Medical Physics

Chapter 10 X-Rays
10.1 The fundamental knowledge and the production of x-rays
X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been accelerated through potential differences of the order of 10 3 to 106 are allowed to stri!e a metal target" #hey were first observed by $%ntgen in 1&'() and were originally named as Rntgen rays *+" X-rays are of the same nature as light or any other electromagnetic wave and they are governed by ,uantum relations in their interaction with matter" #he energy of -ray photons is . / hv" 0avelengths of --rays range from appro-imately 0"001 to 10nm" X-ray wavelength can be measured ,uite precisely by crystal diffraction techni,ues" 10.1.1 The equipment of the X-ray production #he conditions of X-ray production1 *1+ there is a beam of electrons moving at a very high speed"

X-ray tube milliammeter

3tep-down transformer 3tep-up transformer

2ig" 10"1 X-ray producing system

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Chapter 10 X-rays

*4+ #here is a proper target which is to be a barrier to stop the motion of electrons and changes the !inetic energy of electrons into the energy of X-rays" #he productive set of X-rays *see 2igure 10"1+" #his part contains three components1 X-ray tube) one low voltage power supply *electrical source+ and one high voltage power supply" 5 common --ray tube is the Coolidge type" 5 thermionic * ) + cathode and an anode are enclosed in a glass tube that has been pumped down to an e-tremely low pressure" .lectrons emitted from the cathode can then travel directly to the anode with only a small probability of a collision on the way) and they reach the anode with a speed corresponding to the full potential difference across the tube" 10.1. The intensity and hardness of x-rays #he intensity of X-rays1 #he intensity of X-rays is defined as the energies of --rays passing through the unit area with its normal line along the propagating direction of --rays per unit time" I = N i h i
i =1 n

*10"1+

where Ni is the number of photons which have energies of hi" 6n order to increase the intensity of --rays) we need *1+ to increase the tube current *more electrons+ *4+ to increase tube voltage *increasing the energy of each -ray photon+" 7nder certain tube voltage) the current of filament control the intensity of --rays" #hey are proportional to each other" 10.1.! The hardness of x-rays #he hardness of --ray is defined as its penetrating ability" 6t depends on the wavelength of the --rays not on the number of --ray photons" #he hardness of --rays is proportional to the energy of --ray photons" 6t is !nown that the energy of --ray photons is proportional to the voltage applied to the --ray tube" #herefore) the hardness of --rays is usually e-pressed by tube voltage in kV.

10. The X-ray spectrum

10. .1 "ine spectrum of x-ray spectrum#

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Medical Physics

#he --rays from the tube usually contain different wavelengths and the plot of its intensity versus wavelength for spectrum of radiation emitted by an --ray tube is called --ray spectrum"

"

2ig"10"4 5n electron passing near a charged target atom e-periences an acceleration) and a photon is emitted in the process

2ig" 10"3 #he --ray spectrum of a metal target consists of a broad continuous spectrum plus a number of sharp lines) which are called characteristic --rays * +" X-rays are emitted from the anode surface as a conse,uence of bombardment * + by the electron stream" #wo distinct processes are involved in --ray emission" 3ome of the electrons are stopped by the target and their !inetic energy is converted directly to --radiation"
13(

Chapter 10 X-rays

9thers transfer their energy in whole or in part to the atoms of the target) which retain it temporarily as :energy of e-citation; but very shortly emit it as --radiation" #he latter is the characteristic of the target) while the former is not" 2or multiple electron atoms) the outer electrons of an atom are the ones responsible for the optical spectra of the elements" $elatively small amounts of energy suffice to remove these to e-cited states) and on their return to normal states) wavelength in or near the visible region are emitted" #he inner electrons) being closer to the nucleus) are more tightly bound) and much more energy is re,uired to displace them from their normal levels" 5s a result) we would e-pect a photon of much larger energy) and hence much higher fre,uency) to be emitted when the atom returns to its normal state after the displacement of an inner electron" #his is) in fact) the case) and it is the displacement of the inner electrons that gives rise to the emission of --rays" 10. . $ontinuous x-ray spectrum# 6n addition to the --ray line spectrum there is a bac!ground of continuous --ray radiation from the target of an --ray tube" #his is due to the sudden deceleration of those :cathode rays; *bombarding electrons+ that do not happen to e<ect an atomic electron" #he remar!able feature of the continuous spectrum is that while it e-tends indefinitely towards the long wavelength end) it is cut off very sharply at the short wavelength end" #he ,uantum theory furnishes a simple e-planation of the short-wave limit of the continuous --ray spectrum *it is called =remsstrahlung +" Cutoff wavelength
eU = h ma- = h c

min

*10"4+ *10"3+

min =

hc 1 1"484 = nm e U U *kV +

10.! The %asic properties of x-rays

10.!.1 The general properties of x-rays 6oni>ing function --ray enables the atoms and molecules to be ioni>ed and this characteristic is ,uite useful in medical treatment" 2luorescence function1 --ray 2luoroscopy *+ 5ctinic *+ function1 --ray photography radioactive treatment in medicine biological effect1 #his function is the basis of and also the reason to protect"
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Medical Physics

penetration capability1 no matter the -- ray 2luoroscopy * + ? --ray photography re,uires such function"

10.!. The diffraction of x-rays #he wavelength of --rays is about 0"001 @ 10 nm and this length is comparable to the distance between two atoms in crystals"

2ig" 10"8 Principle of X-ray diffraction

Principle of spectrograph of --rays

6n order to !now more about this part) read your te-tboo! written in Chinese

10.& The attenuation of x-rays

0hen --rays go through matter) various interactions will happen in the process" X-rays are absorbed by matter" 10.&.1 The attenuation law of monochromatic x-rays 0e use the word :monochromatic; as different matters have different abilities on absorbing different wavelength of --rays"
I = I 0 e x

*10"8+

0here I0 is the intensity of --rays and I is the intensity of --rays after penetrating through the x thic!ness of matter" #he intensity decrease follows the e-ponential rule" m is the linear attenuation coefficient" 2or a specific matter) the attenuation is proportional to the density of the matter" =ecause of this) the mass attenuation coefficient, m) could be defined) denoted as

m =

*10"(+

13A

Chapter 10 X-rays

6t can be used to compare the absorbing abilities among different materials" 6f we introduce the mass thic!ness xm / r x, the attenuation equation could e !ritten as I = I 0 e m xm 7nits1 xm *gBcm-4+ ) mm *cm4 Bg-1+ #he thic!ness or the depth which could absorb the half amount of incident --rays is called half-value depth (or thickness). *9r+
x1 C 4 = ln 4 =
x

*10"6+

0"6'3

x m )1 C 4 =

ln 4

0"6'3

*10"A+ *10"&+

1 x1 C 4 I = I0 4

1 xm )1 C 4 I = I0 4

xm

10.&. The relation of attenuation' ( coefficient to the wa)elength and atomic num%er 2or the low --rays used in medicine) the photon energy is between tens @ hundreds keV. 2or different atoms and different wavelength of --rays) the mass attenuation coefficient is appro-imately satisfied with the following relation1

m = "# 3
" is generally a constant and is about 3 @ 8"

*10"'+

10.* +pplications of x-rays in medicine

10.*.1 Treatment #he --rays used in clinic treatment is mainly for cancer" 6t is found that --rays can induce a series of biological effects in human body *ioni>ing) Compton effect) producing electron-positron pairs+" #hey can damage especially the biological tissue cells which are active in fission" Cancer cells are such cells" #herefore) the --rays can !ill them or at least can reduce their fission speed"

10.*. ,iagnosis

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Medical Physics

-luoroscopy ' ( and photography ' ( # 5s different parts and organs in human body have different absorbing abilities of --rays) the homogeneous intensity of --rays will be not homogeneous after penetrating human body" 6f the non-homogeneous --rays are pro<ected onto fluorescent screen) the image of the organs can be formed on the screen" #his is called --ray fluoroscopy *roentgenoscopy+" 6f the transmitted --rays are irradiated on a negative film) the picture can be seen after development" #he techni,ue is called --ray photography" ,igital su%traction angiography ' (. *1+ Digital1 #he general principle of this techni,ue is to change the photograph data into digital signalE *4+ subtraction and angiography1 6n the blood vessel) we could in<ect some material) called contrast medium) which can absorb more --rays" 6f we ta!e two photographs) one of them is normal *without contrast medium+ and the other contains contrast medium 6f we translate them into digital signals *numerical data+) and then subtract one by the other) the blood vesselFs picture can be obtained" 5ccording to this picture) you could find the status of blood vessel whether it is in normal or abnormal situation" 2or e-ample) you could easily find the positions where it becomes narrow) where it has a tumor) where the blood is obstructed * +) where it is deformity or malformation * + and so on" 10.*.! X-$T $T# Computeri>ed #omography *X + .asic principle of $T# 5s different tissue has different absorbing coefficient and different thic!ness also has different absorbing coefficient) the coefficient are ta!en as a parameter" #he principle is to set up the distribution of the coefficient in each part of every layer of the material in ,uestion and using computer to reconstruct the image of the material"

10.*.& $T /canner C# 3canner1 Computeri>ed #omography 3canner1 an --ray machine that can produce stereographic images *former name1 C5# 3canner *Computer-5ided #omography+

0ro%lems
1" 0hat is the difference between the spontaneous emission and the stimulated radiationG b+ #he fre,uency of the photons from stimulated emission is one time higher than that of the photons from spontaneous emission"
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Chapter 10 X-rays

c+ #he number of the photons from stimulated emission is one time higher than that of the photons from spontaneous emission d+ 2or stimulated emission) the propagating direction) the vibrational direction and the initial phase of the emitted photons are as same as those of stimulating photons" e+ 3timulated emission produces the population inversion" 4" #he angular spread of a particular laser beam is 10 -( rad" 0hat is the diameter of the spot formed on the moonFs surface if the laser is directed toward the moon from the earthG *the earth-to-moon distance is 3"& 10( !m"+ 3" *a+ if a laser emits 10 Houles of energy in a pulse lasting ( 10-11 s) what power is emittedG *b+ 0hat is the intensity of the beam if it is 4 10-6 m4 in areaG 8" 0hat is the length of a laser pulse in a vacuum if it is emitted in 10-11 sG (" 5 ruby laser emits light at 6'3"8 nm" 6f the energy released in each 10 -11 second pulse is 0"1 H) how many photons are in the pulseG

180