflow.
• TR0 bit enables the timer 0.
o 1 - Timer 0 is enabled.
o 0 - Timer 0 is disabled.

How to use the Timer 0 ?

In order to use timer 0, it is first necessary to select it and configure the mode of its operation. Bits of the TMOD register are in control
of it:

Referring to figure above, the timer 0 operates in mode 1 and counts pulses generated by internal clock the frequency of which is
equal to 1/12 the quartz frequency.
Turn on the timer:

The TR0 bit is set and the timer starts operation. If the quartz crystal with frequency of 12MHz is embedded then its contents will be
incremented every microsecond. After 65.536 microseconds, the both registers the timer consists of will be loaded. The
microcontroller automatically clears them and the timer keeps on repeating procedure from the beginning until the TR0 bit value is
logic zero (0).

How to 'read' a timer?

Depending on application, it is necessary either to read a number stored in the timer registers or to register the moment they have been
cleared.
- It is extremely simple to read a timer by using only one register configured in mode 2 or 3. It is sufficient to read its state at any
moment. That's all!

- It is somehow complicated to read a timer configured to operate in mode 2. Suppose the lower byte is read first (TL0), then the
higher byte (TH0). The result is:

TH0 = 15 TL0 = 255

Everything seems to be ok, but the current state of the register at the moment of reading was:

TH0 = 14 TL0 = 255

In case of negligence, such an error in counting (255 pulses) may occur for not so obvious but quite logical reason. The lower byte is
correctly read (255), but at the moment the program counter was about to read the higher byte TH0, an overflow occurred and the
contents of both registers have been changed (TH0: 14→15, TL0: 255→0). This problem has a simple solution. The higher byte
should be read first, then the lower byte and once again the higher byte. If the number stored in the higher byte is different then this
sequence should be repeated. It's about a short loop consisting of only 3 instructions in the program.

There is another solution as well. It is sufficient to simply turn the timer off while reading is going on (the TR0 bit of the TCON
register should be cleared), and turn it on again after reading is finished.

Timer 0 Overflow Detection

Usually, there is no need to constantly read timer registers. It is sufficient to register the moment they are cleared, i.e. when counting
starts from 0. This condition is called an overflow. When it occurrs, the TF0 bit of the TCON register will be automatically set. The
state of this bit can be constantly checked from within the program or by enabling an interrupt which will stop the main program
execution when this bit is set. Suppose it is necessary to provide a program delay of 0.05 seconds (50 000 machine cycles), i.e. time
when the program seems to be stopped:

First a number to be written to the timer registers should be calculated:

Then it should be written to the timer registers TH0 and TL0:

When enabled, the timer will resume counting from this number. The state of the TF0 bit, i.e. whether it is set, is checked from within
the program. It happens at the moment of overflow, i.e. after exactly 50.000 machine cycles or 0.05 seconds.

How to measure pulse duration?


Suppose it is necessary to measure the duration of an operation, for example how long a device has been turned on? Look again at the
figure illustrating the timer and pay attention to the function of the GATE0 bit of the TMOD register. If it is cleared then the state of
the P3.2 pin doesn't affect timer operation. If GATE0 = 1 the timer will operate until the pin P3.2 is cleared. Accordingly, if this pin is
supplied with 5V through some external switch at the moment the device is being turned on, the timer will measure duration of its
operation, which actually was the objective.

How to count up pulses?

Similarly to the previous example, the answer to this question again lies in the TCON register. This time it's about the C/T0 bit. If the
bit is cleared the timer counts pulses generated by the internal oscillator, i.e. measures the time passed. If the bit is set, the timer input
is provided with pulses from the P3.4 pin (T0). Since these pulses are not always of the same width, the timer cannot be used for time
measurement and is turned into a counter, therefore. The highest frequency that could be measured by such a counter is 1/24
frequency of used quartz-crystal.

Timer 1

Timer 1 is identical to timer 0, except for mode 3 which is a hold-count mode. It means that they have the same function, their
operation is controlled by the same registers TMOD and TCON and both of them can operate in one out of 4 different modes.

2.7 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter)

One of the microcontroller features making it so powerful is an integrated UART, better known as a serial port. It is a full-duplex port,
thus being able to transmit and receive data simultaneously and at different baud rates. Without it, serial data send and receive would
be an enormously complicated part of the program in which the pin state is constantly changed and checked at regular intervals. When
using UART, all the programmer has to do is to simply select serial port mode and baud rate. When it's done, serial data transmit is
nothing but writing to the SBUF register, while data receive represents reading the same register. The microcontroller takes care of not
making any error during data transmission.
Serial port must be configured prior to being used. In other words, it is necessary to determine how many bits is contained in one serial
“word”, baud rate and synchronization clock source. The whole process is in control of the bits of the SCON register (Serial Control).

Serial Port Control (SCON) Register

• SM0 - Serial port mode bit 0 is used for serial port mode selection.
• SM1 - Serial port mode bit 1.
• SM2 - Serial port mode 2 bit, also known as multiprocessor communication enable bit. When set, it enables multiprocessor
communication in mode 2 and 3, and eventually mode 1. It should be cleared in mode 0.
• REN - Reception Enable bit enables serial reception when set. When cleared, serial reception is disabled.
• TB8 - Transmitter bit 8. Since all registers are 8-bit wide, this bit solves the problem of transmiting the 9th bit in modes 2 and
3. It is set to transmit a logic 1 in the 9th bit.
• RB8 - Receiver bit 8 or the 9th bit received in modes 2 and 3. Cleared by hardware if 9th bit received is a logic 0. Set by
hardware if 9th bit received is a logic 1.
• TI - Transmit Interrupt flag is automatically set at the moment the last bit of one byte is sent. It's a signal to the processor that
the line is available for a new byte transmite. It must be cleared from within the software.
• RI - Receive Interrupt flag is automatically set upon one byte receive. It signals that byte is received and should be read
quickly prior to being replaced by a new data. This bit is also cleared from within the software.

As seen, serial port mode is selected by combining the SM0 and SM2 bits:

SM0 SM1 Mode Description Baud Rate


0 0 0 8-bit Shift Register 1/12 the quartz frequency
0 1 1 8-bit UART Determined by the timer 1
1/32 the quartz frequency
1 0 2 9-bit UART
(1/64 the quartz frequency)
1 1 3 9-bit UART Determined by the timer 1

In mode 0, serial data are transmitted and received through the RXD pin, while the TXD pin output clocks. The bout rate is fixed at
1/12 the oscillator frequency. On transmit, the least significant bit (LSB bit) is sent/received first.

TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register. In fact, this process starts after any instruction being
performed upon this register. When all 8 bits have been sent, the TI bit of the SCON register is automatically set.
RECEIVE - Data receive through the RXD pin starts upon the two following conditions are met: bit REN=1 and RI=0 (both of them
are stored in the SCON register). When all 8 bits have been received, the RI bit of the SCON register is automatically set indicating
that one byte receive is complete.

Since there are no START and STOP bits or any other bit except data sent from the SBUF register in the pulse sequence, this mode is
mainly used when the distance between devices is short, noise is minimized and operating speed is of importance. A typical example
is I/O port expansion by adding a cheap IC (shift registers 74HC595, 74HC597 and similar).

Mode 1

In mode 1, 10 bits are transmitted through the TXD pin or received through the RXD pin in the following manner: a START bit
(always 0), 8 data bits (LSB first) and a STOP bit (always 1). The START bit is only used to initiate data receive, while the STOP bit
is automatically written to the RB8 bit of the SCON register.

TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register. End of data transmission is indicated by setting the TI
bit of the SCON register.

RECEIVE - The START bit (logic zero (0)) on the RXD pin initiates data receive. The following two conditions must be met: bit
REN=1 and bit RI=0. Both of them are stored in the SCON register. The RI bit is automatically set upon data reception is complete.

The Baud rate in this mode is determined by the timer 1 overflow.

Mode 2
In mode 2, 11 bits are transmitted through the TXD pin or received through the RXD pin: a START bit (always 0), 8 data bits (LSB
first), a programmable 9th data bit and a STOP bit (always 1). On transmit, the 9th data bit is actually the TB8 bit of the SCON
register. This bit usually has a function of parity bit. On receive, the 9th data bit goes into the RB8 bit of the same register
(SCON).The baud rate is either 1/32 or 1/64 the oscillator frequency.

TRANSMIT - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register. End of data transmission is indicated by setting the TI
bit of the SCON register.

RECEIVE - The START bit (logic zero (0)) on the RXD pin initiates data receive. The following two conditions must be met: bit
REN=1 and bit RI=0. Both of them are stored in the SCON register. The RI bit is automatically set upon data reception is complete.

Mode 3

Mode 3 is the same as Mode 2 in all respects except the baud rate. The baud rate in Mode 3 is variable.

The parity bit is the P bit of the PSW register. The simplest way to check correctness of the received byte is to add a parity bit to it.
Simply, before initiating data transmit, the byte to transmit is stored in the accumulator and the P bit goes into the TB8 bit in order to
be “a part of the message”. The procedure is opposite on receive, received byte is stored in the accumulator and the P bit is compared
with the RB8 bit. If they are the same- everything is OK!

Baud Rate

Baud Rate is a number of sent/received bits per second. In case the UART is used, baud rate depends on: selected mode, oscillator
frequency and in some cases on the state of the SMOD bit of the SCON register. All the necessary formulas are specified in the table:

Baud Rate BitSMOD


Mode 0 Fosc. / 12
1 Fosc.
Mode 1 16 12 (256- BitSMOD
TH1)
Fosc. / 32 1
Mode 2
Fosc. / 64 0
1 Fosc.
Mode 3 16 12 (256-
TH1)
Timer 1 as a clock generator

Timer 1 is usually used as a clock generator as it enables various baud rates to be easily set. The whole procedure is simple and is as
follows:

• First, enable Timer 1 overflow interrupt.


• Configure Timer T1 to operate in auto-reload mode.
• Depending on needs, select one of the standard values from the table and write it to the TH1 register. That's all.

Fosc. (MHz)
Baud Rate Bit SMOD
11.0592 12 14.7456 16 20
150 40 h 30 h 00 h 0
300 A0 h 98 h 80 h 75 h 52 h 0
600 D0 h CC h C0 h BB h A9 h 0
1200 E8 h E6 h E0 h DE h D5 h 0
2400 F4 h F3 h F0 h EF h EA h 0
4800 F3 h EF h EF h 1
4800 FA h F8 h F5 h 0
9600 FD h FC h 0
9600 F5 h 1
19200 FD h FC h 1
38400 FE h 1
76800 FF h 1
Multiprocessor Communication

As you may know, additional 9th data bit is a part of message in mode 2 and 3. It can be used for checking data via parity bit. Another
useful application of this bit is in communication between two or more microcontrollers, i.e. multiprocessor communication. This
feature is enabled by setting the SM2 bit of the SCON register. As a result, after receiving the STOP bit, indicating end of the
message, the serial port interrupt will be generated only if the bit RB8 = 1 (the 9th bit).

This is how it looks like in practice:

Suppose there are several microcontrollers sharing the same interface. Each of them has its own address. An address byte differs from
a data byte because it has the 9th bit set (1), while this bit is cleared (0) in a data byte. When the microcontroller A (master) wants to
transmit a block of data to one of several slaves, it first sends out an address byte which identifies the target slave. An address byte
will generate an interrupt in all slaves so that they can examine the received byte and check whether it matches their address.

Of course, only one of them will match the address and immediately clear the SM2 bit of the SCON register and prepare to receive the
data byte to come. Other slaves not being addressed leave their SM2 bit set ignoring the coming data bytes.

2.8 8051 Microcontroller Interrupts


There are five interrupt sources for the 8051, which means that they can recognize 5 different events that can interrupt regular program
execution. Each interrupt can be enabled or disabled by setting bits of the IE register. Likewise, the whole interrupt system can be
disabled by clearing the EA bit of the same register. Refer to figure below.

Now, it is necessary to explain a few details referring to external interrupts- INT0 and INT1. If the IT0 and IT1 bits of the TCON
register are set, an interrupt will be generated on high to low transition, i.e. on the falling pulse edge (only in that moment). If these
bits are cleared, an interrupt will be continuously executed as far as the pins are held low.

IE
Register (Interrupt Enable)

• EA - global interrupt enable/disable:


o 0 - disables all interrupt requests.
o 1 - enables all individual interrupt requests.
• ES - enables or disables serial interrupt:
o 0 - UART system cannot generate an interrupt.
o 1 - UART system enables an interrupt.
• ET1 - bit enables or disables Timer 1 interrupt:
o 0 - Timer 1 cannot generate an interrupt.
o 1 - Timer 1 enables an interrupt.
• EX1 - bit enables or disables external 1 interrupt:
o 0 - change of the pin INT0 logic state cannot generate an interrupt.
o 1 - enables an external interrupt on the pin INT0 state change.
• ET0 - bit enables or disables timer 0 interrupt:
o 0 - Timer 0 cannot generate an interrupt.
o 1 - enables timer 0 interrupt.
• EX0 - bit enables or disables external 0 interrupt:
o 0 - change of the INT1 pin logic state cannot generate an interrupt.
o 1 - enables an external interrupt on the pin INT1 state change.

Interrupt Priorities

It is not possible to forseen when an interrupt request will arrive. If several interrupts are enabled, it may happen that while one of
them is in progress, another one is requested. In order that the microcontroller knows whether to continue operation or meet a new
interrupt request, there is a priority list instructing it what to do.

The priority list offers 3 levels of interrupt priority:

1. Reset! The apsolute master. When a reset request arrives, everything is stopped and the microcontroller restarts.
2. Interrupt priority 1 can be disabled by Reset only.
3. Interrupt priority 0 can be disabled by both Reset and interrupt priority 1.

The IP Register (Interrupt Priority Register) specifies which one of existing interrupt sources have higher and which one has lower
priority. Interrupt priority is usually specified at the beginning of the program. According to that, there are several possibilities:

• If an interrupt of higher priority arrives while an interrupt is in progress, it will be immediately stopped and the higher priority
interrupt will be executed first.
• If two interrupt requests, at different priority levels, arrive at the same time then the higher priority interrupt is serviced first.
• If the both interrupt requests, at the same priority level, occur one after another, the one which came later has to wait until
routine being in progress ends.
• If two interrupt requests of equal priority arrive at the same time then the interrupt to be serviced is selected according to the
following priority list:

1. External interrupt INT0


2. Timer 0 interrupt
3. External Interrupt INT1
4. Timer 1 interrupt
5. Serial Communication Interrupt

IP Register (Interrupt Priority)

The IP register bits specify the priority level of each interrupt (high or low priority).

• PS - Serial Port Interrupt priority bit


o Priority 0
o Priority 1
• PT1 - Timer 1 interrupt priority
o Priority 0
o Priority 1
• PX1 - External Interrupt INT1 priority
o Priority 0
o Priority 1
• PT0 - Timer 0 Interrupt Priority
o Priority 0
o Priority 1
• PX0 - External Interrupt INT0 Priority
o Priority 0
o Priority 1

Handling Interrupt

When an interrupt request arrives the following occurs:

1. Instruction in progress is ended.


2. The address of the next instruction to execute is pushed on the stack.
3. Depending on which interrupt is requested, one of 5 vectors (addresses) is written to the program counter in accordance to the
table below:
4.

Interrupt Source Vector (address)


IE0 3h
TF0 Bh
TF1 1B h
RI, TI 23 h
All addresses are in hexadecimal format

5. These addresses store appropriate subroutines processing interrupts. Instead of them, there are usually jump instructions
specifying locations on which these subroutines reside.
6. When an interrupt routine is executed, the address of the next instruction to execute is poped from the stack to the program
counter and interrupted program resumes operation from where it left off.

From the moment an interrupt is enabled, the microcontroller is on alert all the time. When an interrupt request arrives, the program
execution is stopped, electronics recognizes the source and the program “jumps” to the appropriate address (see the table above). This
address usually stores a jump instruction specifying the start of appropriate subroutine. Upon its execution, the program resumes
operation from where it left off.

Reset

Reset occurs when the RS pin is supplied with a positive pulse in duration of at least 2 machine cycles (24 clock cycles of crystal
oscillator). After that, the microcontroller generates an internal reset signal which clears all SFRs, except SBUF registers, Stack
Pointer and ports (the state of the first two ports is not defined, while FF value is written to the ports configuring all their pins as
inputs). Depending on surrounding and purpose of device, the RS pin is usually connected to a power-on reset push button or circuit or
to both of them. Figure below illustrates one of the simplest circuit providing safe power-on reset.
Basically, everything is very simple: after turning the power on, electrical capacitor is being charged for several milliseconds throgh a
resistor connected to the ground. The pin is driven high during this process. When the capacitor is charged, power supply voltage is
already stable and the pin remains connected to the ground, thus providing normal operation of the microcontroller. Pressing the reset
button causes the capacitor to be temporarily discharged and the microcontroller is reset. When released, the whole process is
repeated…

Through the program- step by step...

Microcontrollers normally operate at very high speed. The use of 12 Mhz quartz crystal enables 1.000.000 instructions to be executed
per second. Basically, there is no need for higher operating rate. In case it is needed, it is easy to built in a crystal for high frequency.
The problem arises when it is necessary to slow down the operation of the microcontroller. For example during testing in real
environment when it is necessary to execute several instructions step by step in order to check I/O pins' logic state.

Interrupt system of the 8051 microcontroller practically stops operation of the microcontroller and enables instructions to be executed
one after another by pressing the button. Two interrupt features enable that:

• Interrupt request is ignored if an interrupt of the same priority level is in progress.



• Upon interrupt routine execution, a new interrupt is not executed until at least one instruction from the main program is
executed.

In order to use this in practice, the following steps should be done:

1. External interrupt sensitive to the signal level should be enabled (for example INT0).
2. Three following instructions should be inserted into the program (at the 03hex. address):

What is going on? As soon as the P3.2 pin is cleared (for example, by pressing the button), the microcontroller will stop program
execution and jump to the 03hex address will be executed. This address stores a short interrupt routine consisting of 3 instructions.

The first instruction is executed until the push button is realised (logic one (1) on the P3.2 pin). The second instruction is executed
until the push button is pressed again. Immediately after that, the RETI instruction is executed and the processor resumes operation of
the main program. Upon execution of any program instruction, the interrupt INT0 is generated and the whole procedure is repeated
(push button is still pressed). In other words, one button press - one instruction.

2.9 8051 Microcontroller Power Consumption Control

Generally speaking, the microcontroller is inactive for the most part and just waits for some external signal in order to takes its role in
a show. This can cause some problems in case batteries are used for power supply. In extreme cases, the only solution is to set the
whole electronics in sleep mode in order to minimize consumption. A typical example is a TV remote controller: it can be out of use
for months but when used again it takes less than a second to send a command to TV receiver. The AT89S53 uses approximately
25mA for regular operation, which doesn't make it a pover-saving microcontroller. Anyway, it doesn’t have to be always like that, it
can easily switch the operating mode in order to reduce its total consumption to approximately 40uA. Actually, there are two power-
saving modes of operation: Idle and Power Down.
Idle
mode

Upon the IDL bit of the PCON register is set, the microcontroller turns off the greatest power consumer- CPU unit while peripheral
units such as serial port, timers and interrupt system continue operating normally consuming 6.5mA. In Idle mode, the state of all
registers and I/O ports remains unchanged.

In order to exit the Idle mode and make the microcontroller operate normally, it is necessary to enable and execute any interrupt or
reset. It will cause the IDL bit to be automatically cleared and the program resumes operation from instruction having set the IDL bit.
It is recommended that first three instructions to execute now are NOP instructions. They don't perform any operation but provide
some time for the microcontroller to stabilize and prevents undesired changes on the I/O ports.

Power Down mode

By setting the PD bit of the PCON register from within the program, the microcontroller is set to Power down mode, thus turning off
its internal oscillator and reduces power consumption enormously. The microcontroller can operate using only 2V power supply in
power- down mode, while a total power consumption is less than 40uA. The only way to get the microcontroller back to normal mode
is by reset.

While the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the state of all SFR registers and I/O ports remains unchanged. By setting it back
into the normal mode, the contents of the SFR register is lost, but the content of internal RAM is saved. Reset signal must be long
enough, approximately 10mS, to enable stable operation of the quartz oscillator.

PCON register

The purpose of the Register PCON bits is:

• SMOD Baud rate is twice as much higher by setting this bit.



• GF1 General-purpose bit (available for use).

• GF1 General-purpose bit (available for use).

• GF0 General-purpose bit (available for use).
• PD By setting this bit the microcontroller enters the Power Down mode.
• IDL By setting this bit the microcontroller enters the Idle mode.

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Chapter 3 : The 8051 Instruction Set


• 3.1 Types of instructions
• 3.2 Description of the 8051 instructions

Introduction

The process of writing program for the microcontroller mainly consists of giving instructions (commands) in the specific order in
which they should be executed in order to carry out a specific task. As electronics cannot “understand” what for example an
instruction “if the push button is pressed- turn the light on” means, then a certain number of simpler and precisely defined orders that
decoder can recognise must be used. All commands are known as INSTRUCTION SET. All microcontrollers compatibile with the
8051 have in total of 255 instructions, i.e. 255 different words available for program writing.

At first sight, it is imposing number of odd signs that must be known by heart. However, It is not so complicated as it looks like. Many
instructions are considered to be “different”, even though they perform the same operation, so there are only 111 truly different
commands. For example: ADD A,R0, ADD A,R1, ... ADD A,R7 are instructions that perform the same operation (additon of the
accumulator and register). Since there are 8 such registers, each instruction is counted separately. Taking into account that all
instructions perform only 53 operations (addition, subtraction, copy etc.) and most of them are rarely used in practice, there are
actually 20-30 abbreviations to be learned, which is acceptable.

3.1 Types of instructions

Depending on operation they perform, all instructions are divided in several groups:

• Arithmetic Instructions
• Branch Instructions
• Data Transfer Instructions
• Logic Instructions
• Bit-oriented Instructions

The first part of each instruction, called MNEMONIC refers to the operation an instruction performs (copy, addition, logic operation
etc.). Mnemonics are abbreviations of the name of operation being executed. For example:

INC R1 - Means: Increment register R1 (increment register R1);


LJMP LAB5 - Means: Long Jump LAB5 (long jump to the address marked as LAB5);
JNZ LOOP - Means: Jump if Not Zero LOOP (if the number in the accumulator is not 0, jump to the address marked as LOOP);

The other part of instruction, called OPERAND is separated from mnemonic by at least one whitespace and defines data being
processed by instructions. Some of the instructions have no operand, while some of them have one, two or three. If there is more than
one operand in an instruction, they are separated by a comma. For example:

RET - return from a subroutine;


JZ TEMP - if the number in the accumulator is not 0, jump to the address marked as TEMP;
ADD A,R3 - add R3 and accumulator;
CJNE A,#20,LOOP - compare accumulator with 20. If they are not equal, jump to the address marked as LOOP;

Arithmetic instructions

Arithmetic instructions perform several basic operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. After execution, the
result is stored in the first operand. For example:

ADD A,R1 - The result of addition (A+R1) will be stored in the accumulator.
Arithmetic Instructions
Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
ADD A,Rn Adds the register to the accumulator 1 1
ADD A,direct Adds the direct byte to the accumulator 2 2
ADD A,@Ri Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator 1 2
ADD A,#data Adds the immediate data to the accumulator 2 2
ADDC A,Rn Adds the register to the accumulator with a carry flag 1 1
ADDC
Adds the direct byte to the accumulator with a carry flag 2 2
A,direct
ADDC
Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a carry flag 1 2
A,@Ri
ADDC
Adds the immediate data to the accumulator with a carry flag 2 2
A,#data
SUBB A,Rn Subtracts the register from the accumulator with a borrow 1 1
SUBB
Subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with a borrow 2 2
A,direct
Subtracts the indirect RAM from the accumulator with a
SUBB A,@Ri 1 2
borrow
SUBB Subtracts the immediate data from the accumulator with a
2 2
A,#data borrow
INC A Increments the accumulator by 1 1 1
INC Rn Increments the register by 1 1 2
INC Rx Increments the direct byte by 1 2 3
INC @Ri Increments the indirect RAM by 1 1 3
DEC A Decrements the accumulator by 1 1 1
DEC Rn Decrements the register by 1 1 1
DEC Rx Decrements the direct byte by 1 1 2
DEC @Ri Decrements the indirect RAM by 1 2 3
INC DPTR Increments the Data Pointer by 1 1 3
MUL AB Multiplies A and B 1 5
DIV AB Divides A by B 1 5
Decimal adjustment of the accumulator according to BCD
DA A 1 1
code
Branch Instructions

There are two kinds of branch instructions:

Unconditional jump instructions: upon their execution a jump to a new location from where the program continues execution is
executed.

Conditional jump instructions: a jump to a new program location is executed only if a specified condition is met. Otherwise, the
program normally proceeds with the next instruction.

Branch Instructions
Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
ACALL
Absolute subroutine call 2 6
addr11
LCALL
Long subroutine call 3 6
addr16
RET Returns from subroutine 1 4
RETI Returns from interrupt subroutine 1 4
AJMP addr11 Absolute jump 2 3
LJMP addr16 Long jump 3 4
Short jump (from –128 to +127 locations relative to the
SJMP rel 2 3
following instruction)
JC rel Jump if carry flag is set. Short jump. 2 3
JNC rel Jump if carry flag is not set. Short jump. 2 3
JB bit,rel Jump if direct bit is set. Short jump. 3 4
JBC bit,rel Jump if direct bit is set and clears bit. Short jump. 3 4
JMP
Jump indirect relative to the DPTR 1 2
@A+DPTR
JZ rel Jump if the accumulator is zero. Short jump. 2 3
JNZ rel Jump if the accumulator is not zero. Short jump. 2 3
CJNE Compares direct byte to the accumulator and jumps if not
3 4
A,direct,rel equal. Short jump.
CJNE Compares immediate data to the accumulator and jumps if
3 4
A,#data,rel not equal. Short jump.
CJNE Compares immediate data to the register and jumps if not
3 4
Rn,#data,rel equal. Short jump.
CJNE Compares immediate data to indirect register and jumps if
3 4
@Ri,#data,rel not equal. Short jump.
DJNZ Rn,rel Decrements register and jumps if not 0. Short jump. 2 3
DJNZ Rx,rel Decrements direct byte and jump if not 0. Short jump. 3 4
NOP No operation 1 1
Data Transfer Instructions

Data transfer instructions move the content of one register to another. The register the content of which is moved remains unchanged.
If they have the suffix “X” (MOVX), the data is exchanged with external memory.

Data Transfer Instructions


Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
MOV A,Rn Moves the register to the accumulator 1 1
MOV A,direct Moves the direct byte to the accumulator 2 2
MOV A,@Ri Moves the indirect RAM to the accumulator 1 2
MOV A,#data Moves the immediate data to the accumulator 2 2
MOV Rn,A Moves the accumulator to the register 1 2
MOV
Moves the direct byte to the register 2 4
Rn,direct
MOV
Moves the immediate data to the register 2 2
Rn,#data
MOV direct,A Moves the accumulator to the direct byte 2 3
MOV
Moves the register to the direct byte 2 3
direct,Rn
MOV
Moves the direct byte to the direct byte 3 4
direct,direct
MOV
Moves the indirect RAM to the direct byte 2 4
direct,@Ri
MOV
Moves the immediate data to the direct byte 3 3
direct,#data
MOV @Ri,A Moves the accumulator to the indirect RAM 1 3
MOV
Moves the direct byte to the indirect RAM 2 5
@Ri,direct
MOV
Moves the immediate data to the indirect RAM 2 3
@Ri,#data
MOV
Moves a 16-bit data to the data pointer 3 3
DPTR,#data
MOVC Moves the code byte relative to the DPTR to the accumulator
1 3
A,@A+DPTR (address=A+DPTR)
MOVC Moves the code byte relative to the PC to the accumulator
1 3
A,@A+PC (address=A+PC)
MOVX
Moves the external RAM (8-bit address) to the accumulator 1 3-10
A,@Ri
MOVX
Moves the external RAM (16-bit address) to the accumulator 1 3-10
A,@DPTR
MOVX
Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (8-bit address) 1 4-11
@Ri,A
MOVX
Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (16-bit address) 1 4-11
@DPTR,A
PUSH direct Pushes the direct byte onto the stack 2 4
POP direct Pops the direct byte from the stack/td> 2 3
XCH A,Rn Exchanges the register with the accumulator 1 2
XCH A,direct Exchanges the direct byte with the accumulator 2 3
XCH A,@Ri Exchanges the indirect RAM with the accumulator 1 3
XCHD Exchanges the low-order nibble indirect RAM with the
1 3
A,@Ri accumulator
Logic Instructions

Logic instructions perform logic operations upon corresponding bits of two registers. After execution, the result is stored in the first
operand.

Logic Instructions
Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
ANL A,Rn AND register to accumulator 1 1
ANL A,direct AND direct byte to accumulator 2 2
ANL A,@Ri AND indirect RAM to accumulator 1 2
ANL A,#data AND immediate data to accumulator 2 2
ANL direct,A AND accumulator to direct byte 2 3
ANL
AND immediae data to direct register 3 4
direct,#data
ORL A,Rn OR register to accumulator 1 1
ORL A,direct OR direct byte to accumulator 2 2
ORL A,@Ri OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 2
ORL direct,A OR accumulator to direct byte 2 3
ORL
OR immediate data to direct byte 3 4
direct,#data
XRL A,Rn Exclusive OR register to accumulator 1 1
XRL A,direct Exclusive OR direct byte to accumulator 2 2
XRL A,@Ri Exclusive OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 2
XRL A,#data Exclusive OR immediate data to accumulator 2 2
XRL direct,A Exclusive OR accumulator to direct byte 2 3
XORL
Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte 3 4
direct,#data
CLR A Clears the accumulator 1 1
CPL A Complements the accumulator (1=0, 0=1) 1 1
SWAP A Swaps nibbles within the accumulator 1 1
RL A Rotates bits in the accumulator left 1 1
RLC A Rotates bits in the accumulator left through carry 1 1
RR A Rotates bits in the accumulator right 1 1
RRC A Rotates bits in the accumulator right through carry 1 1
Bit-oriented Instructions

Similar to logic instructions, bit-oriented instructions perform logic operations. The difference is that these are performed upon single
bits.

Bit-oriented Instructions
Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
CLR C Clears the carry flag 1 1
CLR bit Clears the direct bit 2 3
SETB C Sets the carry flag 1 1
SETB bit Sets the direct bit 2 3
CPL C Complements the carry flag 1 1
CPL bit Complements the direct bit 2 3
ANL C,bit AND direct bit to the carry flag 2 2
ANL C,/bit AND complements of direct bit to the carry flag 2 2
ORL C,bit OR direct bit to the carry flag 2 2
ORL C,/bit OR complements of direct bit to the carry flag 2 2
MOV C,bit Moves the direct bit to the carry flag 2 2
MOV bit,C Moves the carry flag to the direct bit 2 3

3.2 Description of all 8051 instructions

Here is a list of the operands and their meanings:

A - accumulator;
Rn - is one of working registers (R0-R7) in the currently active RAM memory bank;
Direct - is any 8-bit address register of RAM. It can be any general-purpose register or a SFR (I/O port, control register etc.);
@Ri - is indirect internal or external RAM location addressed by register R0 or R1;
#data - is an 8-bit constant included in instruction (0-255);
#data16 - is a 16-bit constant included as bytes 2 and 3 in instruction (0-65535);
addr16 - is a 16-bit address. May be anywhere within 64KB of program memory;
addr11 - is an 11-bit address. May be within the same 2KB page of program memory as the first byte of the following instruction;
rel - is the address of a close memory location (from -128 to +127 relative to the first byte of the following instruction). On the basis
of it, assembler computes the value to add or subtract from the number currently stored in the program counter;
bit - is any bit-addressable I/O pin, control or status bit; and
C - is carry flag of the status register (register PSW).

ACALL addr11 - Absolute subroutine call

addr11: Subroutine address

Description: Instruction unconditionally calls a subroutine located at the specified code address. Therefore, the current address and
the address of called subroutine must be within the same 2K byte block of the program memory, starting from the first byte of the
instruction following ACALL.

Syntax: ACALL [subroutine name];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, subroutine address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0123h
After execution: PC=0345h

ADD A,Rn - Adds the register Rn to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Description: Instruction adds the register Rn (R0-R7) to the accumulator. After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADD A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=2Eh (46 dec.) R4=12h (18 dec.)


After execution: A=40h (64 dec.) R4=12h

ADD A,@Ri - Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator. Address of indirect RAM is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1).
After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADD A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:
Register address: SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh
Before execution: A= 16h (22 dec.) SUM= 33h (51 dec.)
After execution : A= 49h (73 dec.)

ADD A,direct - Adds the direct byte to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)

Description: Instruction adds the direct byte to the accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the direct can be any SFR or general-
purpose register with address 0-7 Fh. The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADD A, register name;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: SUM= 33h (51 dec.) A= 16h (22 dec.)


After execution: SUM= 33h (73 dec.) A= 49h (73 dec.)

ADDC A,Rn - Adds the register to the accumulator with a carry flag

A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Description: Instruction adds the accumulator with a carry flag and Rn register (R0-R7). After addition, the result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: ADDC A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) R0= AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1

ADD A,#data - Adds the immediate data to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Data: constant within 0-255 (0-FFh)
Description: Instruction adds data (0-255) to the accumulator. After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADD A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= 16h (22 dec.)


After execution: A= 49h (73 dec.)

ADDC A,direct - Adds the direct byte to the acumulator with a carry flag

A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction adds the direct byte to the accumulator with a carry flag. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any
SFRs or general purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127dec.). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADDC A, register address;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) TEMP = AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1

ADDC A,@Ri - Adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a carry flag

A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction adds the indirect RAM to the accumulator with a carry flag. RAM address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or
R1). After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADDC A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh


Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) SUM = AAh (170 dec.) C=1
After execution: A= 6Eh (110 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1

ADDC A,#data - Adds the immediate data to the accumulator with a carry flag
A: accumulator
Data: constant with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction adds data (0-255) to the accumulator with a carry flag. After addition, the result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ADDC A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV and AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (195 dec.) C=1


After execution: A= 6Dh (109 dec.) AC=0, C=1, OV=1

AJMP addr11 - Absoulte jump

addr11: Jump address

Description: Program continues execution after executing a jump to the specified address. Similar to the ACALL instruction, the
jump must be executed within the same 2K byte block of program memory starting from the first byte of the instruction following
AJMP.

Syntax: AJMP address (label);


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0345h SP=07h


After execution: PC=0123h SP=09h

ANL A,Rn - AND register to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the accumulator and Rn register. The result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: ANL A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)
R5= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL A,direct - AND direct byte to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the accumulator and drect register. As it is direct addressing, the
register can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (o-127 dec.). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ANL A,direct;


Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)


MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL A,@Ri - AND indirect RAM to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the accumulator and register. As it is indirect addressing, the register
address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ANL A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address SUM = 4Fh R0=4Fh


Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)
R0= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL A,#data - AND immediate data to the accumulator


A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the accumulator and data. The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ANL A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)


After execution: A= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL direct,A - AND accumulator to direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between direct byte and accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register
can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the direct byte.

Syntax: ANL register address,A;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)


MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: MASK= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL direct,#data - AND immediate data to direct byte

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0 - 255 (0 - FFh)


Data: constant in the range between 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between direct byte and data. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any
SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the direct byte.

Syntax: ANL register address ,#data;


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: X= C3h (11000011 Bin.) MASK= 55h (01010101 Bin.) After execution: MASK= 41h (01000001 Bin.)

ANL C,bit - AND direct bit to the carry flag

C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between the direct bit and the carry flag.

bit C C AND bit


0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Syntax: ANL C, bit address;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)


C=1
After execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)
C=0

ANL C,/bit - AND complements of direct bit to the carry flag

C: carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction performs logic AND operation between inverted addressed bit and the carry flag. The result is stored in the
carry flag.

bit bit C C AND bit


0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0

Syntax: ANL C,/[bit address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)
C=1
After execution: ACC= 43h (01000011 Bin.)
C=1

CJNE A,direct,rel - Compares direct byte to the accumulator and jumps if not equal

A: accumulator
Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
addr: jump address

Description: Instruction first compares the number in the accumulator with the directly addressed byte. If they are equal, the program
proceeds with execution. Otherwise, a jump to the specified address will be executed. This is a short jump instruction, which means
that the address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations relative to the first following
instruction).

Syntax: CJNE A,direct,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0145h A=27h


After execution: if MAX≠27: PC=0123h
If MAX=27: PC=0146h

CJNE A,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to the accumulator and jumps if not equal

A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction first compares the number in the accumulator with the immediate data. If they are equal, the program
proceeds with execution. Otherwise, a jump to the specified address will be executed. This is a short jump instruction, which means
that the address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations relative to the first following
instruction).

Syntax: CJNE A,X,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0445h
After execution: If A≠33: PC=0423h
If A=33: PC=0446h

CJNE Rn,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to the register Rn and jumps if not equal

Rn: Any R register (R0-R7)


Data: Constant in the range of 0 - 255 (0-FFh)
addr: Jump address

Description: Instruction first compares immediate data to the register Rn. If they are equal, the program proceeds with execution.
Otherwise, a jump to the specified address will be executed. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new
location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: CJNE Rn,data,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0345h


After execution: If R5≠44h: PC=0323h
If R5=44h: PC=0346h

CJNE @Ri,#data,rel - Compares immediate data to indirectly addressed register and jumps if not equal

Ri: Register R0 or R1
Data: Constant in the range of 0 - 255 (0-FFh)

Description: This instruction first compares immediate data to indirectly addressed register. If they are equal, the program proceeds
with execution. Otherwise, a jump to the specified address in the program will be executed. This is a short jump instruction, which
means that the address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-128 to +127 locations relative to the next
instruction).

Syntax: CJNE @Ri,data,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, data, jump address);
STATUS register flags: C;
EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Register Address SUM=F3h


PC=0345h R0=F3h
After execution: If SUM≠44h: PC=0323h
If SUM=44h: PC=0346h

CLR A - Clears the accumulator

A: accumulator

Description: Instruction clears the accumulator.

Syntax: CLR A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:

After execution: A=0

CLR C - clears the carry flag

C: Carry flag

Description: Instruction clears the carry flag.

Syntax: CLR C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: C=0


CLR bit - clears the direct bit

Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction clears the specified bit.

Syntax: CLR [bit address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.3=1 (input pin)


After execution: P0.3=0 (output pin)

CPL A - Complements the accumulator

A: accumulator

Description: Instruction complements all the bits in the accumulator (1==>0, 0==>1).

Syntax: CPL A;
Bytes: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= (00110110)


After execution: A= (11001001)

CPL bit - Complements the direct bit

Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction coplements the specified bit of RAM (0==>1, 1==>0).

Syntax: CPL [bit address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.3=1 (input pin)


After execution: P0.3=0 (output pin)
CPL C - Complements the carry flag

C: Carry flag

Description: Instruction complements the carry flag (0==>1, 1==>0).

Syntax: CPL C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: C=1


After execution: C=0

DA A - Decimal adjust accumulator

A: accumulator

Description: Instruction adjusts the contents of the accumulator to correspond to a BCD number after two BCD numbers have been
added by the ADD and ADDC instructions. The result in form of two 4-digit BCD numbers is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: DA A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=56h (01010110) 56 BCD


B=67h (01100111) 67BCD
After execution: A=BDh (10111101)
After BCD conversion: A=23h (00100011), C=1 (Overflow)
(C+23=123) = 56+67

DEC A - Decrements the accumulator by 1

A: accumulator

Description: Instruction decrements the value in the accumulator by 1. If there is a 0 in the accumulator, the result of the operation is
FFh. (255 dec.)

Syntax: DEC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: A=E4h
After execution: A=E3h

DEC Rn - Decrements the register Rn by 1

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Description: Instruction decrements the value in the Rn register by 1. If there is a 0 in the register, the result of the operation will be
FFh. (255 dec.)

Syntax: DEC Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: R3=B0h


After execution: R3=AFh

DEC direct - Decrements the direct byte by 1

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction decrements the value of directly addressed register by 1. As it is direct addressing, the register must be within
the first 255 locations of RAM. If there is a 0 in the register, the result will be FFh.

Syntax: DEC [register address];


Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: CNT=0


After execution: CNT=FFh

DIV AB - Divides the accumulator by the register B

A: accumulator
B: Register B

Description: Instruction divides the value in the accumulator by the value in the B register. After division the integer part of result is
stored in the accumulator while the register contains the remainder. In case of dividing by 1, the flag OV is set and the result of
division is unpredictable. The 8-bit quotient is stored in the accumulator and the 8-bit remainder is stored in the B register.

Syntax: DIV AB;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: A=FBh (251dec.) B=12h (18 dec.)
After execution: A=0Dh (13dec.) B=11h (17dec.)
13·18 + 17 =251

DEC @Ri - Decrements the indirect RAM by 1

Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: This instruction decrements the value in the indirectly addressed register of RAM by 1. The register address is stored in
the Ri register (R0 or R1). If there is a 0 in the register, the result will be FFh.

Syntax: DEC @Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register Address CNT = 4Fh R0=4Fh


Before execution: CNT=35h
After execution: CNT= 34h

DJNZ direct,rel - Decrements direct byte by 1 and jumps if not 0

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


addr: Jump address

Description: This instruction first decrements value in the register. If the result is 0, the program proceeds with execution. Otherwise,
a jump to the specified address in the program will be executed. As it is direct addressing, the register must be within the first 255
locations of RAM. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be relatively near the current
one (-128 to +127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: DJNZ direct,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0445h
After execution: If CNT≠0: PC=0423h
If CNT=0: PC=0446h

DJNZ Rn,rel - Decrements the Rn register by 1 and jumps if not 0

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


addr: jump address

Description: This instruction first decrements the value in the Rn register. If the result is 0, the program proceeds with execution.
Otherwise, a jump to the specified address in the program will be executed. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the
address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (- 128 to +127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: DJNZ Rn, [jump address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0445h


After execution: If R1≠0: PC=0423h
If R1=0: PC=0446h

INC Rn - Increments the Rn register by 1

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)

Description: Instruction increments the value in the Rn register by 1. If the register includes the number 255, the result of the operation
will be 0.

Syntax: INC Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: R4=18h
After execution: R4=19h

INC A - Increments the accumulator by 1

A: accumulator

Description: This instruction increments the value in the accumulator by 1. If the accumulator includes the number 255, the result of
the operation will be 0.

Syntax: INC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=E4h


After execution: A=E5h

INC @Ri - Increments the value of indirectly addressed register of RAM by 1

Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: This instruction increments the value in the directly addressed register of RAM by 1. The register address is stored in the
Ri Register (R0 or R1). If the register includes the number 255, the result of the operation will be 0.

Syntax: INC @Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register Address CNT = 4Fh


Before execution: CNT=35h R1=4Fh
After execution: CNT=36h

INC direct - Increments the direct byte by 1

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Description: Instruction increments the direct byte by 1. If the register includes the number 255, the result of the operation will be 0.
As it is direct addressing, the register must be within the first 255 RAM locations.

Syntax: INC direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: CNT=33h


After execution: CNT=34h

JB bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is set

addr: Jump address


Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: If the bit is set, a jump to the specified address will be executed. Otherwise, if the value of bit is 0, the program proceeds
with the next instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be relatively near the
current one (-128 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JB bit, [jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0323h


After execution: If P0.5=0: PC=0324h
If P0.5=1: PC=0345h

INC DPTR - Increments the Data Pointer by 1

DPTR: Data Pointer

Description: Instruction increments the value of the 16-bit data pointer by 1. This is the only 16-bit register upon which this operation
can be performed.

Syntax: INC DPTR;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: DPTR = 13FF (DPH = 13h DPL = FFh )
After execution: DPTR = 1400 (DPH = 14h DPL = 0)

JC rel - Jump if carry flag is set

addr: Jump address

Description: Instruction first checks if the carry flag is set. If set, a jump to the specified address is executed. Otherwise, the program
proceeds with the next instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be relatively
near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JC [jump address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before instruction: PC=0323h


After instruction: If C=0: PC=0324h
If C=1: PC=0345h

JBC bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is set

Bit: any bit of RAM


addr: Jump Address

Description: This instruction first checks if the bit is set. If set, a jump to the specified address is executed and the bit is cleared.
Otherwise, the program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of
a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JBC bit, [jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0323h
After execution: If TEST0.4=1: PC=0345h, TEST0.4=0
If TEST0.4=0: PC=0324h, TEST0,4=0

JNB bit,rel - Jump if direct bit is not set

addr: Jump address


Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: If the bit is cleared, a jump to the specified address will be executed. Otherwise, if the bit value is 1, the program
proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of a new location must be
relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JNB bit,[jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, bit address, jump address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0323h


After execution: If P0.5=1: PC=0324h
If P0.5=0: PC=0345h

JMP @A+DPTR - Jump indirect relative to the DPTR

A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer

Description: This instruction causes a jump to the address calculated by adding value stored in the accumulator to the 16-bit number
in the DPTR Register. It is used with complex program branching where the accumulator affects jump address, for example when
reading a table. Neither accumulator nor DPTR register are affected.

Syntax: JMP @A+DPTR;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=223 DPTR=1400h
After execution: PC = 1402h if A=2
PC = 1404h if A=4
PC = 1406h if A=6

Note:
As instructions AJMP LABELS occupy two locations each, the values in the accumulator specifying them must be different from each
other by 2.

JNZ rel - Jump if accumulator is not zero

addr: Jump Address

Description: This instruction checks if the value stored in the accumulator is 0. If not, a jump to the specified address will be
executed. Otherwise, the program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the
address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JNZ [jump address]:


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0323h


After execution: If A=0: PC=324h
If A≠0: PC=283h

JNC rel - Jump if carry flag is not set

addr: Jump Address

Description: This instruction first checks whether the carry flag is set. If not, a jump to the specified address will be executed.
Otherwise, the program proceeds with the first following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the address of
a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JNC [jump address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0323h
After execution: If C=0: PC=360h
If C=1: PC=324h

LCALL addr16 - Long subroutine call

addr16: Subroutine Address

Description: This instruction unconditionally calls a subroutine located at the specified address. The current address and the start of
the subroutine called can be located anywhere within the memory space of 64K.

Syntax: LCALL [subroutine name];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, address (15-8), address (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0123h


After execution: PC=1234h

JZ rel - Jump if accumulator is zero

addr: Jump Address

Description: The instruction checks whether the value stored in the accumulator is 0. If yes, a jump to the specified address will be
executed. Otherwise, the program proceeds with the following instruction. This is a short jump instruction, which means that the
address of a new location must be relatively near the current one (-129 to + 127 locations relative to the first following instruction).

Syntax: JZ [jump address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: PC=0323h
After execution: If A0: PC=324h
If A=0: PC=283h

MOV A,Rn - Moves the Rn register to the accumulator

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Description: The instruction moves the Rn register to the accumulator. The Rn register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: R3=58h


After execution: R3=58h A=58h

LJMP addr16 - Long jump

addr16: jump address

Description: Instruction causes a jump to the specified 16-bit address.

Syntax: LJMP [jump address];


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, address (15-8), address (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=0123h


After execution: PC=1234h

MOV A,@Ri - Moves the indirect RAM to the accumulator


Ri: Register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the indirectly addressed register of RAM to the accumulator. The register address is stored in the Ri
register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the accumulator. The register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register Address SUM=F2h R0=F2h


Before execution: SUM=58h
After execution: A=58h SUM=58h

MOV A,direct - Moves the direct byte to the accumulator

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to the accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-
purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction, the register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV A,direct;


Byte: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Rx=68h


After execution: Rx=68h A=68h

MOV Rn,A - Moves the accumulator to the Rn register

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Desription: Instruction moves the accumulator to the Rn register. The accumulator is not affected.

Syntax: MOV Rn,A;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: A=58h
After execution: R3=58h A=58h

MOV A,#data - Moves the immediate data to the accumulator

A: accumulator
Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Desription: Instruction moves the immediate data to the accumulator.

Syntax: MOV A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: A=28h

MOV Rn,#data - Moves the immediate data to the Rn register

Rn: any R register (R0-R7) Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the Rn register.

Syntax: MOV Rn,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: R5=32h

MOV Rn,direct - Moves the direct byte to the Rn register

Rn: Any R registar (R0-R7)


Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to the Rn register. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-
purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction, the register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV Rn,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: SUM=58h
After execution: SUM=58h R3=58h

MOV direct,Rn - Moves the Rn register to the direct byte

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the Rn register to the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-
purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction, the register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV direct,Rn;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: R3=18h


After execution: R3=18h CIF=18h

MOV direct,A - Moves the accumulator to the direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the register can be any SFRs or general-
purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). After executing the instruction, the register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV direct,A;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=98h


After execution: A=98h REG=98h

MOV direct,@Ri - Moves the indirect RAM to the direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0 - FFh)


Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction moves the indirectly adressed register of RAM to the direct byte. The register is not affected.

Syntax: MOV direct,@Ri;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Register Address SUM=F3
Before execution: SUM=58h R1=F3
After execution: SUM=58h TEMP=58h

MOV direct1,direct2 - Moves the direct byte to the direct byte

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to another direct byte. As it is direct addressing, both registers can be any SFRs or
general-purpose registers with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.). The direct1 is not affected.

Syntax: MOV direct1,direct2;


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct1 address, direct2 address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected.

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP=58h


After execution: TEMP=58h SUM=58h

MOV @Ri,A - Moves the accumulator to the indirect RAM

A: accumulator
Ri: register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to the indirectly addressed register of RAM. The register address is stored in the Ri
register (R0 or R1). After executing the instruction, the accumulator is not affected.

Syntax: MOV @Ri,A;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register Address SUM=F2h


Before execution: R0=F2h A=58h
After execution: SUM=58h A=58h

MOV direct,#data - Moves the immediate data to the direct byte

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or
general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.).
Syntax: MOV direct,#data;
Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: TEMP=22h

MOV @Ri,#data - Moves the immediate data to the indirect RAM

Ri: Register R0 or R1
Data: Constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction moves the immediate data to the idirectly addressed register of RAM. The register address is stored in the Ri
register (R0 or R1).

Syntax: MOV @Ri,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address TEMP=E2h


Before execution: R1=E2h
After execution: TEMP=44h

MOV @Ri,direct - Moves the direct byte to the indirect RAM

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Ri: Register R0 or R1

Description: Instruction moves the direct byte to a register the address of which is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). After
executing the instruction, the direct byte is not affected.

Syntax: MOV @Ri,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address TEMP=E2h


Before execution: SUM=58h R1=E2h
After execution: SUM=58h TEMP=58h

MOV bit,C - Moves the carry flag to the direct bit

C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM
Description: Instruction moves the carry flag to the direct bit. After executing the instruction, the carry flag is not affected.

Syntax: MOV bit,C;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: If C=0 P1.2=0


If C=1 P1.2=1

MOV C,bit - Moves the direct bit to the carry flag

C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction moves the direct bit to the carry flag. After executing the instruction, the bit is not affected.

Syntax: MOV C,bit;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: If P1.4=0 C=0


If P1.4=1 C=1

MOVC A,@A+DPTR - Moves the code byte relative to the DPTR to the accumulator

A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer

Description: Instruction first adds the 16-bit DPTR register to the accumulator. The result of addition is then used as a memory
address from which the 8-bit data is moved to the accumulator.

Syntax: MOVC A,@A+DPTR;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution:
DPTR=1000:
A=0
A=1
A=2
A=3

After execution:
A=66h
A=77h
A=88h
A=99h

Note: DB (Define Byte) is a directive in assembly language used to define constant.

MOV DPTR,#data16 - Loads the data pointer with a 16-bit constant

Data: constant in the range of 0-65535 (0-FFFFh)


DPTR: Data Pointer

Description: Instruction stores a 16-bit constant to the DPTR register. The 8 high bits of the constant are stored in the DPH register,
while the 8 low bits are stored in the DPL register.

Syntax: MOV DPTR,#data;


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, constant (15-8), constant (7-0));
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: DPH=12h DPL=34h

MOVX A,@Ri - Moves the external RAM (8-bit address) to the accumulator

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction reads the content of a register in external RAM and moves it to the accumulator. The register address is
stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1).

Syntax: MOVX A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register Address: SUM=12h


Before execution: SUM=58h R0=12h
After execution: A=58h

Note:
SUM Register is stored in external RAM which is 256 bytes in size.

MOVC A,@A+PC - Moves the code byte relative to the PC to the accumulator

A: accumulator
PC: Program Counter
Description: Instruction first adds the 16-bit PC register to the accumulator (the current program address is stored in the PC register).
The result of addition is then used as a memory address from which the 8-bit data is moved to the accumulator.

Syntax: MOVC A,@A+PC;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

After the subroutine "Table" has been executed, one of four values is stored in the accumulator:

Before execution:
A=0
A=1
A=2
A=3

After execution:
A=66h
A=77h
A=88h
A=99h

Note: DB (Define Byte) is a directive in assembly language used to define constant.

MOVX @Ri,A - Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (8-bit address)

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to a register stored in external RAM. Its address is stored in the Ri register.

Syntax: MOVX @Ri,A;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=34h


Before execution: A=58 R1=34h
After execution: SUM=58h

NOTE:
Register SUM is located in external RAM which is 256 bytes in size.

MOVX A,@DPTR - Moves the external memory (16-bit address) to the accumulator

A: accumulator
DPRTR: Data Pointer
Description: Instruction moves the content of a register in external memory to the accumulator. The 16-bit address of the register is
stored in the DPTR register (DPH and DPL).

Syntax: MOVX A,@DPTR;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=1234h


Before execution: DPTR=1234h SUM=58
After execution: A=58h

Note:
Register SUM is located in external RAM which is up to 64K in size.

MUL AB - Multiplies A and B

A: accumulator
B: Register B

Description: Instruction multiplies the value in the accumulator with the value in the B register. The low-order byte of the 16-bit
result is stored in the accumulator, while the high byte remains in the B register. If the result is larger than 255, the overflow flag is
set. The carry flag is not affected.

Syntax: MUL AB;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=80 (50h) B=160 (A0h)


After execution: A=0 B=32h
A·B=80·160=12800 (3200h)

MOVX @DPTR,A - Moves the accumulator to the external RAM (16-bit address)

A: accumulator
DPTR: Data Pointer

Description: Instruction moves the accumulator to a register stored in external RAM. The 16-bit address of the register is stored in the
DPTR register (DPH and DPL).

Syntax: MOVX @DPTR,A;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:
Register address: SUM=1234h
Before execution: A=58 DPTR=1234h
After execution: SUM=58h

Note:
Register SUM is located in RAM which is up to 64K in size.

ORL A,Rn - OR register to the accumulator

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the accumulator and Rn register. The result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: ORL A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)


R5= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= D7h (11010111 Bin.)

NOP - No operation

Description: Instruction doesn’t perform any operation and is used when additional time delays are needed.

Syntax: NOP;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Such a sequence provides a negative pulse which lasts exactly 5 machine cycles on the P2.3. If a 12 MHz quartz crystal is used then 1
cycle lasts 1uS, which means that this output will be a low-going output pulse for 5 uS.

ORL A,@Ri - OR indirect RAM to the accumulator

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the accumulator and a register. As it is indirect addressing, the register
address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ANL A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;
EXAMPLE:

Register address: TEMP=FAh


Before execution: R1=FAh
TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)
A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)

ORL A,direct - OR direct byte to the accumulator

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the accumulator and a register. As it is direct addressing, the register
can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: ORL A,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


LOG= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)

ORL direct,A - OR accumulator to the direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between a register and accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the register can
be any SFRs or general- purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the register.

Syntax: ORL [register address], A;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= D6h (11010110 Bin.)

ORL A,#data - OR immediate data to the accumulator


Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the accumulator and the immediate data. The result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: ORL A, #data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


After execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)

ORL C,bit - OR direct bit to the carry flag

C: Carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the direct bit and the carry flag. The result is stored in the carry flag.

Syntax: ORL C,bit;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= C6h (11001010 Bin.)


C=0
After execution: C=1

ORL direct,#data - OR immediate data to direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the immediate data and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the
direct byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the direct byte.

Syntax: ORL [register address],#data;


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


After execution: A= D2h (11010010 Bin.)
POP direct - Pop the direct byte from the stack

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction first reads data from the location being pointed to by the Stack. The data is then copied to the direct byte and
the value of the Stack Pointer is decremented by 1. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose
register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.).

Syntax: POP direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Address Value


030h 20h
031h 23h
SP==> 032h 01h
DPTR=0123h (DPH=01, DPL=23h)

After execution: Address Value


SP==> 030h 20h
031h 23h
032h 01h

ORL C,/bit - OR complements of direct bit to the carry flag

C: carry flag
Bit: any bit of RAM

Description: Instruction performs logic OR operation between the addressed inverted bit and the carry flag. The result is stored in the
carry flag.

bit bit C C AND bit


0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0

Syntax: ORL C,/bit;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: ACC= C6h (11001010 Bin.)


C=0
After execution: C=0

RET - Return from subroutine

Description: This instruction ends every subroutine. After execution, the program proceeds with the instruction following an ACALL
or LCALL.
Syntax: RET;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

PUSH direct - Pushes the direct byte onto the stack

Data: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Address currently pointed to by the Stack Pointer is first incremented by 1 and afterwards the data from the register Rx
is copied to it. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-127 dec.)

Syntax: PUSH direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: Address Value


SP==> 030h 20h
DPTR=0123h (DPH=01, DPL=23h)

After execution: Address Value


030h 20h
031h 23h
SP==> 032h 01h

RL A - Rotates the accumulator one bit left

A: accumulator

Description: Eight bits in the accumulator are rotated one bit left, so that the bit 7 is rotated into the bit 0 position.
Syntax: RL A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


After execution: A=85h (10000101 Bin.)

RETI - Return from interrupt

Description: This instruction ends every interrupt routine and informs processor about it. After executing the instruction, the program
proceeds from where it left off. The PSW is not automatically returned its pre-interrupt status.

Syntax: RETI;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

RR A - Rotates the accumulator one bit right

A: accumulator

Description: All eight bits in the accumulator are rotated one bit right so that the bit 0 is rotated into the bit 7 position.

Syntax: RR A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


After execution: A= 61h (01100001 Bin.)
RLC A - Rotates the accumulator one bit left through the carry flag

A: accumulator

Description: All eight bits in the accumulator and carry flag are rotated one bit left. After this operation, the bit 7 is rotated into the
carry flag position and the carry flag is rotated into the bit 0 position.

Syntax: RLC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


C=0
After execution: A= 85h (10000100 Bin.)
C=1

SETB C - Sets the carry flag

C: Carry flag

Description: Instruction sets the carry flag.

Syntax: SETB C;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

After execution: C=1


RRC A - Rotates the accumulator one bit right through the carry flag

A: accumulator

Description: All eight bits in the accumulator and carry flag are rotated one bit right. After this operation, the carry flag is rotated into
the bit 7 position and the bit 0 is rotated into the carry flag position.

Syntax: RRC A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


C=0
After execution: A= 61h (01100001 Bin.)
C=0

SJMP rel - Short Jump (relative address)

addr: Jump Address

Description: Instruction enables jump to the new address which should be in the range of -128 to +127 locations relative to the first
following instruction.

Syntax: SJMP [jump address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, jump value);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: PC=323


After execution: PC=345

SETB bit - Sets the direct bit

Bit: any bit of RAM


Description: Instruction sets the specified bit. The register containing that bit must belong to the group of the so called bit addressable
registers.

Syntax: SETB [bit address];


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, bit address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: P0.1 = 34h (00110100)


pin 1 is configured as an output
After execution: P0.1 = 35h (00110101)
pin 1 is configured as an input

SUBB A,direct - Subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with a borrow

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction subtracts the direct byte from the accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the lower bit
then the carry flag is set. As it is direct addressing, the direct byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh. (0-
127 dec.). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: SUBB A,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=C9h, DIF=53h, C=0


After execution: A=76h, C=0

SUBB A,Rn - Subtracts the Rn register from the accumulator with a borrow

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction subtracts the Rn register from the accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the lower bit
then the carry flag is set. The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: SUBB A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=C9h, R4=54h, C=1


After execution: A=74h, C=0
Note:
The result is different (C9 - 54=75) because the carry flag is set (C=1) before the instruction starts execution.

SUBB A,#data - Subtracts the immediate data from the accumulator with a borrow

A: accumulator
Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction subtracts the immediate data from the accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is subtracted from the
lower bit then the carry flag is set. The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: SUBB A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=C9h, C=0


After execution: A=A7h, C=0

SUBB A,@Ri - Subtracts the indirect RAM from the accumulator with a borrow

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction subtracts the indirectly addressed register of RAM from the accumulator with a borrow. If the higher bit is
subtracted from the lower bit then the carry flag is set. As it is indirect addressing, the register address is stored in the Ri register (R0
or R1). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: SUBB A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: C, OV, AC;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: MIN=F4


Before execution: A=C9h, R1=F4h, MIN=04, C=0
After execution: A=C5h, C=0

XCH A,Rn - Exchanges the Rn register with the accumulator

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction causes the accumulator and Rn register to exchange data. The content of the accumulator is moved to the Rn
register and vice versa.

Syntax: XCH A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Before execution: A=C6h, R3=29h
After execution: R3=C6h, A=29h

SWAP A - Swaps nibbles within the accumulator

A: accumulator

Description: A nibble refers to a group of 4 bits within one register (bit0-bit3 and bit4-bit7). This instruction interchanges high and
low nibbles of the accumulator.

Syntax: SWAP A;
Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=E1h (11100001)bin.


After execution: A=1Eh (00011110)bin.

XCH A,@Ri - Exchanges the indirect RAM with the accumulator

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the contents of accumulator to the indirectly addressed register of RAM and vice versa. As it is
indirect addressing, the register address is stored in the register Ri (R0 or R1).

Syntax: XCH A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: SUM=E3


Before execution: R0=E3, SUM=29h, A=98h
After execution: A=29h, SUM=98h

XCH A,direct - Exchanges the direct byte with the accumulator


Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction moves the contents of the accumulator into the direct byte and vice versa. As it is direct addressing, the direct
byte can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.).

Syntax: XCH A,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A=FFh, SUM=29h


After execution: SUM=FFh A=29h

XRL A,Rn - Exclusive OR register to accumulator

Rn: any R register (R0-R7)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the accumulator and the Rn register. The result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: XRL A,Rn;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C3h (11000011 Bin.)


R3= 55h (01010101 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)

XCHD A,@Ri - Exchanges the low-order nibble indirect RAM with the accumulator

Ri: register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: This instruction interchanges the low-order nibbles (bits 0-3) of the accumulator with the low-order nibbles of the
indirectly addressed register of RAM. High-order nibbles of the accumulator and register are not affected. This instruction is mainly
used when operating with BCD values. As it is indirect addressing, the register address is stored in the register Ri (R0 or R1).

Syntax: XCHD A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:
Register address: SUM=E3
Before execution: R0=E3 SUM=29h A=A8h,
After execution: A=A9h, SUM=28h

XRL A,@Ri - Exclusive OR indirect RAM to the accumulator

Ri: Register R0 or R1
A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the accumulator and the indirectly addressed register. As it is
indirect addressing, the register address is stored in the Ri register (R0 or R1). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: XRL A,@Ri;


Byte: 1 (instruction code);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Register address: TEMP=FAh, R1=FAh


Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)
A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)

XRL A,direct - Exclusive OR direct byte to the accumulator

Direct: Arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the accumulator and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing, the
register can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the accumulator.

Syntax: XRL A,direct;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


LOG= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)

XRL direct,A - Exclusive OR accumulator to the direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator
Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the direct byte and the accumulator. As it is direct addressing, the
register can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the register.

Syntax: XRL direct,A;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, direct byte address);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


A= 54h (01010100 Bin.)
After execution: A= 96h (10010110 Bin.)

XRL A,#data - Exclusive OR immediate data to the accumulator

Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)


A: accumulator

Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the accumulator and the immediate data. The result is stored in the
accumulator.

Syntax: XRL A,#data;


Bytes: 2 (instruction code, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags are affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: A= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


X= 11h (00010001 Bin.)
After execution: A= D3h (11010011 Bin.)

XRL direct,#data - Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte

Direct: arbitrary register with address 0-255 (0-FFh)


Data: constant in the range of 0-255 (0-FFh)

Description: Instruction performs exclusive OR operation between the immediate data and the direct byte. As it is direct addressing,
the register can be any SFRs or general-purpose register with address 0-7Fh (0-127 dec.). The result is stored in the register.

Syntax: XRL direct,#data;


Bytes: 3 (instruction code, direct byte address, data);
STATUS register flags: No flags affected;

EXAMPLE:

Before execution: TEMP= C2h (11000010 Bin.)


X=12h (00010010 Bin.)
After execution: A= D0h (11010000 Bin.)
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Chapter 4 : AT89S8253 Microcontroller
• 4.1 AT89S8253 Microcontroller ID
• 4.2 Pin Description
• 4.3 AT89S8253 Microcontroller Memory Organisation
• 4.4 SFRs (Special Function Registers)
• 4.5 Watchdog Timer (WDT)
• 4.6 Interrupts
• 4.7 Counters and Timers
• 4.8 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
• 4.9 SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface)
• 4.10 Power Consumption Control

Introduction

It has been more than 20 years since the first version of the 8051 microcontroller was launched. During that time it has undergone
various upgrades and improvements. Today, the 8051 microcontroller is being manufactured across the globe by many manufacturers
and under different names. Of course, the latest versions are by far more advanced than the original one. Many of them has the label
“8051 compatible”, “8051 compliant”or “8051 family” in order to emphasize their “noble heritage”. These tags imply that
microcontrollers have similar architecture and are programmed in a similar way using the same instruction set. Practically, if you
know how to handle one microcontroller belonging to this family, you will be able to handle any of them. In other words, several
hundreds of different models are at your disposal.

This book covers one of them called the AT89S8253, manufactured by Atmel. Why this particular one? Because it is widely used,
cheap and uses Flash memory for storing programs. The last feature mentioned makes it ideal for experimentation due to the fact that
program can be loaded and erased from it for many times. Besides, thanks to the built-in SPI System (Serial Programing Interface),
the program can be loaded to the microcontroller even after embedding the chip in the target device.

4.1 The AT89S8253 microcontroller ID

• Compatible with 8051 family.


• 12Kb of Flash Memory for storing programs.
o Program is loaded via SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface).
o Program may be loaded/erased up to 1000 times.
• 2Kb of EEPROM Memory.
• Power supply voltage: 4-6V.
• Operating clock frequency: 0-24MHz.
• 256 bytes of internal RAM for storing variables.
• 32 input/output pins.
• Three 16-bit timers/counters.
• 9 interrupt sources.
• 2 additional power saving modes (low-power idle and power-down mode).
• Programmable UART serial communication.
• Programmable watchdog timer.
• Three-level program memory lock

The AT89S53 comes in the following packages:


4.2 Pinout Description

VCC Power supply voltage (4-6V)


GND Ground ( Negative supply pole)

Port 0 (P0.0-P0.7) If configured as outputs, each of these pins can be connected to up to 8 TTL inputs. If configured as inputs, the
pins can be used as high-impedance inputs as their potential is not defined relative to ground, i.e. they are floating. If additional
(external) memory is used, these pins are used for accessing it. Signal on the ALE pin determines what and when will be transferred to
this port.

Port 1 (P1.0-P1.7) If configured as outputs, each of these pins can be connected to up to 4 TTL inputs. When configured as inputs,
these pins act as standard TTL inputs, that is, each of them is internally connected to the positive supply voltage via a resistor of
relatively high impedance. Power supply voltage provided on these inputs is 5V. Also, the Port 1 pins have alternate functions as
shown in the table below:

Port Pin Alternate Function


P1.0 T2 (Timer 2 input)
P1.1 T2EX (Timer 2 control input)
P1.4 SS (SPI system control input)
P1.5 MOSI (SPI system I/O)
P1.6 MISO (SPI system I/O)
SCK (SPI system clock
P1.7
signal)

Port 2 (P2.0-P2.7) Whether configured as an input or an output, this port acts the same as Port 1. If external memory is used, the high
byte of the address (A8-A15) comes out on the Port 2 which is thus used for addressing it.

Port 3 (P3.0-P3.7) Similar to P1, Port 3 pins can be used as general inputs or outputs. They also have additional functions to be
explained later in the chapter.

Port Pin Alternate Function


P3.0 RXD (serial input)
P3.1 TXD (serial output)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (Timer 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (Timer 1 external input)
P3.6 WR (External data memory write signal)
P3.7 RD (External data memory read signal)

RST Logic one (1) on this pin causes the microcontroller to be reset.

ALE/PROG In normal operation, the ALE pin is activated at a constant rate of 1/16 the oscillator frequency and can be used for
external clocking and timing purposes. When external memory is used, a signal from this pin is used to latch the low byte of an
address (A0-A7) from P0. During the process of writing a program to the microcontroller, this pin also serves as a control input.

PSEN This pin provides a signal used for accessing external program memory (ROM).

EA/VPP When this pin is connected to ground, the microcontroller reads program instructions from external program memory. If
internal program memory is used, which is the common case, this pin should be connected to the positive power supply voltage
(VCC). During the process of programming internal Flash mamory, this pin is supplied with +12V.

XTAL 1 This is internal oscillator input. It is used for the purpose of synchronizing the operation of the microcontroller with some
other circuit or for connecting external oscillator when used.

XTAL 2 This pin is connected to internal oscillator output. Therefore, it is out of use when using external oscillator.

4.3 The AT89S8253 Microcontroller Memory Organisation

Program Memory (ROM)

Program memory (ROM) with a capacity of 12Kb is designed in FLASH technology, which enables programs to be loaded and erased
a large number of times. It is programmed via embedded SPI module (Serial Peripheral Interface). If necessary, it is possible to add
external ROM memory chip, although 12Kb of ROM is usually more than enough.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM memory consists of 3 blocks containing 128 registers each. Its structure falls into the 8051 standard:

• 128 general-purpose registers;


• 128 memory locations reserved for SFRs. Even though only some of them are trully used, free locations shouldn’t be used for
storing variables; and
• 128 additional registers available for use (have no special purpose). Since they have the same addresses as SFRs, they are
accessed by indirect addressing.
EEPROM Memory

EEPROM is a special type of memory having features of both RAM and ROM. The contents of the EEPROM may be changed during
operation, but remains permanently saved even after the loss of power. The AT89S8253 microcontroller has in total of 2K of
EEPROM, that is 2048 locations.

Memory Expansion

All mentioned above about ROM and RAM memory expansion remains in force when it comes to the AT89S8253 microcontroller as
it is based on the 8051 core. In other words, both memories can be added as external chips with the capacity of up to 64Kb. The
process of addressing is also the same as in the 8051 standard.

Types of addressing

Similar to all microcontrollers compatible with the 8051, there are two ways of addressing:

• Direct addressing (for example: MOV A,30h); and


• Indirect addressing (for example: MOV A,@R0).

4.4 Special Function Registers (SFRs)

The AT89S8253 microcontroller has in total of 40 Special Function Registers. For the sake of the compatibility with the previous
8051 models, the core registers (22 in total) are the same for all of them, while the others were added later for the purpose of
controlling upgraded functions of the microcontroller.
As shown in the table above, each of these registers has its name and specific address in RAM. Unoccupied locations are intended for
the future upgraded versions of the microcontroller and shouldn’t be used. As their name suggests, these registers are mostly in control
of one specific circuit within the microcontroller such as timers or SPI etc. and they will be discussed later in the book. This chapter
covers only those SFRs controlling more than one circuit within the microcontroller.

Accumulator (ACC)

The accumulator, otherwise marked as ACC or A, belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Its contents is not
modified.

B
register

The B register also belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Bits of this register are not modified. It is used during
multiply and divide operations (MUL and DIV instructions) to store the operands upon which these operations are performed.

PSW
register (Program Status Word Register)

The PSW register belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Bits of this register are not modified.

SP
registar (Stack Pointer Register)

The SP register belongs to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Bits of this register are not modified.

Registers P0, P1, P2, P3

Each bit of these registers corresponds to one of the port pins having the same name. These registers are therefore used for
comminication with peripheral environment which is carried out by sending data from registers to the corresponding pins and vice
versa. They belong to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller and their bits are not modified.
R
registers (R0 - R7)

They belong to the core registers of the 8051 microcontroller. Their bits are not modified.

AUXR register (Auxiliary register)

The AUXR register contains only two active bits:

• DISALE
o 0 - ALE is activated at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency.
o 1 - ALE is active only during execution of MOVX or MOVC instructions.
• Intel_Pwd_Exit
o 0 - When the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the program proceeds with execution on high-to-low transition
(1-0).
o 1 - When the microcontroller is in Power Down mode, the program proceeds with execution on low-to-high transition
(0-1).

CLKREG register (Clock Register) X2

• 0 - The oscillator frequency (the XTAL1 pin) is divided by 2 before used as a clock (machine cycle lasts for 6 such periods).
• 1 - Quartz oscillator is used as a clock generator. This enables the quartz crystal of two times lower frequency (for example
6MHz instead of 12MHz) to be used for the same operating rate of the microcontroller.

Data Pointers
Data Pointers are not true registers as they don’t physically exist. They consist of two separate registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and
DPL (Data Pointer Low). All 16 bits are used for addressing external and internal EEPROM memory. The DPS bit of the EECON
register determines the registers to be used as data pointers:

DPS=0 -> Data pointer consists of DP0L and DP0H registers and is marked as DPTR0.

DPS=1 -> Data pointer consists of DP1L and DP1H registers and is marked as DPTR1.

Handling EEPROM memory

2 Kb of on-chip EEPROM memory enables this microcontroller to store data created during operation which must be permanently
saved. In other words, all data stored in this memory remains permanently saved even after the loss of power. Minimum 100 000
writing cycles can be executed. This memory is easily used since there are only a few control bits enabling it.

EEPROM write and read is under control of the EECON special function register. Since the process of programming EEPROM is
relatively slow (write to one register takes approximately 4mS), a small hardware trick is done in order to speed it up. When the EELD
bit of the EECON register is set, the data is not directly written to the EEPROM registers, but loaded in a small buffer (temporary
memory) with a capacity of 32 bytes. When this bit is cleared, the first data following it will be normally written to the EEPROM
(takes 4 mS) along with all registers currently loaded in the buffer. Thus, it takes only 4mS to write all 32 bytes instead of 128mS
otherwise required in a single byte writing.

EEPROM memory is handled in the same way as external memory. For this reason, a special instruction for additional memory chip
(MOVX) is also used for EEPROM write and read. The EEMEN bit of the EECON register determines whether the data is to be
written/read from additional memory chip or on-chip EEPROM memory.
EECON
register

Bits of the EECON register controls the operation of EEPROM memory:

WRTINH

The WRTINH bit is read-only. When the power supply voltage is too low for programming EEPROM, hardware automatically clears
this bit, which means that write to EEPROM cannot be completed or is aborted if in progress.

RDY/BSY

The RDY/BSY bit is read-only.

• 0 - Write in progress (takes approximately 4mS).


• 1 - Write complete (data is written to EEPROM).

DPS

• 0 - Address for EEPROM write/read is stored in the DP0H and DP0L registers.
• 1 - Address for EEPROM write/read is stored in the DP1H and DP1L registers.

EEMEN

• 0 - Instruction MOVX is used for accessing external memory chip.


• 1 - Instruction MOVX is used for accessing internal EEPROM memory. If the register address is larger than 2K, the
microcontroller will access external memory chip.

EEMWE

When set, the EEMWE bit enables write to EEPROM using the MOVX instruction. After completing EEPROM write, the bit must be
cleared from within the program.

EELD

When set, the EELD bit enables up to 32 bytes to be written simultaneously. The bit is set and the MOVX instruction writes data to
EEPROM (buffer is loaded). The bit is cleared before writing the last data. When the last MOVX is executed, the entire buffer is
automatically loaded to EEPROM for 4mS.

4.5 Watchdog Timer (WDT)

The watchdog timer uses pulses generated by the quartz oscillator for its operation. It is disabled after reset and during Power Down
Mode, thus having no effect on the program execution. If enabled, every time it counts up to the program end, the microcontroller
reset occurs and program execution starts from the first instruction. Reset condition indicates that the program doesn’t work properly
for some reason. The point is to prevent this from happening by setting instruction to reset the watchdog timer at the appropriate
program location. Practically, the whole this process is in control of several bits of the WDTCON register.

Three bits (PS2, PS1 and PS0), which are in control of the prescaler, determine the most important feature of the watchdog timer-
nominal time, i.e. time required to count up a full cycle.
The values contained in the table below are applied only when the 12MHz quartz oscillator is used.

Prescaler Bits
Nominal Time
PS2 PS1 PS0
0 0 0 16ms
0 0 1 32ms
0 1 0 64ms
0 1 1 128ms
1 0 0 256ms
1 0 1 512ms
1 1 0 1024ms
1 1 1 2048ms
WDTCON Register (Watchdog Control Register)

PS2,PS1,PS0

These three bits are in control of the prescaler and determine the nominal time of the watchdog timer. If the program doesn’t clear the
WSWRST bit during that time, the watchdog timer will reset the microcontroller. When all three bits are cleared to 0, the watchdog
timer has a nominal period of 16K machine cycles. When all three bits are set to 1, the nominal period is 2048K machine cycles.

WDIDLE

The WDIDLE bit enables/disables the watchdog timer in Idle mode:

• 0 - Watchdog timer is enabled in Idle mode (low-consumption mode).


• 1 - Watchdog timer is disabled in Idle mode.

DISRTO

The DISRTO bit enables/disables reset of peripheral circuits connected to the RST pin:

• 0 - Watchdog controls the state of the input reset pin. At the moment of reset, this pin acts for a moment as an output and
generates a logic one (1). It causes the microcontroller and all other circuits connected to the RST pin to be reset.
• 1 - Reset triggered by the watchdog timer doesn’t affect the state of the reset pin. At the moment the watchdog timer resets the
microcontroller, the reset pin remains configured as an input.

HWDT

The HWDT bit selects hardware or software mode for the watchdog timer:

• 0 - Watchdog is in software mode and can be enabled or disabled by the WDTEN bit.
• 1 - Watchdog is in hardware mode. To enable it, the sequence 1E/E1(hex) should be written to the WDTRST register. Only
reset condition can disable the watchdog timer. In order to prevent the WCDT from resetting the microcontroller when the
nominal time expires, the same sequence 1E/E1hex must be constantly repeated.

WSWRST

When set, this bit resets the watchdog timer in software mode (bit HWDT=0). In order to enable the microcontroller to operate
without being interrupted, this bit must regularly be cleared from within the program. After being set, the watchdog timer is cleared by
hardware, counting starts from zero and the bit is automatically cleared.

If the watchdog timer is in hardware mode, setting this bit has no effect on the watchdog timer operation.

WDTEN

The WDTEN bit enables/disables the watchdog timer in software mode (HWDT=0):

• 0 - Watchdog disabled.
• 1 - Watchdog enabled.

When the watchdog timer is in hardware mode (HWDT=1), this bit is read-only and reflects the status of the watchdog timer (whether
it is enabled or disabled).

The WDTEN bit doesn’t clear the watchdog timer, it only enables/disables it. This means that the current state of the counter remains
unchanged as long as WDTEN=0.

4.6 Interrupts
The AT89S8253 has in total of six interrupt sources, which means that it can recognize up to 6 different events that can interrupt
regular program execution. Each of these interrupts can be individually enabled or disabled by setting bits of the IE register, whereas
the whole interrupt system can be disabled by clearing the EA bit of the same register.

Since this microcontroller has embedded Timer T2 and SPI (they don't fall under the “8051 Standard”) which can generate an
interrupt, it was necessary to make some changes in registers controlling interrupt system. Besides, there is a new interrupt vector
(address 2B), i.e. program memory address from which the program proceeds with execution when the Timer T2 generates an
interrupt. All these changes are made on the previously unused bits. This enables all programs written for the previous versions of the
microcontrollers to be used in this one too without being modified. This is why the 8051-based microcontrollers are so popular.

IE
register (Interrupt Enable Register)

EA bit enables or disables all interrupt sources (globally):

• 0 - disables all interrupts (even enabled).


• 1 - enables specific interrupts.

ET2 bit enables or disables Timer T2 interrupt:

• 0 - Timer T2 interrupt disabled.


• 1 - Timera T2 interrupt enabled.

ES bit enables or disables serial communication (UART and SPI) interrupts:

• 0 - UART and SPI interrupt disabled.


• 1 - UART and SPI interrupts enabled.

ET1 bit enables or disables Timer T1 interrupt:

• 0 - Timer T1 interrupt disabled.


• 1 - Timer T1 interrupt enabled.

EX1 bit enables or disables external interrupt through the INT0 pin:

• 0 - Interrupt on the INT0 pin disabled.


• 1 - Interrupt on the INT0 pin enabled.

ET0 bit enables or disables Timer T0 interrupt:

• 0 - Timer T0 interrupt disabled.


• 1 - Timer T0 interrupt enabled.

EX0 bit enables or disables external interrupt through the INT1 pin:

• 0 - Interrupt on the INT1 pin disabled.


• 1 - Interrupt on the INT1 pin enabled.

Interrupt Priorities

When several interrupts are enabled, it may happen that while one of them is in progress, another one is requested. In such situations,
the microcontroller needs to know whether to proceed with the execution of current interrupt routine or to meet a new interrupt
request. For this reason, there is a priority list on the basis of which the microcontroller knows what to do. The previous versions of
the microcontrollers differentiate between two priority levels defined in the IP register.

As for the AT89S8253 microcontroller, there is an additional SFR register IPH which enables all the interrupts to be assigned 1 out of
4 priorities (excluding reset). Here is a list of priorities:

1. Reset. If a reset request arrives, all processes are stopped and the microcontroller restarts.
2. The high priority interrupt (3) can be disabled by reset only.
3. The low priority interrupt (2, 1 or 0) can be disabled by any high priority interrupt and reset.

It is usually defined at the beginning of the program which one of the existing interrupt sources have high and which one has low
priority level. According to this, the following occurs:

• If two interrupt requests, at different priority levels, arrive at the same time then the higher priority interrupt is always serviced
first.
• If the both interrupt requests, at the same priority level, occur one after another, the one which came later has to wait until
routine being in progress ends.
• If two interrupt requests of equal priority arrive at the same time then the interrupt to be serviced is selected according to the
following priority list :

1. External interrupt INT0


2. Timer T0 interrupt
3. External interrupt INT1
4. Timer T1 interrupt
5. Serial communication interrupt
6. Timer T2 Interrupt

IP register (Interrupt Priority Register)

Bits of this register determine the interrupt source priority.

PT2 Timer T2 interrupt priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1

PS Serial port interrupt priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1

PT1 Timer T1 interrupt priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1

PX1 External interrupt INT1 priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1

PT0 Timer T0 interrupt priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1

PX0 External interrupt INT0 priority:

• 0 - Priority 0
• 1 - Priority 1
IPH Register (Interrupt Priority High)

PT2H Timer T2 interrupt priority

PSH Serial port interrupt priority

PT1H Timer T1interrupt priority

PX1H External interrupt INT1 priority

PT0H Timer T0 interrupt priority

PX0H External interrupt INT0 Priority

Bits of this register can be combined with appropriate bits of the IP register. This is how a new priority list with 4 interrupt priority
levels (5 including reset) is obtained.

IP bit IPH bit Interrupts


0 0 Priority 0 (lowest)
0 1 Priority 1 (low)
1 0 Priority 2 (high)
1 1 Priority 3 (highest)
Processing interrupt

When an interrupt request arrives, the microcontroller automatically detects the interrupt source and the following occurs:

1. Instruction in progress is ended;


2. The address of the next instruction to execute is pushed onto the stack;
3. Depending on which interrupt is requested, one of five vectors (addresses) is written to the program counter according to the
table below:

Interrupt Source Jump Address


IE0 3h
TF0 Bh
IE1 13h
TF1 1Bh
RI, TI, SPIF 23h
TF2, EXF2 2Bh
All addresses are in hex format

Appropriate subroutines processing interrupts are stored at these addresses. Instead of them, there are usually jump instructions
specifying locations at which these subroutines reside.

4. When an interrupt routine is executed, the address of the next instruction to be executed is popped from the stack to the program
counter and the program proceeds from where it left off.

4.7 Counters and Timers

Timers T0 and T1

The AT89S8253 has three timers/counters marked as T0, T1 and T2. Timers T0 and T1 completely fall under the 8051 Standard.
There are no changes in their operation.

Timer T2

Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer/counter installed only in new versions of the 8051 family. Unlike timers T0 and T1, this timer consists of 4
registers. Two of them, TH2 and TL2, are connected serially in order to form a larger 16-bit timer register. Like timers 0 and 1, it can
operate either as a timer or as an event counter. Another two registers, RCAP2H and RCAP2L, are also serially connected and operate
as capture registers. They are used to temporarily store the contents of the counter register.

The main adventage of this timer compared to timers 0 and 1 is that all read and swap operations are easily performed using one
instruction. Similar to T0 and T1, it has four different modes of operation to be described later in this chapter.
T2CON
(Timer/Counter 2 Control Register)

This register contains bits controlling the operation of timer 2.

TF2 bit is automatically set on timer 2 overflow. In order to detect the next overflow, this bit must be cleared from within the
program. If bits RCLK and TCLK are set, overflow has no effect on the TF2 bit.

EXF2 bit is automatically set when a capture or a reload is caused by a negative transition on the T2EX pin. It generates an interrupt
(if enabled), unless the DCEN bit of the T2CON register is set. The EXF2 bit must be cleared from within the program.

RCLK is receive clock bit which determines which timer is to be used as receive clock for serial port:

• 1 - T2 is used as receive clock for serial port.


• 0 - T1 is used as receive clock for serial port.

TCLK is transmit clock bit which determines which timer is to be used as transmit clock for serial port:

• 1 - T2 is used as transmit clock for serial port.


• 0 - T1 is used as transmit clock for serial port.

EXEN2 is timer 2 external enable bit used to include the T2EX pin in timer 2 operation:

• 1 - Signal on the T2EX pin affects timer 2 operation.


• 0 - Signal on the T2EX pin is ignored.

TR2 is timer 2 run control bit used to enable/disable timer 2:

• 1 - Timer 2 enabled.
• 0 - Timer 2 disabled.

C/T2 is timer/counter 2 select bit used to select pulses to be counted by counter/timer 2:

• 1 - 16-bit register (T2H and T2L) counts pulses on the C/T2 pin (counter).
• 0 - 16-bit register (T2H and T2L) counts pulses from the oscillator (timer).

CP/RL2 is timer 2 capture/reload bit used to define transfer direction:

• 1 - If EXEN=1, pulse on the T2EX pin will cause a number to be transferred from counter to capture register.
• 0 - Under the same condition, signal on the T2EX pin will cause a number to be transferred from capture to counter register.

Timer T2 in Capture mode

If the CP/RL2 bit of the T2CON register is set, timer 2 operates according to the figure below. This is so called Capture mode in
which the value of the counter register (consisting of RCAP2H and RCAP2L) can be “captured” and copied to the capture register
(consisting of RCAP2H and RCAP2L), thus not affecting the counting process. This is how it operates:
1. First, it is necessary to write a number from which the counting starts to a 16-bit register (TH2+TL2).
2. Timer 2 is enabled by setting the TR2 bit of the TCON register. Each coming pulse increments the number stored in the 16-bit
register by 1. When both registers are loaded (decimal number 65536), the first next pulse causes an overflow, reset occurs and
counting starts from zero.

Settings:

Timer
T2 in auto-reload mode

The auto-reload mode configures timer 2 as a 16-bit timer or event counter with automatic reload. It is controlled by the DCEN bit of
the T2MOD register. Setting the DCEN bit enables timer 2 to count up or down from the specified value. The T2EX pin controls the
counting direction:

T2OE - Enables timer 2 to operate as independent clock generator.

DCEN - When set, it enables counting in either direction- "up" and "down".
As seen in figure above, unlike Capture mode, the contents of the capture register (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is now copied in the opposite
direction upon an overflow occurs, from capture (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to counter register (TH2, TL2).

Settings of Auto Reload mode are shown in the table below:

All previously mentioned about timer 2 is in force only if the T2MOD register hasn't been changed, i.e. if DCEN = 0. Otherwise,
timer/counter is enabled to count in either direction, which depends on the T2EX pin:

T2EX = 0 Timer 2 counts down


T2EX = 1 Timer 2 counts up
On counting up, the whole procedure is similar to the previous mode with one exception referring to the function of the EXF2 bit.

On counting down, an overflow occurs when values stored in the counter and capture registers match. It causes the TF2 bit as well as
all bits of registers T2H and T2L to be set while the counter keeps on counting down: 65535, 65534,65533...

In either case, the EXF2 bit is assigned a new function. When an overflow occurs, this bit inverts the signal and cannot be used for
generating an interrupt anymore. Instead, it serves as supplementary bit (the 17th bit) of the counter register, making this counter
virtually a 17-bit register.

Timer T2 as a baud rate generator

The Timer T2 can be used as a baud rate generator and a clock generator simultaneously. If the RCLK or TCLK bit of the register
TCON is set, timer T2 turns into a clock generator, so called Baud Rate generator). This mode is very similar to auto-reload mode.
The baud rate is computed using the following formula:

There are a few details to be aware of:

1. This formula works only if the internal oscillator is used as a clock generator (in this mode, clock is divided by 2, instead of
12)
2. Overflow has no effect on the TF2 bit and does not generate an interrupt.
3. Whether the EXEN2 bit is set or not, the T2EX pin logic state has no effect on the timer. It means that the T2EX pin can be
used as an external interrupt source in this mode.
4. Timer should be disabled (TR2=0) prior to writing or reading from registers TH2 and TL2. Otherwise, an error in serial
communication might occur.

Timer T2 as a clock generator

As previously mentioned, timer T2 can also be used as a clock generator. In all previous examples, the P1.0 pin (marked as T2 in
figures) is used as an alternative clock generator for this timer, i.e. it acts as an input. Besides, it can also output pulses. By using a
16MHz quartz crystal, the frequency of pulses it generates ranges from 61Hz to 4MHz with a 50% duty-cycle.

To configure this pin as an output, the C/T2 bit of the T2CON register must be cleared, whereas the T2OE bit of the T2MOD register
must be set. The TR2 bit enables the timer and the pin outputs rectangular waves the frequency of which ca be calculated using the
formula below:

4.8 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)

The Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) has the same features as that of the standard 8051 microcontrollers. It
means that it can operate in 1 out of 4 different modes, which is controlled by bits SM0 and SM1 of the SCON register.
Multiprocessor Communication

Multiprocessor communication (the SM2 bit of the SCON register is set) enables automatic address recognition by allowing the serial
port to examine the adress of each incoming command. The process of writing a program is much easier therefore as the
microcontrollers sharing the same interface don't have to check each address received via the serial port. Let's make it clear.

Two special function registers, SADDR and SADEN, enable multiprocessor communication. Each device has an individual address
that is specified in the SADDR register, while the so called mask address is written to the SADEN register. The mask address contains
don't care bits which provide the flexibility to address one or more slaves at a time. In other words, it defines which bits of the
SADDR register are to be used and which are to be ignored.

When the master wants to transmit data to one of several slaves, it first sends out an address byte which identifies the target device. An
address byte differs from a data byte in that the 9th bit is 1 in an address byte and 0 in a data byte. After receiving the address byte, all
slaves check whether it matches their address. The adressed slave clears its SM2 bit and prepares to receive the data bytes to come.
The slaves that weren't addressed leave their SM2 bits set and ignores the coming data bytes.

The most simple example is a “mini-network” comprising only 3 microcontrollers:

Microcontroller A is the master and communicates with devices “B” and “C”.

Microcontroller B: SADDR = 1100 0000


SADEN = 1111 1101
Address = 1100 00X0

Microcontroller C: SADDR = 1100 0000


SADEN = 1111 1110
Address = 1100 000X

Although both microcontrollers B and C are assigned the same address (1100 0000), the mask in register SADEN is used to
differentiate between them. It enables the master to communicate with both of them separately or at the same time:

If transmit address is 1100 0010, the data will be sent to slave device B.
If transmit address is 1100 0001 the data will be sent to slave device C.
If transmit address is 1100 0000 the data will be sent to both slave devices.

4.9 SPI System (Serial Peripheral Interface)

In addition to UART system, the AT89S8253 has also another system for serial communication which doesn’t fall into the 8051
Standard. It is SPI system which provides a high-speed synchronous data transfer between the microcontroller and one or more
peripheral devices or between multiple microcontrollers. Here, one microcontroller is always considered main and is called master
therefore. It defines rate, transfer direction (whether data is to be transferred or received) and data format. The other is slave device
which is in subordinated position, which further means that it cannot start data transfer, but has to adjust to conditions set by the
master device.

The data are transferred via full duplex connection using 3 conductors connected to pins MISO (P1.6), MOSI (P1.5) and SCK (P1.7).
The forth pin-control pin SS- is not used on the master side and may be used as a general-purpose input/output therefore, while on the
slave side it must have voltage level 0. When the SS pin on the slave side is set, its SPI system is deactivated and the MOSI pin can be
used as a general-purpose input.

As shown on the schematic, pins MISO and MOSI are configured differently in the master and slave device (as inputs or outputs),
which is determined by the MSTR bit of the SPCR register.

Knowing abbraviations makes connection easier:


MISO - master in, slave out; MOSI - master out, slave in; SCK - serial clock; SS - slave select;

Similar to many other circuits within the microcontroller, the SPI system can also be configured to operate in several modes.

Normal SPI mode (buffer out of use)

Data written to the SPI data register SPDR is automatically transferred to an 8- bit shift register. SPI clock generator is enabled and
serial data appears on the MOSI pin. An initial delay may occur for the sake of synchronization with the main oscillator.

After sending one byte, the SPI clock generator stops, the SPIF bit (flag) is set, the received byte is transferred to the SPDR register
and, if enabled, an interrupt is generated.

Any attempt to write another byte to the SPDR register while byte transmit is in progress will cause the WCOL bit to be set. It
indicates that an error has occured. However, the byte will be succesfully transmitted, while the new byte will be ignored, i.e. it will
not be transmitted.

Enhanced SPI mode (buffer in use)

Enhanced mode is similar to normal except that this time data goes through one more register while being transmitted. It makes no
sense at first sight, but communication is really faster. Look at the figure below...

Data written to the SPI data register SPDR is automatically transferred to the capture register (buffer), which causes the WCOL bit to
be set. It means that the buffer is full and any further write will cause an overflow. Control electronics (hardware) cleares this bit after
transmitting data from buffer to the shift register and after commencing serial data transmit. If the byte sent is the first, the data is
immediately transmitted to the shift register (still empty), thus clearing the WCOL bit (buffer is empty).

While one byte transmit is in progress, the next byte to transmit may be written to the SPDR register. It will be immediately moved to
buffer. In order to check whether data transmit is in progress, it is sufficient to check the logic state of the LDEN bit of the SPSR
register. If this bit is set (Load Enable) and the WCOL bit is cleared, data transmit is in progress and buffer is empty so the next byte
can be written to the SPDR register.

How to select the right mode? If individual bytes are sent occasionally then there is no need to complicate- the best solution is the
normal mode. If it is necessary to send a great amounts of data, it is better to use enhanced mode in which the clock oscillator is
enabled as far as buffer is regularly loaded and the WCOL bit is set. In addition, no time is needed for synchronization and data is
easily and efficiently transferred.

The SPI system is under control of 3 special function registers. These are SPDR, SPSR and SPCR.

SPDR (SPI Data Register)

The SPDR register is used for storing data to be transferred via SPI (in serial format). It is also used for storing received data.

SPSR
(SPI Status Register)

SPIF Interrupt flag. Upon data transfer, this bit is automatically set and an interrupt is generated if SPIE=1 and ES=1. The SPIF bit is
cleared by reading SPSR followed by reading/writing SPDR register.

WCOL This bit is set in normal mode (ENH=0) if the SPDR register is written during data transfer is in progress. The write is
premature and has no effect. It is called Write Collision. This bit is cleared in the same manner as the SPIF bit.
The bit is set in enhanced mode (ENH=1) when buffer is full. It is indication that a new data is ready to be transmitted to the shift
register.

In enhanced mode, a new data can be written to buffer when the WCOL bit is set. In addition, the WCOL bit must be cleared.

DISSO When set, this bit causes the MISO pin to float, thus enabling several slave microcontrollers to share the same interface.
Normally, the first byte, called address byte, is received by all of them, but only one should clear its DISSO bit.

ENH
0 SPI system operates in normal mode (without buffer).
1 SPI system operates in enhanced mode.

SPCR (SPI Control Register)

SPIE When this bit is set, the SPI system can generate an interrupt.

SPE This bit enables SPI communication. When set, pins SS, MOSI, MISO and SCK are connected to the microcontroller pins P1.4,
P1.5, P1.6 and P1.7.
DORD Bit determines which bytes in serial communication are to be sent first:

• 0 - MSB bit is sent first.


• 1 - LSB bit is sent first.

MSTR Bit determines whether the microcontroller is to operate as master or slave:

• 0 - Operate as slave.
• 1 - Operate as master.

CPOL Bit controls the SCK pin logic state when the SPI communication is not in progress:

• 0 - Pin SCK is cleared.


• 1 - Pin SCK is set.

CPHA This bit along with the CPOL bit controls relation between clock and data in serial format. Refer to the figure below.

SPR1,SPR0 When SPI system operates as master, these two bits determine boud rate, i.e. clock signal frequency of the master
device. When operates as slave, these bits have no effect and SPI system operates at a rate imposed by the master device.

SPR1 SPR0 SCK


0 0 Fosc/4
0 1 Fosc/16
1 0 Fosc/64
1 1 Fosc/128

Serial data format if CPHA=0

* not defined. It is usually MSB of previously received byte.

Serial data format if CPHA=1

* not defined. It is usually LSB of previously received byte.

Two things are important to remember when configuring SPI system:


• Master should be configured before slave.
• When writing bits to the SPCR register, the SPE bit enabling SPI should be set last, i.e. after setting all other parameters.

4.10 Power Consumption Control

Like all models belonging to the 8051 series, this microcontroller can operate in 1 out of 3 modes: normal (consumption ca. 25 mA),
Idle (consumption ca. 6.5 mA) and Power Down (consumption ca. 40 uA). The mode of operation is selected by bits of the PCON
register (Power Control Register). Three bits are changed compared to the basic model:

PCON register

The purpose of the bits of the PCON register:

SMOD1 When set, this bit makes boud rate twice as high.

SMOD0 Bit determines the purpose of the 7th bit of the SCON register:

• 0 Seventh bit of the SCON register has the function of SM0, i.e. selects mode of operation.
• 1 Seventh bit has the function of FE, i.e. detects errors. It is rarely used.

POF Bit is automatically set when the voltage level reaches maximum (must be higher than 3V) after powering on. It is used for
detecting cause for reset (power on or restart condition after exiting Power Down mode).

GF1 General purpose bit (available for use).

GF0 General purpose bit (available for use).

PD By setting this bit, the microcontroller is set in Power Down mode.

IDL By setting this bit, the microcontroller is set in Idle mode.

When something goes wrong...

If something unexpected happens during the operation of the microcontroller, what most bothers is the fact that it’s never the
microcontroller's fault. Although it’s not self-evident, the microcontroller always obediently follows program instructions. For this
reason, it is necessary to pay special attention to several “critical points” when writing a program. The first one is RAM memory.

Even though it is designed to meet needs of the majority of users and has all required, a memory space intended for RAM is still only
a single entity. It means that there are no phisically separated registers R0-R7, general purpose registers, stack etc. Instead, these are
differently designated parts of the same “memory shelf”. Refer to the figure below.

If we neglect this “detail”, there is a risk that the program suddenly starts to perform unpredictably. In order to prevent it, it is
necessary to take care of the following:

If only registers R0-R7 from bank 0 are in use, everything is easily kept under control and program memory locations from 08h to 1Fh
are available for use. If registers, otherwise having the same names, from some other bank are in use, you should be careful when
using locations whose addresses are less than 20h because it can cause “R” registers to be erased.

If bit-variables are not used in the program, program memory locations 20h-2Fh are available for use. If the program contains bit-
variables, you should be careful when using these location in order not to change them accidentaly.

By default, the data pushed onto stack occupy program memory locations starting from 08h. If the banks 1, 2 or 3 are in use, their
contents will be certainly erased. For this reason, it is recommended to set the Stack Pointer value to be greater than 20h or even
greater at the beginning of the program.

SFRs are used for controlling the microcontroller operation. Each of them has its specific purpose and it should be observed. It means
that they cannot be used as general purpose registers even in the event that some of their locations is not occupied.

Instruction set, recognized by the microcontroller, contains instructions which can be used for controlling individual bits of registers at
program memory location 20h-7Fh. Besides, individual bits of some SFRs (not all of them) can also be directly accessed. Addresses
of these registers are divisible by 8.

If memory is expanded by adding external RAM or ROM memory chip, ports P0 and P2 are not available for use regardless of how
many pins are actually used for memory expansion.

The DPTR register is a 16-bit register comprised of registers DPH and DPL which are 8-bit wide each. The DPTR register should be
considered like that practically. For example, when pushing it onto the Stack, DPL should be pushed first, then DPH.
When used, serial communication is under control of the SCON register. Besides, registers TCON and TMOD should be configured
for this purpose as well since the timer T1 is mostly used for boud rate generation.

When some of the interrupts is enabled, you should be careful because there is a risk that program starts to perform unexpectedly.
When an interrupt request arrives, the microcontroller will execute instruction in progress, push the address of the first following
location onto the stack (in order to know from where to continue) and jump to the specified interrupt routine address. When the
routine has been executed, the microcontroller will pop the address from the stack and continue from where it left off. However...

The microcontroller saves only the address to continue from after routine execution. What is usually neglected is the fact that the
contents of many registers can be changed during routine execution. The program normally procedees with execution considering the
changed registers correct if their original vaules haven't been saved, thus causing a total chaos. The worst thing is that this problem can
be manifested anytime: at the moment or several days later (depending on the moment an interrupt occurs). Obviously, the only
solution is to save the state of all important registers at the beginning of interrupt routine and to update these values before returning to
the program. We are actually talking about the following registers:

• PSW
• DPTR (DPH, DPL)
• ACC
• B
• Registers R0 - R7

Contents of registers are usually saved by being pushed onto the Stack using the PUSH instruction. However, instructions such as
“PUSH R0” cannot be used here because the microcontroller “doesn’t know” which register is concerned as there are 4 banks with
registers haing the same names R0-R7. For this reason, it is necessary to save addresses of these registers instead of their names using
the PUSH 00h instruction.

When some of the instructions for indirect addressing is used, you should be careful not to use them for accessing SFRs as the
microcontroller ignores their addresses and accesses free RAM locations having the same addresses as SFRs.

When UART system for serial communication is used, setting bits RI and TI of the SCON register generated the same interrupt. If
such an interrupt is generated, it is first necessary to detect interrupt source (byte is sent, received or both). It is important to remember
that the microcontroller only sets these bits so that they must be cleared from within the program. Otherwise, the program gets stuck
and executes the same interrupt routine over and over again.

A list of bit-addressable registers

Accumulator (Address: E0)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ACC
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address E7 E6 E5 E4 E3 E2 E1 E0

B register (Address: F0)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address F7 F6 F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F0

Interrupt Priority register (Address: B8)

After reset X X 0 0 0 0 0 0
IP
Bit name - - PT2 PS PT1 PX1 PT0 PX0
Bit address BF BE BD BC BB BA B9 B8

Interrupt Enable register (Address: A8)

After reset 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0
IE
Bit name EA - ET2 ES ET1 EX1 ET0 EX0
Bit address AF AE AD AC AB AA A9 A8

Port 0 (Address: 80)

P0
After reset 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80

Port 1 (Address: 90)

After reset 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P1
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90

Port 2 (Address: A0)

After reset 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P2
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0

Port 3 (Address: B0)

After reset 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P3
Bit name - - - - - - - -
Bit address B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

Program Status Word (Address: D0)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSW
Bit name CY AC F0 RS1 RS0 OV - P
Bit address D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

Serial Port Control register (Address: 98)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SCON
Bit name SM0 SM1 SM2 REN TB8 RB8 TI RI
Bit address 9F 9E 9D 9C 9B 9A 99 98

Timer Control register (Address: 88)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TCON
Bit name TF1 TR1 TF0 TR0 IF1 IT1 IF0 IT0
Bit address 8F 8E 8D 8C 8B 8A 89 88

Timer/Counter 2 Control register (Address: C8)

After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T2CON
Bit name TF2 EXF2 RCLK TCLK EXEN2 TR2 C/T2 CP/RL2
Bit address CF CE CD CC CB CA C9 C8
A list of non bit-addressable registers

Auxiliary register (Address: 8E)

AUXR After reset X X X X X X X 0


Bit name - - - - - - Intel_Pwd_Exit DISALE

Clock register (Address: 8F)

CLKREG After reset X X X X X X X 0


Bit name - - - - - - - X2
Data Pointer 0 High (Address: 83)

DP0H After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Data Pointer 0 Low (Address: 82)

DP0L After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Data Pointer 1 High Byte (Address: 85)

DP1H After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Data Pointer 1 Low Byte (Address: 84)

DP1L After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

EEPROM Control (Address: 96)

EECON After reset X X 0 0 0 0 1 1


Bit name - - EELD EEMWE EEMEN DPS RDY/BSY WRTINH

Interrupt Priority High Byte (Address: B7)

IPH After reset X X 0 0 0 0 1 1


Bit name - - PT2H PSH PT1H PX1H PT0H PX0H

Power Control (Address: 87)

PCON After reset 0 X X X 0 0 0 0


Bit name SMOD - - - GF1 GF0 PD IDL

Slave Address (Address: A9)

SADDR After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Slave Address Enable (Address: B9)

SADEN After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Serial buffer (Address: 99)

SBUF After reset X X X X X X X X


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Stack Pointer (Address: 81)

SP After reset 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Bit name - - - - - - - -
SPI Control register (Address: D5)

SPCR After reset 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0


Bit name SPIE SPE DORD MSTR CPOL CPHA SPR1 SPR0

SPI Data register (Address: 86)

SPDR After reset - - - - - - - -


Bit name - - - - - - - -

SPI Status register (Address: AA)

SPSR After reset 0 0 0 - - - 0 0


Bit name SPIF WCOL LDEN - - - DISSO ENH

Timer 2 Reload Capture High (Address: CB)

RCAP2H After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 2 Reload Capture Low (Address: CA)

RCAP2L After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 0 Low (Address: 8A)

TL0 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 1 Low (Address: 8B)

TL1 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 2 Low (Address: CC)

TL2 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 0 High Byte (Address: 8C)

TH0 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 1 High Byte (Address: 8D)

TH1 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -

Timer 2 High Byte (Address: CD)

TH2 After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - - -
Timer Mode (Address: 89)

TMOD After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name GATE1 C/T1 T1M1 T1M0 GATE0 C/T0 T0M1 T0M0

Timer 2 Mode Control (Address: C9)

T2MOD After reset X X X X X X 0 0


Bit name - - - - - - T2OE DCEN

Watchdog Timer Control (Address: A7)

WDTCON After reset 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


Bit name PS2 PS1 PS0 WDIDLE DISRTO HWDT WSWRST WDTEN

Watchdog Timer Reset (Address: A6)

WDTCON After reset - - - - - - - -


Bit name - - - - - - - -
Voltage characteristics of the AT89S8253 microcontrollers
Symbol Parameter Condition Min. Max.
VIL Input Low-voltage All pins except EA -0.5 V 0.2Vcc - 0.1V
Input Low-voltage on
VIL1 -0.5 V 0.2Vcc - 0.3V
EA pin
All pins except
VIH Input High-voltage 0.2 Vcc + 0.9V Vcc + 0.5 V
XTAL1 and RST
Input High-voltage on
VIH1 0.7 Vcc Vcc + 0.5 V
pins XTAL1 and RST
Iol = 10mA, Vcc =
VOL Output High-voltage 0.4 V
4.0V, Ta = 85°C
Output High-voltage Ioh = -40mA, Ta =
when Pull-up resistors 85°C
2.4 V
are enabled (Port P0 Ioh = -25mA, Ta =
VOH1 0.75 Vcc
in External BUS 85°C
0.9 Vcc
mode, ports P1,2,3, Ioh = -10mA, Ta =
pins ALE and PSEN) 85°C
Logical 0 input Vin = 0.45V, Vcc =
IIL - 50 μA
current (ports P1,2,3) 5.5V, Ta = -40°C
Input leakage current
IILI 0.45V < Vin < Vcc ± 10 μA
(port P0, pin EA)
Reset pull-down
RRST 50 KΩ 150 KΩ
resistor
CIO I/O pin Capacitance f = 1Mhz, Ta = 25°C 10 pF
Normal mode: f =
12Mhz, Vcc = 5.5V
Ta = -40°C 25 mA
Power-supply current
Idlle mode f = 6.5 mA
ICC 12Mhz, Vcc = 5.5V
Ta = -40°C
Vcc = 5.5V Ta = -
100 μA
Power-down mode 40°C
40 μA
Vcc = 4V Ta = -40°C

Previous Chapter | Table of Contents | Next Chapter

 
Chapter 5: Assembly Language
• 5.1 Elements of Assembly Language

Introduction

It was time that hardware-oriented to the core made compromise if they wanted to stay “in the game”. Namely, unlike other circuits
which only need to be connected to other components and powered in order to be of any use, microcontrollers require to be
programmed as well. Fortunately, they still didn't progress so far in their evolution, so that all microcontroller families “understand”
only one language - machine language. That's a good thing. The bad one is that, even primitive, this language of zeros and ones can
only be understood by microcontrollers and some of the experts working on its development. In order to bridge this gap between
machine and humans, the first high-level programming language called Assembly language was created.

The main problem of remembering codes recognized as instructions by electronics was solved therefore, but another one, equally
complicated to both us and “them”(microcontrollers) arose. This problem was also easily solved by means of the program for a PC
called assembler and a simple device called programmer.

This program enables the PC to receive commands in the form of abbreviations and convert them unerringly into so called “executable
file”. The moment of compiling a program into machine language is crucial as this file, called HEX file, represents a series of binary
numbers understandable to microcontrollers only. The program written in assembly language cannot be executed practically unless
this file is loaded into the microcontroller memory. This is the moment when the last link in the chain - the programmer - appears on
the scene. It is a small device connected to a PC via some of the ports and has a socket for placing chip in.

5.1 Elements of Assembly Language

Assembly language is basically like any other language, which means that it has its words, rules and syntax. The basic elements of
assembly language are:

• Labels;
• Orders;
• Directives; and
• Comments.

Syntax
of Assembly language

When writing a program in assembly language it is necessary to observe specific rules in order to enable the process of compiling into
executable “HEX-code” to run without errors. These compulsory rules are called syntax and there are only several of them:
• Every program line may consist of a maximum of 255 characters;
• Every program line to be compiled, must start with a symbol, label, mnemonics or directive;
• Text following the mark “;” in a program line represents a comment ignored (not compiled) by the assembler; and
• All the elements of one program line (labels, instructions etc.) must be separated by at least one space character. For the sake
of better clearness, a push button TAB on a keyboard is commonly used instead of it, so that it is easy to delimit columns with
labels, directives etc. in a program.

Numbers

If octal number system, otherwise considered as obsolite, is disregarded, assembly laguage allows numbers to be used in one out of
three number systems:

Decimal Numbers

If not stated otherwise, the assembly language considers all the numbers as decimal. All ten digits are used (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). Since
at most 2 bytes are used for saving them in the microcontroller, the largest decimal number that can be written in assembly language is
65535. If it is necessary to specify that some of the numbers is in decimal format, then it has to be followed by the letter “D”. For
example 1234D.

Hexadecimal Numbers

Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used in programming. There are 16 digits in hexadecimal number system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, A, B, C, D, E, F). The largest hexadecimal number that can be written in assembly language is FFFF. It corresponds to decimal
number 65535. In order to distinguish hexadecimal numbers from decimal, they are followed by the letter “h”(either in upper- or
lowercase). For example 54h.

Binary Numbers

Binary numbers are often used when the value of each individual bit of some of the registers is important, since each binary digit
represents one bit. There are only two digits in use (0 and 1). The largest binary number written in assembly language is
1111111111111111. In order to distinguish binary numbers from other numbers, they are followed by the letter “b” (either in upper-
or lowercase). For example 01100101B.

Operators

Some of the assembly-used commands use logical and mathematical expessions instead of symbols having specific values. For
example:

IF (VERSION>1)
LCALL Table_2
USING VERSION+1
ENDIF
...

As seen, the assembly language is capable of computing some values and including them in a program code, thus using the following
mathematical and logical operations:

Name Operation Example Result


+ Addition 10+5 15
- Subtraction 25-17 8
* Multiplication 7*4 28
Division (with no
/ 7/4 1
remainder)
MOD Remainder of division 7 MOD 4 3
Shift register bits to the
SHR 1000B SHR 2 0010B
right
Shift register bits to the
SHL 1010B SHL 2 101000B
left
Negation (first
NOT NOT 1 1111111111111110B
complement of number)
AND Logical AND 1101B AND 0101B 0101B
OR Logical OR 1101B OR 0101B 1101B
XOR Exclusive OR 1101B XOR 0101B 1000B
LOW 8 low significant bits LOW(0AADDH) 0DDH
HIGH 8 high significant bits HIGH(0AADDH) 0AAH
EQ, = Equal 7 EQ 4 or 7=4 0 (false)
NE,<> Not equal 7 NE 4 or 7<>4 0FFFFH (true)
GT, > Greater than 7 GT 4 or 7>4 0FFFFH (true)
GE, >= Greater or equal 7 GE 4 or 7>=4 0FFFFH (true)
LT, < Less than 7 LT 4 or 7<4 0 (false)
LE,<= Less or equal 7 LE 4 or 7<=4 0 (false)
Symbols

Every register, constant, address or subroutine can be assigned a specific symbol in assembly language, which considerably facilitates
the process of writing a program. For example, if the P0.3 input pin is connected to a push button used to stop some process manually
(push button STOP), the process of writing a program will be much simpler if the P0.3 bit is assigned the same name as the push
button, i.e. “pushbutton_STOP”. Of course, like in any other language, there are specific rules to be observed as well:

• For the purpose of writing symbols in assembly language, all letters from alphabet (A-Z, a-z), decimal numbers (0-9) and two
special characters ("?" and "_") can be used. Assembly language is not case sensitive.

For example, the following symbols will be considered identical:

Serial_Port_Buffer
SERIAL_PORT_BUFFER

• In order to distinguish symbols from constants (numbers), every symbol starts with a letter or one of two special characters (?
or _).
• The symbol may consist of maximum of 255 characters, but only first 32 are taken into account. In the following example, the
first two symbols will be considered duplicate (error), while the third and forth symbols will be considered different:

START_ADDRESS_OF_TABLE_AND_CONSTANTS_1
START_ADDRESS_OF_TABLE_AND_CONSTANTS_2
TABLE_OF_CONSTANTS_1_START_ADDRESS
TABLE_OF_CONSTANTC_2_START_ADDRESS

• Some of the symbols cannot be used when writing a program in assembly language because they are already part of
instructions or assembly directives. Thus, for example, a register or subroutine cannot be assigned name “A” or “DPTR”
because there are registers having the same name.

Here is a list of symbols not allowed to be used during programming in assembly language:

A AB ACALL ADD
ADDC AJMP AND ANL
AR0 AR1 AR2 AR3
AR4 AR5 AR6 AR7
BIT BSEG C CALL
CJNE CLR CODE CPL
CSEG DA DATA DB
DBIT DEC DIV DJNZ
DPTR DS DSEG DW
END EQ EQU GE
GT HIGH IDATA INC
ISEG JB JBC JC
JMP JNB JNC JNZ
JZ LCALL LE LJMP
LOW LT MOD MOV
MOVC MOVX MUL NE
NOP NOT OR ORG
ORL PC POP PUSH
R0 R1 R2 R3
R4 R5 R6 R7
RET RETI RL RLC
RR RRC SET SETB
SHL SHR SJMP SUBB
SWAP USING XCH XCHD
XDATA XOR XRL XSEG

Labels

A label is a special type of symbols used to represent a textual version of an address in ROM or RAM memory. They are always
placed at the beginning of a program line. It is very complicated to call a subroutine or execute some of the jump or branch
instructions without them. They are easily used:

• A symbol (label) with some easily recognizable name should be written at the beginning of a program line from which a
subroutine starts or where jump should be executed.
• It is sufficient to enter the name of label instead of address in the form of 16-bit number in instructions calling a subroutine or
jump.

During the process of compiling, the assembler automatically replaces such symbols with appropriate addresses.

Directives
Unlike instructions being compiled and written to chip program memory, directives are commands of assembly language itself and
have no influence on the operation of the microcontroller. Some of them are obligatory part of every program while some are used
only to facilitate or speed up the operation.
Directives are written in the column reserved for instructions. There is a rule allowing only one directive per program line.

EQU directive

The EQU directive is used to replace a number by a symbol. For example:

MAXIMUM EQU 99

After using this directive, every appearance of the label “MAXIMUM” in the program will be interpreted by the assembler as the
number 99 (MAXIMUM = 99). Symbols may be defined this way only once in the program. The EQU directive is mostly used at the
beginning of the program therefore.

SET directive

The SET directive is also used to replace a number by a symbol. The significant difference compared to the EQU directive is that the
SET directive can be used an unlimited number of times:

SPEED SET 45
SPEED SET 46
SPEED SET 57
BIT directive

The BIT directive is used to replace a bit address by a symbol. The bit address must be in the range of 0 to 255. For example:

TRANSMIT BIT PSW.7 ;Transmit bit (the seventh bit in PSW register)
;is assigned the name "TRANSMIT"
OUTPUT BIT 6 ;Bit at address 06 is assigned the name "OUTPUT"
RELAY BIT 81 ;Bit at address 81 (Port 0)is assigned the name ;"RELAY"
CODE directive

The CODE directive is used to assign a symbol to a program memory address. Since the maximum capacity of program memory is
64K, the address must be in the range of 0 to 65535. For example:

RESET CODE 0 ;Memory location 00h called "RESET"


TABLE CODE 1024 ;Memory location 1024h called "TABLE"
DATA directive

The DATA directive is used to assign a symbol to an address within internal RAM. The address must be in the range of 0 to 255. It is
possible to change or assign a new name to any register. For example:

TEMP12 DATA 32 ;Register at address 32 is named ;as "TEMP12"


STATUS_R DATA D0h ;PSW register is assigned the name ;"STATUS_R"
IDATA directive

The IDATA directive is used to change or assign a new name to an indirectly addressed register. For example:

TEMP22 IDATA 32 ;Register whose address is in register ;at address 32 is named as "TEMP22"
TEMP33 IDATA T_ADR ;Register whose address is in ;register T_ADR is named as "TEMP33"
XDATA directive

The XDATA directive is used to assign a name to registers within external (additional) RAM memory. The addresses of these
registers cannot be larger than 65535. For example:

TABLE_1 XDATA 2048 ;Register stored in external


;memory at address 2048 is named
;as "TABLE_1"
ORG directive

The ORG directive is used to specify a location in program memory where the program following directive is to be placed. For
example:

BEGINNING ORG 100


...
...
ORG 1000h
TABLE ...
...

This program starts at location 100. The table containing data is to be stored at location 1024 (1000h).

USING directive

The USING directive is used to define which register bank (registers R0-R7) is to be used in the program.

USING 0 ;Bank 0 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAM-addresses 0-7)


USING 1 ;Bank 1 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAM-addresses 8-15)
USING 2 ,Bank 2 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAM-addresses 16-23)
USING 3 ;Bank 3 is used (registers R0-R7 at RAM-addresses 24-31)
END directive
The END directive is used at the end of every program. The assembler will stop compiling once the program encounters this directive.
For example:

...
END ;End of program

Directives used for selecting memory segments

There are 5 directives used for selecting one out of five memory segments in the microcontroller:

CSEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to program memory;

BSEG ;Selects bit-addressable part of RAM;

DSEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to the part of internal RAM accessed by
;direct addressing;

ISEG ;Indicates that the next segment refers to the part of internal RAM accessed by
;indirect addressing using registers R0 and R1); and

XSEG ;Selects external RAM memory.

The CSEG segment is activated by default after enabling the assembler and remains active until a new directive is specified. Each of
these memory segments has its internal address counter which is cleared every time the assembler is activated. Its value can be
changed by specifying value after the mark AT. It can be a number, an arithmetical operation or a symbol. For example:

DSEG ;Next segment refers to directly accessed registers; and


BSEG AT 32 ;Selects bit-addressable part of memory with address counter
;moved by 32 bit locations relative to the beginning of that
;memory segment.

A dollar symbol "$" denotes current value of address counter in the currently active segment. The following two examples illustrate
how this value can be used practically:

Example 1:

JNB FLEG,$ ;Program will constantly execute this


;instruction (jump instruction),until
;the flag is cleared.

Example 2:

MESSAGE DB ‘ALARM turn off engine’


LENGTH EQU $-MESSAGE-1

These two program lines can be used for computing exact number of characters in the message “ALARM turn off engine” which is
defined at the address assigned the name “MESSAGE”.

DS directive

The DS directive is used to reserve memory space expressed in bytes. It is used if some of the following segments ISEG, DSEG or
XSEG is currently active. For example:

Example 1:

DSEG ;Select directly addressed part of RAM


DS 32 ;Current value of address counter is incremented by 32
SP_BUFF DS 16 ;Reserve space for serial port buffer
;(16 bytes)
IO_BUFF DS 8 ;Reserve space for I/O buffer in size of 8 bytes

Example 2:

ORG 100 ;Start at address 100


DS 8 ;8 bytes are reserved
LAB ......... ;Program proceeds with execution (address of this location is 108)
DBIT directive

The DBIT directive is used to reserve space within bit-addressable part of RAM. The memory size is expressed in bits. It can be used
only if the BSEG segment is active. For example:

BSEG ;Bit-addressable part of RAM is selected


IO_MAP DBIT 32 ;First 32 bits occupy space intended for I/O buffer
DB directive

The DB directive is used for writing specified value into program memory. If several values are specified, then they are separated by a
comma. If ASCII array is specified, it should be enclosed within single quotation marks. This directive can be used only if the CSEG
segment is active. For example:

CSEG
DB 22,33,’Alarm’,44

If this directive is preceeded by a lable, then the label will point to the first element of the array. It is the number 22 in this example.
DW directive

The DW directive is similar to the DB directive. It is used for writing a two-byte value into program memory. The higher byte is
written first, then the lower one.

IF, ENDIF and ELSE directives

These directives are used to create so called conditional blocks in the program. Each of these blocks starts with directive IF and ends
with directive ENDIF or ELSE. The statement or symbol (in parentheses) following the IF directive represents a condition which
specifies the part of the program to be compiled:

• If the statement is correct or if the symbol is equal to one, the program will include all instructions up to directive ELSE or
ENDIF.
• If the statement is not correct or if the symbol value is equal to zero, all instructions are ignored, i.e. not compiled, and the
program continues with instructions following directives ELSE or ENDIF.

Example 1:

IF (VERSION>3)
LCALL Table_2
LCALL Addition
ENDIF
...

If the program is of later date than version 3 (statement is correct), subroutines “Table 2” and “Addition” will be executed. If the
statement in parentheses is not correct (VERSION<3), two instructions calling subroutines will not be compiled.

Example 2:

If the value of the symbol called “Model” is equal to one, the first two instructions following directive IF will be compiled and the
program continues with instructions following directive ENDIF (all instructions between ELSE and ENDIF are ignored). Otherwise, if
Model=0, instructions between IF and ELSE are ignored and the assembler compiles only instructions following directive ELSE.

IF (Model)
MOV R0,#BUFFER
MOV A,@R0
ELSE
MOV R0,#EXT_BUFFER
MOVX A,@R0
ENDIF
...
Control directives

Control directives start with a dollar symbol $. They are used to determine which files are to be used by the assembler during
compilation, where the executable file is to be stored as well as the final layout of the compiled program called Listing. There are
many control directives, but only few of them is of importance:

$INCLUDE directive

This directive enables the assembler to use data stored in other files during compilation. For example:

$INCLUDE(TABLE.ASM)
$MOD8253 directive

This directive is a file containing names and addresses of all SFRs of 8253 microcontrollers. By means of this file and directive having
the same name, the assembler can compile the program on the basis of register names. If they are not used, it is necessary to specify
name and address of every SFRs to be used at the beginning of the program.

Previous Chapter | Table of Contents | Next Chapter

 
Chapter 6 : Examples
• 6.1 Basic connecting of the microcontroller
• 6.2 Additional components
• 6.3 Examples

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide basic information about microcontrollers that one needs to know in order to be able to use
them successfully in practice. This is why this chapter doesn't contain any super interesting program or device schematic with amazing
solutions. Instead, the following examples are better proof that program writing is neither a privilege nor a talent issue, but the ability
of simply putting puzzle pieces together using directives. Rest assured that design and development of devices mainly consists of the
following method “test-correct-repeat”. Of course, the more you are in it, the more complicated it becomes since the puzzle pieces are
put together by both children and first-class architects...

6.1 Basic connecting

As seen in the figure above, in order to enable the microcontroller to operate properly it is necessary to provide:

• Power supply:
• Reset signal: and
• Clock signal.

Clearly, it is about very simple circuits, but it does not have to be always like that. If the target device is used for controlling expensive
machines or maintaining vital functions, everything gets increasingly complicated. However, this solution is sufficient for the time
being...

Power supply

Even though this microcontroller can operate at different power supply voltages, why to test “Murphy’s low”?! A 5V DC is most
commonly used. The circuit, shown in the figure, uses a cheap integrated three-terminal positive regulator LM7805, and provides
high-quality voltage stability and quite enough current to enable the microcontroller and peripheral electronics to operate normally
(enough current in this case means 1Amp).

Reset signal

In order that the mucrocontroller can operate properly, a logic 0 (0V) must be applied to the reset pin RS. The push button connecting
the reset pin RS to power supply VCC is not necessary. However, it is almost always provided because it enables the microcontroller
safe return to normal operating conditions if something goes wrong. 5V is brought to this pin, the microcontroller is reset and program
starts execution from the beginning.

Clock signal

Even though the microcontroller has a built-in oscillator, it cannot operate without two external capacitors and quartz crystal which
stabilize its operation and determines its frequency (operating speed of the microcontroller).
Of course, it is not always possible to apply this solution so that there are always alternative ones. One of them is to provide clock
signal from a special source through invertor. See the figure on the left.

6.2 Additional components

Regardless of the fact that the microcontroller is a product of modern technology, it is of no use without being connected to additional
components. Simply put, the appearance of voltage on its pins means nothing if not used for performing certain operations (turn
something on/off, shift, display etc.).

Switches and Push buttons

There are no simpler devices than switches and push-buttons. This is the simplest way of detecting appearance of a voltage on the
microcontroller input pin.

Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... It is about contact bounce- a common problem with m e c h a n i c a l switches. When the
contacts strike together, their momentum and elasticity act together to cause bounce. The result is a rapidly pulsed electrical current
instead of a clean transition from zero to full current. It mostly occurs due to vibrations, slight rough spots and dirt between contacts.
This effect is usually unnoticeable when using these components in everyday life because the bounce happens too quickly. In other
words, the whole this process does not last long (a few micro- or miliseconds), but it is long enough to be registered by the
microcontroller. When using only a push-button as a pulse counter, errors occur in almost 100% of cases!

The simplest solution to this problem is to connect a simple RC circuit to suppress quick voltage changes. Since the bounce period is
not defined, the values of components are not precisely determined. In most cases, it is recomended to use the values shown in figure
below.

If complete stability is needed then radical measures should be taken. The output of the circuit, shown in figure (RS flip-flop), will
change its logic state only after detecting the first pulse triggered by contact bounce. This solution is expensive (SPDT switch), but
effecient, the problem is definitely solved. Since the capacitor is not used, very short pulses can also be registered in this way.

In addition to these hardware solutions, there is also a simple software solution. When a program tests the state of an input pin and
detects a change, the check should be done one more time after a certain delay. If the change is confirmed, it means that a switch or
push button has changed its position. The advantages of such solution are obvious: it is free of charge, effects of noises are eliminated
and it can be applied to the poorer quality contacts as well. Disadvantage is the same as when using RC filter, i.e. pulses shorter than
program delay cannot be registered.

Optocoupler

An optocoupler is a device commonly used to galvanically separate microcontroller’s electronics from any potentially dangerous
current or voltage in its surroundings. Optocouplers usually have one, two or four light sources (LED diodes) on their input while on
their output, opposite to diodes, there is the same number of elements sensitive to light (phototransistors, photo-thyristors or photo-
triacs). The point is that an optocoupler uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between the elements of circuit,
while keeping them electrically isolated. This isolation makes sense only if diodes and photo-sensitive elements are separately
powered. In this way, the microcontroller and expensive additional electronics are completely protected from high voltage and noises
which are the most common cause of destroying, damaging or unstable operation of electronic devices in practice. The most
frequently used optocouplers are those with phototransistors on their outputs. When using the optocoupler with internal base-to-pin 6
connection (there are also optocouplers without it), the base can be left unconnected. An optional connection which lessens the effects
of noises by eliminating very short pulses is presented by the broken line in the figure.

Relay

A relays is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another electrical circuit. It is therefore connected to ouput pins
of the microcontroller and used to turn on/off high-power devices such as motors, transformers, heaters, bulbs, antenna systems etc.
These are almost always placed away from the board sensitive components. There are various types of relays but all of them operate in
the same way. When a current flows through the coil, the relay is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of
contacts. Similar to optocouplers, there is no galvanic connection (electrical contact) between input and output circuits. Relays usually
demand both higher voltage and current to start operation, but there are also miniature ones which can be activated by a low current
directly obtained from a microcontroller pin.

The figure shows the solution specific to the 8051 microcontroller. A darlington transistor is used here to activate relays because of its
high current gain. This is not in accordance with “rules”, but is necessary in the event that logic one activation is applied since the
output current is then very low (pin acts as an input).
In order to prevent the appearance of self-induction high voltage, caused by a sudden stop of current flow through the coil, an inverted
polarized diode is connected in parallel to the coil. The purpose of this diode is to “cut off” the voltage peak.

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes.
For their low price, low power consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources, bulbs at
first place. They perform similar to common diodes with the difference that they emit light when current flows through them.

It is important to limit their current, otherwise they will be permanently destroyed. For this reason, a conductor must be connected in
parallel to an LED. In order to determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diode’s voltage drop in forward direction,
which depends on what material a diode is made from and what colour it is. Typical values of the most frequently used diodes are
shown in table below. As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get ful brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current
diodes get ful brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

Typical current Id Maximal current If


Color Type Voltage drop Ud (V)
(mA) (mA)
Infrared - 30 50 1.4
Red Standard 20 30 1.7
Red Super Bright 20 30 1.85
Red Low Current 2 30 1.7
Orange - 10 30 2.0
Green Low Current 2 20 2.1
Yellow - 20 30 2.1
Blue - 20 30 4.5
White - 25 35 4.4
Since the 8051 microcontroller can provide only low output current and since its pins are configured as outputs when voltage provided
on them is 0V, direct connecting to LEDs is performed as shown in figure on the right (Low current LED, cathode is connected to the
output pin).

LED displays

Basically, an LED display is nothing more than several LEDs moulded in the same plastic case. There are many types of displays
composed of several dozens of built in diodes which can display different symbols.

Most commonly used is a so called 7-segment display. It is composed of 8 LEDs, 7 segments are arranged as a rectangle for symbol
displaying and there is an additional segment for decimal point displaying. In order to simplify connecting, anodes and catodes of all
diodes are connected to the common pin so that there are common anode displays and common catode displays, respectively.
Segments are marked with the latters from A to G, plus dp, as shown in the figure on the left. On connecting, each diode is treated
separtely, which means that each must have its own current limiting resistor.

Displays connected to the microcontroller usually occupy a large number of valuable I/O pins, which can be a big problem especially
if it is needed to display multy digit numbers. The problem is more than obvious if, for example, it is needed to display two 6-digit
numbers (a simple calculation shows that 96 output pins are needed in this case). The solution to this problem is called
MULTIPLEXING. This is how an optical illusion based on the same operating principle as a film camera is made. Only one digit is
active at a time, but they change their state so quickly making impression that all digits of a number are simultaneously active.

Here is an explanation on the figure above. First a byte representing units is applied on a microcontroller port and a transistor T1 is
activated at the same time. After a while, the transistor T1 is turned off, a byte representing tens is applied on a port and a transistor T2
is activated. This process is being cyclically repeated at high speed for all digits and corresponding transistors.
The fact that the microcontroller is just a kind of miniature computer designed to understand only the language of zeros and ones is
fully expressed when displaying any digit. Namely, the microcontroller doesn't know what units, tens or hundreds are, nor what ten
digits we are used to look like. Therefore, each number to be displayed must be prepared in the following way:

First of all, a multy digit number must be split into units, tens etc. in a particular subroutine. Then each of these digits must be stored
in special bytes. Digits get familiar format by performing “masking”. In other words, a binary format of each digit is replaced by a
different combination of bits in a simple subroutine. For example, the digit 8 (0000 1000) is replaced by the binary number 0111 111
in order to activate all LEDs displaying digit 8. The only diode remaining inactive in this case is reserved for the decimal point. If a
microcontroller port is connected to the display in such a way that bit 0 activates segment “a”, bit 1 activates segment “b”, bit 2
segment “c” etc., then the table below shows the “mask” for each digit.

Digits to display Display Segments


dp a b c d e f g
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
3 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
4 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
5 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
6 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
7 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

In addition to digits from 0 to 9, some letters of alphabet - A, C, E, J, F, U, H, L, b, c, d, o, r, t - can also be displayed by performing
appropriate masking.
If the event that common chatode displays are used all units in the table should be replaced by zeros and vice versa. Additionally,
NPN transistors should be used as drivers as well.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)

An LCD display is specifically manufactured to be used with microcontrollers, which means that it cannot be activated by standard IC
circuits. It is used for displaying different messages on a miniature liquid crysal display.
The model described here is for its low price and great capabilities most frequently used in practice. It is based on the HD44780
microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the letters of alphabet, Greek
letters, punctuation marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols made up by the user. Other useful
features include automatic message shift (left and right), cursor appearance, LED backlight etc.

LCD Pins

There are pins along one side of a small printed board. These are used for connecting to the microcontroller. There are in total of 14
pins marked with numbers (16 if it has backlight). Their function is described in the table bellow:

Function Pin Number Name Logic State Description


Ground 1 Vss - 0V
Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V
Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd
0 D0 – D7 are interpreted as commands
4 RS
1 D0 – D7 are interpreted as data
0 Write data (from controller to LCD)
5 R/W
Control of operating 1 Read data (from LCD to controller)
0 Access to LCD disabled
6 E 1 Normal operating
From 1 to 0 Data/commands are transferred to LCD
7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB
8 D1 0/1 Bit 1
9 D2 0/1 Bit 2
10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
Data / commands
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4
12 D5 0/1 Bit 5
13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB
LCD screen

An LCD screen consists of two lines each containing 16 characters. Each character consists of 5x8 or 5x11 dot matrix. This book
covers the most commonly used display, i.e. the 5x8 character display.

Display contrast depends on the power supply voltage and whether messages are displayed in one or two lines. For this reason,
varying voltage 0-Vdd is applied on the pin marked as Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some LCD
displays have built-in backlight (blue or green LEDs). When used during operation, a current limiting resistor should be serially
connected to one of the pins for backlight power supply (similar to LEDs).
If there are no characters displayed or if all of them are dimmed when the display is on, the first thing that should be done is to check
the potentiometer for contrast regulation. Is it properly adjusted? The same applies if the mode of operation has been changed (writing
in one or two lines).

LCD Memory

The LCD display contains three memory blocks:

• DDRAM Display Data RAM;


• CGRAM Character Generator RAM; and
• CGROM Character Generator ROM.

DDRAM Memory

DDRAM memory is used for storing characters to be displayed. The size of this memory is sufficient for storing 80 characters. Some
memory locations are directly connected to the characters on display.

It works quite simply: it is sufficient to configure the display so as to increment addresses automatically (shift right) and set the
starting address for the message that should be displayed (for example 00 hex).

After that, all characters sent through lines D0-D7 will be displayed in the message format we are used to- from left to right. In this
case, displaying starts from the first field of the first line since the address is 00 hex. If more than 16 characters are sent, then all of
them will be memorized, but only the first sixteen characters will be visible. In order to display the rest of them, a shift command
should be used. Virtually, everything looks as if the LCD display is a “window” which moves left-right over memory locations
containing different characters. This is how the effect of message “moving” on the screen is made.

If the cursor is on, it appears at the location which is currently addressed. In other words, when a character appears at the cursor
position, it will automatically move to the next addressed location.
Since this is a sort of RAM memory, data can be written to and read from it, but its contents is irretrievably lost when the power goes
off.

CGROM Memory

CGROM memory contains the default chracter map with all characters that can be displayed on the screen. Each character is assigned
to one memory location.
The addresses of CGROM memory locations match the characters of ASCII. If the program being currently executed encounters a
command “send character P to port”, then the binary value 0101 0000 appears on the port. This value is the ASCII equivalent to the
character P. It is then written to LCD, which results in displaying the symbol from 0101 0000 location of CGROM. In other words, the
character “P” is displayed. This applies to all letters of alphabet (capitals and small), but not to numbers.

As seen on the previous “map”, addresses of all digits are pushed forward by 48 relative to their values (digit 0 address is 48, digit 1
address is 49, digit 2 address is 50 etc.). Accordingly, in order to display digits correctly, each of them needs to be added a decimal
number 48 prior to be sent to LCD.

From their inception till today, computers can recognize only numbers, but not letters. It means that all data a computer swaps with a
peripheral device has a binary format, even though the same is recognized by the man as letters (keyboard is an excellent example).
Every character matches the unique combination of zeroes and ones. ASCII is character encoding based on the English alphabet.
ASCII code specifies correspondance between standard character symbols and their numerical equivalents.

CGRAM memory

Apart from standard characters, the LCD display can also display symbols defined by the user itself. It can be any symbol in the size
of 5x8 pixels. RAM memory called CGRAM in the size of 64 bytes enables it.

Memory registers are 8 bits wide, but only 5 lower bits are used. Logic one (1) in every register represents a dimmed dot, while 8
locations grouped together represent one character. It is best illustrated in figure below:
Symbols are usually defined at the beginnig of the program by simply writing zeros and ones to registers of CGRAM memory so that
they form desired shapes. In order to display them it is sufficient to specify their address. Pay attention to the first coloumn in the
CGROM map of characters. It doesn't contain RAM memory addresses, but symbols being discussed here. In this example, “display
0” means - display “č”, “display 1” means - display “ž” etc.

LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through the outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as a command or a data, which depends on the pin RS logic
state:

RS = 1 - Bits D0-D7 are addresses of the characters to be displayed. LCD processor addresses one character from the character map
and displays it. The DDRAM address specifies the location on which the character is to be displayed. This address is defined before
the character is transferred or the address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine the display mode. The commands recognized by the LCD are given in the table
below:

Execution
Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Time
Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS
Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS
Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS
Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS
Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS
Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS
Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS
Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS
Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -
Write to CGRAM or
1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM
Read from CGRAM or
1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM
I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right
0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface


0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines


0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots


0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift


0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift
What is the Busy flag?

Compared to the microcontroller, the LCD is an extremely slow component. Because of this, it was necessary to provide a signal
which will, upon command execution, indicate that the display is ready to receive a new data. That signal, called the busy flag, can be
read from line D7. When the BF bit is cleared (BF=0), the display is ready to receive a new data.

LCD Connection

Depending on how many lines are used for connecting the LCD to the microcontroller, there are 8-bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The
appropriate mode is selected at the beginning of the operation. This process is called “initialization”. 8-bit LCD mode uses outputs
D0-D7 to transfer data in the way explained on the previous page. The main purpose of 4-bit LED mode is to save valuable I/O pins of
the microcontroller. Only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) are used for communication, while other may be left unconnected. Each data is sent to
the LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first (normally through the lines D4-D7), then four lower bits. Initialization enables the
LCD to link and interpret received bits correctly. Data is rarely read from the LCD (it is mainly transferred from the microcontroller to
LCD) so that it is often possible to save an extra I/O pin by simple connecting R/W pin to ground. Such saving has its price. Messages
will be normally displayed, but it will not be possible to read the busy flag since it is not possible to read the display either.

Fortunately, there is a simple solution. After sending a character or a command it is important to give the LCD enough time to do its
job. Owing to the fact that execution of the slowest command lasts for approximately 1.64mS, it will be sufficient to wait
approximately 2mS for LCD.

LCD Initialization

The LCD is automatically cleared when powered up. It lasts for approximately 15mS. After that, the display is ready for operation.
The mode of operation is set by default. It means that:

1. Display is cleared
2. Mode
o DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface
o N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line
o F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots
3. Display/Cursor on/off
o D = 0 Display off
o U = 0 Cursor off
o B = 0 Cursor blink off
4. Character entry
o ID = 1 Displayed addresses are automatically incremented by 1
o S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is in most cases performed without any problems. In most cases, but not always! If for any reason the power supply
voltage does not reach ful value within 10mS, the display will start to perform completely unpredictably. If the voltage supply unit is
not able to meet this condition or if it is needed to provide completely safe operation, the process of initialization is applied.
Initialization, among other things, causes a new reset enabling display to operate normally.

Refer to the figure below for the procedure on 8-bit initialization:

It is not a mistake!
In this algorithm, the same value is transferred three times in a row.

In case of 4-bit initialization, the procedure is as follows:


6.3 Examples

The schematic below is used in the several following examples:


Apart from components necessary for the operation of the microcontroller such as oscillator with capacitors and the simplest reset
circuit, there are also several LEDs and one push button. These are used to indicate the operation of the program.

All LEDs are polarized in such a way that they are activated by driving a microcontroller pin low (logic 0).

LED Blinking

The purpose of this example is not to demonstrate the operation of LEDs, but the operating speed of the microcontroller. Simply put,
in order to enable LED blinking to be visible, it is necessary to provide sufficient amount of time to pass between on/off states of
LEDs. In this example time delay is provided by executing a subroutine called Delay. It is a triple loop in which the program remains
for approximately 0.5 seconds and decrements values stored in registers R0, R1 or R2. After returning from the subroutine, the pin
state is inverted and the same procedure is repeated...

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Delay.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program turns on/off LED on the pin P1.0
;* Software delay is used (Delay).
;************************************************************************
;BASIC DIRECTIVES
$MOD53
$TITLE(DELAY.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ;Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ;Define Stack pointer


MOV P1,#0FFh ;All pins are configured as inputs

LOOP:
CPL P1.0 ;Pin P1.0 state is inverted
LCALL Delay ;Time delay
SJMP LOOP

Delay:
MOV R2,#20 ;500 ms time delay
F02: MOV R1,#50 ;25 ms
F01: MOV R0,#230
DJNZ R0,$
DJNZ R1,F01
DJNZ R2,F02
END ;End of program
Using Watch-dog Timer

This example describes how the watch-dog timer should not operate. The watch-dog timer is properly adjusted (nominal time for
counting is 1024mS), but instruction used to reset it is intentionally left out so that this timer always "wins". As a result, the
microcontroller is reset (state in registers remains unchanged), program starts execution from the beginning and the number in register
R3 is incremented by 1 and then copied to port P1.

LEDs display this number in binary format...

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : WatchDog.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : After watch-dog reset, program increments number in
;* register R3 and shows it on port P1 in binary format.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES
$MOD53
$TITLE(WATCHDOG.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

WMCON DATA 96H


WDTEN EQU 00000001B ; Watch-dog timer is enabled
PERIOD EQU 11000000B ; Nominal Watch-dog period is set to be 1024ms

;RESET VECTOR
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

CSEG
ORG 100H

XRESET: ORL WMCON,#PERIOD ; Define Watch-dog period


ORL WMCON,#WDTEN ; Watch-dog timer is enabled

MOV A,R3 ; R3 is moved to port 1


MOV P1,A
INC R3 ; Register R3 is incremented by 1

LAB: SJMP LAB ; Wait for watch-dog reset

END ; End of program


Timer T0 in mode 1

This program spends most of its time in an endless loop waiting for timer T0 to count up a full cycle. When it happens, an interrupt is
generated, routine TIM0_ISR is executed and logic zero (0) on port P1 is shifted right by one bit. This is another way of demonstrating
the operating speed of the microcontroller since each shift means that counter T0 has counted up 216 pulses!

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Tim0Mod1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program rotates "0" on port 1. Timer T0 in mode 1 is
;* used
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIM0MOD1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

;STACK

DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 00BH
JMP TIM0_ISR ; Timer T0 reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV TMOD,#01H ; MOD1 is selected
MOV A,#0FFH
MOV P1,#0FFH
SETB TR0 ; Timer T0 is enabled
MOV IE,#082H ; Interrupt enabled
CLR C
LOOP1: SJMP LOOP1 ; Remain here

TIM0_ISR: RRC A ; Rotate accumulator A through Carry flag


MOV P1,A ; Contents of accumulator A is moved to PORT1
RETI ; Return from interrupt

END ; End of program


Timer T0 in Split mode

Similarly to the previous example, the program spends most of its time in a loop called LOOP1. Since 16-bit Timer T0 is split into two
8-bit timers, there are also two interrupt sources.

The first interrupt is generated after timer T0 reset. Routine TIM0_ISR in which logic zero (0) bit on port P1 rotates is executed.
Outside looking, it seems that LEDs move.

Another interrupt is generated upon Timer T1 reset. Routine TIM1_ISR in which the bit state DIRECTION inverts is executed. Since
this bit determines direction of bit rotation then the moving direction of LED is also changed.
If you press a push button T1 at some point, a logic zero (0) on the P3.2 output will disable Timer T1.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Split.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Timer TL0 rotates bit on port P1, while TL1 determines
;* the rotation direction. Both timers operate in mode
;* 3. Logic zero (0) on output P3.2 disables rotation on port P1.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(SPLIT.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

BSEG AT 0

;DECLARATION OF BIT-VARIABLES

SEMAPHORE: DBIT 8
DIRECTION BIT SEMAPHORE

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS

CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector
ORG 00BH

JMP TIM0_ISR ; Timer T0 reset vector

ORG 01BH
JMP TIM1_ISR ; Timer T1 reset vector

ORG 100H
XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer
MOV TMOD,#00001011B ; Define MOD3
MOV A,#0FFH
MOV P1,#0FFH
MOV R0,#30D
SETB TR0 ; TL0 is turned on
SETB TR1 ; TL1 is turned on
MOV IE,#08AH ; Interrupt enabled
CLR C
CLR DIRECTION ; Rotate to the right

LOOP1: SJMP LOOP1 ; Remain here

TIM0_ISR:
DJNZ R0,LAB3 ; Slow down rotation by 256 times
JB DIRECTION,LAB1
RRC A ; Rotate contents of Accumulator to the right through
; Carry flag

SJMP LAB2
LAB1: RLC A ; Rotate contents of Accumulator to the left through
; Carry flag
LAB2: MOV P1,A ; Contents of Accumulator is moved to port P1
LAB3: RETI ; Return from interrupt

TIM1_ISR:
DJNZ R1,LAB4 ; Slow down direction of rotation by 256 times
DJNZ R2,LAB4 ; When time expires, change rotation direction
CPL SMER
MOV R2,#30D
LAB4: RETI
END ; End of program
Simultaneous use of timers T0 and T1

This program can be considered as continuation of the previous one. They share the same idea, but in this case true timers T0 and T1
are used. In order to demonstrate the operation of both timers on the same port at the same time, timer T0 reset is used to shift logic
zero (0) on the port, while Timer T1 reset is used to change rotation direction. This program spends most of its time in the loop
LOOP1 waiting for an interrupt to be caused by reset. By checking the DIRECTION bit, information on rotation direction of both bits
in accumulator as well as of moving port LED is obtained.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Tim0Tim1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Timer TO rotates bit on port P1 while Timer1
;* changes rotation direction. Both timers are configured to operate in mode 1.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIM0TIM1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

BSEG AT 0

;DECLARATION OF BIT-VARIABLES

SEMAPHORE: DBIT 8
DIRECTION BIT SEMAPHORE

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 00BH ; Timer 0 Reset vector


JMP TIM0_ISR

ORG 01BH ; Timer 1 Reset vector


JMP TIM1_ISR

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV TMOD,#11H ; Select MOD1 for both timers
MOV A,#0FFH
MOV P1,#0FFH
MOV R0,#30D ; R0 is initialized
SETB TR0 ; TIMER0 is turned on
SETB TR1 ; TIMER1 is turned on
MOV IE,#08AH ; Timer0 and Timer1 Interrupt enabled
CLR C
CLR DIRECTION ; Rotate to the right

LOOP1: SJMP LOOP1 ; Remain here

TIM0_ISR:
JB DIRECTION,LAB1
RRC A ; Rotate contents of accumulator to the right through
; Carry flag
SJMP LAB2
LAB1: RLC A ; Rotate contents of Accumulator to the left through
; Carry flag
LAB2: MOV P1,A ; Contents of Accumulator is moved to port P1
RETI ; Return from interrupt

TIM1_ISR:
DJNZ R0,LAB3 ; When time expires, change rotation direction
CPL DIRECTION
MOV R0,#30D ; Initialize R0
LAB3:
RETI
END ; End of program
Using Timer T2

This example describes the use of Timer T2 configured to operate in Auto-Reload mode. In this very case, LEDs are connected to port
P3 while the push button used for forced timer reset (T2EX) is connected to the P1.1 pin.

Program execution is similar to the previous examples. When timer ends counting, an interrupt is enabled and subroutine TIM2_ISR is
executed, thus rotating a logic zero (0) in accumulator and moving the contents of accumulator to the P3 pin. At last, flags which
caused an interrupt are cleared and program returns to the loop LOOP1 where it remains until a new interrupt request arrives...
If push button T2EX is pressed, timer is temporarily reset. This push button resets timer, while push button RESET resets the
microcontroller.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Timer2.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program rotates log. "0" on port P3. Timer2 determines
;* the speed of rotation and operates in auto-reload mode
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(TIMER2.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

T2MOD DATA 0C9H


;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 02BH ; Timer T2 Reset vector


JMP TIM2_ISR

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV A,#0FFH
MOV P3,#0FFH
MOV RCAP2L,#0FH ; Prepare 16-bit auto-reload mode
MOV RCAP2L,#01H
CLR CAP2 ; Enable 16-bit auto-reload mod
SETB EXEN2 ; Pin P1.1 reset is enabled
SETB TR2 ; Enable Timer T2
MOV IE,#0A0H ; Interrupt is enabled
CLR C

LOOP1: SJMP LOOP1 ; Remain here

TIM2_ISR: RRC A ; Rotate contents of Accumulator to the right through


; Carry flag
MOV P3,A ; Move the contents of Accumulator A to PORT3
CLR TF2 ; Clear timer T2 flag TF2
CLR EXF2 ; Clear timer T2 flag EXF2
RETI ; Return from interrupt

END ; End of program


Using External Interrupt

Here is another example of interrupt execution. An external iterrupt is generated when a logic zero (0) is present on pin P3.2 or P3.3.
Depending on which input is active, one of two routines will be executed:

A logic zero (0) on the P3.2 pin initiates execution of interrupt routine Isr_Int0, thus incrementing number in register R0 and copying
it to port P0. Logic zero on the P3.3 pin initiates execution of subroutine Isr_Int1, number in register R1 is incremented by 1 and then
copied to port P1.
In short, each press on push buttons INT0 and INT1 will be counted and immediately shown in binary format on appropriate port
(LED which emitts light represents a logic zero (0)).

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Int.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Program counts interrupts INT0 generated by appearance of high-to-low
;* transition signal on pin P3.2 Result appears on port P0. Interrupts INT1 are also
;* counted up at the same time. They are generated byappearing high-to-low transition
;* signal on pin P3. The result appears on port P1.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(INT.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;RESET VECTORS

CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 003H ; Interrupt routine address for INT0


JMP Isr_Int0
ORG 013H ; Interrupt routine address for INT1
JMP Isr_Int1

ORG 100H
XRESET:
MOV TCON,#00000101B ; Interrupt INT0 is generated by appearing
; high-to-low transition signal on pin P3.2
; Interrupt INT0 is generated by appearing
; high-to-low transition signal on pin P3.3
MOV IE,#10000101B ; Interrupt enabled
MOV R0,#00H ; Counter starting value
MOV R1,#00H
MOV P0,#00H ; Reset port P0
MOV P1,#00H ; Reset port P1

LOOP: SJMP LOOP ; Remain here

Isr_Int0:
INC R0 ; Increment value of interrupt INT0 counter
MOV P0,R0
RETI

Isr_Int1:
INC R1 ; Increment value of interrupt INT1 counter
MOV P1,R1
RETI
END ; End of program
Using LED display

The following examples describe the use of LED displays. Common chatode displays are used here, which means that all built-in
LEDs are polarized in such a way that their anodes are connected to the microcontroller pins. Since the common way of thinking is
that logic one (1) turns something on and logic zero (0) turns something of, Low Current displays (low power consumption) and their
diodes (segments) are connected serially to resistors of relatively high resistance.
In order to save I/O pins, four LED displays are connected to operate in multiplex mode. It means that all segments having the same
name are connected to one output port each and only one display is active at a time.

Tranzistors and segmenats on displays are quickly activated, thus making impression that all digits are active simultaneously.

Writing digits on LED display

This program is a kind of “warming up” exerciese before real work starts. The purpose of this example is to display something on any
display. Multiplex mode is not used this time. Instead, digit 3 is displayed on only one of them (first one on the right).

Since the microcontroller “does not know” how we write number 3, a small subroutine called Disp is used (the microcontroller writes
this number as 0000 0011). This subroutine enables all decimal digits (0-9) to be displayed (masked). The principle of operation is
simple. A number to be displayed is added to the current address and program jump is executed. Different numbers require different
jump length. Precisely determined combination of zeroes and ones appears on each of these new locations (digit 1 mask, digit 2
mask...digit 9 mask). When this combination is transferred to the port, the display shows desired digit.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays number "3" on 7-segment LED display
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all segments on displays
MOV P3,#20h ; Activate display D4

LOOP:
MOV A,#03 ; Send number “3” to display
LCALL Disp ; Perform appropriate masking for the number
MOV P1,A
SJMP LOOP
Disp: ; Subroutine for displaying digits
INC A
MOVC A,@A+PC
RET
DB 3FH ; Digit 0 mask
DB 06H ; Digit 1 mask
DB 5BH ; Digit 2 mask
DB 4FH ; Digit 3 mask
DB 66H ; Digit 4 mask
DB 6DH ; Digit 5 mask
DB 7DH ; Digit 6 mask
DB 07H ; Digit 7 mask
DB 7FH ; Digit 8 mask
DB 6FH ; Digit 9 mask
END ; End of program
Writing and changing digits on LED display

This program is only an extended verson of the previous one. There is only one digit active- the first one on the right, and there is no
use of multiplexing. Unlike the previous example, all decimal numbers are displayed (0-9). In order to enable digits to change at
reasonable pace, a soubroutine L2 which causes a short time delay is executed prior to each change occurs. Basically, the whole
process is very simple and takes place in the main loop called LOOP which looks as follows:

1. R3 is copied to Accumulator and subroutine for masking digits Disp is executed;


2. Accumulator is copied to the port and displayed;
3. The contents of the R3 register is incremented;
4. It is checked whether 10 cycles are counted or not. If it is, register R3 is reset in order to enable counting to start from 0; and
5. Instruction labeled as L2 within subroutine is executed.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME: 7Seg2.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program writes numbers 0-9 on 7-segment LED display
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG2.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV R3,#0 ; Counter initial value
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#20h ; Activate display D4

LOOP:
MOV A,R3
LCALL Disp ; Perform appropriate masking for number in
; Accumulator
MOV P1,A
INC R3 ; Increment number in register by 1
CJNE R3,#10,L2 ; Check whether the number 10 is in R3
MOV R3,#0 ; If it is, reset counter
L2:
MOV R2,#20 ; 500 mS time delay
F02: MOV R1,#50 ; 25 mS
F01: MOV R0,#230
DJNZ R0,$
DJNZ R1,F01
DJNZ R2,F02
SJMP LOOP

Disp: ; Subroutine for writing digits


INC A
MOVC A,@A+PC
RET
DB 3FH ; Digit 0 mask
DB 06H ; Digit 1 mask
DB 5BH ; Digit 2 mask
DB 4FH ; Digit 3 mask
DB 66H ; Digit 4 mask
DB 6DH ; Digit 5 mask
DB 7DH ; Digit 6 mask
DB 07H ; Digit 7 mask
DB 7FH ; Digit 8 mask
DB 6FH ; Digit 9 mask

END ; End of program


Writing two-digit number on LED display
It is time for time multiplexing! This is the simplest example which displays the number 23 on two displays in such a way that one of
them displays units, while the other displays tens. The most important thing in the program is time synchronization. Otherwise,
everything is very simple. Transistor T4 enables display D4 and at the same time a bit combination corresponding to the digit 3 is set
on the port. After that, transistor T4 is disabled and the whole process is repeated using transistor T3 and display D3 in order to
display digit 2. This procedure must be continuosly repeated in order to make impression that both displays are active at the same
time.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME: 7Seg3.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays number "23" on 7-segment LED display
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG3.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H
XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer

LOOP: MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments


MOV P3,#20h ; Activate display D4
MOV A,#03 ; Write digit 3 on display D4
LCALL Disp ; Find appropriate mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all dislay segments
MOV P3,#10h ; Activate display D3
MOV A,#02 ; Write digit 2 on display D3
LCALL Disp ; Find mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
SJMP LOOP ; Return to the label LOOP

Disp: ; Subroutine for writing digits


INC A
MOVC A,@A+PC
RET
DB 3FH ; Digit 0 mask
DB 06H ; Digit 1 mask
DB 5BH ; Digit 2 mask
DB 4FH ; Digit 3 mask
DB 66H ; Digit 4 mask
DB 6DH ; Digit 5 mask
DB 7DH ; Digit 6 mask
DB 07H ; Digit 7 mask
DB 7FH ; Digit 8 mask
DB 6FH ; Digit 9 mask

END ; End of program


Using four digit LED display

In this example all four displays, instead of two, are active so that it is possible to write numbers from 0 to 9999. Here, the number 1
234 is displayed. After initialization, the program remains in the loop LOOP where digital multiplexing is performed. The subroutine
Disp is used to convert binary numbers into corresponding combinations of bits for the purpose of activating display lighting
segments.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg5.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Program displays number"1234" on 7-segment LED display
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG5.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


LOOP: MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#20h ; Activate display D4
MOV A,#04 ; Write digit 4 on display D4
LCALL Disp ; Find mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#10h ; Activate display D3
MOV A,#03 ; Write digit 3 on display D3
LCALL Disp ; Find mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#08h ; Activate display D2
MOV A,#02 ; Write digit 2 on display D2
LCALL Disp ; Find mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#04h ; Activate display D1
MOV A,#01 ; Write digit 1 on display D1
LCALL Disp ; Find mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Put the mask on the port
SJMP LOOP ; Return to the lable LOOP

Disp: ; Subroutine for writing digits


INC A
MOVC A,@A+PC
RET
DB 3FH ; Digit 0 mask
DB 06H ; Digit 1 mask
DB 5BH ; Digit 2 mask
DB 4FH ; Digit 3 mask
DB 66H ; Digit 4 mask
DB 6DH ; Digit 5 mask
DB 7DH ; Digit 6 mask
DB 07H ; Digit 7 mask
DB 7FH ; Digit 8 mask
DB 6FH ; Digit 9 mask

END ; End of program


LED display as a two digit counter

Things are getting complicated... In addition to two digit multiplexing, the microcontroller also performs other operations. In this
example, contents of registers R2 and R3 are incremented in order to display number counting (97, 98, 99, 00, 01, 02...).

This time, transistors which activate displays remain turned on for 25mS. The soubroutine Delay is in charge of that. Even though
digits shift much slower now, it is still not slow enough to make impression of simultaneous operation. After both digits of a number
blink for 20 times, the number on displays is incremented by 1 and the whole procedure is repeated.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : 7Seg4.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Program displays numbers 0-99 on 7-segment LED displays
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(7SEG4.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Define Stack pointer


MOV R2,#0 ; Counter starting value
MOV R3,#0
MOV R4,#0

LOOP: INC R4 ;Wait for display to be "refreshed" for 100 times


CJNE R4,#20d,LAB1 ;before incrementing the counter
MOV R4,#0
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
INC R2 ; Increment Register containing units by 1
CJNE R2,#10d,LAB1
MOV R2,#0 ; Reset units
INC R3 ; Increment Register with tens by 1
CJNE R3,#10d,LAB1 ;
MOV R3,#0 ; Reset tens

LAB1:
MOV P3,#20h ; Activate display D4
MOV A,R2 ; Copy Register containing units to A
LCALL Disp ; Call mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Write units on display D4
LCALL Delay ; 25ms delay
MOV P1,#0 ; Turn off all display segments
MOV P3,#10h ; Activate display D3
MOV A,R3 ; Copy Register contaning tens to A
LCALL Disp ; Call mask for that digit
MOV P1,A ; Write tens on display D3
LCALL Delay ; 25ms delay
SJMP LOOP

Delay:
MOV R1,#50 ; 5 ms delay
F01: MOV R0,#250
DJNZ R0,$
DJNZ R1,F01
RET

Disp: ; Subroutine for displaying digits


INC A
MOVC A,@A+PC
RET
DB 3FH ; Digit 0 mask
DB 06H ; Digit 1 mask
DB 5BH ; Digit 2 mask
DB 4FH ; Digit 3 mask
DB 66H ; Digit 4 mask
DB 6DH ; Digit 5 mask
DB 7DH ; Digit 6 mask
DB 07H ; Digit 7 mask
DB 7FH ; Digit 8 mask
DB 6FH ; Digit 9 mask

END ; End of program


Handling EEPROM

This program writes data to on-chip EEPROM memory. In this case, the data is a hexadecimal number 23 which is to be written to the
location with address 00.

To make sure that this number is correctly written, the same location of EEPROM is read 10mS later in order to compare these two
numbers. If they match, F will be displayed. Otherwise, E will be displayed on the LED display (Error).

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME: EEProm1.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Programming EEPROM at address 0000hex and displaying message
;* on LED display.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(EEPROM1.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

WMCON DATA 96H


EEMEN EQU 00001000B ; Access to internal EEPROM is enabled
EEMWE EQU 00010000B ; Write to EEPROM is enabled
TEMP DATA 030H ; Define Auxiliary register

THE END EQU 071H ; Display "F"


ERROR EQU 033H ; Display "E"

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV IE,#00 ; All interrupts are disabled


MOV SP,#STACK_START

MOV DPTR,#0000H ; Choose location address in EEPROM


ORL WMCON,#EEMEN ; Access to EEPROM is enabled
ORL WMCON,#EEMWE ; Write to EEPROM is enabled
MOV TEMP,#23H ; Number written to EEPROM is moved to
MOV A,TEMP ; register TEMP and Accumulator
MOVX @DPTR,A ; Write byte to EEPROM
CALL DELAY ; 10ms delay
MOVX A,@DPTR ; Read the same location and compare to TEMP,
CJNE A,TEMP,ERROR ; If they don't match, jump to label ERROR
MOV A,#KRAJ ; Display F (correct)
MOV P1,A
XRL WMCON,#EEMWE ; Write to EEPROM is disabled
XRL WMCON,#EEMEN ; Access to EEPROM is disabled
LOOP1: SJMP LOOP1 ; Remain here

ERROR: MOV A,#ERROR ; Display E (error)


MOV P1,A
LOOP2: SJMP LOOP2

DELAY: MOV A,#0AH ; Delay


MOV R3,A
LOOP3: NOP
LOOP4: DJNZ B,LOOP4
LOOP5: DJNZ B,LOOP5
DJNZ R3,LOOP3
RET

END ; End of program


Data reception via UART

In order to enable successful UART serial communication, it is necessary to meet specific rules of the RS232 standard. It primarily
refers to voltage levels required by this standard. Accordingly, -10V stands for logic one (1) in the message, while +10V stands for
logic zero (0). The microcontroller converts accurately data into serial format, but its power supply voltage is only 5V. Since it is not
easy to convert 0V into 10V and 5V into -10V, this operation is on both transmit and receive side left to a specialized IC circuit. Here,
the MAX232 by MAXIM is used because it is widespread, cheap and reliable.

This example shows how to receive message sent by a PC. Timer T1 generates boud rate. Since the 11.0592 MHz quartz crystal is
used here, it is easy to obtain standard baud rate which amouts to 9600 bauds. Each received data is immediately transferred to port P1
pins.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : UartR.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Each data received from PC via UART appears on the port
;* P1.
;*
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(UARTR.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector
ORG 023H ; Starting address of UART interrupt routine
JMP IR_SER

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV IE,#00 ; All interrupts are disabled


MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Initialization of Stack pointer
MOV TMOD,#20H ; Timer1 in mode2
MOV TH1,#0FDH ; 9600 baud rate at the frequency of
; 11.0592MHz
MOV SCON,#50H ; Receiving enabled, 8-bit UART
MOV IE,#10010000B ; UART interrupt enabled
CLR TI ; Clear transmit flag
CLR RI ; Clear receive flag
SETB TR1 ; Start Timer1

LOOP: SJMP LOOP ; Remain here

IR_SER: JNB RI,OUTPUT ; If any data is received,


; move it to the port
MOV A,SBUF ; P1
MOV P1,A
CLR RI ; Clear receive flag
OUTPUT RETI

END ; End of program


Data transmission via UART

This program describes how to use UART to transmit data. A sequence of numbers (0-255) is transmitted to a PC at 9600 baud rate.
The MAX 232 is used as a voltage regulator.

;************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : UartS.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION: Sends values 0-255 to PC.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(UARTS.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;STACK
DSEG AT 03FH
STACK_START: DS 040H

;RESET VECTORS
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

ORG 100H

XRESET: MOV IE,#00 ; All interrupts are disabled


MOV SP,#STACK_START ; Initialization of Stack pointer
MOV TMOD,#20H ; Timer1 in mode 2
MOV TH1,#0FDH ; 9600 baud rate at the frequency of
; 11.0592MHz
MOV SCON,#40H ; 8-bit UART
CLR TI ; Clear transmit bit
CLR RI ; Clear receive flag
MOV R3,#00H ; Reset caunter
SETB TR1 ; Start Timer 1

START: MOV SBUF,R3 ; Move number from counter to a PC


LOOP1: JNB TI,LOOP1 ; Wait here until byte transmission is
; complete
CLR TI ; Clear transmit bit
INC R3 ; Increment the counter value by 1

CJNE R3,#00H,START ; If 255 bytes are not sent return to the


; label START

LOOP: SJMP LOOP ; Remain here

END ; End of program


Writing message on LCD display

This example uses the most frequently used type of LCD which displays text in two lines with 16 characters each. In order to save I/O
ports, only 4 pins are used for communication here. In this way each byte is transmitted in two steps: first higher then lower nible.

LCD needs to be initialized at the beginning of the program. Besides, parts of the program which repeat in the program create special
subroutines. All this may seem extremely complicated, but the whole program basically performs several simple operations and
displays ”Mikroelektronika Razvojni sistemi”.
*************************************************************************
;* PROGRAM NAME : Lcd.ASM
;* DESCRIPRTION : Program for testing LCD display. 4-bit communication
;* is used. Program does not check BUSY flag but uses program delay
;* between 2 commands. PORT1 is used for connection
;* to the microcontroller.
;************************************************************************

;BASIC DIRECTIVES

$MOD53
$TITLE(LCD.ASM)
$PAGEWIDTH(132)
$DEBUG
$OBJECT
$NOPAGING

;Stack
DSEG AT 0E0h
Stack_Start: DS 020h

Start_address EQU 0000h

;Reset vectors
CSEG AT 0
ORG Start_address
JMP Inic

ORG Start_address+100h

MOV IE,#00 ; All interrupts are disabled


MOV SP,#Stack_Start

Inic: CALL LCD_inic ; Initialize LCD

;*************************************************
;* MAIN PROGRAM
;*************************************************

START: MOV A,#80h ; Next character will appear on the first


CALL LCD_status ; location in the first line of LCD display.
MOV A,#'M' ; Display character ‘M’.
CALL LCD_putc ; Call subroutine for character transmission.
MOV A,#'i' ; Display character ‘i’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'k' ; Display character ‘k’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'r' ; Display character ‘r’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'o' ; Display character ‘o’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'e' ; Display character ‘e’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'l' ; Display character ‘l’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'e' ; Display character ‘e’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'k' ; Display character ‘k’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'t' ; Display character ‘t’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'r' ; Display character ‘r’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'o' ; Display character ‘o’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'n' ; Display character ‘n’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'i' ; Display character ‘i’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'k' ; Display character ‘k’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'a' ; Display character ‘a’.
CALL LCD_putc

MOV A,#0c0h ; Next character will appear on the first


CALL LCD_status ; location in the second line of LCD display.
MOV A,#'R' ; Display character ‘R’.
CALL LCD_putc ; Call subroutine for character transmission.
MOV A,#'a' ; Display character ‘a’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'z' ; Display character ‘z’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'v' ; Display character ‘v’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'o' ; Display character ‘o’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'j' ; Display character ‘j’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'n' ; Display character ‘n’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'i' ; Display character ‘i’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#' ' ; Display character ‘ ’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'s' ; Display character ‘s’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'i' ; Display character ‘i’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'s' ; Display character ‘s’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'t' ; Display character ‘t’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'e' ; Display character ‘e’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'m' ; Display character ‘m’.
CALL LCD_putc
MOV A,#'i' ; Display character ‘i’.
CALL LCD_putc

MOV R0,#20d ; Wait time (20x10ms)


CALL Delay_10ms ;
MOV DPTR,#LCD_DB ; Clear display
MOV A,#6d ;
CALL LCD_inic_status ;
MOV R0,#10d ; Wait time(10x10ms)
CALL Delay_10ms
JMP START

;*********************************************
;* Subroutine for wait time (T= r0 x 10ms)
;*********************************************

Delay_10ms: MOV R5,00h ; 1+(1+(1+2*r7+2)*r6+2)*r5 approximately


MOV R6,#100d ; (if r7>10)
MOV R7,#100d ; 2*r5*r6*r7
DJNZ R7,$ ; $ indicates current instruction.
DJNZ R6,$-4
DJNZ R5,$-6
RET

;**************************************************************************************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_inic
;* DESCRIPTION: Subroutine for LCD initialization.
;*
;* (is used with 4-bit interface, under condition that pins DB4-7 on LCD
;* are connected to pins PX.4-7 on microcontroller’s ports, i.e. four higher
;* bits on the port are used).
;*
;* NOTE: It is necessary to define port pins for controlling LCD operation:
;* LCD_enable, LCD_read_write, LCD_reg_select,similar to port for connection to LCD.
;* It is also necessary to define addresses for the first character in each
;* line.
;**************************************************************************************

LCD_enable BIT P1.3 ; Bit for activating pin E on LCD.


LCD_read_write BIT P1.1 ; Bit for activating pin RW on LCD.
LCD_reg_select BIT P1.2 ; Bit for activating pin RS on LCD.
LCD_port SET P1 ; Port for connection to LCD.
Busy BIT P1.7 ; Port pin on which Busy flag appears.

LCD_Start_I_red EQU 00h ; Address of the first message character


; in the first line of LCD display.
LCD_Start_II_red EQU 40h ; Address of the first message character
; in the second line of LCD display.

LCD_DB: DB 00111100b ; 0 -8b, 2/1 lines, 5x10/5x7 format


DB 00101100b ; 1 -4b, 2/1 lines, 5x10/5x7 format
DB 00011000b ; 2 -Display/cursor shift, right/left
DB 00001100b ; 3 -Display ON, cursor OFF, cursor blink off
DB 00000110b ; 4 -Increment mode, display shift off
DB 00000010b ; 5 -Display/cursor home
DB 00000001b ; 6 -Clear display
DB 00001000b ; 7 -Display OFF, cursor OFF, cursor blink off
LCD_inic: ;*****************************************

MOV DPTR,#LCD_DB

MOV A,#00d ; Triple initialization in 8-bit


CALL LCD_inic_status_8 ; mode is performed at the beginning
MOV A,#00d ; (in case of slow increment of
CALL LCD_inic_status_8 ; power supply when the power supply is on
MOV A,#00d
lcall LCD_inic_status_8

MOV A,#1d ; Change from 8-bit into


CALL LCD_inic_status_8 ; 4-bit mode
MOV A,#1d
CALL LCD_inic_status

MOV A,#3d ; As from this point the program executes in


;4-bit mode
CALL LCD_inic_status
MOV A,#6d
CALL LCD_inic_status
MOV A,#4d
CALL LCD_inic_status

RET

LCD_inic_status_8:
;******************************************
PUSH B

MOVC A,@A+DPTR
CLR LCD_reg_select ; RS=0 - Write command
CLR LCD_read_write ; R/W=0 - Write data on LCD

MOV B,LCD_port ; Lower 4 bits from LCD port are memorized


ORL B,#11110000b
ORL A,#00001111b
ANL A,B

MOV LCD_port,A ; Data is moved from A to LCD port


SETB LCD_enable ; high-to-low transition signal
; is generated on the LCD's EN pin
CLR LCD_enable

MOV B,#255d ; Time delay in case of improper reset


DJNZ B,$ ; during initialization
DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$

POP B
RET

LCD_inic_status:
;****************************************************************************
MOVC A,@A+DPTR
CALL LCD_status
RET

;****************************************************************************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_status
;* DESCRIPTION: Subroutine for defining LCD status.
;****************************************************************************

LCD_status: PUSH B
MOV B,#255d
DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$
CLR LCD_reg_select ; RS=O: Command is sent to LCD
CALL LCD_port_out

SWAP A ; Nibles are swapped in accumulator

DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$
DJNZ B,$
CLR LCD_reg_select ; RS=0: Command is sent to LCD
CALL LCD_port_out

POP B
RET

;****************************************************************************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_putc
;* DESCRIPTION: Sending character to be displayed on LCD.
;****************************************************************************

LCD_putc: PUSH B
MOV B,#255d
DJNZ B,$
SETB LCD_reg_select ; RS=1: Character is sent to LCD
CALL LCD_port_out

SWAP A ; Nibles are swapped in accumulator


DJNZ B,$
SETB LCD_reg_select ; RS=1: Character is sent to LCD

CALL LCD_port_out
POP B
RET

;****************************************************************************
;* SUBROUTINE: LCD_port_out
;* DESCRIPTION: Sending commands or characters on LCD display
;****************************************************************************

LCD_port_out: PUSH ACC


PUSH B
MOV B,LCD_port ; Lower 4 bits of LCD port are memorized
ORL B,#11110000b
ORL A,#00001111b
ANL A,B

MOV LCD_port,A ; Data is copied from A to LCD port

SETB LCD_enable ; high-to-low transition signal


; is generated on the LCD's EN pin
CLR LCD_enable

POP B
POP ACC
RET

END ; End of program


Binary to decimal number conversion

When using LED and LCD displays, it is often necessary to convert numbers from binary to decimal. For example, if some register
contains a number in binary format that should be displayed on a three digit LED display it is first necessary to convert it to decimal
format. In other words, it is necessary to define what should be displayed on the most right display (units), middle display (tens) and
most left display (hundreds).

The subroutine below performs conversion of one byte. Binary number is stored in the accumulator, while digits of that number in
decimal format are stored in registers R3, R2 and accumulator (units, tens and hundreds, respectively).

;************************************************************************
;* SUBROUTINE NAME : BinDec.ASM
;* DESCRIPTION : Content of accumulator is converted into three decimal digits
;************************************************************************

BINDEC: MOV B,#10d ; Store decimal number 10 in B


DIV AB ; A:B. Remainder remains in B
MOV R3,B ; Move units to register R3
MOV B,#10d ; Store decimal number 10 in B
DIV AB ; A:B. Remainder remains in B
MOV R2,B ; Move tens to register R2
MOV B,#10d ; Store decimal number 10 in B
DIV AB ; A:B. Remainder remains in B
MOV A,B ; Move hundreds to accumulator
RET ; Return to the main program

Previous Chapter | Table of Contents | Next Chapter

 
Chapter 7 : Development systems
• 7.1 At the end - from the beginning...
• 7.2 Easy8051A Development system

7.1 At the end - from the beginning...

What is always the most difficult thing to do? You have bought the microcontroller, you have learned everything about its circuits and
registers, you have a great idea how to apply all your knowledge in practice. But the most difficult thing to do is to start...

How to start working?

A microcontroller is a good-natured “genie in the bottle” and no extra knowledge is required to use it.

In order to create a device controlled by the microcontroller, it is necessary to provide the simplest PC, program for compiling and
simple device to transfer the code from PC to the chip itself.

Even though the whole process is quite logical, there are often some queries, not because it is complicated, but for numerous
variations. Let’s take a look.

Writing program in assembly language

In order to write a program for the microcontroller, a specialized program in the Windows environment may be used. It may, but it
does not have to... When using such a software, there are numerous tools which facilitate the operation (simulator tool comes first),
which is an obvious advantage. But there is also another ways to write a program. Basically, text is the only thing that matters. Any
program for text processing can be used for this purpose. The point is to write all instructions in such an order they should be executed
by the microcontroller, observe the rules of assembly language and write instructions exactly as they are defined. In other words, you
just have to follow the program idea. That’s all!

;RESET VECTOR
CSEG AT 0
JMP XRESET ; Reset vector

CSEG
ORG 100H

XRESET: ORL WMCON,#PERIOD ; Define Watch-dog period


ORL WMCON,#WDTEN ; Watch-dog timer is enabled

To enable the compiler to operate successfully, it is necessary that a document containing this program has the extension, .asm in its
name, for example: Program asm.

When a specialized program (mplab) is used, this extension will be automatically added. If any other program for text processing
(Notepad) is used then the document should be saved and renamed. For example: Program.txt -> Program.asm. This procedure is not
necessarily performed. The document may be saved in original format while its text may be copied to the programmer for further use.

Compiling a program

The microcontroller “does not undrestand” assembly language as such. That is why it is necessary to compile the program into
machine language. It is more than simple when a specialized program (mplab) is used because a compiler is a part of the software. Just
one click on the appropriate icon solves the problem and a new document with .hex extension appears. It is actually the same program,
only compiled into machine language which the microcontroller perfectly understands. Such documentation is commonly named “hex
code” and seemingly represents a meaningless sequence of numbers in hexadecimal number system.

:03000000020100FA1001000075813F
7590FFB29012010D80F97A1479D40
90110003278589EAF3698E8EB25B
A585FEA2569AD96E6D8FED9FAD
AF6DD00000001FF255AFED589EA
F3698E8EB25BA585FEA2569AD96
DAC59700D00000278E6D8FED9FA
DAF6DD00000001FF255AFED8FED
9FADAF6DD000F7590FFB29013278
E6D8FED9FADAF6DD00000001FF2
55AFED589EAF3698E8EB25BA585
FEA2569AD96DAC59D9FADAF6D
D00000001FF255AFED8FED9FADA
F6DD000F7590FFB29013278E6D82
78E6D8FED9FA589EAF3698E8EB2
5BA585FEA2569AD96DAF6DD000
00001FF2DAF6DD00000001FF255A
ADAF6DD00000001FF255AFED8FE
D9FA

In the event that other software for program writing in assembly language is used, a special software for compiling the program must
be installed and used as follows - set up the compiler, open the document with .asm extension and compile. The result is the same- a
new document with extension .hex. The only problem now is that it is stored in your PC.

Programming a microcontroller
In order to transfer a “hex code” to the microcontroller, it is necessary to provide a cable for serial communication and a special
device, called programmer, with software. There are several ways to do it.

A large number of programs and electronic circuits having this purpose can be found on the Internet. Do as follows: open hex code
document, set a few parameters and click the icon for compiling. After a while, a sequence of zeros and ones will be programmed into
the microcontroller through the serial connection cable and programmer hardware. What's left is to place the programmed chip into the
taget device. In the event that it is necessary to make some changes in the program, the previous procedure may be repeated an
unlimited number of times.

The end
or...?

This section briefly describes the use of MPLAB and programmer software developed by Mikroelektronika. Everything is very
simple...

Start the program Mikroelektronika Asm51 Console. The window appears...

...Open a new document: File -> New. Write your program or copy text...

... Save and name your document: File -> Save As... (Document name is limited to 8 characters!)

Finally, to compile program into HEX code select: Project -> Build or click the 'play' icon.

If everything works properly, the computer will respond with a short report.

The program is written and successfully compiled. All that's left is to dump the program to the microcontroller. For this purpose it is
necessary to have a software that takes the written and compiled program and passes it to the microcontroller.

Start the program 8051 Flash_setup.exe...


Program installation is performed as usually - just click Next, Accept, Next...

...and finally - Finish!

The program has been installed and ready for use. The settings are easily performed so that there is no need for additional explanations
(the type of the microcontroller, frequency and clock oscillator etc.).

• Connect the PC and programmer via a USB cable;


• Load the HEX code using command: File -> Load HEX; and
• Click the 'Write' push button and wait...

That’s all! The microcontroller is programmed and everything is ready for operation. If you are not satisfied, make some changes in
the program and repeat the procedure. Until when? Until you feel satisfied...

Development systems
A device which in the testing program phase can simulate any environment is called a development system. Apart from the
programmer, the power supply unit and the microcontroller’s socket, the development system contains elements for input pin
activation and output pin monitoring. The simplest version has every pin connected to one push button and one LED as well. A high
quality version has LED displays, LCD displays, temperature sensors and all other elements which can be supplied with the target
device. These peripherals can be connected to the MCU via miniature jumpers. In this way, the whole program may be tested in
practice during its development stage, because the microcontroller doesn't know or care whether its input is activated by a push button
or a sensor built in a real device.

7.2 Easy8051A Development System

The Easy8051A development system is a high-quality development system used for programming 8051 compatible microcontrollers
manufactured by Atmel. In addition to chip programming, this system enables all the parts of the program to be tested as it contains
most components which are normally built in real devices.

The Easy8051A development system consists of:

• Sockets for placing microcontrollers in (14, 16, 20 and 40- pin packages)
• Connector for external power supply (DC 12V)
• USB programmer
• Power Supply Selector (external or via USB cable)
• 8 Mhz Quartz Crystal Oscillator
• 32 LEDs for output pin state indication
• 32 push buttons for input pin activation
• Four 7-segment LED displays in multiplex mode
• Graphic LCD display
• Alphanumeric LCD display (4- or 8- bit mode)
• Connector and driver for serial communication RS232
• Digital thermometer DS1820
• 12- bit A/D converter (MCP3204)
• 12- bit D/A converter (MCP4921)
• Reference voltage source 4.096V (MCP1541)
• Multiple-pin connectors for direct access to I/O ports

The following text describes in short some circuits within this development system. It is rather illustration of its features than complete
manual. Besides, by learning about this device, one understands that microcontrollers and its tools are intended to everybody, not only
to the privileged.

Sockets
All microcontrollers manufactured by Atmel appear in a few standard DIP packages. In order to enable their programming using one
device, corresponding pins (having the same name) on sockets are connected in parallel. As a result, by being placed in the appropriate
socket, each microcontroller is automatically properly connected. Figure on the right shows a microcontroller in 40-pin package and
connection of one of its I/O pins (P1.5). As seen, the pin can be connected to an external device (connector PORT1), LED
(microswitch SW2), push button or resistor through connectors. In the last two cases, polarity of voltage is selected using on-board
jumpers.

Programmer

The purpose of the programmer is to transfer HEX code from PC to appropriate pins and provide regular voltage levels during chip
programming as well. For this development system, the programmer is built in it and should be connected to PC via USB cable. When
the process of programming is completed, pins used for it are automatically available for other application.
Development system power supply

There is a connector on the development board enabling commection to external power supply source (AC/DC, 8-16V). Besides,
voltage necessary for device operation can also be obtained from PC via USB cable. Jumper J5 is used for power supply selection.

8MHz
Oscillator

The EASY8051A development system has built-in oscillator used as a clock signal generator. The frequency of this oscillator is
stabilized by 8Hz quartz crystal. Besides, it is also possible to select internal RC oscillator during chip programming,.
LEDs for output pin state indication

Each I/O port pin is connected to one LED which enables visual indication of its logic state. In the event that the presence of directly
polarized LEDs and serial resistors is not acceptable in some applications, DIP switch SW2 enables them to be disconnected from the
port.
Push
buttons for input pin activation

Similar to LEDs, each I/O port pin is connected to one push button on the development board. It enables simple activation of input
pins. Jumper J6 is used for selecting voltage polarity (+ or -) brought to pins by pressing appropriate push button.

7-
segment LED displays
Being often applied in the industry, four high-performance LED displays set in multiplex mode belong to the development system.
Display segments are connected to the port P0 via resistors. Transistor drivers used for activating individual digits are connected to the
first four port P1 pins. It enables programs using 7-segment displays to be tested with minimum use of I/O ports. Similar to LEDs, DIP
switch SW2 enables transistor drivers to be disconnected from microcontroller pins.

LCD
displays

The EASY8051A development system provides connection to eather graphic or alphanumeric LCD display. Both types of displays are
connected by being placed into appropriate connector and by switching position of the jumper J8. If displays are not in use, all pins
used for their operation are available for other applications. Apart from connectors, there is also a potentiometer for contrast regulation
on the board.
Serial
communication via RS232

In order to enable programs using serial communication to be tested, the development system has built in standard 9-pin SUB-D
connector. The MAX232 is used as a voltage regulator.

Similar to other built-in circuits, electronics supporting serial communication can be enabled or disabled by using jumpers J9 and J10.
DS1820
Digital thermometer

Temperature measurement is one of the most common tasks of devices which operate in the industry. For this reason, there is a circuit
DS1820 on the EASY8051A development system which measures temperature in the range of -55 to +125oC with accuracy greater
than 0.50. Results of measurement are transferred via serial communication to the pins P3.3 or P2.7. Jumper J7 is used for selecting
pins for data reception. In the event that no jumper is installed, port pins are available for other applications.
12-bit A/D converter MCP3204

A built-in 12-bit AD Converter MCP3204 has four input channels connected to on-board connectors. Data are interchanged with the
microcontroller via SPI serial communication system using pins P1.5, P1.6, P1.7 and P3.5. If A/D converter is not in use, these pins
can be used for other applications (DIP switch SW1). In order to check operation, there is a potentiometer on the development board
used as a variable voltage source. It can be brought to the converter’s input pins using one of four jumpers J12. As a special
convenience, a reference voltage source MCP1541 (4,096V) is built in. Jumper J11 is used to select whether converter will use this
voltage or 5V.
12-bit
D/A converter MCP4921

Digital to analog conversion (D/A) is another operation ofen performed by the microcontroller in practice. For this reason, there is a
special on-board chip which interchanges data with the microcontroller via SPI communication system. It can also generate analog
voltage in 12-bit resolution on its output pin. When it is not in use, all microcontroller pins are available for other applications using
DIP switch SW1. Similar to A/D converter, jumper J11 is used for selecting reference voltage.
Connectors for direct access to I/O ports

In order to enable microcontroller ports to be directly connected to additional components, each of them is connected to one on-board
connector. Besides, two pins of each connector are connected to power supply voltage while each pin can be connected to + or -
polarity of voltage via resistors (pull up or pull down resistors). Presence and connection of these resistors are determined by jumpers.
Jumper J3 which controls port P3 is shown in figure on the right.
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