Moscow state university

Faculty of Computational Mathematics

and Cybernetics

Digital photography

Strjelbitskaja Maria, Moscow, 2009

 Contents

1 History

2 Sensors and storage

3 Multifunctionality and connectivity

4 Performance metrics

4.1 Pixel counts

4.2 Resolution

5 Dynamic range

6 Applications and considerations

7 Sensor size and angle of view

8 Storage

9 Digital camera backs

10 Comparison with film photography

10.1 Advantages of consumer digital cameras

10.2 Advantages of professional digital cameras

10.3 Disadvantages of digital cameras

10.4 Equivalent features

10.5 A comparison of frame aspect ratios

11 Market impact

12 Social impact

13 Recent research and innovation

 Digital photography
Digital photography is a form of photography that utilizes digital technology to make images of
subjects. Until the advent of such technology, photography used photographic film to create
images which could be made visible by photographic processing. By contrast, digital
photographs can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived using
digital and computer techniques, without chemical processing.

Digital photography is one of several forms of digital imaging. Digital images are also created by
non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners and radio telescopes.
Digital images can also be made by scanning conventional photographic images.

History
Early development
The concept of digitizing images on scanners, and the concept of digitizing video signals,
predate the concept of making still pictures by digitizing signals from an array of discrete sensor
elements. Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory published the first description of how
to produce still photos in a digital domain using a mosaic photosensor. The purpose was to
provide onboard navigation information to astronauts during missions to planets. The mosaic
array periodically recorded still photos of star and planet locations during transit and when
approaching a planet provided additional stadiametric information for orbiting and landing
guidance. The concept included camera design elements foreshadowing the first digital camera.
Texas Instruments engineer Willis Adcock designed a filmless camera and applied for a patent in
1972, but it is not known whether it was ever built. The first recorded attempt at building a
digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson, an engineer at Eastman Kodak. It used the then-
new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The
camera weighed 8 pounds (3.6 kg), recorded black and white images to a cassette tape, had a
resolution of 0.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in
December 1975. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production.

Analog electronic cameras

Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used like a
handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the Sony Mavica (Magnetic
Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the
Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as
videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television-like
signals to a 2 × 2 inch "video floppy". In essence it was a video movie camera that recorded
single frames, 50 per disk in field mode and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was
considered equal to that of then-current televisions.
Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon
RC-701. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the 1984 Summer Olympics, printing
the images in the Yomiuri Shimbun, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first
publication to use these cameras for real reportage was USA Today, in its coverage of World
Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost
(upwards of $20,000), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable
printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a
frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The "video floppy" disks
later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen, but were never standardized as
a computer drive.
The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and
the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low
resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was
useful during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the first Gulf War in 1991.
US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US
Navy for use as a real time air-to-sea surveillance system.
The first analog camera marketed to consumers may have been the Canon RC-250 Xapshot in
1988. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the Nikon QV-1000C, designed as a
press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It
recorded images in greyscale, and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In
appearance it closely resembled a modern digital single-lens reflex camera. Images were stored
on video floppy disks.

The arrival of true digital cameras

The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-
1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data
in memory. This camera was never marketed in the United States, and has not been confirmed to
have shipped even in Japan.
The first commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1; it also sold as the
Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, and connected directly
to a computer for download.
In 1991, Kodak brought to market the Kodak DCS-100, the beginning of a long line of
professional SLR cameras by Kodak that were based in part on film bodies, often Nikons. It used
a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced at $13,000.
The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first JPEG and MPEG standards
in 1988, which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage. The first consumer
camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the Casio QV-10 in 1995, and the first
camera to use CompactFlash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996.

The marketplace for consumer digital cameras was originally low resolution (either analog or
digital) cameras built for utility. In 1997 the first megapixel cameras for consumers were
marketed. The first camera that offered the ability to record video clips may have been the Ricoh
RDC-1 in 1995.
1999 saw the introduction of the Nikon D1, a 2.74 megapixel camera that was the first digital
SLR developed entirely by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 at introduction
was affordable by professional photographers and high end consumers. This camera also used
Nikon F-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they
already owned.
Also in 1999, Minolta introduced the RD-3000 D-SLR at 2.7 megapixels. This camera found
many professional adherents. Limitations to the system included the need to use Vectis lenses
which were designed for APS size film. The camera was sold with 5 lenses at various focal
lengths and ranges (zoom). Minolta did not produce another D-SLR until September 2004 when
they introduced the Alpha 7D (Alpha in Japan, Maxxum in North America, Dynax in the rest of
the world) but using the Minolta A-mount system from its 35 mm line of cameras.
2003 saw the introduction of the Canon EOS 300D, also known as the Digital Rebel, a 6
megapixel camera and the first DSLR priced under $1,000, and marketed to consumers.

Sensors and storage

Sensors read the intensity of light as filtered through different color filters, and digital memory
devices store the digital image information, either as RGB color space or as raw data.
There are two main types of sensors:
charge-coupled device (CCD) – photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter
CMOS sensors ("Active pixel sensor")
Nearly all digital cameras now use built in and/or removable solid state flash memory. Digital
camcorders that double as a digital still camera use flash memory, discs and internal hard disks.
For a time floppy disks and mini-CDs were used in early digital cameras such as the Sony
Mavica range.
Multifunctionality and connectivity
Except for some linear array type of cameras at the highest-end and simple web cams at the
lowest-end, a digital memory device (usually flash memory; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less
common) is usually used for storing images, which may then be transferred to a computer later.
Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as
webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer,
and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, many camcorders can take
still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with the same
functionality as Digital Cameras.
Performance metrics
The quality of a digital image is the sum of various factors, many of which are similar to film
cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels, millions of pixels) is only one of the major
factors, though it is the most heavily marketed. Pixel count metrics were created by the
marketing organizations of digital camera manufacturers because consumers can use it to easily
compare camera capabilities. It is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera.
The processing system inside the camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and
pleasing photograph is the most critical, which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform
better than higher-end cameras.
Lens quality: resolution, distortion, dispersion (see Lens (optics))
Capture medium: CMOS, CCD, negative film, reversal film etc.
Capture format: pixel count, digital file type (RAW, TIFF, JPEG), film format (135 film, 120
film, 5x4, 10x8).
Processing: digital and / or chemical processing of 'negative' and 'print'.

Pixel counts
The number of pixels n for a given maximum resolution (w horizontal pixels by h vertical pixels)
is the product n = w × h. This yields e. g. 1.92 megapixels (1,920,000 pixels) for an image of
1600 × 1200. The majority of compact (not DSLR) digital cameras have a 4:3 aspect ratio, i.e.
w/h = 4/3. According to Digital Photography Review, the 4:3 ratio is because "computer
monitors are 4:3 ratio, old CCD's always had a 4:3 ratio, and thus digital cameras inherited this
aspect ratio."
The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-
colour pixels. For cameras using single-chip image sensors the number claimed is the total
number of single-colour-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the
plane, as with the Bayer sensor, or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the Foveon
X3 sensor. However, the images will have different numbers of RGB pixels: the Bayer-sensor
cameras produce as many RGB pixels as photosensors via demosaicing (interpolation), while the
cameras with Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image files with one-third as many RGB
pixels as photosensors. It is difficult to compare the resolutions based on the megapixel ratings of
these two types of sensors, and therefore sometimes subject of dispute.

Resolution
Resolution provides an indication of the amount of detail that is captured, but, like the other
metrics, resolution is just another factor out of many in determining the quality of an image.
Furthermore, different methods of creating an image make it impossible to compare the
resolutions of cameras simply based on the number of pixels produced by the image sensor. For
example, the Sigma SD14 camera uses Foveon technology, which is quite different from most
other digital cameras. It claims to be a 14 megapixel camera, but is generally considered to have
detail-capturing capabilities roughly equivalent to 9 megapixels in terms of Bayer sensors.
The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by
looking at the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of
pixels in the picture area. For example, a sensor of 2560 × 1600 sensor elements is described as
"4 megapixels" (2560 × 1600 = 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 × 2048 increases the pixels in the
picture to 6,553,600 (6.5 megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the
same image size) increases by only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear
resolution is the square root of the increase in area resolution, i.e., megapixels in the entire
image.
Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality; a larger sensor with the same
number of pixels will generally produce a better image than a smaller one. One of the most
important differences is an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital
SLR cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler cameras of the same resolution.

Dynamic range
Practical imaging systems, digital and film, have a limited "dynamic range": the range of
luminosity which can be reproduced accurately. Highlights of the subject which are too bright
will be rendered as white, with no detail; shadows which are too dark will be rendered as black.
The loss of detail is not abrupt with film, or in dark shadows with digital sensors: some detail is
retained as brightness moves out of the dynamic range. "Highlight burn-out" of digital sensors,
however, can be abrupt, and highlight detail may be lost. And as the sensor elements for different
colors saturate in turn, there can be gross hue or saturation shift in burnt-out highlights.
Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image review, allowing the
photographer to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total
contrast of a scene by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique is used by
Fujifilm in its FinePix S3 Pro digital SLR. The image sensor contains additional photodiodes of
lower sensitivity than the main ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the
main sensor.
High dynamic range imaging (HDR) addresses this issue by increasing the dynamic range of
images by either increasing the dynamic range of the image sensor or by using exposure
bracketing and post-processing the separate images to create a single image with a higher
dynamic range.
HDR images curtail burn-outs and black-outs.

Applications and considerations

With the acceptable image quality and the other advantages of digital photography (particularly
the time pressures of vital importance to daily newspapers) the majority of professional news
photographers have begun capturing their images with digital cameras.
Digital photography has also been adopted by many amateur snapshot photographers, who take
advantage of the convenience of the form when sending images by email, placing them on the
World Wide Web, or displaying them in digital picture frames. Digital cameras have also been
integrated into many cell phones, although, because of the small, poor quality lenses and sensors
in most of these phones, the quality of these pictures makes them unsuitable for making even
moderate size prints.
Some commercial photographers, and some amateurs interested in artistic photography, have
been resistant to using digital rather than film cameras because they believe that the image
quality available from a digital camera is still inferior to that available from a film camera, and
the quality of images taken on medium format film is near-impossible to match at any price with
a digital camera. Some have expressed a concern that changing computer technology may make
digital photographs inaccessible in the future. A related concern in a specialized application is the
use of digital photographs in court proceedings, with the added difficulty of demonstrating an
image's authenticity. Some high-end film can also still be projected for viewing at a much higher
optical resolution than even the best digital projectors.
Other commercial photographers, and many amateurs, have enthusiastically embraced digital
photography because they believe that its flexibility and lower long-term costs outweigh its
initial price disadvantages. Almost all of the cost of digital photography is capital cost, meaning
that the cost is for the equipment needed to store and copy the images, and once purchased
requires virtually no further expense outlay. Film photography requires continuous expenditure
of funds for supplies and developing, although the equipment itself does not outdate so quickly
and has a longer service life. Some commercial photographers have also begun moving to digital
technology because of the tremendous editing capabilities now offered on computers. The
photographer is able to color-balance and manipulate the image in ways that traditional
darkroom techniques cannot offer, although film users can utilize the same technology with a
film scanner. With fully color-balanced systems from the camera to the monitor to the printer, the
photographer can now print what is actually seen on the screen.
However, digital cameras require batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently, and
this means that a photographer needs access to electrical outlets. Digital cameras also tend to be
much more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold. For this reason, photographers who work in
remote areas may favour film SLR cameras, though many higher-end DSLRs are now equipped
with weather-resistant bodies. Medium- and large-format film cameras are also still preferred by
publications insisting on the very highest detail and resolution.
Digital photography was used in astronomy long before its use by the general public and had
almost completely displaced photographic plates by the early 1980s. Not only are CCDs more
sensitive to light than plates, but they have a much more uniform and predictable response. The
CCDs used in astronomy are similar to those used by the general public, but are generally
monochrome and cooled with liquid nitrogen so as to reduce the noise caused by heat. Many
astronomical instruments have arrays of many CCDs, sometimes totaling almost a billion pixels.
Nowadays amateur astronomers also commonly use digital cameras, including the use of
webcams for speckle imaging or "video astronomy".

Sensor size and angle of view

Cameras with digital sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size will have a smaller
field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because angle of
view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.
If a sensor smaller than the full-frame 35mm film format is used, such as the use of APS-C-sized
digital sensors in DSLRs, then the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the
35mm full-frame format's field of view. This narrowing of the field of view is often described in
terms of a focal length multiplier or crop factor, a factor by which a longer focal length lens
would be needed to get the same field of view on a full-frame camera.
If the digital sensor has approximately the same resolution (effective pixels per unit area) as the
35mm film surface (24 x 36 mm), then the result is similar to taking the image from the film
camera and cutting it down (cropping) to the size of the sensor. For an APS-C size sensor, this
would be a reduction to approximately the center 50% of the image. The cheaper, non-SLR
models of digital cameras typically use much smaller sensor sizes and the reduction would be
greater.
If the digital sensor has a higher or lower density of pixels per unit area than the film equivalent,
then the amount of information captured will differ correspondingly. While resolution can be
estimated in pixels per unit area, the comparison is complex since most types of digital sensor
record only a single colour at each pixel location, and different types of film will have different
effective resolutions. There are various trade-offs involved, since larger sensors are more
expensive to manufacture and require larger lenses, while sensors with higher numbers of pixels
per unit area are likely to suffer higher noise levels.
For these reasons, it is possible to obtain cheap digital cameras with sensor sizes much smaller
than 35mm film, but with high pixel counts, that can still produce high-resolution images. Such
cameras are usually supplied with lenses that would be classed as extremely wide angle on a
35mm camera, and which can also be smaller size and less expensive, since there is a smaller
sensor to illuminate. For example, a camera with a 1/1.8" sensor has a 5.0x field of view crop,
and so a hypothetical 5-50mm zoom lens will produce images that look similar (again the
differences mentioned above are important) to those produced by a 35mm film camera with a
25–250mm lens, while being much more compact than such a lens for a 35mm camera since the
imaging circle is much smaller.
This can be useful if extra telephoto reach is desired, as a certain lens on an APS sensor will
produce an equivalent image to a significantly longer lens on a 35mm film camera shot at the
same distance from the subject, the equivalent length of which depends on the camera's field of
view crop. This is sometimes referred to as the focal length multiplier, but the focal length is a
physical attribute of the lens and not the camera system itself. The downside to this is that wide
angle photography is made somewhat more difficult, as the smaller sensor effectively and
undesirably reduces the captured field of view. Some methods of compensating for this or
otherwise producing much wider digital photographs involve using a fisheye lens and
"defishing" the image in post processing to simulate a rectilinear wide angle lens.
Full-frame digital SLRs, that is, those with sensor size matching a frame of 35mm film, include
Canon 1DS, 1DS II, and 5D, Kodak Pro DCS-14n, and Contax N Digital. There are very few
digital cameras with sensors that can approach the resolution of larger-format film cameras, with
the possible exception of the Mamiya ZD (22MP) and the Hasselblad H3D series of DSLRs (22
to 39 MP).
Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs include 1.3x for some Canon sensors, 1.5x for
Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon, Pentax and Konica Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6
(APS-C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma's Foveon sensors and 2x for Kodak and
Panasonic 4/3" sensors currently used by Olympus and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR
consumer compact and bridge cameras are larger, frequently 4x or more.
Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras.Table of
sensor sizes
Type Width (mm) Height (mm) Size (mm²)
1/3.6" 4.00 3.00 12.0
1/3.2" 4.54 3.42 15.5
1/3" 4.80 3.60 17.3
1/2.7" 5.37 4.04 21.7
1/2.5" 5.76 4.29 24.7
1/2" 6.40 4.80 30.7
1/1.8" 7.18 5.32 38.2
1/1.7" 7.60 5.70 43.3
2/3" 8.80 6.60 58.1
1" 12.8 9.6 123
4/3" 18.0 13.5 243
APS-C 25.1 16.7 419
35 mm 36 24 864
Back 48 36 1728

Storage
Storage for digital cameras have increased in size and technology with the time. From magnetic
tape (Steven Sasson's 1975 prototype) to floppy disks to flash memory.
 Digital camera backs
Most digital cameras are built to operate as a self-contained unit. This is especially so at the
lower-end, for these cameras usually include zoom lens and flashes that cannot be changed.
However, at the highest-end, some digital cameras are nothing but a sophisticated light-sensing
unit. Experienced photographers attach these digital "camera backs" to their professional
medium format SLR cameras, such as a Mamiya.
Area array
CCD
CMOS
Linear array
CCD (monochrome)
3-strip CCD with color filters
Linear array cameras are also called scan backs.
Single-shot
Multi-shot (three-shot, usually)
Scanning and multi-shot camera backs are usually used only in studios to take pictures of still
objects. Most earlier digital camera backs used linear array sensors which could take seconds or
even minutes for a complete high-resolution scan. The linear array sensor acts like its counterpart
in a flatbed image scanner by moving vertically to digitize the image.

Many early such cameras could only capture grayscale images. To take a color picture, it
required three separate scans done with a rotating colored filter. These are called multi-shot
backs. Some other camera backs use CCD arrays similar to typical cameras. These are called
single-shot backs.
Since it is much easier to manufacture a high-quality linear CCD array with only thousands of
pixels than a CCD matrix with millions, very high resolution linear CCD camera backs were
available much earlier than their CCD matrix counterparts. For example, you could buy an
(albeit expensive) camera back with over 7,000 pixel horizontal resolution in the mid-1990s.
However, as of 2004, it is still difficult to buy a comparable CCD matrix camera of the same
resolution. Rotating line cameras, with about 10,000 color pixels in its sensor line, are able, as of
2005, to capture about 120,000 lines during one full 360 degree rotation, thereby creating a
single digital image of 1,200 Megapixels.
Most modern digital camera backs use very large CCD matrices. This eliminates the need for
scanning. For example, Phase One produces a 39 million pixel digital camera back with a 49.1 x
36.8 mm CCD in 2008. This CCD array is a little smaller than a frame of 120 film and much
larger than a 35 mm frame (36 x 24 mm). In comparison, a consumer digital camera usually uses
a much smaller 1/2.5 inch or 7.176 x 5.329 mm (~ 1/1.8 inch) CCD sensor. Further, the 1/2.5 or
1/1.8 inch diagonal measurement is the size of the entire CCD chip- the actual photo-sensitive
area is much smaller.
At present, there are relatively few complete digital SLR cameras with sensors large enough to
compete with medium to large format film cameras. Phase One and Mamiya manufacture
medium format digital devices that can capture 16MP up to 39MP[4]. The units tend to be quite
large and expensive. Additionally, because of their high build quality and lack of moving parts
tend to be quite long lasting and are prominent on the used market [5].

Advantages of consumer digital cameras

The advantages of digital photography over traditional film include:
Instant review of pictures, with no wait for the film to be developed: if there's a problem with a
picture, the photographer can immediately correct the problem and take another picture
Minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs for digital uses,
such as computer storage and e-mailing, but not printing.
If one already owns a newer computer, permanent storage on digital media is considerably
cheaper than film
Photos may be copied from one digital medium to another without any degradation
Pictures do not need to be scanned before viewing them on a computer
Ability to print photos using a computer and consumer-grade printer
Ability to embed metadata within the image file, such as the time and date of the photograph,
model of the camera, shutter speed, flash use, and other similar items, to aid in the reviewing and
sorting of photographs. Film cameras have limited ability to handle metadata, though many film
cameras can "imprint" a date over a picture by exposing the film to an internal LED array (or
other device) which displays the date.
Ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device within the digital
camera; by contrast, a film camera would require regular changing of film (typically after every
24 or 36 shots)
Many digital cameras now include an AV-out connector (and cable) to allow the reviewing of
photographs to an audience using a television
Anti-shake functionality (increasingly common in inexpensive cameras) allow taking sharper
hand-held pictures where previously a tripod was required
Ability to change ISO speed settings more conveniently in the middle of shooting, for example
when the weather changes from bright sunlight to cloudy. In film photography, film must be
unloaded and new film with desired ISO speed loaded.
Smaller sensor format, compared to 35mm film frame, allows for smaller lenses, wider zoom
ranges, and greater depth of field.
Ability to use the same device to capture video as well as still images.
Ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black & white

Advantages of professional digital cameras

The Golden Gate Bridge retouched for painterly light effects
Immediate image review and deletion is possible; lighting and composition can be assessed
immediately, which ultimately conserves storage space.
Faster workflow: Management (colour and file), manipulation and printing tools are more
versatile than conventional film processes. However, batch processing of RAW files can be time
consuming, even on a fast computer.
Digital manipulation: A digital image can be modified and manipulated much easier and faster
than with traditional negative and print methods. The digital image to the right was captured in
RAW format, processed and output in 3 different ways from the source RAW file, then merged
and further processed for color saturation and other special effects to produce a more dramatic
result than was originally captured with the RAW image.
Recent manufacturers such as Nikon and Canon have promoted the adoption of digital single-
lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) by photojournalists. Images captured at 2+ megapixels are deemed
to be of sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. Six to 14
megapixel images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can
approximate the detail of film prints taken with 35 mm film based SLRs, and the latest 16
megapixel models can produce astoundingly detailed images which are believed to be better than
35mm film images and the majority of medium format cameras.[6]

Disadvantages of digital cameras

Whereas film cameras can have manual backups for electronic and electrical features, digital
cameras are entirely dependent on a electrical supply (usually batteries but sometimes power
cord when in 'tethered' mode).
Many digital sensors have less dynamic range than color print film. However, some newer CCDs
such as Fuji's Super CCD, which combines diodes of different sensitivity, have improved this
issue.
When highlights burn out, they burn to white without details, while film cameras retain a
reduced level of detail, as discussed above.
High ISO image noise manifests as multicolored speckles in digital images, rather than the less-
objectionable "grain" of high-ISO film. While this speckling can be removed by noise-reduction
software, either in-camera or on a computer, this can have a detrimental effect on image quality
as fine detail may be lost in the process.
Aliasing may add patterns to images which do not exist and would not appear in film.
For most consumers in prosperous countries such as the United States and Western Europe, the
advantages of digital cameras outweigh their disadvantages. However, many professional
photographers continue to prefer film. Much of the post-shooting work done by a photo lab for
film is done by the photographer himself for digital images. Concerns that have been raised by
professional photographers include: editing and post-processing of RAW files can take longer
than 35mm film, downloading a large number of images to a computer can be time-consuming,
shooting in remote sites requires the photographer to carry a number of batteries and add to the
load to carry, equipment failure—while all cameras may fail, some film camera problems (e.g.,
meter or rangefinder problems, failure of only some shutter speeds) can be worked around. As
time passes, it is expected that more professional photographers will switch to digital.
In some cases where very high-resolution digital images of good quality are needed it may be
advantageous to take large-format film photographs and digitise them. This allows the creation
of very large computer files without speed or capacity disadvantages at picture-taking time.[7]

Equivalent features
Noise in a digital camera's image is remarkably similar to film grain in a film camera. At high
ISO levels (film speed) the grain/noise becomes more apparent in the final image. Although film
ISO levels can be lower than digital ISO levels (25 and 50 respectively), digital settings can be
changed quickly according to requirements, while film must be physically replaced and protected
from all light during such replacement. Additionally, image noise reduction techniques can be
used to remove noise from digital images and film grain is fixed. From an artistic point of view,
film grain and image noise may be desirable when creating a specific mood for an image.
Modern digital cameras have comparable noise/grain at the same ISO as film cameras. Some
digital cameras though, do exhibit a pattern in the digital noise which is not found on film.
Speed of use
Previously digital cameras had a longer start-up delay compared to film cameras, i.e., the delay
from when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot, but this is no longer the
case for modern digital cameras. Similarly, the amount of time needed to write the data for a
digital picture to the memory card is now comparable to the amount of time it takes to wind the
film on a film camera, at least with modern digital cameras and modern fast memory cards. Both
digital cameras and film cameras have a small delay between when the shutter button is pressed
and when the picture is taken – this is the time necessary to autofocus the lens and compute and
set the exposure. (This shutter delay is practically zero for SLR and DSLR cameras.)

Frame rate
The Canon EOS-1D Mark III can take still photographs at 10 frames per second; the fastest film
SLR could shoot 10 frames per second. The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the
length of the film) while the Canon EOS-1D Mark III is able to take about 110 high definition
JPEG images before its buffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can
be used.
Image longevity
Although digital image data does not degrade (film stock can fade), the media on which the
digital images are stored can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image integrity. Film
should be stored under archival conditions for maximum longevity; this should not be a problem
for digital images as perfect copies can be made and stored elsewhere. Without backup it is
easier to lose huge amounts of digital data, for example by accidental deletion of folders, or by
failure of a mass storage device. In comparison, each generation of copies of film negatives and
transparencies is degraded compared to its parent. Film images can easily be converted to digital
with some possible loss of quality.
Colour reproduction
Colour reproduction (gamut) is dependent on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the
quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color
sensitivity; the photographer needs to understand his equipment, the light conditions, and the
media used to ensure accurate colour reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format
(sensor data) which makes it possible to choose color space in the development stage regardless
of camera settings; in effect the scene itself is stored as far as the sensor allows, and can to some
extent be "rephotographed" with different color balance, exposure, etc.

A comparison of frame aspect ratios

A typical digital camera's aspect ratio is 1.33 (4:3), the same as today's NTSC or PAL/SECAM
TVs or earliest movies. However, a 35 mm picture's aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several new digital
cameras will take photos in either ratio and nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio as
they usually use lenses designed for 35 mm film (Olympus and Panasonic digital SLRs are
notable exceptions). Some photo labs also offer the option of printing photos on 4:3 ratio paper,
as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005 Panasonic launched the first consumer camera with a native
aspect ratio of 16:9, matching HDTV. This is similar to a 7:4 aspect ratio, which was a common
size for APS film. Different aspect ratios are one of the main reasons consumers have cropping
issues when printing digital photos, or film photos as well. Moreover, the majority of digital
cameras take an aspect ratio of 4:3 which translates to a size of 4.5" x 6.0". This translates into
losing a half an inch when printing on the "standard" size of 4" x 6", an aspect ratio of 3:2.
Similar cropping occurs when printing on other sizes as well, i.e., 5"x7", 8"x10", or 11"x14".
The easy way to see if the aspect ratio you want will fit is to divide the length and width. If these
match then there will be no cropping off the original image. For example, an 8"x12" has the
same aspect ratio as a 4"x6" or a 12"x18", because 12 divided by 8 is 1.5, the same aspect ratio
as a 4"x6", which is also 1.5.
Market impact
In late 2002, 2 megapixel cameras were available in the United States for less than $100, with
some 1 megapixel cameras for under $60. At the same time, many discount stores with photo
labs introduced a "digital front end", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as
opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film
negatives. However, because digital images have a different aspect ratio than 35 mm film
images, people have started to realize that 4x6 inch prints crop some of the image off the print.
Some photofinishers have started offering prints with the same aspect ratio as the digital cameras
record.
In July 2003, digital cameras entered the single-use market with the release of the Ritz Dakota
Digital, a 1.2 megapixel (1280 x 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $11 (USD).
Following the familiar single-use concept long in use with film cameras, the Dakota Digital was
intended to be used by a consumer one time only. When the pre-programmed 25 picture limit is
reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-
ROM with their photos. The camera is then refurbished and resold. Since the introduction of the
Dakota Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most of the
various single-use digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital regarding
specifications and functionality, although a few include superior specifications and more
advanced functions (such as higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all, of these
single-use digital cameras cost less than $20 (USD), not including processing fees. However, the
huge demand for complex digital cameras at competitive prices has often resulted in
manufacturing shortcuts, evidenced by a large increase in customer complaints over camera
malfunctions, high parts prices, and short service life. Some digital cameras offer only a 90-day
warranty.
The price of 35mm compact cameras have dropped with manufacturers further outsourcing to
countries such as China. Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell
Kodak-branded film cameras in the developed world. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and
announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras, they
will continue to produce the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. In the same
month, Konica Minolta announced that it was pulling out of the camera business altogether. The
price of 35mm and APS compact cameras have dropped, probably due to direct competition from
digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film cameras. Pentax have reduced
production of film cameras but not halted it. The technology has improved so rapidly that one of
Kodak's film cameras was discontinued before it was awarded a "camera of the year" award later
in the year.
Since 2002, digital cameras have outsold film cameras. However, the use of 35mm cameras is
greater in developing countries. In Guatemala, for example, extremely high import duties on all
digital products serves to encourage sales and use of film cameras.
The decline in film camera sales has also led to a decline in purchases of film for such cameras.
In November 2004, a German division of Agfa-Gevaert, AgfaPhoto, split off. Within six months
it filed for bankruptcy . Konica Minolta Photo Imaging, Inc. will end production of Color film
and paper worldwide by March 31, 2007. In addition, by 2005, Kodak employed less than a third
of the employees that it had twenty years earlier. It is not known if these job losses in the film
industry have been offset in the digital image industry.
In addition, digital photography has resulted in some positive market impacts as well. The
increasing popularity of products such as digital photo frames and canvas prints is a direct result
of the increasing popularity of digital photography.
An example of digital photography. This photo was taken and made into a digital print in less
than 5 minutes.
Social impact
Throughout the history of photography, technological advances in optics, camera production,
developing, and imaging have had an effect on the way people view images. Prior to the 1970s,
most people in the United States used slide (or "chrome") film and viewed the images with a
slide projector. After that, people began to make prints from color negatives. The simultaneous
increased use of the Internet and email, relatively cheap computers and digital cameras led to a
tremendous increase in the number of photographic images in digital formats.
In the early part of the 21st century, the dominant method of viewing still images has been on
computers and, to a lesser extent, on cellular phones (although people still make and look at
prints). These factors have led to a decrease in film and film camera sales and film processing,
and has had a dramatic effect on companies such as Fuji, Kodak, and Agfa. In addition, many
stores that used to offer photofinishing services or sell film no longer do, and those that do have
seen a tremendous decline.
Photographic images have always been prone to fading and loss of image quality due to sun
exposure or improper storage of film negatives, slides, and prints. Since digital images are stored
as data on a computer, the image never loses visual quality, detail, or fidelity as long as the
digital media upon which it is stored remains intact. The only way to ruin a digital image is to
delete the image file, to corrupt or re-write some of the image file's data, or to damage or destroy
the electronic storage media (hard drive, disk, CD-ROM, flash card, etc.) upon which the file
resides. As with all computer files, making backups is the most effective way of ensuring that a
copy of a digital image can always be recovered.
Of growing concern for both archivists and historians is the relative non-permanence or
transitory nature of digital media. Unlike film and print, which are tangible and immediately
accessible to a person, storage of digital images is ever-changing with old media and decoding
software becoming obsoleted or inaccessible by new technologies. Historians are concerned that
we are creating a historical void where information and details about a given decade or era will
have been lost within either failed or inaccessible digital media. It is recommended that both
professional and amateur users develop strategies for migrating stored digital images from old
technologies to new. Scrapbookers who may have used film for creating artistic and personal
memoirs may need to modify their approach to digital photobooks in order to personalise them
and retain the special qualities of traditional photo albums.
It is likely that film will never again be purchased and used on the scale it was for most of the
20th century. However, it probably will not disappear altogether. At its advent in the early 19th
century, many believed photography would supplant the painting of portraits and landscapes. In
the same way that acrylic and oil paint are still dominant media in use by artists and hobbyists, it
is likely that photographic film and equipment will continue to be an option for enthusiasts. It is
also important to note that the differences between film and digital photography are far less
significant than the differences between painting and film photography.

Recent research and innovation

Research and development continues to refine the lighting, optics, sensors, processing, storage,
display, and software used in digital photography. Here are a few examples.
3D models can be created from collections of normal images. The resulting scene can be viewed
from novel viewpoints, but creating the model is very computationally intensive. An example is
Microsoft's Photosynth, which provides some models of famous places as examples.
High dynamic range cameras and displays are commercially available. >120 decibel sensors are
in development, and software is also available to combine multiple non-HDR images (shot with
different exposures) into an HDR image.
Motion blur can be dramatically removed by a flutter shutter (a flickering shutter which adds a
signature to the blur, which postprocessing can recognize). It is not yet commercially available.
An object's specular reflection can be captured using computer controlled lights and sensors.
This is needed to create attractive images of oil paintings, for instance. It is not yet commercially
available, but is starting to be used by museums.
Dust reduction systems are being put into cameras to help keep dust off of image sensors in
digital SLRs.
In a recent study, it was discovered that prolonged exposure to flash photography, particularly by
professional equipment, could deteriorate the cornea to such a state that infection could occur
and risk of eye cancer could become a far greater risk. The results of this study were presented to
the Department of Health, to which they replied the study was flawed and should not be
recognised by the general public.
Other areas of progress include improved sensors, more powerful software, enlarged-gamut
displays, and computer controlled lighting.
Used abbreviations: