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Coupled Circuits Professor J R Lucas 1 November 2010

Coupled Circuits
J. R. Lucas
Resonance
Resonance in sound.
At resonance
maximum vibration (string) and hear the
greatest sound (water column)
Same idea is present in electrical engineering.
Resonance basically occurs when a quantity,
such as voltage or current, becomes a maximum.
Maximum one quantity minimum with another
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 2 May 2011
So that resonance could occur at a minimum value of a
quantity as well.

For example, for a given source voltage,
current would be maximum when
impedance of the circuit is a minimum.
In an a.c. circuit,
would have a minimum value when X is zero
(Possible because inductive and capacitive reactances
have opposite signs).
Z
V
I =
2 2
X R jX R Z + = + =
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 3 May 2011
When X is zero, the circuit is purely resistive and the
power factor of the circuit becomes unity.
Thus resonance is also defined in terms of the power
factor of a circuit becoming unity.
Three main methods of defining resonance condition:
(a) current through a circuit for a given source voltage
becomes a maximum:
- voltage across a circuit for a given source current
becomes a minimum,
- admittance of the circuit becomes a maximum, or
- impedance of the circuit becomes a minimum.

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 4 May 2011

(b) voltage across a circuit for a given source current
becomes a maximum:
- current through a circuit for a given source voltage
becomes a minimum,
- impedance of the circuit becomes a maximum, or
- admittance of the circuit becomes a minimum.
and
(c) power factor of the circuit becomes Unity:
- when the impedance of the circuit is purely real,
- when the admittance of the circuit is purely real, or
- when the voltage and the current are in phase.

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 5 May 2011
Condition (a) occurs in series circuits, and is usually
referred to as Series Resonance.
Condition (b) occurs in parallel circuits, and is usually
referred to as Parallel Resonance.
While series resonance and parallel resonance are exclusive
conditions, unity power factor condition could correspond
to either series resonance or parallel resonance.
In complicated circuits, the unity power factor condition
could also give displaced answers from the other two
conditions.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 6 May 2011

When does oscillations occur ?
What determines natural frequency of oscillations ?
Consider the simple pendulum.
Why does it oscillate ?
Because of stored energy in the system
potential and kinetic energy.
During oscillations, energy transfers
between potential energy and kinetic energy.
Natural frequency of oscillations, depends
on the value of gravity, length and so on.
Friction in the medium would reduce the energy and cause the
pendulum to slow down and finally stop.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 7 May 2011
In an electric circuit,
Energy is stored in the
electrostatic field in the capacitance
electromagnetic field in the inductance.
Oscillations occur when the energy gets transferred
between these two forms.
Resistance would cause energy losses
results decreasing magnitude of oscillations.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 8 May 2011
Series Resonance
Occurs in a circuit where the energy storage elements
are connected in series.



At angular frequency of e,
Z = R + jeL + = R + j

Consider value of e when | I | becomes a maximum for a
given V | Z | becoming a minimum, or | V| becoming
a minimum for a given I.
R
jeL

C je
1

)
1
(
C
L
e
e
C je
1
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 9 May 2011

magnitude of impedance = | Z |, | Z |
2
= R
2
+

phase angle of Z, u =
Condition for maximum or minimum | Z | can either be
obtained by
differentiation of | Z | or
differentiation of even | Z |
2
or
inspection from physical considerations.
Since | Z |
2
consists of the sum of two square terms, the
minimum value for any of components would be zero.
2
)
1
(
C
L
e
e
(

R
C L e e / 1
tan
1
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 10 May 2011
Since only the second term is dependant on e, the
minimum value could occur when second term is zero.

i.e. for minimum value of | Z |
2
,= 0 or
or

This would also correspond to the minimum value of Z.
If the current were considered,

| I | = ,

phase angle of I = u
)
1
(
C
L
e
e
C
L
e
e
1
=
LC
o
1
= e
2 2
)
1
( )
1
(
C
L R
E
C
L j R
E
e
e
e
e +
=
+
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 11 May 2011











Q
R 0
high Q
low R
low Q
high R
| I |

e

e

t/2

t/2

e
o
e
o
high Q
low R
low Q
high R
Q
R 0
lead

lag

phase
angle

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 12 May 2011










Now consider the frequency at which the power factor
of the circuit becomes unity.
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
v
e

R
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e

X
L
X
C
X
L
+X
C
e




I
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
e

R
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 13 May 2011
Occurs when imaginary-part(impedance) 0
or imaginary-part(current) 0.
= 0, or at e = e
o
. (same as before). i.e. j
Shape of curve is dependant on value of r of the circuit.
As r 0, perfect resonance occurs, I at e = e
o

As r 0, angle of current with respect to voltage tends
to either t/2 or t/2, changing at e = e
o
.
Series resistance r defines quality of the resonance.
If r is low, P
loss
is low and hence the quality is high.
At resonance, low r means r << Le
o
and r << 1/Ce
o
.
)
1
(
C
L
e
e
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 14 May 2011
Quality of a Circuit
In simplest terms, we could defined quality of the
circuit in terms of either ratio of Le
o
to r or 1/Ce
o
to r.

Quality = at resonance, for a series circuit

[For a parallel circuit, quality would actually increase
when value of resistance R rather R 0, and
hence inverse ratio would define the quality]
A means of measuring quality of a resonant circuit has
been defined,
but which would appear to cause confusing results if the
series and parallel circuits are considered.
r C r
L
o
o
e
e 1
=
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 15 May 2011
Quality Factor Q
Necessary to have a unique definition
In terms of quantities which do not vary with circuit.
Quality of resonance is a relationship
between
maximum energy stored in energy storing elements (L or C)
and
energy dissipation in resistive elements in the circuit.
For consistency with original definitions, Q factor has a
multiplying constant 2t, in addition to ratio of energies.

Q =
cycle per n dissipatio energy
energy stored total
2 t
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 16 May 2011
Determination of total stored energy
Consider the simple pendulum.
maximum kinetic energy occurs at the
lowest point
maximum potential energy occurs at the
highest point
total stored energy does not change if
friction were absent.
It is easier to calculate either the
maximum kinetic energy only at the lowest point, or the
maximum potential energy only at the highest point,
rather than calculate both at any other point.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 17 May 2011
Total stored energy in Electrical Circuit
maximum energy stored in the electromagnetic field
occurs in the inductor when current is a maximum,
maximum energy stored in the electrostatic field
occurs in the capacitor when voltage is a maximum.
Total energy does not change unless dissipated by the
resistive elements in the circuit.
For calculation purposes, energy stored at either the
peak current or the peak voltage is considered.
For a series circuit, it is easier to consider the current
through the inductance rather than the voltage across
the capacitor.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 18 May 2011
Verification of Energy based and Impedance based formulae
Necessary to verify whether energy based formula for Q
is compatible with the impedance based formula for Q.
For the series circuit, for a current of i(t) = I
m
sin et
Maximum energy stored in inductor = L I
m
2

Energy dissipated per cycle in series resistor = r I
rms
2
T,
where T = 2t/e
Q-factor for series circuit would be given by

Q =

which is the expected result.
Similar verification can be done for parallel circuit.
r
L
I r
LI
T rI
LI
m
m
rms
m
e
e t
t =

=
/ 2 ) 2 / (
. 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 19 May 2011
Relationship between Q-factor and bandwidth
In a resonance curve, P
max

occurs at I
max
(or V
max
) at
resonance frequency (e
o
).
Since P I
2
(or V
2
), half
power occurs when I (or V)
magnitude decreases by a
factor of \2.
Points (e

and e

) on the
resonance curve where half power occurs are known as
half power points.
I

I
m

2
m
I

0

e

e

e
o
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 20 May 2011
Frequency range between the half power points is
defined as the bandwidth of the resonance curve.
Fractional deviation of frequency from resonance o =

For a series resonant circuit, we have the condition

| I | = ,

and
R C R
L
Q
o
o
e
e
1
= =
,
LC
o
1
= e



o
o
e
e e
2 2
)
1
( )
1
(
C
L R
E
C
L j R
E
e
e
e
e +
=
+
2 2
1
.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
e
e
e
e
o
o o
o
L
R
L
E
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 21 May 2011
so that | I |










2
1
2
2
1
1
.
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
e
e
e
e
e
o
o
o
Q
L
E
2
1
2
2
1
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
=
o
o o
o
Q
L
E
e
e e
e
e e
e
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 22 May 2011
near resonance, if the Q factor is high (as usually is),

e ~ e
o
and =o

,

| I | =


| I | is a maximum when o = 0, giving |I
max
| = ,

at the half power points,.

i.e. i

= = =

2 ~
+
e
e e
o
o
o
e
e e
| |
2
1
2 2
2
1
2
2
4 1
4
1
o
o e
Q R
E
Q
L
E
o
+
=
(

+
R
E
max
2
1
max
2
1
, I I P P = =
2
max
I
R
E

2
1
| |
2
1
2 2
2
1
4 1 o Q R
E
+
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 23 May 2011
i.e. 1 + 4 Q
2
o

2
= 2, giving 4 Q
2
o

2
= 1

o

= + , o

=

Bandwidth = (e

e

) = (e

e
o
) + ( e
o
e

)

= o

e
o
o

e
o
=

Q-factor =
bandwidth
frequency resonance


[This same definition can be shown to be
true for parallel resonance as well]
Parallel Resonance
R
jeL

C je
1

Q 2
1
Q 2
1
Q
o
e
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 24 May 2011
Parallel resonance occurs in a circuit where
the different energy storage elements are
connected in parallel.
At an angular frequency of e,
Y =
R
1
+
L je
1
+
C je
=
)
1
(
1
L
C j
R e
e +


magnitude of admittance = | Y |, | Y |
2
=
2
2
)
1
(
1
L
C
R e
e +

parallel resonance is seen to occur when imaginary part is zero.

i.e. =
Also corresponds to unity power factor.
L e
1
C e
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 25 May 2011
In practical circuits, series resonance and parallel
resonance can occur in different parts of same circuit.
The unity power factor resonance may correspond to
one of these.
Example 1
Find the types of resonance
and resonance frequencies
of the circuit shown.
Solution
Z = R + jeL
1
+ = R + jeL
1
+
R
L
1
C

L
2
C j
L j
C j
L j
e
e
e
e
1
1
2
2
+

C L
L j
2
2
2
1 e
e

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 26 May 2011
Consider each type of resonance condition in turn
(a) when the power factor is unity
equivalent impedance is purely real.

Therefore eL
1
+ = 0

i.e. L
1
+ L
2
- e
2
L
1
L
2
C = 0, or ,

where L
eq
=

It is seen that the equivalent inductance is L
1
// L
1
.
Thus unity power factor resonance frequency
corresponds to e =
C L
eq
1

C L
L
2
2
2
1 e
e

C L C L L
L L
eq
1
2 1
2 1
2
=
+
= e
2 1
2 1
L L
L L
+
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 27 May 2011
(b) when the impedance of the circuit is a minimum
Examination shows that this also corresponds to a
minimum value of impedance or series resonance.
This need not be the case for all examples.

(c) when the impedance of the circuit is a maximum

| Z |
2
= R
2
+

Z will have a maximum value of at (1 - e
2
L
2
C) = 0

resonant frequency for parallel resonance =
2
2
2
2
1
1
(

+
C L
L
L
e
e
e
C L
2
1
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 28 May 2011
Example 2
Find the unity power factor resonance
frequency of circuit.
Also determine the parallel resonance frequency
if R = 20 O, L = 10 mH, and C = 4 F.
Solution

Z = =


for unity power factor resonance, impedance Z is purely real.
R
C

L

C j
L j R
C j
L j R
e
e
e
e
1
1
) (
+ +
+
CR j LC
L j R
e e
e
+
+
) 1 (
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 29 May 2011
CR
L
LC
R
e
e
e
=
) 1 (
2
, i.e. C R
2
= L (1 - e
2
L C)
e
2
=
C L
CR L
2
2

, or e =
C L
CR L
2
2


Unity power factor resonance

e =

Now consider the magnitude of the impedance

| Z |
2
=

for maximum value of | Z |, | Z |
2
must be a maximum.

Hz s rad 3 . 729 / 6 . 4582
10 4 10 100
400 10 4 10 10
6 6
6 3
= =




2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
) 1 ( R C LC
L R
e e
e
+
+
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 30 May 2011

= [(1-e
2
LC)
2
+ e
2
C
2
R
2
].2eL
2
i.e.

(R
2
+ e
2
L
2
)[2(1-e
2
LC).( 2eLC) + 2eC
2
R
2
] = 0
i.e. (1-e
2
LC)
2
L
2
+ e
2
C
2
L
2
R
2
+ 2R
2
LC(1-e
2
LC)
+ 2 e
2
L
2
LC(1-e
2
LC) (R
2
+ e
2
L
2
)C
2
R
2
=0
e
4
L
4
C
2
+ e
2
[-2L
3
C + C
2
L
2
R
2
- 2R
2
L
2
C
2
+2 L
3
C
L
2
C
2
R
2
] +L
2
+ 2R
2
LC - C
2
R
4
= 0
substituting values for the components
-0.1610
-18
e
4
1.2810
-12
e
2
+ 1.294410
-4
= 0
e
4
+ 810
6
e
2
0.809010
15
= 0

e d
Z d
2
| |
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 31 May 2011
This quadratic equation in e
2
can be solved as follows
e
2
= 410
6
\(1610
12
+ 0.809010
15
)
= 410
6
28.72310
6
= 26.72310
6

e = 4972 rad/s = 791.4 Hz
It can be seen that this resonance frequency is close but
not the same as the earlier result of 729.3 Hz.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 32 May 2011
Loci Diagrams for RL and RC circuits
(a) Series RL circuit
For a constant voltage V at constant
frequency e applied,
If resistance R of the circuit varies,
V
R
+ V
L
= V = a constant.
V = (R + j eL) .I = (R + j X) .I
If V is taken as reference, the
current I would lag the voltage by
a phase angle |.
R
L

V, e

I
I

V
R
V
L
P

|

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 33 May 2011
V
R
is in phase with I and V
L
would be quadrature
leading I (or current I lagging the voltage V
L
by 90
o
).
Since V
R
and V
L
must be mutually perpendicular, when
R varies, point P must move along a semi-circle.
This semi-circle is the locus of point P as R is varied.
Consider the variation of I as R varies
and X is kept fixed.
V = V
L
+ V
R
.
V
L
is first drawn perpendicular to I
(such that current lags voltage by 90
o
).
The locus of the point P will again be
a semi-circle.
I

V
R
V
L
P

|

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 34 May 2011
Since X is fixed, there will be a definite proportion
between length of phasor I and length of phase V
L
.
Also, I is always lagging the voltage V
L
by 90
o
.
Thus the locus of I must also be a semi-circle lagging
the semi-circle for voltage V
L
by 90
o
as shown.
(b) Series RL circuit with inductance L having a finite
resistance r
In practical inductances winding
resistance r may not be negligible.
V
X
would have two components
corresponding to inductive and
resistive components respectively.
R
L

I
r
V, e

V
X
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 35 May 2011
The locus of the node between
the resistor and the inductor is
no longer a semi-circle.
However, for total resistance
R + r the locus of that point
with the pure inductance part remains a semi-circle.
If X is variable, then ratio of V
R
to V
r
remains a
constant and value of the internal resistance of the coil
can be determined.

I

V
R
V
L
P

V
r
V
X
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 36 May 2011
(c) Series RC circuit
Series RC circuit analysed in a similar
manner to series RL circuit.
However current would be leading
instead of lagging the voltage.
Unlike in the practical inductor, the
practical capacitor does not have
significant losses.
Thus the practical locus diagram is
same as the theoretical diagram.
(d) Parallel RL and RC Circuits
Loci diagrams of parallel RL and RC circuits is obtained in
a manner similar to obtaining that for the series circuits.
I

V
R
V
C
P

|

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 37 May 2011
Mutual Inductance
Mutual coupling between coils exist, when one coil is in
the magnetic field created by another coil.





When a varying current i
p
(t) flows in the primary
winding, then a varying flux |
p
is produced in the same
coil and produces a back emf e
p
(t).
L
p
L
s
|
p
|
m
e
p
e
s
M

i
p
i
s
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 38 May 2011
Part of the flux produced |
m
can link with a second coil.
Since this flux will also be varying, an induced emf e
s

will be produced in the second coil.
e
p
= N
p

t d
d
p
|
, e
s
= N
s

t d
d
m
|
, |
m
= k . |
p

k coefficient of coupling
mutual flux |
m
primary flux |
p
k < 1, k ~ 1 (slightly less but very close to unity).
In the linear region of the magnetisation characteristic,
flux produced |
p
current i
p
producing the flux.
Also, mutual flux |
m
current i
p
.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 39 May 2011
Thus, induced emf e
s
rate of change of current i
p
.
The constant of proportionality is defined as the Mutual
inductance M
sp
.
i.e. t d
i d
M
t d
i d
e
p
sp
p
s
=
, where
p
p s
p
m s
sp
i
kN
i
N
M
|
|
= =

Thus the (coefficient of) Mutual inductance is defined
as the flux linkage produced in a secondary winding per
unit current in the primary winding.
The sign associated with the mutual inductance can be
positive or negative dependent on the relative directions
of the two windings.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 40 May 2011
Direction of voltage induced in second coil will depend
on the relative direction of winding of the two coils.
Flux |
p
in a coil is related to the
current i
p
producing the flux
through the self inductance of coil
L
p
and may be expressed in terms
of the dimensions of the magnetic
path (length l and cross-section A) as follows.
i.e. L
p
=
p
p p
p
p p
p
p p
i
A H N
i
A B N
i
N |
= =
, but N
p
i
p
= H
p
l
L
p
=
l
A N
l i
A i N N
p
p
p p p

2
=


l

A

N
p
N
s
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 41 May 2011
The mutual inductance may be similarly derived in
terms of the dimensions.
M
sp
=
p
p p sp
p
p s sp
p
p s sp
i
A H N k
i
A B N k
i
N k |
= =

=
l
A N N k
l i
A i N N k
s p sp
p
p p s sp

=


similarly, M
ps
=
l
A N N k
p s ps


Coupling between the primary and the secondary, for all
practical purposes, will be identical to the coupling
between the secondary and the primary, so that k
ps
= k
sp
.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 42 May 2011
Thus it can be seen that for all practical purposes, M
ps
is
identical to M
sp
, and would usually be denoted by a
single quantity M and a single coefficient k.

M = ,


L
p
= , L
s
=

giving M
2
= k
2
L
p
L
s
or M = k
s p
L L
l
A N kN
p s

l
A N
p

2
l
A N
s

2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 43 May 2011
Energy stored in a pair of mutually coupled coils
Inductor stores energy in electromagnetic field =
2
2
1
LI
.
When mutual coupling is present, total energy stored by
two coils is different from addition of terms.
Difference is the effective energy
stored in the mutual inductance.
Total energy stored
= } v
p
i
p
dt + } v
s
i
s
dt
=
} }
+ dt i
dt
i d
M
dt
i d
L dt i
dt
i d
M
dt
i d
L
s
p
s
s p
s
p
p
). ( ). (

= } L
p
i
p
di
p
} M i
p
di
s
+ } L
s
i
s
di
s
} M i
s
di
p

V
p
V
s
L
p
L
s
i
s
i
p
M

2
2
1
LI
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 44 May 2011
This may be grouped to give
Total energy stored
= } L
p
i
p
di
p
+ } L
s
i
s
di
s
} M i
p
di
s
} M i
s
di
p

=
s p s s p p
i i M i L i L +
2
2
1
2
2
1

Therefore the effective energy stored in the mutual
inductance corresponds to M i
p
i
s
.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 45 May 2011
Equivalent inductance of 2 mutually coupled coils in series



Coils can either be connected in series so that
fluxes aid each other, or fluxes oppose each other.
Since each current is i,
Total energy stored =
i i M i L i L .
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ +
or
=
i i M i L i L .
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
+


L
1
L
2
L
1
L
2
i

i

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 46 May 2011
If a single equivalent inductor L
eq
is considered,
total energy stored =
2
2
1
i L
eq
.
Thus equating the energies
2
2
1
i L
eq
=
i i M i L i L .
2
2 2
1
2
1 2
1
+ +
or
i i M i L i L .
2
2 2
1
2
1 2
1
+

i.e. L
eq
= L
1
+ L
2
+ 2 M or L
1
+ L
2
2 M

The effective inductance can either increase or decrease
due to mutual coupling dependant on whether the coils
are wound in the same direction or not.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 47 May 2011
Example 3
Consider a couple of coils connected in series as shown.
Let each coil have N turns,
then total series connected
coil has 2N turns.
If the dimensions of the common magnetic circuit on
which these are wound have area A and length l
L
1
= L
2
=
l
A N
2
,
and total coil L =
l
A N
l
A N
2 2
4 ) 2 (
=
.
L
1
+ L
2
is obviously not equal to this total.
L
2
L
1
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 48 May 2011
What went wrong ?
If the two coils are wound on the same magnetic circuit,
very closely, then there would be mutual coupling with
the coefficient of coupling almost unity.
Then, M = k
s p
L L
~ 1
l
A N
l
A N
l
A N
2 2 2
=

Thus the total inductance would be
L
1
+ L
2
+ 2 M =
l
A N
2
4
as expected.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 49 May 2011
Magnetic circuit Analysis
When a coil is wound round a magnetic core,
the core becomes magnetised
- one side becomes a north pole, and
- other side becomes a south pole.
There are different methods of remembering which side
is which.
One of the simplest methods to remember is



Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 50 May 2011
When we look at a coil from one side,
- if current direction is anti-clockwise, nearer side is a
north pole (also seen from arrow direction of N);
- if current direction is clockwise, nearer side is a
south pole (also seen from arrow direction of S).



Consider coil A and coil B,
we can easily visualise that they are both wound in the
same direction.
A

B

left hand side

right hand side

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 51 May 2011
i.e. if we examine the coil from the left hand side when
a current is entering the left hand side end of the coil,
each coil would produce a north pole at the left hand
side and a south pole at the right hand side.



With a slightly differently drawn diagram it would be
less obvious.
Further if the magnetic circuit was not a straight line,
confusion could tend to enter the decision.
A

B

A

B

left hand side

right hand side

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 52 May 2011
A method would be to open out the bent path to make it
a straight line and then compare directions.
Each time we analyse a magnetic circuit, we would
need to look at the relative directions of the two coils.
However, once wound, the relative directions of the
coils would not change, independent of how we look at
the coils.
Thus we can use a simpler method to know the relative
directions of the coils. For this purpose we use dots to
denote similar ends of different coils.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 53 May 2011
Dot Notation
Relative directions of coils is important in determining
direction of induced voltage with mutual coupling.
Consider the following magnetic circuits, and the
corresponding electrical circuit with polarities defined
by the dotted ends.


Note that there are two possible ways of drawing the
dotted ends, but both give the same relationship to each
other.
A

B

A

B

A

B

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 54 May 2011
The dots do not indicate that one end is a north pole or a
south pole, as this would depend on which direction the
current passes in the coil.
Dots indicate similar ends, in that if a changing flux
passes in magnetic core, then induced voltages would
either all correspond to direction of dot or all to
opposite direction.
Thus they indicate similar ends of windings only.
Consider the same core as before, but with the coil B
wound in the opposite direction.



A

B
A B
A B
P Q R S
P Q R S
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 55 May 2011
The position of the dots again indicate the different
winding directions.
Once the dots are drawn to indicate similar ends, unlike
in the magnetic circuit, there is no real necessity to
physically place the winding diagram in the same
physical position. Thus the following diagrams would
be identical.


Thus it is seen that once the dots have been marked to
identify similar ends, the physical positions have no
meaning and we can draw them where it is convenient.
P

Q R S
P Q
R
S
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 56 May 2011
Let us now see how, once the dots have been marked, in
an electrical circuit the correct directions of the induced
voltage scan be obtained.




If a single coil is considered, the induced voltage would
always be opposite to the direction of current flow in
that winding.
The voltages V
1
and V
2
have been drawn as such in the
above diagrams.
A

B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 57 May 2011
Let us now see what would happen due to each
individual current.
Since each winding is wound in the same direction, the
current I
1
would induce voltages in A and B in the same
sense.
Also if the current I
2
is marked as shown, then it too
would induce voltages in A and B in the same sense,
and also in the same sense as due to the current I
1
.
The fluxes and the corresponding induced emfs are thus
additive as the coils are wound in the same direction.
This is also shown by the non magnetic equivalent
circuit.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 58 May 2011
In other words, the voltage drop due to the self
inductance term and the voltage drop due to the mutual
inductance term have the same sign.
Consider what would happen if direction of current I
2
is
changed without changing any physical considerations.





Obviously, the direction of the voltage V
2
due to this
current I
2
on its own winding will change in direction.
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A

B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 59 May 2011
However, the induced voltage due to the current I
1
will
have the same direction for both coils, as the physical
directions of the two coils are still the same as before.
Thus it is seen that the voltage drop due to the self
inductance term and the voltage drop due to the mutual
inductance term have opposite signs.
Let us see what would happen if the direction of one of
the coils were changed but with the currents entering
each winding at the left hand end of the winding.


A

B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 60 May 2011
If the direction of one of the windings is changed, the
mutual induced voltage will change in direction relative
to the self inductance term.
Thus again the voltage drop due to the self inductance
term and the voltage drop due to the mutual inductance
term have opposite signs.
The final possibility is if both the direction of the
winding and the current direction are changed.



A

B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 61 May 2011
It will easily be seen that the voltage drop due to the self
inductance terms and that due to the mutual inductance
term must have the same sign.
The above derivations were done primarily based on the
magnetic circuits appearing in the above 4 cases.
Let us now see what has happens with the electrical
circuits.
The summary of the 4 cases are shown.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 62 May 2011
mutual term has
same sign self inductance term

mutual term has
opposite sign to self inductance
term


mutual term has
opposite sign to self inductance
term


mutual term has
same sign self inductance term


A

B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
A B
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 63 May 2011
It is seen that in cases 1 and 4, the mutual inductance
term has the same sign, while in cases 2 and 3 the
mutual inductance term has opposite sign to the self
inductance term.
Let us see what properties actually cause the above
situation.
It is seen that in both cases 1 and 4, the currents marked
enter the coil at the dotted end, while in both cases 2
and 3, one current enters at a dotted end, while the other
current leaves at the dotted end.
The above results can be stated in the following manner.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 64 May 2011
- If both currents either enter at dotted end, or both
currents leave at dotted end, the sign associated with
mutual inductance is positive, and mutual inductance
term in voltage drop would have the same sign as the
self inductance term.
- If one current enters at a dotted end and the other
current leaves at dotted end, sign associated with
mutual inductance is negative, and the mutual
inductance term in the voltage drop would have the
opposite sign to the self inductance term.

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 65 May 2011
Example 4
For circuit shown, write down voltage drop across AB.






V
AB
= R. i
1
e(t) + (L p i
1
+ M p i
2
)
where p = d/dt
V
BA
= R. i
1
+ e(t) (L p i
1
+ M p i
2
)
B
L
1

R
L
2

A
e(t)
M
i
1

i
2

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 66 May 2011
Since both currents enter at respective dotted ends, mutual
inductance term and self inductance term have same sign.
True even if voltage is measured in opposite direction.
Usually advisable to treat the self inductance terms and
the mutual inductance terms together within parenthesis
to avoid wrong negation.
With steady state a.c. analysis, the input quantities are
sinusoidal with frequency e, so the differential would
give a multiplication of e and a phase shift of t/2.
Thus p = je would give the required equations.
The impedance due to mutual inductance for a.c. would
in general be je M.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 67 May 2011
Non-coupled Equivalent circuit of simple coupled circuits
When mutual coupling is present,
voltage drops in a particular branch depends on
currents in that branch
currents in other branch with which coupling exists
Series and parallel equivalents of branch circuits containing
mutual coupling cannot be easily implemented.
can sometimes be avoided by obtaining a non-
coupled equivalent circuit.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 68 May 2011
(a) coupled coils being on two arms of a T-junction
Consider pair of mutually
coupled coils on two arms
of a T-junction.
By marking currents i
1
and i
2

flowing in them, and a current (i
1
i
2
) flowing in the
common branch, Kirchoffs current law has been applied.
Applying Kirchoffs voltage law between PR, and RQ,
V
PR
=
t d
i d
M
t d
i d
L
2 1
1

= L
1
p i
1
M p i
2

or V
PR
= jeL
1
i
1
jeM i
2
with sinusoidal current
L
1
L
2
M

i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2

P

Q

R

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 69 May 2011
Current i
1
leaves dotted end of L
1
, while the current i
2

enters dotted end of L
2
,
sign associated with the mutual inductance is negative,
voltage drop term due to mutual inductance has opposite
sign to that due to self inductance term
and V
RQ
= L
2
p i
2
M p i
1

If a non-coupled equivalent
circuit is to be obtained,
voltage drops in a branch
should only correspond to
currents in it own branch.

P

Q
R
L
A
L
B
L
m
i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 70 May 2011
Re-write the 2 equations as follows to achieve this.
V
PR
= L
1
p i
1
- M p i
2
M p i
1
+ M p i
1
,
i.e. V
PR
= (L
1
M) p i
1
+ M p (i
1
i
2
)
similarly
V
RQ
= (L
2
M) p i
2
+ M p (i
1
i
2
)
These two equations would be satisfied with
L
A
= L
1
M, L
B
= L
2
M, and L
m
= M
This transformation will be valid, independent of what
directions marked for currents in the diagrams.
[Compare with: Expression for parallel equivalent of two
resistors is independent of original markings of the current
directions when proving.]
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 71 May 2011




Note that L M appears when the two coils are
opposing each other.
In this case the common branch has an added +M
appearing on it.
In like manner, if the two dots were at the further ends,
the equations would be unchanged and the equivalent
circuit would also be unchanged.

L
1
L
2
M


L
1
- M
M

L
2
- M
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 72 May 2011




If position of one of the dots is changed, then the two
coils would be aiding each other, and the terms can be
shown to correspond to L+M with a common term of M.




L
1
L
2
M


L
1
- M
M

L
2
- M
L
1
L
2
M


L
1
+ M
M

L
2
+ M
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 73 May 2011
Example 5
Write down the non-coupled equivalent circuit for the
coupled circuit shown.





L
1
L
2
R
1
R
2
C E

M

P
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 74 May 2011
Solution
To get correct sign in non-
coupled equivalent circuit,
consider imaginary current
to flow through coil 1 and coil 2, forgetting other elements.
It is seen that they are opposing.
[You will notice that the two coils do not exactly meet at a
common node, but that the node P would have that property if
the positions of R
2
and L
2
were interchanged.]
Since they are series elements, the voltage drop equation
would not change even if the order were changed.
[However, intermediate point of connection between these
elements would have a different voltage from earlier, as the
drops are occurring in a different order.]
L
1
L
2
R
1
R
2
C E

M

P
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 75 May 2011
The non-coupled equivalent circuit may thus be drawn





This circuit no longer has mutual coupled elements, but
the elements have taken into account the affects of
mutual inductance.
Thus the problem may be solved as for any alternating
current problems.
L
1
-M
L
2
-M
R
1
R
2
C
E

M
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 76 May 2011
Transformer as a pair of mutually coupled coils
Transformer is a pair of mutually coupled coils.
From Kirchoffs voltage law
V
p
= L
p
p i
p
M p i
s

and V
s
= (L
s
p i
s
M p i
p
)
For near ideal transformers
|V
p
| : |V
s
| ~ a
|i
p
| : |i
s
| ~ 1/a
Thus
V
p
and aV
s
are comparable quantities
i
p
and i
s
/a

are comparable quantities.
V
p
V
s
L
p
L
s
i
s i
p
M

a:1

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 77 May 2011
Using these comparable variables
V
p
= L
p
p i
p
aM p i
s
/a
and aV
s
= (a
2
L
s
p i
s
/a aM p i
p
)
If i
p
and i
s
/a are unequal,
Leakage current = i
p
i
s
/a
re-formulated in terms of this leakage current as
V
p
= L
p
p i
p
aM p i
s
/a + aM p i
p
aM p i
p

= (L
p
aM) p i
p
+ aM p .(i
p
i
s
/a)
and aV
s
= (a
2
L
s
p i
s
/a aM p i
p
) + aM p i
s
/a aM p i
s
/a
= a
2
(L
s

a
M
) p i
s
/a + aM p.(i
p
i
s
/a)
i
p
i
s
/a
i
p
-i
s
/a
i
s

V
p aV
s
V
s
a:1

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 78 May 2011
Note that the equations are expressed either in terms of
i
p
and i
p
i
s
/a or in terms of i
s
/a and i
p
i
s
/a.
Allows a non-coupled equivalent circuit to be formed




May also be drawn with ideal transformer added so that
secondary quantities would remain unmodified on that side.
Also, M = k
s p
L L
, L
p
/L
s
= a
2

so that M = k
2
a
L
L
p
p

L
p
- aM
aM

a
2
(L
s
M/a)
i
p
i
s
/a
i
p
-i
s
/a
V
p
aV
s


l
p

L
m
a
2
l
s

i
p
i
s
/a
i
p
-i
s
/a
i
s

V
p
aV
s
V
s
a:1

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 79 May 2011
giving aM = k L
p
, L
p
aM = (1k) L
p
,
a
2
(L
s
M/a) = a
2
(1k) L
s

Since k is the coefficient of coupling,
(1k) corresponds to the leakage.
(1k)Lp and (1k)L
s
correspond to leakage inductances
l
p
and l
s
of primary and secondary windings.
Shunt inductance aM corresponds to the magnetisation
inductance L
m
of the transformer.
The transformer equivalent circuit is normally drawn
with these variables rather than the self and mutual
inductances.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 80 May 2011
Practical Transformer
In addition has
resistances r
p
and r
s
in primary and secondary windings
has losses (eddy current loss and hysteresis) in the transformer core
based on magnetic flux in core (or on corresponding voltage across
windings).
r
p
, r
s
are included in primary and secondary sides (r
s
drawn as a
2
r
s
).
Core loss is represented by a shunt resistance R
c
across the
magnetisation inductance.
l
p

L
m
a
2
l
s

i
p
i
s
/a
i
p
-i
s
/a
i
s

V
p
aV
s
V
s
a:1

r
p
a
2
r
s
R
c
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 81 May 2011
Dependent Sources
Passive Circuit Elements
Most basic elements R, L and C.
Do not generate any electricity.
Either consume energy
in Resistive elements
convert from electrical form to non-electrical form
produce heat, light etc
or store energy
in Capacitive or Inductive elements
in electrostatic and electromagnetic fields.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 82 May 2011

Active Circuit Elements (Sources)
Circuit component capable of producing energy.
Categorised into
voltage sources and current sources.
independent sources (generated voltage or current does
not depend on any other circuit voltage or current)
dependent sources (generated voltage or current
depends on another circuit voltage or current).
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 83 May 2011

Independent source

Terminal voltage (or current)
depends only on the loading
and
internal source quantity,
but not on any other circuit variable.
Symbol for Independent source
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 84 May 2011
I ndependent Voltage and Current Sources






v(t) = e(t) for all i(t) v(t) = e(t) Z(p).i(t)





i(t) = I(t) for all v(t) i(t) = I(t) Y(p).v(t)
i(t)
Figure 6(b) Practical current source Figure 6(a) Ideal current source
v(t)
Y(p)
I(t)
I(t)

i(t)
v(t)
Figure 5(a) Ideal voltage source
e(t)

i(t)

v(t)
Z(p)

e(t)
i(t)
v(t)
Figure 5(b) Practical voltage source
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 85 May 2011
Dependent Source


A dependent voltage source (or current source)
would have its terminal voltage (or current)
depend on
another circuit quantity
such as a voltage or current.
Symbol for Dependent source
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 86 May 2011
Four possibilities exist.

o Voltage dependent (controlled) voltage source
o Current dependent (controlled) voltage source
o Voltage dependent (controlled) current source
o Current dependent (controlled) current source
+
oV
o
+
oI
o
V
o
Figure 7 Dependent sources

|I
o
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 87 May 2011
Example 1
Determine the current I and V
o
.
Answer
Kirchoffs voltage law, gives
7.5 = 4 I + 4 V
o
+ 5 V
o

From Ohms law
1.I = V
o

By substitution,
I = 2.5 A
V
o
= 2.5 V


+


I
7.5V
V
o
+
4V
o
+


5V
4O

1O
+

Figure 8 Circuit for example 1

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 88 May 2011
Example 2
Determine I and V
o
.
Answer
Kirchoffs voltage law, gives
6 = 5 (I 0.8 V
o
) 4 V
o

From Ohms law
1.I = V
o

By substitution,
I = 1.0 A
V
o
= 1 V

+


I
6V
V
o
0.8V
o
+


4V
5O

1O
+


Figure 9 Circuit for example 2

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 89 May 2011
Example 3
Determine the current I.
Answer
Kirchoffs voltage law, gives
E = R
1
I + R
2
(1+o) I
From Ohms law
R
o
oI = V
o

By solution of equations
) 1 (

) 1 (
2 1
o
2 1
o
o
o
+ +
=
+ +
=
R R
E R
V
R R
E
I
o

+


I
E V
o
o I
+


R
o



R
2
R
1
Figure 10 Circuit for example 3

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 90 May 2011
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
- an active circuit element
- behaves as a voltage-controlled voltage source,
- very versatile
- can be used to add, subtract, multiply, divide,
amplify, integrate and differentiate signals.

A practical Op Amp,
available in Integrated circuit (IC) packages
would have inputs and outputs as shown in figure 11.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 91 May 2011
Output voltage is limited to the linear range V
+
to V

.
Ouside these limits, Op Amp is said to be saturated.
Null determines the offset.
+


Inverting Input
Non-inverting Input
Output
V
+
V

Null
Figure 11 Circuit connections of Op Amp
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 92 May 2011

V
d
Voltage difference of input terminals + and
A Gain of Op Amp
R
in
Input resistance of Op Amp
R
out
Output resistance of Op Amp
+


R
in
R
out
+

V
d
A V
d
V
out
Figure 12 Equivalent Circuit of Op Amp
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 93 May 2011

V
out
linearly proportional to V
d
with open-loop gain A.
Op Amp has a dependent voltage source AV
d.

Parameter Symbol Ideal Typical
Open-loop gain A 10
5
to 10
8
Input Resistance R
in
10
6
to 10
13
O
Output Resistance R
out
0 10 to 100 O
Supply Voltage V
+
, V

5 to 24 V

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 94 May 2011
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier circuit is shown in figure 13.

In an inverting amplifier output voltage decreases when
input voltage increases and vice versa.
+


V
+
V

R
1
R
2
V
in
V
out
Figure 13 Circuit of Inverting Amplifier
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 95 May 2011
out
d out out d
out d
in
d d in
R
AV V
R
V V
R
V V
R
V
R
V V
i
+
=

+ =

=
2
2 1
Figure 14 shows equivalent
circuit of inverting amplifier.
If R
out
= 0, and R
in
= ,
V
out
= A V
d

2
2
1
R
V A AV
R
AV AV
d d d in
+
=


+

R
1
V
out
R
2
+

A V
d

R
in
R
out
V
d
Figure14 Equivalent Circuit
i

Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 96 May 2011
giving
1 2 1
R
V
R
AV V
R
AV
out out out in
+
+
=

Thus
2 1
2
) 1 ( R R A
AR
V
V
in
out
+ +
=

If A as for an ideal Op Amp,
Gain =
1
2
R
R
V
V
in
out
=
,
0 =
A
V
V
out
d

Thus V
d
is taken as virtual earth, when analyzing.
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 97 May 2011
Non-inverting Amplifier
Input voltage is applied
directly to non-inverting (+)
input and a small part of
output voltage is applied to
the inverting () input from
the R
1
R
2
potential divider.
For an ideal Op Amp,
with R
out
= 0, R
in
=
and A =
Gain =
1
2 1
R
R R +

+


V
+
V

Figure 15 Non-inverting Amplifier
R
1
R
2
V
in
V
out
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 98 May 2011
Summing Amplifier
With 2 inputs, Summing
amplifier is obtained.
With R
1A
= R
1B

) (
1
2
inB inA out
V V
R
R
V + =
If R
1A
= R
1B

) (
1 1
2
B
inB
A
inA
out
R
V
R
V
R V + =

+


V
+
V

Figure 16 Summing Amplifier
R
1A
R
2
V
inA
V
out
R
1B
V
inB
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 99 May 2011
Differential Amplifier
Inputs are connected to
both inverting or non-
inverting terminals
Resultant output based
on difference between
V
1A
and V
1B

For ideal Op Amp,
R
in
= , R
out
= 0, and A = .

= =
d
out
V
V
A
giving
0 =

=
out
d
V
V

+


V
+
V

Figure 17 Differential Amplifier
R
1A
R
2
V
inA
V
out
R
1B
V
inB
R
3
V
d
I
A
I
B
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits Professor J R Lucas 100 May 2011
2 1
R
V V
R
V V
I
out
A
inA
A

=

=
,
3 1
R
V
R
V V
I
B
inB
B
=

=

This gives
inB
B
V
R R
R
V
3 1
3
+
=


Substitution gives
A
inA
A
out
R
V
R R
V
R
V

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1 2
1 1

inA
A
inB
B A
A
out
V
R
R
V
R R
R
R
R R
V
1
2
3 1
3
1
2 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=

When R
1A
= R
1B
= R
1
and R
3
= R
2
,

( )
inA inB out
V V
R
R
V =
1
2

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