CHAPTER TWO

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANT

Classification of power plants (3 piece)
-Power plant comprises 3 parts
-Float Rectifier
-Battery Charger
-Switching Cubicle.

2. FLOAT RECTIFIER
2.1 The function of the Float Rectifier is to receive three phases 440 V AC and to give
a constant 51.5 Volts D.C without AC ripples.
-The steps involved to achieve the function are
a) Step-down
b) Rectification
c) Filtering of A.C. ripples.
d) Regulation.
2.2 Step down
Transformer steps down the 3 phases A.C voltage from 440V to around 80 volts.
2.3 Rectification
Any unidirectional device rectifies the AC to DC.
Here Diodes & SCRs are used for rectification.
2.4 Filtering:
Here multi-stage L.C. Filters are used for filtering the A.C. Ripples.
2.5 Regulation:
2.5.1 -What is Regulation?
-As far as Float Rectifier is concerned,” Regulation is the mechanism by which the
output of a float rectifier is kept constant at 51.5 _+0.5V irrespective of input voltage
variations of ± 12%. Output load variations of 5% to 105% and input frequency
variations of ± 4% or 48-52 Hz”.
2.5.2 Why Regulation is required?
Float rectifier should not only supply power to the load but also takes care of its
battery sets , which are floated across its output.

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 If the float rectifier output voltage is 51.5v, the cells are floated at 2.15v/cell and
hence they are continuously trickle charged and this compensates losses due to “self
discharge or local action”. If FR output is 49.2V, the battery set is not trickle charged,
hence trickle charging is to be given once in a fortnight.
If FR output is <49.0V, the battery starts discharging.
If FR output >51.5, the floating voltage of each cell will be > 2.15V and the battery
will be over charged.
Hence regulation is required.
2.5.3 How Regulation is done?
1. By “Transductor or saturable reactor or magnetic amplifier” method.
2. By varying the secondary of the main transformer automatically depending
on output voltage.
3. By SCR method.
4. SMPS method.
-Second method was used in olden days but not used nowadays due to mechanical
involvement in regulation.
-Any of the other three methods,. Controls the portion of the input A.C cycle to feed
to rectifier so that output voltage gets regulated.
2.5.3.1 Transductor Method:
-Normally this principle is used in small exchange power plants.
- In this a transductor is placed in series with the rectifier and uses the principle that
the impedance of an iron cored coil can be varied by varying the degree of saturation
of the core.”
-By varying the series impedance to rectifier, we can vary the portion of input cycle
that is fed to Rectifier.
2.5.3.2 SCR Method.

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 -In this the SCR is used as rectifying element.
-Let us recapitulate the working of SCR.
-SCR can be switched on by applying the positive pulse to the gate. Once if the SCR
is switched on, it will be in ‘ON’ condition as long as the current flowing through
SCR is above a threshold value called “Holding current”.
-In a Float rectifier, across each half cycle one SCR is connected. Hence for 3 phases
i.e. R,Y,B totally 6 SCRs are connected.
-Let an SCR be connected across the positive half cycle of a phase. The total time
period of a half cycle is 10 ms. Within this half cycle triggering pulses can be given at
any time. Assume that triggering pulse is given to SCR at Point’A’ after 4 ms of
starting of the half cycle, the SCR will be on. Even though the triggering pulse is
removed, the SCR will remains on. But the current flowing through SCR depends on
the amplitude applied across its terminals. At 9 ms say at point “B” let the current
flowing through the SCR is just below the holding current. The SCR will be switched
off. That means “switching on” of SCR is in our hands, but “swg off” of SCR is not
in our hands, it is automatic. In this case the portion of half cycle between the points A
and B is rectified.
-The output voltage of the FR depends on both the input AC voltage and output DC
load.
Position of Triggering
Input AC voltage O/P DC load O/P DC voltage pulse
Increased Decreased Increases Retarded or delayed
Decreased Increased Decreases Advances.

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 -Look at the above table. Whenever the input voltage increases or output load
decreases the output DC voltage increases and vice versa. Hence if we monitor output
voltage, it is sufficient to regulate it.
-If the output voltage is increased, then the triggering pulse to the SCR will be
delayed or retarded, point A moves towards B, hence the portion of AC cycle rectified
will be reduced, hence output voltage will be automatically reduced and brought to
the specified value.
-If the output voltage is decreased, then the triggering pulse to the SCR will be
advanced, hence output voltage will be automatically increased and brought to the
specified value. -This is how regulation is achieved by using SCR.

Current
Transformer
AC INPUT
10 V 50 c/s
M

2.6 The four main parts of a Float Rectifier are:

a) 3 phase step-down transformer
b) Rectifying circuit
c) Smoothening or Filtering circuit
d) Control circuit.
2.7 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:
2.7.1 Ambient conditions
The float rectifiers are designed for continuous full load operation under
ambient temp,(i.e. temp. Of air surrounding the cubicle) of upto 45 degree C averaged
over a period of 24 hours and going to a peak of upto 50 degree C.
2.7.2 Input Conditions

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 For large exchange power plant, float rectifiers are designed to work from 3
phase 4 wire AC supply and are capable of giving the specified performance for
nominal input voltage settings of 350,370,390,410, and 430 volts across phases and
for frequency variation of ± 2 Hz from the nominal frequency of 50 Hz. For medium
exchange power plant, the unit works of single phase 2 wire AC supply and is
capable of giving the specified performance from nominal input voltage settings of
200,210,220,230,240v across phases and neutral. In small exchange units also the
float rectifier works from single phase but no taps are used.
2.7.3 Cooling Arrangements
Natural air-cooling is employed for this purpose. The use of fans etc., for
inducing an accelerated airflow is not permitted. Steel sheets with louvers or
perforations are provided at the bottom and top panels. Oil cooled components are not
used.
2.7.4 Radio Frequency Interference:
The equipment is efficiently screened against interference to radio as also other
communications equipments, which may be installed in the same building. All source
of noise are filtered if necessary with RF suppressers. The conducted radio frequency
interference voltage at the input and output terminals for the entire range of input and
output load conditions is kept limited to 1500 Micro volts over the frequency range
from 50 KHz to 15 MHz. Suitable RFI Filters are provided for this purpose. The
intensity of radiated RFI field at a distance of 10 metres from the power plant over the
same frequency range and the input and output conditions as mentioned above is kept
limited to 100 micro volts per metre and over the frequency range from 40 to 70
MHz, it shall not exceed 50 micro volts per metre.
2.7.5 Dimensions
Height and depth of the units are standardized to give a uniform view when
these are installed side by side in the exchanges. Width of the unit is left to the
manufacturer. For large exchange float rectifier, height and depth have been
standardized as 200 and 120 cm respectively. For medium and small exchange units,
the height and depth are 140 and 60 cm respectively.
2.7.6 Earthing
Two power earth terminals are provided which are in effective electrical
contact with cubicle framework. All metal parts of the components of units which do

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 not carry current are bonded together. The nominal cross-sectional area of the earth
continuity conductor not contained within the cable is kept generally not less than one
half of the cross section of each of the current carrying conductors to be protected.

2.8 Specification of the Float Rectifier

2.8.1 Components:
Following are the main components:-
a) AC termination block.
b) AC contactor
c) Double wound mains step down transformer.
d) Rectifying elements employing silicon devices.
e) Output voltage regulation and load limiting arrangements.
f) Filter for smoothing the d.c output.
g) DC output termination and protective arrangements.
h) Supervisory and alarm arrangements and instrumentation.
2.8.2 Output performance
2.8.2.1 Output Regulation
At each setting of the input voltage tap output voltage is maintained within
the limits of 51.5 V ± 0.5V at any value of the load current from 5% to 100% of the
rated full load and over an input voltage range of ± 12% of the nominal voltage
corresponding to that setting. This regulation is achieved with any supply frequency
between 48 and 52 Hz. Facility is also provided for manually adjusting the output
voltage continuously on no load at least between 50 and 53 volts. For small exchange
units, the above output regulation is achieved for the input variation from 180 to 275
V.
2.8.2.2 Output voltage Droop
When the load current drawn from the float rectifier goes beyond 100% rated
full load, the output voltage of the units falls sharply. At or before the output current
equal to 105% of the full rated load with the input voltage corresponding to the tap
set, the terminal voltage fails to a value below 47 v. For small exchange units this
droop is achieved at 110% of the full rated load.
2.8.2.3 Output Stability

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 The unit meets the output voltage requirements indicated above on a resistive
load without any tendency to hunt. Further when a 24 cell lead acid battery of
appropriate capacity is connected in addition to the load resistance across the output
terminals, the unit is free from any tendency to hunt over the range of input voltage
and output current indicated above.
2.8.2.4 Output Ripple
Psophometric noise EMF weighted at 800 Hz with a battery of appropriate
capacity connected across the output is within 2m V when delivering the full rated
load at an input voltage 12% above and below the nominal values. The value of
Psophometric voltage without battery is kept within 4 mV. For small exchange units,
this is achieved at 275V input.
2.8.3
2.8.3.1 Efficiency and power factor
The overall power efficiency of the unit at rated full load measured as the ratio
of DC output watts to AC input watts at the nominal input voltage corresponding to
the particular tap setting is not less than 75% in case of large exchange float rectifiers
upto 200 Amps and 80% in case of higher output capacities. The power factor at the
input voltage 12% above tap set is not less than 0.80 lagging under full rated load
conditions when measured with a power factor meter. For medium exchange float
rectifier the efficiency is not less than 70% whereas for small exchange unit, it is not
less than 65%.
2.8.3.2 Internal Load
The internal load of the float rectifier unit due to control circuit, reverse
current of the rectifier elements and any bleeder resistors that may be fitted to achieve
the performance requirements shall not exceed 2% of the rated rectifier output
current. This is checked with the AC supply disconnected.

2.8.3.3 Power factor improvement capacitor

Power factor improvement capacitors are connected at the appropriate
transformer taps in keeping with the voltage rating of capacitors to meet the power
factor requirements indicated above. Suitable HRC fuses with proper housing are
used to protect the power factor capacitors.
2.8.4 Insulation Resistance and Dielectric strength:
2.8.4.1

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 Insulation measurements are done with a 500V insulation tester. The minimum
insulation resistance under each of the following conditions is 5 M Ohms:
A) Between any one phase AC input terminal and earth bar and cubicle framework
with the main contactor manually operated.
B) Between any one phase AC input terminal and output negative and positive leads
strapped together ,with main contactor.manually operated. Link in positive output
is to be removed for taking this measurements.
C) Between output negative and positive terminals strapped together and earth bar
and cubicle framework with link in positive leads removed to isolate it from
exchange earth.
2.8.4.2
The dielectric strength of transformers, transductors and chokes is 2 KV AC
for one minute.
2.8.5 Temperature Rise
2.8.5.1
Temperature rise is determined with reference to ambient temp., of the outside
air surrounding the cubicle. The temp is checked on transformers, transductors,
chokes, diodes and other rectifying elements carrying load current.
2.8.5.2
The unit is put on full rated load at nominal input voltage and a terminal
voltage of 51.5 ± 0.5v for a continuous period of 8 hours and temp. readings of the
components mentioned above are taken at suitable intervals. The max. Temp rise
above ambient temp. does not exceed 50 0C in the transformers, chokes and SCRs
and 45 0C for silicon diodes.
2.8.6 Priority and Non-priority working:
Where a number of float rectifiers are required to work in parallel to meet the
exchange load requirements, one of the highest available capacity is nominated as the
priority unit. The remaining units are to be designated as non-priority units. They have
no load voltage of 53 to 54 V, going down to 52.5 to 53 V at rated load and drooping
sharply thereafter and reaching not less than 47V at 5% overload depending upon the
setting of the droop characteristic as determined by the auto paralleling circuit. For an
exchange terminal voltage of 51.5 ± 0.5V; this will result in the priority unit working
in the ‘constant voltage’ mode and the non-priority units in the ‘constant current’

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 mode. It is possible to set each unit for either priority or non-priority working by
means of a corresponding key in the auto-paralleling panel.
2.8.7 Components Specifications
2.8.7.1 AC Terminal Block
For terminating incoming AC cable, a suitable terminal block with lugs of
proper size adequate strength and insulation is provided on the left hand top corner of
the cubicle. In addition to the terminals for connecting the incoming phase and neutral
wires, HRC fuses of appropriate rating are also provided. A cable entry hole is
provided in the top panel above the terminal block.
2.8.7.2 AC Contactor
The Contactor has contacts enclosed and of quick break type as per IS-2959. It
is mounted directly on the cubicle frame near the AC termination block. The main
contacts are rated in accordance with maximum input current values. The operating
coil of the contactor is suitable for continuous operation from DC source of 45 to 52
V. It is also capable of manual operation by on/off push buttons provided for
controlling the supply to the operating coil. Sometimes as an alternative, AC operated
contactor is also used in conjunction with suitable DC relay and auto transformer for
input voltage selection. For the medium exchange float rectifiers ,operating coil of the
contactor operates from AC. In case of small exchange float rectifier only a double
pole on/ off switch is used.
2.8.7.3 Transformers
Winding of all transformers is vacuum impregnated using class A insulation.
After assembly the transformers are enveloped by dipping in a suitable varnish.
2.8.7.4 Rectifying element employing silicon devices
The rectifying elements consists of silicon diodes or thyristors of appropriate
voltage and current ratings to suit the regulating arrangement adopted. These are
provided with adequate heat sinks to avoid the temp., rise beyond limits. These are
mounted inside the cubicle away from any heat radiating component at a place where
there is free flow of air. The main rectifying elements are protected against voltage
transients by using surge suppressers like MOVs or RC networks. HRC fuses of
appropriate ratings are provided in series with the diodes or thyristors to protect
against current surges. Each of these fuses are shunted by an alarm type fuse to give
rectifying fuse fail alarm and at the same time by suitable circuit arrangement, the
float rectifier is switched off automatically.

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2.8.7.5 Resistors and Capacitors in Control Unit
The resistors used are rated adequately to limit the temp rise to 100 0C above
the ambient. For bleeder resistors, the temp. rise above the ambient is allowed upto
150 0C. All the capacitors have a rated working voltage adequate for continuous
operating and are able to withstand any surge produced at the instant of switching the
unit on or off.
2.8.8 Arrangement of Output Voltage Regulation and Load Current Limiting
2.8.8.1
The output voltage regulation and load current limiting is achieved by a closed
loop circuit arrangement in which the output voltage and the current are sensed by
the control circuits, the circuits function to meet the desired requirements.
2.8.8.2
The output error sensing and amplification is done by means of static devices
like resistors and semiconductors. Errors amplification is done by Op.Amps
2.8.8.3
Reference voltages for Op Amps are derived from the temp. compensated
reference Zener diodes. Care is taken that even with the failure of control circuit the
output voltage does not exceed 54v.
2.8.8.4
Unit has soft start feature whereby on energization the output DC voltage
builds up gradually to the final level within 10 sec. over shoot not exceeding 10% of
the rated voltage at no load. Similarly, for steep change in the input voltage from -10
to +10% of the nominal voltage, the overshoot does not exceed 25% of the rated load
and does not exceed 10% of the rated voltage for loads in excess of 25% of rated load.
The duration of the voltage over shoot is also kept within 750 milli sec. for thyristors
or transductor control and 1.5 sec. for stopping motor control.

2.8.9 Filter
2.8.9.1
The filter is required for reducing the ripple component in the output of the
rectifier. When operating in parallel with one or more secondary batteries, the ripple
has to be with 2 mV psophometric and when it is measured without a battery in

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 parallel it has to be less than 4 mV psophometric at full rated load current and input
voltage +_ 12% of nominal. The filter chokes are located in the negative load.
2.8.9.2 Filter Chokes
The chokes are designed to operate under natural air cooling. Class A
insulation is used and the windings are vacuum impregnated. The chokes of the
assembly are enveloped by dipping in a suitable varnish. The core assemblies are
adequately clamped so as to avoid undue noise under all load conditions.
2.8.9.3 Filter Capacitors
The main leads to the capacitor banks and also the interconnecting wire within
the banks are of adequate cross section and their lengths are enough to ensure that
they do not impair the effectiveness of the capacitors for filtering.
2.8.9.4
Provision is made to isolate the filter from the float rectifier at its ‘in’ terminal
and use it in conjunction with the battery charger by suitable cabling arrangement
from the negative output of the charger to the ‘in’ terminal of the filter. This facility is
provided to enable the battery charger output to be smoothed and to supply the
exchanges load under emergency conditions, when a float rectifier may get out of
order. The ‘in’ terminal of the filter is brought out on suitable insulating bus bar
supporters in the rear of the unit at a place to which easy access is possible by
removing the rear panel cover. A link is provided for the normal connection of the
filter to the float rectifier and for connection of the same to the battery charger output
in case of emergency. Any circuit of the float rectifier requiring isolation under this
condition., such as the output voltage sensing circuit, have similar links for this
purpose. The links and the relevant terminals are clearly sign written.
2.8-10 DC Output Termination and Protective Arrangements.
2.8.10.1
DC output is brought out by means of bus bar risers from the top of the
cubicle on the right hand rear side. The bus bars have the adequate cross-section.
They rise to a height of 25 cms above the top of the cubicle.
2.8.10.2
A bolted type HRC fuse with central taps is provided in the negative lead of
the DC output. A link is provided in the positive lead to facilitate isolation of this
from the exchange earth for testing. The fuse links generally conformed to IS-2208,

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 each fuse is shunted by an alarm type fuse to extend DC output fuse fail alarm to the
switching cubicle. The voltage across the fuse link terminal is kept 100 mV.
2.8.11 Supervisory Arrangements
2.8.11.1
The float rectifier has a positive indication for ‘on’ condition of the unit. The
facilities are incorporated in the circuitry to extend the following supervisory alarms
to the switching cubicle as earth signals:-
a) Main fail alarm
b) Phase fail alarm
c) Main rectifying element fuse fail alarm.
d) Filter capacitor fuse fail alarm.
e) DC output fuse fail alarm.
2.8.11.2 The supervisory circuit from the float rectifiers are terminated on a terminal
block mounted within the cubicle at the rear left side.

2.8.11.3 Permanent magnet moving coil type voltmeter and ammeter are provided on
the float rectifier unit. These are mounted flush with the recessed meter panel. The meters are
as per IS-1248 conforming to class 1% with a minimum scale length of 125 cm for large
exchange float rectifiers and 84 mm for medium and small exchange float rectifiers. A red
mark is provided on the meters at the rated voltage and current values.

BATTERY CHARGER
3.1. Functions of Battery charger.
• To Initial charge a battery set:- For initial charging, the battery charger capacity
should be at least 14% of AH capacity of battery set.
• To normal charge the battery set at 10 hour rate.
• To use as Float rectifier during emergency condition by suitable links.
• To charge the sick cell.( provision exists in some power plants only).
3.2 O/P voltage
The O/P voltage of Battery charger can be varied from 44 V to 65 V with the help of
Coarse, Medium and Fine Switches in 63 steps.
3.2. O/P Current
Battery charger can deliver 100% of its rated current up to 57 volts and above that it
can deliver only 50 % of its rated capacity.
3.4 Components of the equipment

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 • 3 phase step-down main transformer with links for mains variation and tap
changing points.
• Ballast chokes.
• 3 phase Full wave rectifier.
3.5 Charging Current Regulation
There is no regulation in battery charger. If the input voltage varies by ±5%, there is
every chance for the variation of o/p charging current by ±100%.
Example. Let us take 1000 AH Battery set.
AC I/P B.C O/P Battery set Driving Bty set internal Charging
voltage voltage voltage potential resistance current
440V 50V 47.5V 2.5V 2.5mΩ 1000A
+5% 52.5V 47.5V 5.0V 2.5mΩ 2000A

In order to limit the charging current variations "Ballast chokes" are provided. Ballast
chokes are provided on each phase on the secondary side of main transformer in
battery charger in order to limit the charging current variations to ± 25% for the input
voltage variations of ±5%.
3.6 Alarms in Battery charger
Whenever there is any fault in battery charger, the alarm is extended to switching cubicle,
where it will be displayed. The alarms are
• Mains fail.
• Phase fail.
• Rectifier fuse fail.
• Circuit breaker trip
3.7 Likely Fault and their causes
Unit not switching on
• Check input voltage.
• Check input Fuses.
• Check supply to input contactor.
• Check the continuity of contactor coil.
• Coarse, Medium and Fine switches should in position 1.

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 SWITCHING CUBICLE
4.1 Brief Specifications
DC Output 51.5 ± 0.5 V
Facilities for 1. Connecting 3 negative batteries
2. Connecting 3 Float Rectifiers
3 Connecting 2 Battery Chargers
4.Supervisory Alarms for all the units connected
5. Auto Parallel working of 3 Float Rectifiers
6. Monitoring various currents and voltages
7. Control fuses of all the units connected
8. Indicating abnormalities in the Cubicle itself.

4.2 General Description

The Switching Cubicle essentially provides for the termination of:
i. The paralleled output from the Float Rectifiers connected with the Exchange load.
ii. The paralleled output from the Battery Chargers.
iii. The positive and negative bus bar risers for the batteries.
iv. The positive and negative bus bar risers for the exchange.
v. Arrangement for manual operation of the knife switches for floating of either all
batteries or any one battery. The knife switches are so arranged and interlocked
that except for the battery on charge, other batteries remain connected across the
exchange during or after any switching operation.
In addition, the Switching Cubicle provides facilities for:
1. Monitoring the total exchange load current.
2. Monitoring the exchange voltage and individual battery voltages.
3. Supervision and/or alarms for abnormal operating conditions in the associated
cubicles that is the Float Rectifiers and Battery Chargers.
4. Auto-parallel working of Float Rectifiers with sequential switching on and off of
non-priority Float Rectifiers.
All the knife switches are of the single pole double throw slow to break type, one each
for every battery. These are mounted on a panel behind the front doors. The switches are all
electro mechanically interlocked in the Float i.e. top positions by the plungers that are
operated by individual solenoids. The 50V d-c supply to the solenoid coils is tapped from the

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exchange bus bar through fuse . At any time it is possible to disconnect any one switch only
by energizing its solenoid by a push button provided and connect it to its charge position.
Unless this switch is again brought to its position it would not be possible to pull out any
other switch from its Float position, after operating the corresponding plunger.

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 Sequential Switching Chart
PU - 200 Amp
NP Unit – 100 Amp.

Xge load upto 180

Amp.

Load on PU becomes less than 20%

State 1 (less than 40 Amp.)
(i) PU – ON
(ii) NP Unit - OFF
2nd Switch off command signal

Xge Load exceeds 180 Amp NP Unit – OFF

PU – Total load

State 2
Load on PU exceeds 90%
Xge Load less than 90 Amp
Switch on command signal

(i) NP Unit ON at 50% Drooping – Load on PU becomes less than 20%

share 50 Amp. (less than 40 Amp.)
(ii) PU – Share remaining load –
Load less than 90%
Switch off command signal
Xge Load exceed 230 Amp.
(i) NP Unit – Charges Drooping
from 100% to 50%
State 3
PU – Remaining load
Load on PU exceeds 90%
more than 20%

2nd Switch on command signal

Xge Load less than 140 Amp

(i) NP Unit ON at 100% Drooping
(ii) PU – Share remaining load –
Less than 90%

Xge Load exceed 280 Amp.

Load on PU exceeds 90%

overload alarm comes

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4.6 General Description of Contact Voltmeter
The electronic Contact Voltmeter is a suppressed zero voltmeter which indicates the
system voltage with an accuracy of 1% and has additional facility to give alarm if the system
voltage goes beyond the preset maximum and minimum values. The measuring circuit and
alarm circuit are independent of each other but work off the same voltage divider. The two
level comparator circuits used actuate the electromagnetic relay when the system voltage
crosses the set limits on either side. The make contact of the relay can be used to extend the
alarm to the supervisory system for operator attention.
The electronic meter is designed for operation on nominal system voltage of 50 volts
d-c and has an indicating range of 45-55 volts. The low voltage alarm is settable between 45
and 48 volts while the high voltage alarm is settable between 52 and 55 volts.

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