Section 3.5, Fundamental of Transmission

Section 3.
5
NG SDH, MSPP, RPR , Principle of DWDM,
Synchronisation , FTTH, PON
Fundamental of Transmission Sec. 3.5
Next Generation SDH

1. Introduction:
Innovation, the lifeline to survival in the telecommunication market, has
spurred the telecommunication industry to adopt NGSDH as the most economic
and technologically feasible solution for transmitting voice & data over carrier
network. The new applications, mostly relying on data packet technology, offer
easy implementation and access to applications based on the Internet, Mobile,
Multimedia, DVB, SAN, Ethernet or VPN. The architectures are increasingly
demanding long haul transport that today can only be provided by SDH/SONET.
These technologies have a massive installed base, developed over recent
decades. SDH/SONET has now evolved, and is ready to adapt to the new traffic
requirements.
Next Generation SDH enables operators to provide more data transport
services while increasing the efficiency of installed SDH/SONET base, by adding
just the new edge nodes, sometime known as Multi Service Provisioning
Platforms (MSPP) / Multi Service Switching Platforms (MSSP), can offer a
Combination of data interfaces such as Ethernet, 8B/10B, MPLS(Multi Protocol
Label Switching) or RPR(Resilient Packet Ring), without removing those for
SDH/PDH. This means that it will not be necessary to install an overlap network or
migrating all the nodes or fiber optics. This reduces the cost per bit delivered, and
will attract new customers while keeping legacy services. In addition, in order to
make data transport more efficient, SDH/SONET has adopted a new set of
protocols that are being installed on the MSPP/MSPP nodes. These nodes can be
interconnected with the old equipment that is still running.
2. What is Next Generation SDH?
Following major issues that exist in the legacy SDH :
• Difficulty of mapping newer (Ethernet, ESCON, FICON, Fiber Channel etc)
services to the existing SDH transport network.
• Inefficient use of the transport network in delivering data services.
• Inability to increase or decrease available bandwidth to meet the needs of
data services without impacting traffic.
Three mature technologies—
2
BRBRAITT, Jabalpur, Issued in Nov. 2008
• Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041
• Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042
• Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707

-together in Next generation SDH solved the above issues and adding
three main features to traditional SDH:
1. Integrated Data Transport i.e. Ethernet tributaries in addition to 2Mb, 140

Mb, STM-1,4,16 ----GFP
2. Integrated non blocking, wide-band cross connect (2Mb granularity)

making the efficient use of the transport network in delivering data services ---
VCAT
3. Dynamic Bandwidth allocation,
Intelligence for topology discovery, route computation and mesh based

restoration------LCAS
migrating all the nodes or fiber optics. This reduces the cost per bit
delivered,
•
Fig. 1 Block Diagram of NGSDH
Next Generation SDH is Packet Friendly and have IP router like

capabilities. It does not matter if the client stream has constant or variable bit
rates.
3
“VCAT provides more granularity, LCAS provides more flexibility and

GFP efficiently transports asynchronous or variable bit rate data signals
over a synchronous or constant bit rate”.
Hence,
Next Generation SDH = Classic SDH + [GFP+VCAT+LCAS]
3.0 Components of Next Generation SDH:-

3.1 GENERIC FRAMING PROCEDURE (GFP):
Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), an all-purpose protocol for
encapsulating packet over SONET (POS), ATM, and other Layer 2 traffic on to
SONET/SDH networks. GFP is defined in ITU-T G.7041 along with virtual
concatenation and link capacity adjustment scheme (LCAS) transforms legacy
SDH networks to Next generation SDH networks.
GFP adds dynamism to legacy SDH. GFP is most economical way of

adopting high speed services, constant bit rate and variable bit rate, in SDH
networks and can provide basis for evolving RPR.
Customer Operator
Edge Adaptation Core
Ethernet S
Na GFP VC LCAS
D
H
?
tiv M
FICON e U
Generic Virtual Link SONET/
Int Frame Concatenation X/
erf Capacity D SDH/
ESCON Procedure Adjustment E OTN
ac
Scheme M
es U
FC X
Fibre LAPS
Channel
Fig. 2 Functional Model of GFP

There are actually two types of GFP mechanisms ;-
1. PDU-oriented known as Frame mapped GFP (GFP-F)
2. Block-code-oriented known as Transparent GFP (GFP-T)
4
1. GFP-F: -
GFP-F (Framed) is a layer 2 encapsulation in variable sized frames.

Optimised for data packet protocols such as DVD, PPP and Ethernet, MPLS etc
Frame mode supports rate adaptation and multiplexing at the packet/frame level
for traffic engineering. This mode maps entire client frame into one GFP frames of
constant length but gaps are discarded. The frame is stored first in buffer prior to
encapsulation to determine its length. This introduces delay and latency.
2. GFP-T:
GFP-T is useful for delay sensitive services. GFP-T (Transparent) is

a layer 1 encapsulation in constant sized frames. Optimized f or traffic based
on 8B/10B codification such as VoIP,DVB-ASI,1000BASE-T, SAN, Fibre Channel,
and ESCON.
vari
Ethernet GFP Et GFP GFP

GFP-FFP Frame
FP
h. Frame
FP
th
Frame by Frame
1 Ethernet I E I
E Frame DLE th. DLE th
Block by
Trans Trans Trans GFP
GFP-TFP parent
FP
parent
FP
parent
f
GFP GFP
GFP Header or IDLE frames
Fig. 3GFP-F & GFP-T
Transparent mode accepts native block mode data signals and uses SDH
frame merely as a lightweight digital wrapper. GFP-T is very good for isocronic or
delay sensitive protocols &SAN (ESCON). GFP-T is used for FC, Gigabit Ethernet
etc.
3.2 CONCATENATION (V-CAT & C-CAT) :
5
SDH concatenation consists of linking more than one VCs to each other to
obtain a rate that does not form part of standard rates. Concatenation is used to
transport pay loads that do not fit efficiently into standard set of VCs.
Two concatenation schemes are:
1. Contiguous concatenation
2. Virtual concatenation
Data Rates Efficiency w/o VC using VC
Ethernet (10M) VC3 20% VC-12-5v 

Fast Ethernet (100M) VC-4 67% VC-12-46v 
100% ESCON (200M) VC-4-4c 33% VC-3-4v 
Fibre Channel (800M) VC-4-16c 33% VC-4-6v  89%
Gigabit Ethernet (1G) VC-4-16c 42% VC-4-7v
E
VC-
46v
12-
100M STM-1
8x E1
= 64 x
C
V
1
2
5
v
-
-
C
V
2x 10M
1
2
5
v
-
Fig. 4 VCAT Efficiency
i. Contiguous concatenation:
The traditional method of concatenation is termed as contiguous. This

means that adjacent containers are combined and transported across the SDH
network as one container. Contiguous concatenation is a pointer based
concatenation. It consists of linking N number of VCs to each other in a logical
manner within the higher order entity i.e. VC4 and above. The concatenated VCs
remain in phase at any point of network. The disadvantage is that it requires
functionality at every N/E adding cost and complexity. Lower order VCs (VC-12,
VC3) concatenation is not possible in contiguous concatenation as shown in Fig.
ii. Virtual Concatenation:
6
Virtual concatenation maps individual containers in to a virtually

concatenated link. Any number of containers can be grouped together, which
provides better bandwidth granularity than using a contiguous method. It
combines a number of lower/higher order VCs (VC-12, VC3 & VC4 payload) that
form a larger concatenation Group, and each VC is treated as a member. 10 Mb
Ethernet would be made up of five VC-12s, creating these finely tuned SDH pipes
of variable capacities improve both, scalability and data handling/controlling ability
as per SLA (service level agreement).
The transport capacity with or without VC is shown in Fig. 4
VCs are routed individually and may follow different paths, within the
network, only the path originating and path terminating equipment need to
recognize and process the virtually concatenated signal structure as shown in Fig.
5
Transporting Concatenated Signals
Contiguous Concatenation
C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4 C-4 C-4
C-4 C-4 One Path C-4 C-4

NE NE
Core Network VC-4-4c
Virtual Concatenation
VC-4
Path 1 #1
Differential Delay
VC-4 VC-4 VC-4
#1 #1 #1
VC-4 VC-4
VC-4 #2
#2 #2
VC-4 VC-4-2v
Path 2 #2
Fig. 5 Virtual & Contiguous Concatenation
Virtual concatenation Benefits:
1. Use the same core NEs, modify only edge NEs.
2. Low investment and fast ROI (return on investment).
7
3. Efficient & scalable i.e. fine granularity and multi-path capability.
4. SDH gives best QoS, well engineered and reliable.

3.3 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme(LCAS):
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) is an emerging SONET/SDH
standard and is defined in ITU-T G.7042 having capability to dynamically change
the amount of bandwidth used in a virtually concatenated channel i.e. bandwidth
management flexibility. LCAS is bi-directional signaling protocol exchanged over
the overhead bytes, between Network Elements that continually monitors the link.
LCAS can dynamically change VCAT path sizes, as well as automatically recover
from path failures. LCAS is the key to provide “bandwidth on demand”.
LCAS enables the payload size of VCG (group of VCs) to be adjusted in real
time by adding or subtracting individual VCs, from VCG dynamically, without
incurring hits to active traffic. In LCAS, signalling messages are exchanged
between the two VCs end points to determine the number of concatenated
payloads and synchronize the addition/removal of SDH channels using LCAS
control packets.
Benefits of LCAS :-
A . Call by call bandwidth (Bandwidth on demand)
Customer
 rents a 6Mb Internet connection (VC-12-3v)
 calls to get additional 2Mb
Operator
 will provision additional VC-12 path
.and will hitless add it to existing connection via LCAS!
8
Network Management
VC-
NG LC NG
AS
+VC-12 ISP
Customer’s LAN Transport Network
Fig. 6 Bandwidth call by call

B. Bandwidth on Schedule
A customer is offered a fixed bandwidth of 100 Mb (VLAN) Ethernet,

allotting 46 VC-12 ( 0ne VC12 = 2.176 Mb x 46 = 100.1 Mb). Every night for one
hour additional 900 M ESCON service is provisioned by LCAS. New revenue
opportunity at low traffic hours.
10
100M 100M
0M NG
NG Transport Network
900M 900M
Location A Location
Fig. 7 Bandwidth on scheduled Time
LCAS is not only used for dynamic bandwidth adjustment but also for
survivability options for next generation SDH. LCAS is a tool to provide operators
with greater flexibility in provisioning of VCAT groups, adjusting their bandwidth in
service and provide flexible end-to-end protection options. LCAS is defined for all
high and low order payloads of SDH.
4. CONCLUSION
The biggest advantage of Next Generation SDH is that it allows network
operators to introduce new technology into their existing SDH networks by
replacing only the edge NEs. New technologies now allow service providers to
bring greater efficiency and flexibility to these existing networks for data transport.
9
With this capability, both TDM and packet oriented services are handled efficiently
on the same wavelength. Using GFP to map data services to the SONET/SDH
infrastructure is the first step in using this investment by making it data friendly.
The injection of VCAT further increases the value of the network by right-sizing
network capacity to match native data rates and using what otherwise would be
stranded bandwidth. VCAT’s capability to provide very granular bandwidth. The
addition of LCAS further enhances the value of VCAT by allowing service
providers to make bandwidth adjustments to meet customers’ changing needs in a
manner transparent to customers.
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Multi-service Provisioning Platform (M S P P)

MSPP is deployed in the boundary of Access and Metro core backbone. TEC
has prepared two different platforms for catering to the needs of the inter city and
intra equipment. The first platform is the STM-16 with the GFP-F, GFP-T
protocols and layer-2 switching functionality and caters to the need of inter-city
traffic. This platform also includes higher cross connect capability, and supports
EoS as per IEEE standards. The second platform is using Multi service
Provisioning Platform (MSPP), and caters to the need for the intra-city traffic
requirements.
The main application of this system shall be for multi-service traffic switching
and aggregation at MAC layer, traffic grooming and traffic consolidation of TDM
traffic at SDH layer from access network towards core network. Another
prominent application of MSPP shall be, multiple SDH ring inter connection at
STM1 tributary interfaces as well as at STM4 & 16 aggregate interfaces. The
equipment shall provide an integrated cross connect matrix to switch digital
signals at SDH layer.
The MSPP equipment shall be capable of simultaneously interfacing the PDH

streams and mapping / de-mapping into SDH payloads and vice-versa, thus
enabling the co-existence of SDH & PDH on the same equipment. This is the
greatest advantage for the network as SDH and PDH existing in the present
network can integrate easily which in turn enables quick bandwidth provisioning
to the customer.
MSPP is implemented with two different back haul transmission rates, viz.
STM-16 and STM-64. TEC has also been working on the STM-64 in BSNL Metro
networks. Apart from the standard interfaces on the tributary side, the revised
STM-16 provides POS (packet over SDH) capability on Ethernet interface at
10Mb,100 Mb, and 1000Mb. The equipment is also envisaged to support DS-3
of SONET. The encapsulation of Ethernet on SDH capability shall be in
accordance with ITU-T G.7041. the system should support Tandem Connection
Monitoring (TCM) on N1 byte and N2 byte for HO path & LO path respectively.
11
ADMs supporting GFP and VCAT are known as Multi Service Provisioning
Platform (MSPP). Service providers can now deliver packet based transport
services using existing SDH infrastructure. GFP and VCAT is located at the
endpoint s of the network, therefore MSPP need only be deployed at the edge of
the transport network. MSPP targets all application connecting ultra-high
capacity backbones to end customers at their premises. The advent of GFP has
created a spur of customer located equipment and MSPP cards that function as
aggregating Ethernet traffic onto SDH rings. The generic structure of a next
generation MSPP is shown in (fig1). This platform consists of the integration of
metro WDM with Ethernet /RPR and SDH VC-4 switching fabrics. Integration
means both direct inter working, in terms of WDM wavelengths, and full
NMS/control plane integration for management and path provisioning.
MSPP
MSPP MSPP
MSPP
Fig 1 MSPP Applications
12
Features of MSPP:
The major features of MSPP are as listed below:
1. Generic Framing Protocol-Frame (GFP-F)

2. Generic Framing Protocol-Transparent (GFP-T)
3. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS).
4. Virtual concatenation (V-CAT)
5. Layer 2 switching.
6. Integrated higher cross connect capability
7. Ethernet on SDH (EoS)
8. PoS capability on Ethernet interface
9. DS-3 tributary interface of SONET hierarchy
10. Support block code oriented payload (FICON)
11. ESCON (Enterprise system connection)
12. FC (Fiber Channel) at gigabit Ethernet interface
13. Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM) on N1 & N2 bytes
14. Multi service traffic switching
15. Traffic aggregation at MAC layer
16. Traffic grooming
17. Traffic consolidation of TDM traffic at SDH layer from access towards core
network.
18. Multiple SDH rings interconnection at STM-1tributary interfaces as well as at
STM-4/16 aggregate interfaces.
19. Interfacing the PDH streams (2Mb, 34Mb, 140Mb) and mapping / De-
mapping into SDH payloads and vice-versa.
Key Technologies
A key set of technologies for delivering client services efficiently via MSPP
are:
• Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041
• Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042
• Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707
13
VCAT is used to provide better data granularity, GFP is used to wrap the
data in a converged TDM network, & LCAS is used to dynamically allocate&
manage B/W.
14
Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)

Ethernet can be transported over SDH using one of the two possible
mechanism or a combination of both:-
1. SPRs
2. RPRs
Shared Protection Ring MSPPs supports SPRs to provide Ethernet and

packet transport over SDH infrastructure. The implementation of this technology
varies from vendors to vendors. It allows the provisioning of bandwidth on the
SDH ring for packet transport by statistical multiplexing Ethernet traffic on to a
shared packet ring (Circuit) that each MSPP node can access.
SPR technology is a precursor to true RPR. SPR processes

inherent deficiencies that limit the scalability of the SPR solution. At every node
on the SPR ring, a router or switch will process each packet which can be time
consuming for a large network rings. As a result Ethernet will have trouble
meeting the jitter and latency requirement for voice and video. Conventional SDH
has implemented improvements, such as VCAT and LCAS, to suite data
application. However, SDH transport creates point to point circuits that are not
particularly suited for data applications. SDH also reserves bandwidth for every
source on the ring and prevents nodes from claiming unused bandwidth.
Over few years demand for Internet protocol is growing at a fast

pace while voice demand is remaining more or less stable. Circuit switched voice
traffic has to be converted into packet switched data traffic. This does not match
with the present SDH technology. Protocols like Frame relay, ATM &PPP are
inefficient, costly and complex to scale the increasing demand for data services.
One of major advantages of RPR is that it protects existing

investments in fibre and other transmission infrastructure. Most of the metro area
fibre is ring based; therefore RPR will best utilising existing fibre facilities.
Moreover, apart from dark fibre, RPR can also operate over SDH or DWDM
equipment, allowing smooth and efficient migration.
RPR is a MAC layer, ring based protocol that combines intelligence of IP

routing and statistical multiplexing with the bandwidth efficiencies and resiliency of
optical rings. RPR network consist of two counter rotating fibre rings that are fully
utilized for transport at all times for superior fibre utilisation. RPR permits more
efficient use of bandwidth using statistical multiplexing. It also eliminates the need
for manual provisioning, because the architecture lends itself to the
15
implementation of automated provisioning. Moreover, there is no need for

channel provisioning as each ring member can communicate with every other
member based on MAC address. RPR also provides two priority queues at the
transmission level, which allow the delivery of delay and jitter sensitive application,
such as voice and video.
RPR is fibre based ring network architecture. Data is carried in packets

rather than over TDM circuits. RPR networks retain many of the performance
characteristics, such as protection, low latency and low jitter on SDH. RPR
architecture is highly scalable, very reliable and easy to manage in comparison to
legacy point to point topologies. RPR achieves a loop free topology across the
rings with rapid re-convergence on ring break. RPR supports auto discovery of
other RPR network elements on the ring. New RPR nodes announce themselves
to their direct neighbours with control messages and distribute changes in their
settings or topologies.
The emerging solution for metros data transport applications is

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR). RPR is a newly proposed standard of Ethernet
transport. The goal of RPR is to increase the manageability and resiliency of
Ethernet services while providing maximum capacity and usage over an
established SDH ring. It has two features:
1. Efficient Ring Topology
2. Less than 50 ms recovery time from fibre cut i.e. resilience.
RPR is originated from a protocol called dynamic packet transport (DPT).

RPR can be seen as a way towards simpler n/w architecture for packet transport
because management is centralized and controls both switching and transport.
Protection and restoration in transport layer (SDH or WDM) can be switched off
reducing cost and complexity. Next-generation SDH devices such as MSPPs
(multi-service provisioning platforms) are evolving to support RPR.
RPR is a dual ring network:

• packet based
• data and control traffic flow on both ringlets
• spatial re-use through destination stripping
• RPR is intended for use in MAN & WAN
• RPR is standardized as IEEE 802.17
• Defines a MAC protocol, introducing the concept of a transit path.
16
• physical layer agnostic
Fig. Resilient Protection Ring
RPR effectively transforms a chain of point-to-point SDH paths between

nodes to a single virtual shared medium. The shared transport ring created by
RPR can then be used over multiple SDH nodes to carry connection-oriented
transport services, and enable optimal and fair use of bandwidth for busty services
through highly efficient statistical multiplexing, overbooking and spatial reuse
transport mechanisms. RPR has many virtues of Ethernet like data efficiency,
simplicity and cost advantage. SDH & Ring topology is perfect match for each
other, but they are best suited for TDM n/w with circuit switched applications like
voice traffic. Each circuit is allocated fixed bandwidth that is wasted when not in
use.
RPR is a MAC protocol supporting dual counter rotating rings that can potentially
replace traditional SDH rings. RPR MAC introduces the concept of a transit path. At
each node on an RPR ring, traffic is not destined for the node, simply passes through,
avoiding the queuing and scheduling on a hop-by-hop basis.
17
Synchronisation
The role of synchronisation plan is to determine the distribution of
synchronisation in a network and to select the level of clocks and facilities to be
used to time the network. This involves the selection and location of master
clocks for a network, the distribution of primary and secondary timing through out
the network and an analysis of the network to ensure that acceptable
performance levels are achieved. Improper synchronisation planning or the lack
of planning can cause severe performance problems resulting in excessive slips,
long periods of network downtime, elusive maintenance problems or high
transmission error rates. Hence, a proper synchronisation plan which optimises
the performance, is a must for the entire digital network. The status of
synchronisation in the BSNL network is as follows :
3 nos. of cesium clocks at VSNL Bombay provide the Master National

Reference Clock (MNRC). The back up NRC is available at Delhi. The MNRC
feeds the reference signal to the VSNL GDS at Mumbai and from the GDS both
the new technology TAXs at Mumbai are synchronised. From these two TAXs at
Mumbai, all the other TAXs are to be synchronised. Part of this work has already
been done. However, all the Level–I TAXs are yet to be synchronised. A direct
synchronisation link is also available between GDS Mumbai and Karol Bagh TAX
at Delhi.
For synchroisation of the SDH network, it has been decided to use the
clock source available through the TAXs at the major stations. The
synchronisation plan is based upon provision of Synchronisation Supply Units
(SSUs) which will be deployed as an essential component of the synchronisation
network which will support synchronised operation of the SDH network. The
architecture employed in the SDH requires that the timing of all the network
clocks be traceable to Primary Reference Clock (PRC) specified in accordance
with ITU Rec.G.811. The classical method of synchronising network element
clocks is the hierarchical method (master–slave synchronisation) which is
already adopted in the BSNL network for the TAXs. This master–slave
synchronisation uses a hierarchy of clocks in which each level of the hierarchy is
synchronised with reference to a higher level, the highest level being the PRC.
The hierarchical level of clocks are defined by ITU as follows :
– P.R.C.
– Slave Clock (Transit Node)
– Slave Clock (Local Node)
– SDH Network Element Clock.
18
Architecture for Primary Rate Networks
19
SDH Equipment Clock
Each node is associated with a particular hierarchical level of clock

prescribed above and is referred to as a nodal clock. The SSU is an important
component of this hierarchical master–slave synchronisation network scheme
and of a slave clock belonging to the transit node level or the local node level as
defined in ITU Rec. G.812.
4.4 The BSNL, therefore, has decided to go in for 10–20 nos. of SSUs to
provide a clean reference primary source for other stations. These SSUs are
basically high stability filter clocks which eliminate phase transients, jitter and
wander and provide the exact sync. signal needed for every network element.
20
DWDM
1. Evolution of Transmission Capacity
In the 80’s, it was possible to transmit 140 Mbit/s with optical PDH
– systems. SDH technology in the 90’s has improved this capacity. SDH can
transmit the capacity of 16 times 140 Mbit/s or 155 Mbit/s (16 X STM 1 = STM
16, 2.5 Gbit/s) or up to 64 times 140 Mbit/s or 155 Mbit/s (64 X STM 1 = STM 64,
10 Gbit/s).
Currently, it is possible with WDM wavelength division multiplex
systems to transmit between 32 and 96 times 10 Gbit/s (320 Gbit/s) over very
large distances. Soon we will have 160 times 10 Gbit/s, and in the laboratory it is
possible to transmit in the terabit range (10 X 1012).
In the case of optical systems the available bandwidth can exceed several
Terahertz (1012Hz). TDM could not be used to take advantage of this tremendous
bandwidth due to limitations on electrical technology. Electrical circuits simply
cannot work on these frequencies.
The solution was to use frequency multiplexing at the optical level or
Wavelength Division Multiplexing. The basic idea is to use different optical
carriers or colours to transmit different signals in the same fibre.
Consider a highway analogy where one fibre can be thought of as a
multi-lane highway. Traditional TDM systems use a single lane of this highway
and increase capacity by moving faster on this single lane. In optical networking
utilizing DWDM is analogues to accessing the unused lanes on the highway
(increasing the number of wavelengths on the embedded fibre base) to gain
access to an incredible amount of untapped capacity in the fibre. An additional
benefit of optical networking is that the highway is blind to the type of traffic that
travels on it. Consequently the vehicles on the highway can carry ATM packets,
SDH and IP.
A distinction is made between WDM and DWDM (Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing).With WDM the spacing between channels can
be relatively large.
21
In Dense multiplexing the frequency spacing between channels can be as

small as 50 GHz or less, increasing the overall spectral density of the transmitted
signal.
#1
#2
TDM
# 3 #1 #2 #3 #4
#4 MUX
#1
f1
#2
f2 FDM
# 3
f3
#4 MUX f1 f2 f3 f4
f4
#1
λ1
#2
λ2 WDM
λ3 # 3
λ4 #4 MUX λ3 λ4
1 2
Fig. 1 Comparison between TDM, FDM and WDM techniques
2. Transmission Windows
Today, usually the second transmission window (around 1300 nm)
and the third and fourth transmission windows from 1530 to 1565 nm (also called
conventional band) and from 1565 to 1620 nm (also called Long Band) are used.
Technological reasons limit DWDM applications at the moment to the third and
fourth window. The losses caused by the physical effects on the signal due by the
type of materials used to produce fibres limit the usable wavelengths to between
1280 nm and 1650 nm. Within this usable range the techniques used to produce
22
the fibres can cause particular wavelengths to have more loss so we avoid the use
of these wavelengths as well.
0.4 nm
50 GHz
1510.0 nm 1528.77nm 1560.61 nm

198.6THz 196.10THz 192.1 THz
1480.0 nm
202.6THz
Fig.2. Wavelength Plan for 50 GHz Grid
3. Application Advantages
Optical networks are opening up new horizons for
telecommunication operators. Technologies such as wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM) and optical amplification are giving them a multitude of ways
to satisfy the exploding demand for capacity. New architectures will increase
network reliability and decrease the cost of bit rates and distance, therefore,
creating economic benefits for network operators and users alike. Based on
existing fibre optic backbone networks, the idea of an all optical network (AON) is
revolutionizing the structures of our communication networks. In short, optical
networks are the future of the information super highway. The biggest advantages
of such an optical network would be :
Properties Applications
Multiple use of fibres Ideal in cases of fibre shortage
Extremely high transport Multiple use of opt. amplifiers yielding
capacity at low cost decreased investments & maintenance costs.
Format and bitrate transparency Data, video and voice over a common N/w
23
4. Transponder Applications
A Transponder Terminal can be used to transmit a wide variety of signal types,
like SDH, ATM or PDH signals.
The Transponder adapts to the arbitrary bit rate of the incoming optical
signal, and maps its wavelength to the chosen WDM channel. Its main function is
OEO. It converts wavelength (say 1550 nm) coming from user equipment to
electrical signal and electrical signal is converted into optical signal of a specific
wavelength, which forms an optical channel for particular user.
Optical transparency yields a multitude of new application options and enables
network operators to utilize existing network resources in a far more flexible
manner. It provides major advantages such as :
• Greatly enhanced transmission capacity.
• New services offered.
• Transmission of restructured signals.
• Use of devices and interfaces from other vendors.
The semitransparent transponder keeps one of the major advantages of the
DWDM i.e. Protocols are transmitted transparently, providing a very high flexibility.
24
SDH NE Regenerators SDH NE
Fig.3. Situation without WDM
SDH NE SDH NE
Optical Terminal Optical Terminal

MUX MUX
Optical Amplifier
Fig. 4. Situation with

WDM
Fig.4 Situation without WDM
25
IP IP
Trans Trans
ponder ponder
DWDM DWDM
SDH Transponer MUX MUX Transponer SDH
ATM ATM
PDH PDH
SDH MUX SDH MUX
Fig.5.
Fig.5. Transponder
Transponer Application
Application
5. Optical NE Types
(a) Optical Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing of different wavelength signals.
(b) Optical Amplifiers
Pure optical 1R regeneration (just amplification) of all transmitted signals.
(c) Transponders
Wavelength “change” and 2R regeneration (reshaping and amplification) or 3 R
regeneration (reshaping retiming and amplification).
(d) Regenerators
Real 3 R regeneration (reshaping, retiming and amplification) of the signal.
Therefore, the signals have to be demultiplexed, electrically regenerated and
multiplexed again. They are necessary if the length to be bridged is too long to be
covered only by optical amplifiers, as these only perform reshaping and retiming.
(e) Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
Adding and Dropping only specific wavelengths from the joint optical signal.
This may use complete de-multiplexing or other techniques.
(f) Optical cross-connects
26
To cater for the huge amount of data expected in an optical network even
the cross-connects have to work on a purely optical level.
6. Future Trends
(a) Use of Optical Amplifier – The best developed optical amplifiers are Erbium
doped fibre amplifier (EDFA) which operate at 1550 nm and praseodymium
doped fibre amplifiers operating at 1300 nm.
(b) Use of non-zero dispersion shifted fibre (NZ - DSF).
(c) Use of passive optical components (PON).
(d) Wave Division Multiplexing of Optical Signal (WDM).
7. Description of Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer :
An optical demultiplexer can be built as an association of optical filters or
as a single stand device. The purpose is to extract the original channels from a
DWDM signal. The requested properties of this device are the same as for the
optical filter : isolation and signal distortion. However channel number and
spacing must be considered now because demultiplexers can impose limitations
on the number of channels or the total available bandwidth. Most demultiplexers
are symmetrical devices and can also be used as multiplexers.
(a) By using Prism

The easiest and best-known optical demultiplexer is the prism.
Using the effect of dispersion (different speed of light for different wavelengths),
light is split into its spectral components.
(b) By using Diffraction Grating

The function of a diffraction is very similar to that of a prism, only here
interference is the important factor. A mixture of light is also split into its
contributing wavelengths.
With such a grating sometimes also called a bulk grating channel spacings
of done to 50 GHz can be achieved.
27
Red
White
Blue
F Effect of a prism
ig.6
F Effect of a grating
ig. 7
28
8. Optical Amplifiers
(a) Introduction
Fiber loss and dispersion limit the transmission distance of any fibre-optic
communication system. For long-haul WDM systems this limitation is overcome
by periodic regeneration of the optical signal at repeaters, where the optical signal
is converted into electric domain by using a receiver and then regenerated by
using a transmitter. Such regenerators become quite complex and expensive for
multichannel lightwave systems. Although regeneration of the optical signal is
necessary for dispersion-limited systems, loss limited systems benefit
considerably if electronic repeaters were replaced by much simpler and potentially
less expensive, optical amplifiers which amplify the optical signal directly. Several
kinds of optical amplifiers were studied and developed during the 1980 s. The
technology has matured enought that the use of optical amplifiers in fiber-optic
communication systems has now become widespread.
(b) Optical Amplifier Applications

(i) In-line amplifiers
(ii) Booster amplifiers
(iii) Pre-amplifiers
In-line amplifiers are used to directly replace optical regenerators. Booster
amplifiers are used immediately after the transmitter or multiplexer to increase the
output power. Pre-amplifiers are used before the receiver or demultiplexer to
increase the received power and extend distance. The use of each
configuration as advantages and disadvantages that must be considered by the
systems designer. The problems come when considering non-linear effects in
the transmission fiber and also generated by the amplifiers.
Some of the requirements for optical amplifiers for DWDM purpose are :
• high gain
• low noise
• flat amplification profile
29
ODMX
OMX
O/E/O
O/E/O
O/E/O
Optical Amplifier
Fig.8. Passage from optical/electrical regenerators to optical amplifiers
Booster
Tx Rx
Preamplifier
Tx Rx
Fig.
6 In-line amplifier
Tx Rx
Fig.9. Applications for optical amplifiers
30
FTTH & PON

Optical access services as access systems have grown widespread in
recent years. Today, fiber networks come in many varieties, depending on the
termination point: premise (FTTP), home (FTTH), curb (FTTC) or node (FTTN).
For simplicity, most people have begun to refer to the fiber network as FTTx, in
which x stands for the termination point. As telecommunications providers
consider the best method for delivering fiber to their subscribers, they have a
variety of FTTx architectures to consider.
1.0 Introduction
Since the long back, telecommunications providers have dreamed of an all-
fiber network. and for good reason a Fiber provides substantially more bandwidth,
carries signals farther, is more reliable and secure, and has a longer life span than
any other transmission medium. Additionally, providers view fiber’s bandwidth
capacity as a competitive weapon, particularly in the access network. Never
before has the access network been as important to telecommunications
providers as they look for ways to deliver new high-bandwidth services to their
subscribers—services that generate new revenues, help them retain existing
customers, attract new ones and increase profits. Fiber is seen as the preeminent
long-term alternative to today’s broadband access technologies, one that not only
allows providers to generate new services, but also provides them with significant
and sustainable reductions in operating expenses and shifts their capital spending
from older technologies to newer, less costly technologies. The single greatest
driver for fiber in the access network is “multi-play” services, the opportunity to
offer subscribers high-speed data, voice, and video as one of a variety of potential
bundled services. The subscriber market for multi-play is large and growing and
includes both residences and businesses. Businesses need more bandwidth and
many of the advanced services that only fiber can deliver, and Multi-play offers
homeowners the convenience of voice, data and video from a single vendor and
on a single bill. All view Multi- Play as a strong competitive service offering now
and into the future and are looking at fiber as the way to deliver. As traditional
telecommunications providers explore their fiber network options, many
municipalities and utilities are taking the lead, building green field fiber networks to
31
serve their communities and to attract new business. Today, fiber networks come
in many varieties, depending on the termination point: premise (FTTP), home
(FTTH), curb (FTTC) or node (FTTN). For simplicity, most people have begun to
refer to the fiber network as FTTx, in which x stands for the termination point. As
telecommunications providers consider the best method for delivering fiber to their
subscribers, they have a variety of FTTx architectures to consider. Currently, there
is not a one-size-solves-all architecture, so providers must make a series of
technology decisions based on their service goals. A primary consideration for
providers is to decide whether to deploy an active (point-to-point) or passive
(point-to-multipoint) fiber network. Optical fiber cables have conventionally been
used for long-distance communications. However, with the growing use of the
Internet by businesses and general households in recent years, coupled with
demands for increased capacity such as for the distribution of images, the need
for optical fiber cable for the last mile has increased.
2.0 What is FTTx?
The FTT in FTTx stands for Fiber To The. How the fiber cable is to be used
determines what will replace the letter x. e.g. x-H (Home), x-B (Building), x-C
(Curb) etc. FTTH, FTTB, and FTTC each have different configurations and
characteristics.
2.1 FTTH (Fiber To The Home):
A method of installing optical fiber cable to the home. FTTH is the final
configuration of access networks using optical fiber cable. FTTH consists of a
single optical fiber cable from the base station to the home. The optical/electrical
signals are converted and connection to the user’s PC via an Ethernet card.
Fig. 1 FTTH Configuration

2.2 FTTB (Fiber To The Building):
32
Optical fiber cable is installed up to the metallic cable installed within the
building. A LAN or existing telephone metallic cable is then used to connect to the
user.
Fig. 2 FTTB Configuration

2.3 FTTC (Fiber To The Curb):
A method of installing optical fiber cable by the curb near the user’s home.
An optical communications system is then used between the remote unit (optical
signal/electrical conversion unit) installed outside (such as near the curb or on a
telephone pole) from the installation center. Finally, coaxial or other similar cable is
used between the remote unit and user.
Fig.3 FTTC Configuration
3.0 FTTx Architectures:

When deciding which architecture to select a provider has many things to
consider including the existing outside plant, network location, the cost of
deploying the network, subscriber density and the return on investment (ROI).
Active architectures sometimes referred to as Home Run Fiber and/or Active Star
Ethernet, and passive architectures, which include Passive Optical Networks
33
(PONs), are the current choices. Each has its own pros and cons, and the final
selection will depend on the provider’s unique requirements.
3.1 Home Run Fiber (Point-to-Point)
A Home Run Fiber architecture is one in which a dedicated fiber from an
Optical Line Terminal (OLT) unit located in the Central Office (CO) connects to an
Optical Network Terminal (ONT) at each premise. Both OLTs and ONTs are active,
or powered, devices, and each is equipped with an optical laser. Subscribers can
be located as far away from the CO or OLT as 80km, and each subscriber is
provided a dedicated “pipe” that provides full bi-directional bandwidth. Over the
long term Home Run Fiber is the most flexible architecture; however, it may be
less attractive when the physical layer costs are considered. Because a dedicated
fiber is deployed to each premise, Home Run Fiber requires the installation of
much more fiber than other options, with each fiber running the entire distance
between the subscriber and the CO. The fiber cost and size of the fiber bundle at
the OLT can make this network expensive and inconvenient in many service
areas.
Fig. 4 Home Run Fiber Architecture

3.2 Active Star Ethernet (Point-to-Point)
An Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture is a point-to-point architecture in
which multiple premises share one feeder fiber through a remote node located
between the CO and the served premises. Environmentally hardened optical
Ethernet electronics—switches or Broadband Loop Carriers—are installed at the
34
remote node to provide fiber access aggregation. The remote node can be shared
between four to a thousand homes via dedicated distribution links from the remote
node. Like Home Run Fiber, subscribers can be located as far away from the
remote node as 80km, and each subscriber is provided a dedicated “pipe” that
provides full bidirectional bandwidth. Active Star Ethernet reduces the amount of
fiber deployed; lowering costs through the sharing of fiber. ASE also offers the
benefits of standard optical Ethernet technology, much simpler network topologies
and supports a wide range of CPE solutions. And, most importantly, it provides
broad flexibility for future growth.
Fig. 5 Active Star Ethernet Architecture

4.0 Passive Optical Network (Point-to-Multipoint)
Passive Optical Network is essentially a cost effective optical fiber based
access system for providing multi-play (voice, video, data etc) services, being
rolled out by BSNL shortly, to both business and residential customers. A Passive
Optical networks (PON) use optical fibre and optical power splitters to connect the
Optical Line Terminal (OLT) at the local exchange to the subscriber’s Optical
Network Unit (ONU) on his premises. No electrical or electronic components are
used between these points. This approach greatly simplifies network operation &
maintenance, and reduces the cost. Another advantage is that much less fiber is
required than in point-to point topologies.
35
IBRE
Central
Office
Customer
(CO)
Premise Equipment
(CPE)
Fig. 6 PON
Using Ethernet technology to create a passive optical infrastructure, PONs
builds a point-to-multi-point fiber topology that supports a speed of Gbps for up
to 20 km. While subscribers are connected via dedicated distribution fibers to the
site, they share the Optical Distribution Network (ODN) trunk fiber back to the
Central Office.
The figure 7 shows the less fiber requirement for PON (EPON & GPON) as
compared to the topologies of point-to-point Ethernet and point-to-multipoint
switched Ethernet.
Point-to-point Ethernet might use either N or 2N fibers, and would have 2N
optical transceivers. Point-to-multipoint switched Ethernet uses one trunk fiber and
thus would save fiber and space in the Central Office (CO). But it would use 2N+2
optical transceivers and would require electrical power in the field. PON also uses
only one trunk fiber and thus minimizes fibers and space in the CO, and it also
uses only N+1 optical transceivers. It requires no electrical power in the field. The
drop throughput can be up to the line rate on the trunk link. EPON can support
downstream broadcast such as video. EPON is typically deployed as a tree or
tree-and-branch topology, using passive 1:N optical splitters.
36
Point
To Point
O
P2M
Switched
O Ethernet
Passive
Optical Splitter
O
Fig. 7 - Point-to-Point Ethernet, Point-to-Multipoint Switched Ethernet, and

PON
Time Division Multiplexed (TDM) data is broadcast downstream from the
OLT towards each ONU where the appropriate portion is extracted for local use. In
the Upstream direction a Time Domain Multiple Access (TDMA) protocol allocates
slots for data transmitted from each ONU to communicate back to the OLT without
any contention between different subscribers.
The features of different PON standard
Features BPON GPON EPON
Responsible FSAN & ITU-T FSAN & ITU-T IEEE 802.3ah
Standard body SG15 SG15
(G-983 Series) (G-984 Series)
Bandwidth Down Stream up Down Stream up Down Stream
to 622 Mbps to 2.5 Gbps up to 1.25 Gbps
Up Stream up to Up Stream up to Up Stream up
155.52 Mbps 2.5 Gbps to 1.25 Gbps
Downstrea 1490 nm & 1550 1490 nm & 1550 1490 nm
m‫ג‬ nm nm
Upstream ‫ג‬ 1310 nm 1310 nm 1310 nm
37
Layer-2 ATM ATM, Ethernet, Ethernet

Protocols TDM over GEM
Frame ATM GPON Ethernet
Encapsulation Method Frame
Max. 20 km 20 Km(supports 10 and 20 Km.
Distance (OLT to logical reach up to 60
ONU ) Km)
Split Ratio 1:16, 1:32 and 1:16, 1:32 and 1:16 and 1:32
1:64 1:64
Line Codes NRZ NRZ 8B/10B
( Scrambled ) ( Scrambled )
Downstrea AES: Advanced AES: Advanced Not Defined
m Security Encryption Standard -128 Encryption Standard
bit key ( Counter mode)
FEC None Yes Yes
No. of 1 or 2 1 or 2 1
fibers
Protection Support multiple Support multiple None
Switching protection configuration protection configuration
5.0 PON Architecture:

The key interface points of PON are in the central office equipment, called
the OLT for optical line terminal, and the CPE, called ONU for optical network unit
(for EPON) and ONT for optical network terminal (for GPON). Regardless of
nomenclature, the important difference between OLT and ONT devices is their
purpose. OLT devices support management functions and manage maximum up
to 128 downstream links. In practice, it is common for only 8 to 32 ports to be
linked to a single OLT in the central office. On the other hand the ONT (or ONU)
devices in the CPE support only their own link to the central office. Consequently,
the ONT/ONU devices are much less expensive while the OLTs tend to be more
capable and therefore more expensive.
1. OLT: The OLT resides in the Central Office (CO). The OLT system
provides aggregation and switching functionality between the core network
(various network interfaces) and PON interfaces. The network interface of the OLT
is typically connected to the IP network and backbone of the network operator.
Multiple services are provided to the access network through this interface,.
38
2. ONU/ONT: This provides access to the users i.e. an External Plant /

Customer Premises equipment providing user interface for many/single customer.
The access node installed within user premises for network termination is termed
as ONT. Whereas access node installed at other locations i.e.
curb/cabinet/building, are known as ONU. The ONU/ONT provide, user interfaces
(UNI) towards the customers and uplink interfaces to uplink local traffic towards
OLT.
3. PON: Distributed or single staged passive optical splitters/combiners
provides connectivity between OLT & multiple ONU/ONTs through one or two
optical fibers. Optical splitters are capable of providing up to 1:64 optical split, on
end to end basis. These are available in various options like 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32
and 1:64.
M
oice anagement
NU System O
ata ther Networks
ideo
Video
NU
DM /Audio over IP
ABX services
1:32(64)
ON CA
Optical Splitter
TV overlay
LT
services
C
DMA I
entral
P N/Ws
Office
ata NU 0-20 Km physical reach (60 Km logical
reach supported by protocol)
Fig. 8 PON Architecture

4. NMS: Management of the complete PON system from OLT.
• One OLT serves multiple ONU/ONTs through PON
• TDM/TDMA protocol between OLT & ONT
• Single Fiber/ Dual Fiber to be used for upstream & downstream
• Provision to support protection for taking care of fiber cuts, card failure
etc.
• Maximum Split Ratio of 1:64
39
• Typical distance between OLT & ONT can be greater than 15Km (with
unequal splitting - up-to 35Km)
• Downstream transmission I.e. from OLT to ONU/ONT is usually TDM
• Upstream traffic I.e. from ONU/ONT to OLT is usually TDMA
• PON system may be symmetrical or asymmetrical
• PON and fiber infrastructure can also be used for supporting any one
way distributive services e.g. video at a different wavelength
PON is configured in full duplex mode in a single fiber point to multipoint
(P2MP) topology. Subscribers see traffic only from the head end, and not from
each other. The OLT (head end) allows only one subscriber at a time to transmit
using the Time Division Multiplex Access (TDMA) protocol. PON systems use
optical splitter architecture, multiplexing signals with different wavelengths for
downstream and upstream.
EPON & GPON Applications:
• Residential or Business Services
• High Speed Internet
• Transparent LAN Service
• Broadcast Video
• Multi-Play (Voice, Video, Data etc.)
• TDM Telephony
• Video on Demand
• On –line Gaming
• IPTV etc
• Wireless Services
• Wireless backhaul over PON
40

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Section 3.

Next Generation SDH

• Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041

• Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042

• Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707

1. Integrated Data Transport i.e. Ethernet tributaries in addition to 2Mb, 140

2. Integrated non blocking, wide-band cross connect (2Mb granularity)

3. Dynamic Bandwidth allocation,

Intelligence for topology discovery, route computation and mesh based

Fig. 1 Block Diagram of NGSDH

Next Generation SDH is Packet Friendly and have IP router like

“VCAT provides more granularity, LCAS provides more flexibility and

3.0 Components of Next Generation SDH:-

GFP adds dynamism to legacy SDH. GFP is most economical way of

Edge Adaptation Core

Fig. 2 Functional Model of GFP

1. PDU-oriented known as Frame mapped GFP (GFP-F)

2. Block-code-oriented known as Transparent GFP (GFP-T)

GFP-F (Framed) is a layer 2 encapsulation in variable sized frames.

GFP-T is useful for delay sensitive services. GFP-T (Transparent) is

Ethernet GFP Et GFP GFP

Trans Trans Trans GFP

Fig. 3GFP-F & GFP-T

3.2 CONCATENATION (V-CAT & C-CAT) :

Two concatenation schemes are:

Data Rates Efficiency w/o VC using VC

Ethernet (10M) VC3 20% VC-12-5v 

Fig. 4 VCAT Efficiency

The traditional method of concatenation is termed as contiguous. This

ii. Virtual Concatenation:

Virtual concatenation maps individual containers in to a virtually

The transport capacity with or without VC is shown in Fig. 4

C-4 C-4 One Path C-4 C-4

Core Network VC-4-4c

Fig. 5 Virtual & Contiguous Concatenation

Virtual concatenation Benefits:

1. Use the same core NEs, modify only edge NEs.

2. Low investment and fast ROI (return on investment).

3. Efficient & scalable i.e. fine granularity and multi-path capability.

4. SDH gives best QoS, well engineered and reliable.

Fig. 6 Bandwidth call by call

A customer is offered a fixed bandwidth of 100 Mb (VLAN) Ethernet,

Fig. 7 Bandwidth on scheduled Time

Multi-service Provisioning Platform (M S P P)

The MSPP equipment shall be capable of simultaneously interfacing the PDH

Fig 1 MSPP Applications

The major features of MSPP are as listed below:

1. Generic Framing Protocol-Frame (GFP-F)

• Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041

• Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042

• Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)

Shared Protection Ring MSPPs supports SPRs to provide Ethernet and

SPR technology is a precursor to true RPR. SPR processes

Over few years demand for Internet protocol is growing at a fast

One of major advantages of RPR is that it protects existing

RPR is a MAC layer, ring based protocol that combines intelligence of IP

implementation of automated provisioning. Moreover, there is no need for

RPR is fibre based ring network architecture. Data is carried in packets

The emerging solution for metros data transport applications is

1. Efficient Ring Topology

2. Less than 50 ms recovery time from fibre cut i.e. resilience.

RPR is originated from a protocol called dynamic packet transport (DPT).

RPR is a dual ring network: