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An alternating current which produces heat in a given resistance at the same average rate as I amperes of direct current is said to have a value of I amperes Average rate of heating produced by an alternating current during one cycle is

Effective Current and Voltage Average Power

Average rate of heating produced by an I amperes of direct current in the same resistance is Therefore,

The expression above gives an RMS (Root Mean Square) value for current RMS defines the alternating current in terms of its average rate of producing heat in a resistance. It is also called the effective value or virtual value.

Problem 1: Find the effective value of a current that starts at zero, rises instantaneously, then remains at a value of 20 amperes for 10 seconds, then decreases instantaneously, remaining at a value of 10 amperes for 20 seconds and then repeats this cycle.

Average Value An alternating volt is the value of a wave of alternating potential which maintains an alternating current of 1 RMS ampere through a noninductive resistance of 1 ohm. Average value of an AC wave that is symmetrical about zero-axis, is zero. Thus, only one half of the cycle is considered. This value represents the DC equivalent for electrolytic action of the alternating wave abcde if the wave were rectified and made the same as wave abcfe

It therefore follows that the volt value of a wave is measured by the square root of the average square of the instantaneous values of the voltage wave.

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Average Value If the average values of the positive and negative loops are different, the actual average value taken over a complete cycle represents the value of a DC component in the wave. For example, the average value of the cross=hatched wave in the figure below is IDC. Inspection will show that the dotted wave is the sum of the alternating wave IAC and the direct current I DC

Effective Values and Average values of a Sinusoid

Form Factor Form factor is the ratio of the effective value to the average value of a wave. Form Factor = Effective value / Average Value

Form Factor

Hence, for a voltage wave, e, which has equal positive and negative loops

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Try this: What is the form factor of a Pure Sinusoidal Wave?

Problem 3: Find the form factor of the sawtooth wave form shown in the figure. Hint: Between the limits of t=0 and t=T=3 seconds, the analytical expression for the voltage is e = 50t volts. In a case of this kind,

Crest or Peak Factor

Crest or Peak Factor The crest, peak, or amplitude factor is the ratio of the maximum value of a voltage (or current) wave to the effective value. Crest Factor = Maximum value / Effective Value

The crest factor of a pure sine wave is: Em / 0.707Em = 2

Representation of Sine Waves by Vectors or Phasors

The directed lines or vectors that are employed to represent sinusoidally timevarying quantities in a coplanar system are called phasors.

A sine wave is formed by the projection of a revolving vector (OA) on the vertical axis as time progresses

Sine wave A is from projection of vector A, Sine wave B is from projection of vector B, Sine wave C is from projection of vector C, Sine wave A + Sine wave B = Sine wave C Also, Vector A + Vector B = Vector C

Therefore, vector addition of phasors is in fact reflected on the time axis as algebraic addition of sine curves

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Now, if we apply our knowledge of phasors to the R-L-C combinational circuits we can observe the following: Considering I (current) as the reference axis

Vector Diagrams as Determined by Resistance and Reactance Drops and Impedance Functions: If a current i=Imsint is assumed to flow in a circuit containing R and L, KVL states that v=Ri+ Ldi/dt v=RImsint + ImLcost Since RImsint is of the samephase as I msint, the resistance drop is shown in phase with the current in the vector diagram of fig 12. Note also that, I mLcost is 90 degrees ahead of I msint. The sum of these two is the resultant applied potential ,V. The angle between V and I is =tan-1(L/R) The same relation can be obtained from the impedance function Z/ Positive means that applied voltage leads current (or current lags applied voltage by )

R-Branch: Current is in phase with voltage

L-Branch: Current Lags voltage, or, voltage leads current by 90 electrical degrees

C-Branch: Voltage lags current , or, current leads voltage by 90 electrical degrees