KPDS 1992 LKBAHAR *** When it was formed many million years ago the earth was a liquid.

It is still cooling and many miles below the hard crust is still hot. However, in some places the heat is closer to the surface. These places are associated with volcanic activity or hot sulphur springs. By drilling deep into the earths crust we can reach roc s that are much warmer than those at the surface. !umping water down into contact with these roc s and e"tracting the steam so produced is a source of energy that can be used to produce electricity. It is called geothermal energy. *** The #apanese have a special way of ma ing decisions. They call it the consensus system. This is how it wor s. When a firm is thin ing of ta ing a certain action, it encourages wor ers at all levels to discuss the proposal and give their opinions. The purpose is to reach consensus $general agreement%. &s soon as everyone agrees on the right course of action, the decision is ta en. Because of this method, a group of wor ers, rather than a person, is responsible for company policies. 'ne advantage of this is that decisions come from a mi"ture of e"perience from the top, the middle and the bottom of an enterprise. &nother advantage is that (unior staff frequently suggest ideas for change. & disadvantage, perhaps, is that decision)ma ing can be slow. *** *abies is a very frightening disease because once symptoms develop it is always fatal. The disease is caused by a virus and it affects many species of animals, particularly dogs, (ac als, fo"es and bats. In Britain no indigenous case of human rabies has been reported since +,-. but it is widespread among animals in most parts of the world. /nfortunately, in the last 0- years the disease has been spreading across 1urope from the 1ast, especially in fo"es, and has now reached 2orthern 3rance. 3or this reason strict animal quarantine laws are in force in Britain and it is rightly regarded as a serious offence to attempt to evade them. *** When we turn to the problem of fishing, we see that through a /2 4onvention on the 5aw of the 6ea, the worlds nations have indicated that they recogni7e the ris s of over)fishing. 2ations can now declare .--)mile e"clusive economic 7ones and e"clusive fishing 7ones and control the catch at a level that is sustainable. 8eveloping nations seem to be beginning to benefit from the new fisheries regime which offers the promise of allowing them to manage fishing resources for optimum, that is long)term, benefits. *** The e"act number of people who died in the cyclone that struc Bangladesh last year will probably never be nown. Winds reaching +9: miles per hour hammered the countrys low)lying south)eastern coast for nine hours, at one point driving a wall of water roughly .feet high across the area ; one of the most densely populated places in the world. It was the strongest storm ever recorded in the region. The official news agency reported that +.:.--- victims had been confirmed dead, but it was believed that the toll was actually much higher. *** Written communication is the basis of much communication in business. This includes letters, reports, memoranda, notices, tele", and fa" messages. &lthough written communication is a slower form of communication than verbal or oral, it provides a record of what is being discussed so that disagreements are avoided and accuracy can be chec ed< it will also be more detailed than other forms of communication, with the possibility of technical points being e"plained and interpreted.

KPDS 1992 SONBAHAR *** 2igeria is heavily dependent on the e"port of crude oil to finance industrial development. ,-= of 2igeria>s e"ports by value are crude oil. &t current production rates, nown reserves are only sufficient until the end of the century. Industrialisation was boosted after I,?0 following the fourfold increase in oil prices. In the early +,@-s prices fell, and 2igeria lost important income. 'il production pea ed in +,?9 when output reached ++. million tonnes. *** *eal depression cannot be as easily overcome as some people often suppose. It usually passes with time ) but the time can seem endless. &ctivities giving companionship and a new interest can help. But for the sufferer to tal , again and again, about the causes of the depression helps most. !eople with depression need to be listened to and encouraged to find their own solutions, not made to feel yet more inadequate by good advice. They may need professional counselling as well as the support of family and friends. *** Aany art museums and galleries and many individuals in the world faced financial problems in +,?: as the effects of world recession deepened. 'n the surface, things seemed to continue as before, with important e"hibitions in ma(or museums attracting large crowds. But smaller galleries and the artists whose wor was shown by their resourceful proprietors fared less well, and over the long term it is the wor of young artists that determines the course of art for the future. *** 4omputers should never have acquired the e"alted status they now have. 3ascinating and invaluable as they are, even the most advanced have less brain power than a three)year)old. They do, however, score on single)mindedness. The three)year)old uses his brain not only to thin but also to do tas s li e seeing, hearing and running about, which need incredibly rapid and sophisticated electro)mechanical interactions ) we too run on electricity. But the computer (ust sits there and sends spacecraft to the moon or re) organises the world ban ing system, which is very much easier. That>s why mans dream of robot servants is still a long way off. *** The dramatic growth of the worlds population in the twentieth century has been on a scale without parallel in human history. Aost of this growth has occurred since +,:- and is nown as the population Be"plosion>. Between +,:- and +,@- the world population increased from .,: to over 9 billion, and by the end of the century this figure will have risen to at least C billion. Drowth of this si7e cannot continue indefinitely. *ecent forecasts suggest that the total population will level)out at between +- and +: billion in the mid twenty)first century. &lready there are encouraging signs that the rate of increase in many less developed countries is beginning to slow down. *** Aany substances, whether man)made or natural, can cause harm to man or the environment. 6ome of these reach the environment in waste streams< however, emission limits and environmental quality standards can, in some instances, reduce the amounts released. But some other substances cannot be controlled in this way because they are released, not in industrial waste streams, but through the use or disposal of products which contain them. In many cases these substances pose little or no threat if the product containing them is used and disposed of properly. The right way to deal with them is usually through controls over their supply, use and disposal.

KPDS 1993 LKBAHAR *** The practical advantages of prefabrication are twofoldE It is quic er and it does away with uncertainty. 6peed in building is important in these days because of the high cost of landE the time during which such an e"pensive commodity is out of use must be reduced to a minimum. &nd, partly or wholly prefabricated methods of construction save time on the (ob because parts are prepared in the factory beforehand. !refabrication does away with uncertainty because it means that the whole building is made of standard parts the behaviour of which is nown and has been tested. *** 4omputers can store vast amounts of information in a very small space and are used by the ban s to eep accounts, print out statements and control transactions. They are also used by the police to eep personal records, fingerprints and other details. In the rapidly developing field of robotics computers are now being used to control manual operations done by mechanics. These, too, are ta ing over wor , previously done by people in the manufacture of cars, in weaving and in other industries. 4omputers play an important role in controlling artificial satellites, decoding information and communications generally. They are used to predict the weather with increasing accuracy. *** 5oo ing ahead from the present position where food production has ept ahead of population growth globally, but has fallen per capita in :: $mainly &frican% countries, it would seem that these trends will continue. &bout 0- countries ) most of them &frican ) can e"pect serious problems unless they reduce population growth and give higher priority to agriculture and conservation. Though a warmer, wetter earth with high 4'. levels is li ely to be capable of producing more food, the amounts will still be inadequate for many poorer countries. In many cases, the population pro(ections are greater than the entire local land resources can support. *** !sychology is literally the study of mind $or soul% but its areas has broadened somewhat in the last century as we have learned that one cannot consider the mind as totally isolated from the body, and it now includes the study of human personality and behaviour. It is important to realise that psychologists are first and foremost trained as scientist rather than as medical e"perts and do not necessarily ta e much interest in abnormalities of the brain and mental processes. *** &id to underdeveloped countries ta es many forms and it is given for many reasons. /nderdeveloped countries need aid to provide finance for development pro(ects< to provide foreign e"change with which imports for development purpose can be bought< and to provide the trained manpower and technical nowledge they lac . The motives of the donor are not always humanitarian. F&idG can ta e a military form< it can be used to support an incompetent or un(ust government. 2or is aid always beneficial to the recipient country. It may be wasted on ill)conceived or prestige pro(ects, or cause the government simply to rela" on its own efforts. *** Both as a profession and a science, economics lost considerable prestige during the recession of +,?9)?:. The crisis that sei7ed the western industrialised countries including #apan was of a character not to be found in economics te"tboo s. *ate of inflation e"ceeding +-= a year coupled with declining production and high levels of unemployment. Hitherto, peacetime inflation had been associated with high employment and an overactive economy, while high rate of unemployment went with the recession or depression. The ne"t combination was apply called stagflation.

KPDS 1993 SONBAHAR *** There are twelve and a half acres of land for each man, woman, and child in the world today. However, only three and a half acres of this land can be cultivated. If the population of the world reaches si" billion by the year .---, there will be only one and a half acres for each person. Aan (ust increases his production of food. 'ne scientist has said that the world could support ten billion people if better agricultural methods were used everywhere. The supply of food can also be increased by the control of plant diseases, and by the irrigation of desert lands. By using these ways and others, man can feed himself and his fellow men. *** Though there has always been a certain amount of concern about pollution since the start of the Industrial *evolution, this was largely an interest of relatively limited numbers of concerned people. But during the +,C-s there was a great upsurge of an"iety which was reflected internationally by the calling of the 6toc holm /2 4onference. In response to the rising public pressures, action has been ta en mainly in the industrial countries, even though sometimes reluctantly and with many warnings from industry and governments about the costs. However, in many areas there has been a gratifying improvement. *** 3or nearly a decade now, the manufacturing of automobiles has been undergoing radical changes. The principle cause is the introduction of new production and management techniques, originally engineered by Toyota and subsequently applied by other #apanese car manufacturers. This is called FleanG production. It implies no less a revolution in the process of car manufacturing than the mass production Henry 3ord introduced at the beginning of the century. In fact, lean production combines the advantages of craft and mass production. & vital feature of this production technique is that it achieves its highest efficiency, quality and fle"ibility when all activities ) form design to assembly ) occur in the same area. *** Auch in medicine which is now ta en for granted was undreamed of even as recently as :- years ago. !rogress in diagnosis, in preventive medicine and in treatment, both medical and surgical, has been so rapid as to be almost breathta ing. Today a doctor retiring from active practice will among other things have seen smallpo" completely eradicated, tuberculosis become curable, coronary artery disease relievable surgically. 'ne aspect of medicine still resistant to progress in understanding is the effect of mind on body. Aany of us still li e to thin that our bodies are (ust something we have got into, li e cars, that ill health is simply something that has Fgone wrongG in one system or another and that therefore provided we find the appropriate e"pert to correct the fault, we will recover. *** 2ational income is a measure of the total income accruing to the residents in a country in return for services rendered. It therefore consists of the sum of wages, salaries, profits and rents. But not all these income accrues to persons< for instance, companies do not distribute all their profits to shareholders and some nationalised industries earn profits. This is part of national income but not of personal income. 'n the other hand, some personal incomes are not payments for services rendered. 6uch incomes are called transfer incomes to emphasise that their payment does not add to the national income, but only transfers income from one agent to another. Included in this category are retirement pensions, family allowances, and student grants. *** &ccording to the /nited 2ations sources, world population in mid)+,@: was, :,.,- million, an increase of ,- million in one year. Aore than half of the total live in &sia $:C,, per cent%. 8ifferent countries are at different stages in a demographic transition from the stability provided by a combination of high birth rate and high death rate to that provided by a combination of low birth rate and low death rate. Their recent population history and current trend of growth, the age)structure of their population, and consequently their population potential for the near future are all widely different. Aost rapid growth is in &frica with rates of over 0 per cent in some countries. In most 1uropean countries the rate is less than + per cent.

KPDS 1994 LKBAHAR *** 1ver since 2obel pri7e)winner 5inus !auling first advocated vitamin 4 as a common)cold war weapon more than .- years ago, researchers have been busy trying to verify that claim. But so far, they>ve found little evidence that vitamin 4 prevents colds ) in fact, there are more studies that say it doesn>t. But there is evidence that it can eep coughing and snee7ing to a minimum, and that low levels of vitamin 4 in the body may be related to bronchitis. *** 6ince early times it has been assumed that the actions of animals are unconscious. Behaviour, in this view, stems almost e"clusively from instinct. If animals behave in ways that seem pretty clever, they do so without thin ing about it. &nimals may now things, the argument goes, but they don>t now that they now. 'r do they nowH *ecent research reports suggest a startling depth of intelligence among animals. &lthough no one can yet >prove> the e"istence of animal consciousness, the data offered ma e a compelling case for at least considering it. *** The first universities developed in 1urope in the +.th century. By +C-- Western 1urope boasted +-@ institutions of higher learning, many of which had obtained special privileges from e"isting regimes because of their close association with the 4hurch. In most 1uropean countries, universities were designed primarily for the sons of nobility and gentry. 6cholarly standards were low, and scholarship was irrelevant for most professions. 1ducation for earning a livelihood in, say, medicine or law could be acquired after college by serving as an apprentice. *** The effects of sleep loss are sub(ect to a number of popular misconceptions. The belief that everyone must sleep @ hours a night is a myth. &ccording to the results of a recent survey on the sub(ect, dults average about ? to ? + I . hours of sleep per night, and many individuals function effectively with : to C ours of sleep. In fact, .- percent of the population $slightly more in men% sleep less than C hours per night. &nother significant fact is that sleep time decreases with age. *** /ntil recently, many archaeologists too the view that civili7ed communities first arose in 1gypt, though only a very short time before a similar development In AesopotamiaE a more recent opinion is now that the earliest advances may have ta en place in Aesopotamia. Whichever view is followed, it is necessary to bear in mind that geographical conditions in both regions were not identical, and it can in fact be stated that in Aesopotamia environmental factors were not as wholly favourable as In the valley of the 2ile. *** 8ates and periods are necessary to the study and discussion of history, for all historical phenomena are conditioned by time and are produced by the sequence of events. !eriods especially, are retrospective conceptions that we form about past events< they are useful to focus discussion, but very often they lead historical thought astray. Thus, while it is certainly useful to spea of the Aiddle &ges and of the Jictorian &ge, those two abstract ideas have deluded many scholars and millions of newspaper readers into supposing that during certain decades called the Aiddle &ges, and again during certain decades called &ge of Jictoria, everyone thought or acted more or less in the same way) till at last Jictoria died or the Aiddle &ges came to an end. But in fact there was no such sameness.

KPDS 1994 SONBAHAR *** 6ociety is, regrettably, less interested in the individual than in the position which he occupies. 'ne almost never as s a person FWho are youHG, but one onstantly as s FWhat do you doHG. 3or one reason or another, people are assorted into various categories which determine the roles they are to play in society. This assorting process, called social differentiation, goes on in all societies. Women as a class have a status distinct from that of men, and children have a status unli e that of adults. *** Aercury has a number of interesting properties and a variety of industrial uses. It e"pands at a constant rate through the range of temperatures at which it is a liquid. Because of this property and because it does not cling to glass, mercury is often used in thermometers. &t ordinary temperatures it evaporates very slowly and can thus be left in an open container for long periods of time. 3or this reason it is used in one type of barometer. Aercury is a good electrical conductor and is used in sealed electrical switches. &n electric current passing through mercury vapour causes it to give off light, hence its use in certain inds of lamps. *** !rotoplasm, which is the fundamental basis of life, is constantly undergoing physical and chemical change. 5ife, therefore, is the resultant of these constantly occurring changes. There are two great groups into which living things may be classedE plants and animals. Both the plant and the animal ingdoms are very e"tensive. It is customary, therefore, to regard the science of life under two comprehensive heads, namely, botany which is the study of plants, and 7oology which is the study of animals. Both sub(ects are subdivided into various specialised sections. ***Aany observers, including policy ma ers, mista enlyassume that economic competition between nationsmust result in winners and losers. It has beendemonstrated, however, that international tradeincreases the wealth of all participants, even thosewith lower productivity than their trading partners. Thereal issue, it appears, is the way internationalcompetition affects all inds of goods that any countryproduces. It seems that the proper role of governmentis to ensure that its people are prepared to compete inthose industries in which they could or should have anadvantage. ***Those who visit the Aediterranean are invariably impressed with its unity. 1verywhere it is the same, for the shades of difference here is less important than the resemblances. Ket this unity is the result of aggressive contrast< sea and mountain, sea and desert, sea and oceanL In these respects the Aediterranean is very different from either central 1urope, or high tablelands of &sia, the 6yrian and 6aharan deserts, or even the &tlantic 'cean. *** It is the opinion of most archaeologists that civilisation first developed in the Aiddle 1ast, where, of all the regions in the world, natural conditions offered the greatest assistance to man in his changeover from a life of nomadic wandering as a hunter to settled occupation of the soil. The regular rise of the three larger rivers, 2ile 1uphrates, and the Tigris< annual renewal of soil fertility by the deposition of a layer of silt< and the generally warm climate, favourable both to the growth of a rich plant)life, and to the activities of man himself, were all special inducements to the adoption of a way of life based on agriculture.

KPDS 1995 LKBAHAR *** In Britain, the Mueen is a constitutional monarch. In law she is the head of the e"ecutive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the (udiciary, commander)inchief of the armed forces and temporal head of the 4hurch of 1ngland. In practice, the Mueen>s role is purely formalE she reigns, but she does not rule. In all important respects she acts only on the advice of her ministers. However, she still plays an important role symbolically as Head of 6tate and Head of the 4ommonwealth. *** 'f all the environmental problems facing us today, global warming is li ely to have the most devastating effects. In order to combat these, the emission of harmful gases must be reduced< for this purpose, the rainforests, which absorb carbon dio"ide in vast quantities must be protected. Dlobal warming will place a premium on energy efficiency, for controlling global warming inescapably means reducing the burning of fossil fuels. The two industries that are most obviously going to be affected are the power suppliers and the vehicle manufacturers, but since energy is consumed by almost everything we manufacture, design or do, the effects will be felt everywhere. *** The +,?-s were a period of mar ed economic recession in the West. The effects were widespread, even the publishing sector was badly hit. Inflation continued to push up the costs of paper and printing, increasing the price of boo s generally and reducing the amount of money available for the publication of new and e"perimental wor . There was a growing sense, in the world of literature no less than in other spheres of production, that this crisis must involve changes that would be neither simple nor temporary. *** Built by the disconsolate 1mperor 6hah #ahan in memory of his wife, the Ta( Aahal mausoleum has survived the rise and fall of many empires and it attracted looters, too< over the years they carried away the silver doors from its gates, the precious stones from its marble wallE and the gold from its graves. But those were small threats compared with the modern danger of pollution. 1missions from the coal)fired steel foundries thermal power stations, cars and an oil refinery in the industrial belt around &gra are corroding and yellowing the Ta( Aahal>s white marble. *** /sually educational processes involve not only learning, but teaching as well. There is, however, no logical connection in this case. 1ducation can go on without any teaching. W e can say it was a >real education for someone to ta e a boat out on his own, implying that he learnt something desirable without anybody having been there to teach him the lesson. There are many forms of learning that go on without teaching and Beducative> learning does not mean that the learning must ta e place in a teaching situation. It may be argued that most things are learnt more rapidly and more reliably in a classroom situation. But even so, learning is not dependent upon teaching. *** 6ince health care accounts for nearly one seventh of the &merican national economy, any attempt to reform it enters a minefield of e"plosive issues. !resident 4linton>s health)care plan, many e"perts say, might sha e up the health)insurance industry so violently that it could shrin from about :-- to as few as to +companies< costing thousands of (obs. Businesses complain that new health)coverage contributions would be disastrous< there is even tal that up to a million (obs will be lost as a consequence. Though the &merican Aedical &ssociation has so far sent signals that it would endorse the plan, the physicians themselves and the ta"payers are e"tremely worried about it.

KPDS 1995 SONBAHAR *** In one century of strenuous research a vast amount of source material about Aichalengelo has been collected, reviewed, edited and annotated including letters, poems, contracts, receipts and biographies. Biographical and artistic data have been chec ed and rechec ed, sometimes corroborating and sometimes correcting our previous ideas, and an abundance of new facts has been revealed. 5ong lost wor s have been rediscovered and every single nown piece has been studied in its formal and functional aspects. The artists character, his daily habits, his wor ing methods, his personal attitudes and his artistic and political opinions have been traced as well as the peculiarities of the people with whom he had contact. Thus modern history of art has formed an image of Aichalengelo that is much nearer to truth than those presented by his first biographers. *** The fact that the brain is divided into a left and a right half is not a new discovery. 'nce the s ull is removed the division is obvious to the na ed eye and it is a common feature of brains throughout the animal ingdom. What is interesting about this division in man is that each half seems to have developed specialised functions, the left side appearing to be better at some tas s and the right side better at others. The most obvious difference in functioning is that the left side of the brain receives sensations from and controls the right side of the body and vice versa. The reasons for this are still unclear. 8espite a number of interesting theories there is no obvious advantage in such a crossover. *** 3or years the theory of higher education in the /nited 6tates operated something li e thisE men went to university to get rich, and women went to university to marry rich men. 8uring the C-s, as a result of the fact that this theory lost much of its popularity, as the nation began to recogni7e the folly of relegating women to a secondary role, women soon (oined men in what once were male pursuits. This rebellious decade pushed women toward independence, showed them their potential and compelled them to ta e charge of their lives. Aany women too this opportunity. 6ince then famine autonomy has been the rule not the e"ception at least among university women. ***The collection of foreign intelligence, which is the pursuit of a special ind of information, is an indispensable service for any government having even the most elementary international associations. 2ations must devise a strategy to provide for both their security and well)being. History teaches us that responsibility cannot be met without nowledge of the political, economic and military capabilities and intentions of other nations. Indeed advance nowledge of these matters, or its absence, could well settle the fate of a great nation especially in an era when a single nation or consortium of nations is capable of smashing another society in a single stro e or of controlling it under the threat of poised catastrophe. The well)being of any great nation will depend on decisions ta en by others, which must be foreseen, correctly analysed and countered. *** & sub(ect in which there has been a lot of interest recently is the acquisition of language. B2ormal children ) that is, those who have not had a particularly rich early environment ) usually begin tal ing after the first year of their life. By eighteen months they have a vocabulary of about half a do7en words< at two years a vocabulary of more than a hundred words. The traditional view has been that during the first year of life babies are not mature enough to learn languages. Tal ing, however, is only the outer manifestation of the development of the language. 5ong before he first utters a meaningful word a baby can be observed responding to the language of the others. *** 1conomic dynamics have decisively shifted from the national economy. 3rom now on, any country and also any business, especially a large one that wants to prosper will have to accept that it is the world economy that leads and that domestic economic policies will succeed only if they strengthen or at least do not impair the countrys international competitive position. This may be the most important ) it surely is the most stri ing ) feature of the changed world economy.

KPDS 1996 LKBAHAR *** Today, the /nited 6tates is in the grip of a second Industrial revolution. While the first, stretching from the +@?-s to the +,?-s, shifted the main sector of the &merican economy from agriculture to industry, the new revolution is shifting the economy away from traditional Nsmo estac N manufacturing industries to those based upon information, services and new technologies. It too the country decades to accommodate the cultural and social changes resulting from the first industrial revolution and it would be rashly optimistic to assume that &mericans will not face serious stresses in coming to terms with the changes that are transforming the wor place today. *** & great many boo s have been written on computers, computer programming languages, particularly 3ortran. To produce another boo on 3ortran, even the newest 3ortran IJ, probably seems unreasonable to most, and it is with mild trepidation that, I, the author, embar on this pro(ect. However, several good reasons can be stated for doing (ust that. Aost computer professionals will agree that the field of computer and information science has quic ly become a valid discipline for academia and that rapid changes are occurring in computer programming languages. Both of these facts demand that a new direction be ta en in presenting the sub(ect. *** /ntil the late l,th century most &merican museums and art academies considered watercolor an amateur pursuit or a preliminary to serious wor in oils. Aany &merican watercolorists saw the medium as a holiday diversion, using portable paint bo"es and a free style to ma e what they called NsnapshotsN of their travels. In contrast, a few recognised the e"ceptional capacity of watercolours as a medium to provide clear and luminous colours in wor s that would evo e the ever changing nature of la es and rivers they new so well, and ultimately vie for supremacy with oil paintings in ma(or art collections. *** NHuman rightsN is a fairly new name for what were formerly called Nthe rights of manG. It was 1leanor *oosevelt in +,9-s who promoted the use of the e"pression Nhuman rightsN when she discovered, through her wor in the /nited 2ations, that the rights of men were not understood in some parts of the world to include the rights of women. The Nrights of manG at an earlier date had itself replaced the original term Nnatural rightsN, in part, perhaps, because the concept of natural law, with which the concept of natural rights was logically connected, had become a sub(ect of controversy. *** &fter +,00 the Western World realised that it was living in another age of absolutism, or rather, in an age of totalitarian dictatorship far worse than the worst of the old absolute ings< such regimes could be seen to be enforcing a NlawN that was the command hardly of a NsovereignN but of a cruel and genocidal despot. It was ordinary people who protestedE NThis cannot be law. 5aw, if it is to deserve the name of law, must respect at least some basic rights to which every human being is entitled simply because he is human.N *** The shopping centre emerged in the early +,--s in the suburbs that encircled &merican cities. 6uburbs of that time tended to be chiefly residential and to depend on the traditional city centres for shopping.The first suburban commercial centres had three identifiable features< they consisted of a number of stores built and leased by a single developer< they were usually situated at an important intersection, and they provided plenty of free, offstreet par ing. These Nshopping villagesN resembled small)town shopping districts, both in their architecture which was carefully traditional, and in their layout, which integrated them into the surrounding neighbourhood. The stores faced the street and the par ing lots were usually in the rear.

KPDS 1996 SONBAHAR *** 4ertain features of the motorway undoubtedly ease the strain of driving. Dradients and bends are so controlled as to obviate the necessity of sharp bra ing and the absence of traffic approaching from the other direction removes one of the commonest sources of accidents. Aany dangers remain, however, made more terrible by the high speeds of vehicles. & collision at seventy miles an hour is almost inevitably in its results. & mechanical defect in the car or a puncture can lead to loss of control and catastrophe. The car should be completely roadworthy and tyre pressures and treads need to be chec ed at regular intervals. *** The &ntarctic is the most remote continent in the world and the last to be discovered, but nevertheless constitutes about one tenth of the worlds land surface. 6o far it has escaped the worst of mans destructive ingenuity but today it is threatened by mans insatiable appetite for natural resources, and seems to be in danger of losing its pristine environment which serves as the perfect natural laboratory for scientists to pursue nowledge for its own sa e. *** Inflation is process of steadily rising prices, resulting in a diminishing of the purchasing power of a given nominal sum of money. In other words, you can buy fewer goods for + pound in 8ecember than you could in #anuary of the same year. 'ne type of inflation is nown as demand)pull inflation. This occurs under conditions of full employment, when demand e"ceeds supply of goods< that is to say, when people want to buy more goods than are available. The process of demand)pull inflation operates as follows. &n increased demand for goods leads to an increased demand for labour, resulting in higher wages and salaries. This has the effect of increasing costs of production and thus causes increased prices. However, as wages and salaries are higher, the increased demand for goods continues, and so the cycle goes on. *** In the business world today, many companies are showing less interest in the theoretical potential of their staff and more in what they are actually doing at the time. &s an alternative or supplement to (udging academic credentials, many firms have developed FassessmentcentresG in which employees handle simulated business problems, in a setting as close to real life as possible, to demonstrate their competence or indicate the need for training. 4andidates for administrative (obs, for e"ample, might wor their way through a sample in)bo". Bosses find those promoted because of their assessment)centre scores to be competent and the candidates feel the system is fair. In fact, the systems can be wor ing well and giving satisfaction. *** In 1minent Jictorians 5ytton 6trachey portrays four dominating personalities of the nineteenth century. He is, noticeably, free of undue reverence for the great< indeed his satirical view of life enables him to discover in them many flaws which were discreetly overloo ed by previous historians. !erhaps his portrayal of Deneral Dordon is the most controversial of all. 4ertainly he was a gifted and gallant soldier, but was he also an unbalanced mystic and a self opinionated eccentricH His portrait of 8r &rnold is also disturbing. Was he a wise and foreseeing educationalist and headmaster or try sternly imposing his will on the students in careH The questions thus raised are intensely provocative and ma e reading stimulating. *** If the ey to good nutrition is consuming a variety of foods, then vegetables can truly stand as the cornerstone of a health diet. 'f all foods, they offer the most diversity. There are literally hundreds of varieties available to us, and because of careful plant breeding, todays vegetable harvest is continually being e"panded and improved. In addition, vegetables are replete with nutrients. They supply nearly all of the vitamins and minerals required for good health, many of them ; especially starchy vegetables li e potatoes and winter squash ) contain comple" carbohydrates, which furnish us with energy. Aost also provide dietary fiber, and a few, such as lima beans and potatoes, can contribute significantly to our protein inta e. &t the same time, vegetables contain no cholesterol, have little or no fat, and are low in calories. In nutritional parlance, vegetables are Fnutrient denseG ; that is, their store of nutrients is relatively high for the number of calories they supply.

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*** The unfavourable effects of cigarette smo ing on the heart have frequently been described, but the e"act basis for these effects has not been clarified. 6ome investigators believe nicotine to be culprit and there has been some e"perimental wor in animals indicating that large doses of nicotine in con(unction with cholesterol feeding and vitamin 8 could produce a disease of the arteries resembling that seen in humans. &n alternative e"planation has been offered by other scientists who have pointed to the possible role of carbon mono"ide being inhaled with the cigarette smo ing.

*** Tigers grow to lengths of ten feet or more and can be bigger than the largest lion. They have immense strength. They clutch their prey to them, holding on with their claws, and depend on the crushing bite of their powerful (aws to end the struggle. They swim very well and can often be seen splashing about in water on very hot days, since they apparently suffer from heat. When the air is chilly, however, they avoid wet or damp vegetation. They can climb, but do not approach the leopards ability in this. They can negotiate treacherous roc y areas but generally prefer to stay on level ground. They are not as well equipped with senses as one might e"pect. They apparently depend on their hearing while hunting. Their eyesight is not particularly good, they seem unable to spot prey until it moves.

*** &griculture remains the most crucial area for development, here it seems that the most intractable problems of resistance to change e"ist. 'ne may argue that scientific training in agriculture by itself is unli ely to have any mar ed impact on agricultural output. &ny attempt at vocational training in agriculture presupposes that a meaningful structure of incentive e"ists for the individual farmer to increase his output, improve his techniques, and e"pand his range of activities. Without such incentives and opportunities, agricultural education can have little impact.

*** 6cientists have long sought ways to define and measure human intelligence. &nd while theories of intelligence have grown more sophisticated since the +@--s when some believed mental abilities were determined by the si7e of a persons head, researchers still do not agree about certain fundamental principles of human thought. They, therefore, continue to debate such basic questions as whether heredity or the environment is more important in forming intelligence.

*** 6ome decades ago there was hardly such a sub(ect as the economics of education. Today it is one of the most rapidly growing branches of economics. Together with health economics, it ma es up the core of the economics of human resources, a field of inquiry which in the last few years has been silently revolutionising such traditional sub(ects as growth economics, labour economics, international trade, and public finance. 4onsequently, the economics of education with its concept of human investment has rapidly transformed large areas of orthodo" economics.

*** The novelist 1. 5. 8octorow is best nown for his mi"ing fiction with historical fact, by placing his stories within the framewor of public events. In fact, by integrating the front)page news of the .-th century &merica with the lives of his characters, 8octorow gives readers the Bfeel of an era, combining the unusual and the commonplace. His latest novel BWorlds 3air shows how the events of the turbulent +,0-s helped mold the sensibilities of his young protagonist.

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*** In +,C9 the /nited 2ations 4onference on Trade and 8evelopment was held. 3or the first time the poorer nations of the world came together to act as a pressure group on trading matters. The 4onference made the following recommendations. The 8eveloping countries should be given free access to world mar ets for their manufactures and semi manufactures by the elimination of quotas and tariffs. International commodity agreements should be made for each ma(or primary commodity in world trade to stabilise commodity prices. Aoreover, compensation schemes, whereby the underdeveloped countries are compensated for the declining prices of their primary products, were recommended for consideration. The 4onference also resolved that the developed countries should aim to provide at least + per cent of their national income as aid for the underdeveloped countries.

*** In +,9:, following the 6econd World War, the allies that is, the /nited 6tates, the 6oviet /nion, and Britain drew up and signed the !otsdam &greement. The main points of this agreement were that militarism and Hitlerism should be destroyed< that industrial power should be so reduced that Dermany would never again be in a position to wage aggressive war< that surplus equipment should be destroyed or transferred to replace wrec ed plants in allied territories< that Dermany should be treated as an economic whole, and that local self)government should be restored on democratic lines as rapidly as was consistent with military security.

*** In earlier centuries it was thought that a great continent must e"ist in the southern hemisphere, around the 6outh !ole, to balance the nown land masses in the north. Its real e"tent was better understood in the +@th century, particularly when 4aptain 4oo sailed for the first time south of the &ntarctic 4ircle and reached the edge of the icepac . & portion of the ice)covered continent was first sighted by 1dward Bransfield in +@.-. 1"plorers of several other nations also sighted portions of the coast)line in other quarters and wrote detailed accounts of their observations. However, in the light of these accounts, the first e"tensive e"ploration was made by 4aptain #ames 4lar e *oss in +@9+ when a great part of the &ntarctic was discovered.

*** The police are a regular force established for the preservation of law and order and the prevention and detection of crime. The powers they have vary from country to country and with the type of government< the more civilised and democratic the state is, the less police intervention there is. 1ngland, compared with other countries, was slow to develop a police force, and it was not until +@., that 6ir *obert !eels Aetropolitan !olice &ct established a regular force for the metropolis. 5ater legislation established county and borough forces maintained by local police authorities throughout 1ngland and Wales.

*** 'ceanography is the scientific study of the worlds oceans which cover over ?- percent of the earths surface. The beginnings of modern oceanography go bac to the +@?-s when, for the first time, wide ranging scientific observations and studies of the oceans were underta en by British. 6ince then, oceanography has developed into a highly technical and interdisciplinary science which is now divided into several fields of study. These are biological oceanography, which deals with the study of the marine organisms and marine ecology, chemical oceanography, which is concerned with the composition of sea water, and physical oceanography, which studies ocean currents, tides, waves, and the role played by the oceans in climate and weather. Deological oceanography is also another branch of oceanography and is mainly concerned with the formation, composition and evaluation of the ocean basins. 'ceanographic nowledge is essential to allow e"ploitation of the enormous food, mineral and energy resources of the oceans wi

*** The International Ban for *econstruction and 8evelopment $IB*8% nown as Fthe International Ban G or as Fthe World Ban G is an agency of the /nited 2ations established in +,9:. It has the primary function of ma ing loans available to assist developing countries. /sually, loans are made to finance specific pro(ects of investment in underdeveloped countries< and the Ban will normally ma e a loan only if it is satisfied that the investment will yield a revenue sufficient to enable the payment of interest on the loan, and repayment of the sum lent. In +,@0 the Ban made loans to the value of O0.0-- million. Thus a si7eable amount of lending is channelled through the Ban , but it is clear that some pro(ects of great value to underdeveloped countries cannot be financed in this way, because they would not yield returns quic ly enough or large enough to meet the Ban s requirements for interest and repayment.

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*** !aper has been nown in one form or another from very early times. The papyrus reeds of the 2ile swamps served the ancient 1gyptians for sheets upon which to inscribe their records. The 4hinese and #apanese, centuries later, were using something more a in to modern paper in substance, an &siatic paper)mulberry, yielding a smooth fibrous material, being utilised. With the spread of learning in Western 1urope the necessity of a readier medium made itself felt, and paper began to be manufactured from pulped rags and other substances. 'ther paperma ing staples were later introduced, such as linen cotton and wood)pulp. The chief raw material in the world paper industry now is wood)pulp, the main e"porters being the timber)growing countries of 4anada, 6weden and 3inland.

*** When there has been a serious disaster such as an earthqua e or flooding, various relief efforts are rapidly put into effect. However, e"perience has shown that it is usually impractical to attempt mass immunisation immediately following a disaster and that, when attempted, it detracts from the overall relief effort without producing a discernible benefit. 1ffective immunisation requires prior planning good systems of communication and transport and access to the population at ris . These requirements cannot be met in the immediate postdisaster period. 1fforts to achieve mass vaccination in the relief phase also drain whatever limited manpower, communication facilities, and transportation e"ist.

*** The great e"pansion in energy demand over recent years has been met to a large e"tent by petroleum oil. The total world reserves of petroleum oil are still uncertain since large parts of the world are still not fully prospected. The cutbac in oil production and the rise in the price of Aiddle 1astern oil following the +,?0 &rab)Israeli war unleashed a worldwide energy crisis which affected the economies of consumer countries. 'ne result of this crisis has been that Britain has increased its 2orth 6ea oil production and become the fifth largest oil producing country in the world.

*** /niversities are institutions of higher education whose principal ob(ects are the increase of nowledge over a wide field through original thought and research and its e"tensions by the teaching of students. 6uch societies e"isted in the ancient world, notably in Dreece and India, but the origin of the /niversity as we now it today lies in medieval 1urope, the word FuniversitasG being a contraction of the 5atin term for corporations of teachers and students organised for the promotion of higher learning. The earliest bodies to become recognised under this description were at Bologna and !aris in the first half of the +.th century. '"ford was founded by an early migration of scholars from !aris, and 4ambridge began with a further migration from '"ford. 'ther universities sprang up all over 1urope from the +9 th century onwards.

*** In +,-0 the /nited 6tates signed a treaty with !anama, which gave the /nited 6tates rights in perpetuity ever a +C m wide strip of land e"tending across the narrowest part of !anama for the purpose of building and running a canal. The canal built, now nown as the !anama 4anal, connects the &tlantic and the !acific 'ceans and is (ust over @- m long. Its depth varies from +. to .C meters. It is constructed above sea)level, with loc s and has been available for commercial shipping since 0 &ugust +,+9. &n agreement was reached in +,?@ for the waterway to be turned over !anama by the end of the century.

*** *omanticism is a term for a movement in the arts, that is, in music, painting, sculpture or literature, which see s to give e"pression to the artists feelings about his sub(ect rather than to be concerned with form and reality. The romantic view is that art is nature seen through a temperament< the realist view, on the other hand, is that art is a slice of life. In painting 8elacroi" $+?@,)+@C0% is the romantic artist par e"cellence with his uncontrolled e"pression of the passions and love of the e"otic. In literature the *omantic movement reached its finest form in the wor s of Doethe, 6chiller and Heine< in the poetry of Byron, Peats, Wordsworth, 6helly and Bla e< and in the writings of Jictor Hugo. 6ince *omanticism is partly a matter of temperament in the artist (ust as 4lassicism is, it may be found at all times and places, although whether or not it becomes predominant depends on contemporary taste.

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*** 1liminating poverty is largely a matter of helping children born into poverty to rise out of it. 'nce families escape from poverty they do not fall bac into it. Aiddle)class children rarely end up poor. The primary reason poor children do not escape from poverty is that they do not acquire basic mental s ills. They cannot read, write, calculate or articulate. 5ac ing these s ills, they cannot get or eep a well)paid (ob. The best mechanism for brea ing this vicious circle is to provide the poor with better educational opportunities. 6ince children born into poor homes do not acquire the s ills they need from their parents, they must be taught these s ills in school.

*** &lcohol, nicotine and caffeine are psychoactive drugs that are freely available in our society. Their wide spread use shows that they provide a common solution to the problems of vast numbers of individuals. The e"tent and the nature of their use is not , however, uniform but varies with the particular sub)culture involved. To ta e alcohol, for e"ample, there are wide differences between the drin ing habits and rituals of merchant, seamen and businessmen, between Italians and #ews. 1ach sub)group in society will have a conception of what the permissible and desirable effects of alcohol are, how much it is necessary to drin to achieve this desired state< what is normal and what is deviant drin ing behaviour.

*** 2ot (ust in substance but in manner too, *obin Trevelyan, who is the !rime Ainisters new righthand man, is a politician in the old style. He avoids the flourish which characterises modern politicians. His speeches are at best unemotional, at worst dull. He is all but incapable of inspiring an audience. His face is ine"pressive, solid almost. He evades ma ing promises and is completely lac ing in vision. He is a politician whose talent has never been to inspire the mob.

*** In the early +,?-s, there was a great deal of optimism about improving womens position, ending male privilege and doing away with gender divisions and even gender difference. 1qual opportunities legislation was enacted in many countries, and the voice of the womens movement was heard criticising discrimination between the se"es in every sphere of wor ing life. 2ow it is clear that legislation can ma e only a marginal difference to entrenched patterns of (ob segregation and inequality. The voices of feminism, too, are varied< some demand equality with men while others pursue the revaluation of womens s ills and Bwomanly virtues.

*** Wor is central in British culture. When someone as s one BWhat do you doH, they really mean BWhat wor do you doH. When a woman is as ed B8o you wor H, what is meant is B&re you doing a paid (obH. Ket many people without a paid (ob wor at other inds of productive activities. Women, notably, perform an unpaid Bdouble shift in the home as house eepers and mothers. To confine the term Bwor to paid employment, therefore, restricts it far too narrowly. There are many other inds of wor , some of which can ta e more time and energy than we put into our paid employment from the voluntary wor ing in the garden to repairs to the house or the car. In other cultures, wor is not as highly valued as this< some people value leisure more, and wor only as much as they need in order to provide basic necessities.

*** &ll of us are born, all of us will die< but there is infinite variety in the nature and circumstances of these two events themselves and in what happens to our bodies and our minds in between. 6ome individuals, for e"ample, are born without difficulty and grow uninterruptedly during childhood and adolescence, suffering at worst only minor infectious diseases and accidents. &s adults, they reproduce their ind. They age gradually until, in e"treme old age, they die peacefully without pain or discomfort. This is an idealised picture of how we would li e things to be, rather than the reality that most people e"perience. 8eath comes to many of us, not when we are old, but during or before birth, in infancy, in adolescence, in early adulthood or in middle age.

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*** The &ma7on is the largest river in the world. It carries about a quarter of the world>s running water and is the second longest after the 2ile. Auch of it is brown, brac ish, piranha)infested and bitterly cold. *anging from narrow tributaries and raging rapids to stretches of prodigious width and calm, the river>s ban s can ta e half a day to reach. In parts, it can drop up to 9- metres in less than a ilometre 3urthermore, it runs through deep canyons and steep gorges that have been carved out by its turbulent waters.

*** Aost poetry anthologies are assembled by poets. This is not necessarily a good thing. They are in fact assembled for many different reasons. 6ome resemble star charts, trying to define the scope of the new and show us what direction poetry is heading. 'thers turn their ga7e on the past, see ing to define poetries of earlier centuries or to identify influential currents of thin ing and feeling. Ket other anthologies strive to present enduring images of the beautiful for the reader>s pleasure, as if poems were bunches of flowers.

*** The great window)dresser Dene Aoore seems to have been self)taught. &s a young man his main idea was to get away from Birmingham, &labama, then a town of steel and pollution. It was, he said, the wrong place to be born in for anyone with dreams. He dreamt of being a concert pianist and then of being a painter. But he decided that he did not play very well, and presently gave up painting. In 2ew Kor in the +,0-s he got various casual (obs. 'ne was with a store that decided he had flair and put him in its display department, and that was the start of his career. He wor ed for a number of shops promoting their wares, and built a reputation for innovative ideas.

*** 1verybody needs vitamins and minerals to remain healthy. The questions are, which ones, how much and whenH &nd the answer is surprisingly simpleE ta e QQQ. &ctually, the 8epartment of Health has recognised +@ essential vitamins and mineral that we need on a daily basis. The daily amount required of these vitamins and minerals is termed the *ecommended 8aily &llowance $*8&%. QQQ meet this requirement and more. &s a new vitamin comple", it contains these +@ essential vitamins and minerals, plus a total of no less than 0+ other micro nutrients, including the complete antio"idant group and folic acid. There is no more complete a multimineral multivitamin on the mar et. 6o, because you dont always eat as you should, it ma es sense to ta e QQQ.

*** !ollution is no respecter of national boundaries today. But environmental scientists can still be surprised by the distances that large quantities of industrial pollutants can sometimes be carried by winds. 3or instance, a group of chemists at the /niversity of Washington in 6eattle have been involved in a case study of such pollutants which reached the West 4oast of &merica all the way from &sia. They are een to understand how such an event could ta e place and to what e"tent it could have been forecast. In fact, bac in Aarch +,,?, pollutants such as carbon mono"ide from &sia had been spotted as far across the !acific 'cean as Hawaii. Thus, it seems increasingly li ely that the West 4oast of &merica is particularly e"posed to pollution from &sia.

*** In #apan, there is a government investment and loan programme, nown as 7aito. /nli e normal government spending, 7aito relies not on ta" revenues but on people>s savings. These are drawn from the publicly)owned postal savings system, which by law must place all deposits with 7aito, and from the postal life)insurance schemes and various pension funds. The finance ministry, which has run 7aito for more than +-- years, then lends the money out. 8uring the second World War, 7aito financed #apans military build) up. &fterwards, it paid for reconstruction and helped to channel low) cost funds into such strategic industries as steel and car)ma ing. Aore recently, it has turned to FsocialG investments, such as infrastructure pro(ects and housing.

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*** 1dison, one of the pioneers of modern technology, lac ed formal education. His understanding of literature, art, history and philosophy was superficial. &lso, despite the fact that he had invented the phonograph and founded a recording company, his musical taste was abominable. He is, therefore, sometimes regarded with disdain by academic scientists, who often forget that his ingenuity, inquiring spirit and tireless efforts contributed significantly to the development of modern technology.

*** 1dger 5awrence 8octorow is ::, and on almost anyones list he is counted among the leading serious &merican novelists today. &lthough he is not simply a writer of comedies, his boo s sell widely, and three have been made into movies. *eaders, some critics e"cepted, have come to relish the blending of the fact and fiction that mar s his odd scrutiny of the &merican past. In his recently published boo , Worlds 3air, he turns his historically inventive method on himself drawing heavily on material ta en from his +,0-s boyhood.

*** /nder increasing social pressure in the late nineteenth century, some universities opened their doors to a small number of women. Aore significant, however, was the founding of many women>s colleges, frequently run by women. These colleges strove over the years to maintain a curriculum equivalent to that of the largely male universities. Therefore, many leaders of the women>s college movement saw themselves as social reformers. &lthough women entered universities in large numbers in the first half of the twentieth century, their participation was limited by their professional ob(ectivesE teaching, social wor , nursing, home economics and the li e were Nwomen>s fieldsN.

*** William 6aroyans parents and relatives were &rmenian immigrants who settled in the farming area around 3resno, 4alifornia. 6aroyan left school at fifteen and went to wor , doing odd (obs. 8uring this time he read widely and began writing in his distinctive natural style. By the late +,0-s his many short stories, novels and plays had established him as a writer. Aany of his stories have grown out of his e"periences in the &rmenian community around 3resno.

*** &tmosphere is the gaseous envelope of the earth, and consists of a mi"ture of gases and water vapour. The variability of the latter is meteorologically of great importance. The o7one layer, which absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, especially lethal to plant life, lies between +. and :- ilometres above the earth. The lower level of the atmosphere, up to a height of about +. ilometres, is nown as the troposphere, and it is in this region that nearly all weather phenomena occur. This is the region of most interest to the forecaster studying temperature, humidity, wind)speed and the movement of air masses.

*** 3or many years after At. 1verest had been shown to be the highest mountain in the world, political conditions in 2epal, lying south of the summit, and in Tibet to the 2orth, prevented mountaineers from attending an ascent. &t last in +,.+ the Tibetan authorities gave permission and the first e"pedition organised, as were all subsequent e"peditions by international (oint committee, was sent out. This was primarily a reconnaissance. Besides mapping the 2orthern flan , it found a practicable route up to the mountain. By +,0,, si" further e"peditions had climbed on the northern face. 6ome were hampered by bad weather, others by problems previously little nown, such as the effect of high altitudes on the human body and spirit. 2evertheless, notable climbs were accomplished, though the summit was never reached.

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*** Heat)waves, if the temperature is high enough, above 9-R- for instance, lead to wilting, and even death in plant, because of structural damage to essential proteins. The problem is that plants react by closing their pores when, due to a serious heat)wave, they are sub(ected to water stress, so shutting down on transpiration and conserving water. #ust as the body would overheat dangerously if it shut its pores to prevent sweating, so, in a plant, the shutting of the pores will cause permanent damage, if not death. Temperatures above ):R- can damage most plants if lasting for half an hour or more. High soil temperatures will also damage roots and prevent nutrient upta e.

***!eople in other 1uropean countries have been wondering for some time why and how 2orway has stayed out of the 1uropean /nion. &ustria, 3inland, 6weden (oined in +,,9, almost without any public debate, (ust a few months after their governments had proposed the (oining. By then, the 2orwegians had been debating the issue for 00 years, ever since their government had started the drive towards unionisation. 'ne reason for the success of 2orwegian resistance is that in both +,:. and +,C?, when the 2orwegian government sent off applications for (oining the 114, !resident 8e Daulle of 3rance re(ected the proposals. He feared that the inclusion of 2orway, as of 1ngland, would complicate and slow down 114 integration.

*** & conspicuous feature of cities in many countries, in particular those of Western 1urope, is that buildings and streets devastated during the war are, once peace is reinstated, rebuilt in e"actly the same manner as they e"isted before. 1normous efforts are ta en to recreate the environment with total fidelity. This reflects the e"tent to which ordinary people value the traditions and culture of the past. In #apanese cities, however, one sees little evidence of such respect for tradition. To yo presents an e"treme e"ampleE it is quite common these days for the appearance of a street or quarter to change almost beyond recognition every year. In provincial cities as well, one often finds that an absence of several years has rendered a city almost unrecognisable.

*** In its full force the Dulf 6tream, which begins in the Dulf of Ae"ico, carries warm water to a depth of up to +-- meters at rates of up to @ ilometres an hour, and penetrates right up into the &rctic 4ircle to the north of 6candinavia, bearing with it a climate that ma es life (ust about tolerable, even in the thic of the winter. The energy it carries in the form of heat is equivalent to +-- times the entire use of energy in human societies across the world or put another way, more than .?,--- times Britain>s electricity generating capacity. In terms of temperature the Dulf 6tream heats the surface over a wide area by at least :R4. Were the)Dulf 6tream to fail, temperatures over northern 1urope would fall by more than +centigrade degree during the winter months. 2orthern 1urope would have a climate comparable to that of 6iberiaE (ust how it would support its current population is difficult to imagine.

***Aodern education is almost e"clusively focused on preparing children for an urban future, as consumers in a global FfreeG mar et. This ma es a return to any sort of rural e"istence almost an impossibility for those tutored by the Western education system in the .+st century. The fact is that, for all the fashionable tal about cultural diversity, schools, colleges and universities today prepare their graduates poorly for anything other than a uniform urban e"istence. We educate the young from country to city ali e, to be urban with urban appetites, s ills, minds, dependencies and e"pectations. &nd as globalised, future will overwhelmingly mean an urban future, our graduates of tomorrow will be trained, above all, to eep the wheels of the global economy running, with all the implications that has for nature and society.

*** Within a short time after the outbrea of the 6econd World War, Britain was without imports of many vital pharmaceuticals that had formerly come from #apan, Dermany and the 3ar 1ast. &s a result, the first wartime government set up systematic research into the cultivation and medical use of herbs, By +,9-, women>s voluntary organisations had been drawn into a national campaign to gather wild herbs, /p and down the country, 4ounty Herb 4ommittees were organised to oversee the gathering, drying, distillation and distribution of the medicinal herbs. 5ay people were given brief locally)based training in how to recognise herbs, store and dry them. 3armers were given subsidies to farm certain naturally hard) to)find herbs. By +,90, every county had its herb committee and during the five years of the 6econd World War, over ?:- tons of dried herbs were gathered and turned into medicines.

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*** *estorative (ustice does not as >how do we punishH>, but instead as s >how do we get people to ta e responsibility for what they have doneH>. !aying a fine, or even going to prison are easy options for some people. They are all ways that offenders can avoid ta ing responsibility, because in this way they never have to face the human reality of what they have done. !risons have been called Nuniversities for criminalsN. Koung people go in for unpaid fines, often for victimless crimes, and they come out with a degree in burglary or worse. I am not saying that the answer is to tear down all prisons. 3ar from it. There are people who are dangerous to society, who the community will want to eep loc ed up. !rison can also be part of a sentencing pac age under restorative (ustice. But the vast ma(ority of people in prison are not violent, and do not need to be there. What they do need is to be brought face to face with the human reality of the harm they have caused, and they must be given an opportunity to rectify.

*** In theory, the multimedia age should be illing off boo shops. Who still has time to read boo s, what with surfing the Internet, viewing scores of new digital television channels, and putting in ever)longer hours at wor H &nd presumably those few people who do still read boo s will be buying them on the Internet. &fter all, &ma7on, a boo seller, is the most cited e"ample of a successful online retailer. 6o much for the theory. What about the practiceH This wee the largest boo shop in Britain opened up in the old 6impson>s of !iccadilly in 5ondon. With .C:,--- titles and +.: million boo s, the new branch of Waterstone>s stretches over seven floors. & department store, which once sold everything from sushi to plus)fours, is now devoted entirely to one product ) boo s. The new Waterstone>s is almost ne"t door to Hatchards, a mere five) storey boo shop, with a wellestablished clientele, and two smaller boo shops. It is also less than a mile from Borders, another huge boo store in '"ford 6treet.

*** In the coming wee s, wine ma ers north of the equator will oversee the harvesting and fermenting of the first vintage of the millennium. But long before the finished product reaches the shelves ) before it even ma es it out of the barrel, in some cases ) samples will be offered to e"porters and distributors. & select group of wine critics will also be given a taste. Aost will record their impressions in the e"travagant prose that wine (ournalists unfortunately love to use. 'thers will go one step further and assign numerical grades. These days a high score is more effective than mere praise. it can ma e a comparatively un nown wine into a highly desirable one that everyone is see ing to buy.

*** The seventeenth)century scientist 3rancis Bacon was the first to insist that science be methodically separated from values so as to ma e it truly >neutral>, or ob(ective. In reality, he did nothing of the sort. His >scientific nowledge>, instead of being value)free, set out e"plicitly and purposefully to give humanity power over nature. >Truth and utility are perfectly identical,> he wrote in his F2ovum 'rganumG, and >that which is most useful in practice is most correct in theory>. In effect, he merely replaced the old >sub(ective> values of >good> and >evil> with the values of >useful> and >useless>, or more precisely >of contributing or not contributing to man>s domination over or transformation of the natural world>. There were to be no limits to this transformation. His goal was e"plicitly stated. It was to >achieve all things achievable>. &t least he was honest enough to admit the fact. Aodern science has followed Bacon>s lead e"actly, but does not admit it.

*** 'ne never finishes learning about art. There are always new things to discover. Dreat wor s of art seem to loo different each time one stands before them. They seem to be as ine"haustible and unpredictable as real human beings. It is an e"citing world of its own with its own strange laws and its own adventures. 2obody should thin he nows all about it, for nobody does. 2othing, perhaps, is more important than (ust thisE that to en(oy these wor s we must have a fresh mind, one which is ready to catch every hint and to respond to every hidden harmonyE a mind, most of all that has not been dulled by the terminology and ready)made phrases of art appreciation. it is infinitely better not to now anything about art than to have the ind of half) nowledge which ma es for snobbishness. The danger is very real.

*** If a greater proportion of the food people eat were to be locally produced, this would be of great benefit to the farmer. & mi" of local, regional, national, and international production would still be available< indeed, the goal would not be to put an end to the international trade in food, but to avoid transporting food thousands of miles when it could instead be produced ne"t door. 6uch a shift would help revitalise rural economies ruined by the global economy. 5ess money would go into the hands of corporate middlemen, and far more would remain in the hands of farmers, This would especially be the case with the direct mar eting of food via farmers> mar ets and farm stands and other forms of community supported agriculture. If farmers were not impelled to specialise their production in a few global commodities, the trend towards ever larger and more highly mechanised farms would slow down. Aoreover, since small farms use a proportionally higher amount of human labour than mechanised inputs, a return to smaller farms would help bring bac some of the ?--.--- farm (obs the /P has lost during the last halfcentury of agricultural progress.

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*** In the case of shallow tunnels or in urban areas it is often possible. by means of carefully sited boreholes, to gain an idea as to the nature of the ground and water conditions. /nder high mountains boring becomes e"pensive so reliance has to be placed upon geological interpretations. &s strata can vary so much, surprises are often met with and techniques sometimes have to change in a single tunnel. In the 6evern railway tunnel $9 mls C.@ yd long, completed in +@@C% great quantities of water were une"pectedly encountered and are still being pumped out.

*** The ideal of a family life shared by all in +,th century 1ngland survived into the early .-th century, until home life was seriously dislocated in +,+9 by World War I, which was a war on the largest scale the world had ever nown. But since the last decade of the +,th century new developments and inventions had been rapidly affecting the home life of an increasing number of people. Town and country were nit more closely together by easier railway travel, cheap and efficient postal services, the popularity of the bicycle, the development of the petrol engine and the cheap popular newspaper< such things as these helped to brea down social formalities and to place women again on a more equal footing with men.

*** &s with all revolutions, the causes of the &merican *evolution which separated the original thirteen &merican colonies from Dreat Britain were social, economic and political and so ine"tricably interwoven that it is difficult to appraise them. 3irst there was the distance from Dreat Britain and the environment of a new country which, whether they willed it or not, had gradually over a period of +:- years turned 1nglishmen into &mericans. The older stoc was largely 1nglish but the bul of them, as a contemporary historian commented. N new little of the mother country, having only heard of her as a distant ingdom, the rulers of which had in the preceding century persecuted and banished their ancestors to the woods of &mericaN. With each generation and with each move westward old contacts were bro en. 3urthermore large groups of colonists had come from Dermany, Ireland and other parts of 1urope and had no ties with 1ngland and, in the case of the Irish, no affection.

*** Aost people ta e it for granted prices will always nice and understandably so. & C-)year)old &merican has seen them go up by more than +.--- = in his life time. Ket prolonged inflation is a comparatively recent phenomenon. /ntil about C- years ago prices in general were as li ely to fall as to rise. 'n the of the 3irst World War, for e"ample, prices in Britain, over all, were almost e"actly the same as they had been at the time of 5ondon in +CCC. 2ow the world may be reverting to that earlier normality. The prices of many things have fallen over the past +. months or so. 2ot only computers and video players, but a wide range of goods) from cars and clothes to coffee and petrol ) are in many countries, cheaper than they were a year ago.

*** Translation renders nowledge mobile. The tas of the scientific translator, no less than the literary translator, has been to create new te"ts, to multiply sources into new languages, and thereby to produce new NoriginalsN. 'ver time, translation itself has built a great scientific library, ever more enriched, and accessible. &lthough we may thin of scientific translation as literal, mechanical wor , this has never been the case. The reasons for this are comple", but have much to do with the lac of e"act one to)one correspondence among languages. Translating science always involves interpretation, the rema ing of an original. If it did not, machine translation would have long ago rendered the scientific translator e"tinct.

*** Water of doubtful purity for drin ing can be rendered safe by boiling and then can be cooled in water bags or in earthenware containers, which must be protected from dust and flies when boiling is not possible, drin ing water can in many areas be adequately sterilised by chlorination< one tablet of hala7one is added to one litre of water and allowed to stand for 0- minutes. Water containing suspended matter should be filtered first. There is, however the danger of a particularly serious infectious disease in many regions of &frica, the Aiddle and 3ar 1ast and 6outh &merica. In these regions the water of rivers, la es and canal may be infected, and the disease is acquired when the water comes in contact with the s in.

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*** The great e"pansion in energy demand over recent years has been met to a large e"tent by petroleum oil. The total world reserves of petroleum oil are still uncertain since large parts of world are still not fully prospected. The cutbac in oil production and the rise in the price of Aiddle 1astern oil following the +,?0 &rab)Israel war unleashed a worldwide energy crisis. The result has been that Britain has increased its north sea oil production and has become the fifth largest oil producing country in the world.

*** 1ach year thousands of people are diagnosed with congestive heart failure ) a condition in which a wea ened heart can>t pump much blood as the body needs. 8rugs li e beta)bloc ers help stabili7e many patients in the earliest stages of the disease. But there aren>t a lot of options for fol s in the later stages. Heart transplants are one solution, but they are short in supply. It is such good news to hear that another type of mechanical pump, called a left ventricular assist device, may be a viable alternative. Instead of replacing the heart entirely, the device attaches to the organ>s left main chamber, boosting its output. The device is twice as li ely as drugs to eep patients alive after one year.

*** The continent of 6outh &merica loo s as if it managed to escape the attentions of the British 1mpire. However, this was more because the British didn>t need to e"ert formal control over the countries and peoples of this continent. The Aonroe doctrine imposed by &merica, served British interests quite well enough. The doctrine made it clear that the /nited 6tates would not tolerate foreign meddling in the &mericas. This policy meant that Britain could get all the benefits of trade and investment in 6outh &merica with very little of the administrative costs. In addition, it could be reasonably safe in the nowledge that other 1uropean states wouldn>t be able to steal the mar ets through anne"ation. Britain had very strong commercial lin s with 6outh &merica, especially with &rgentina. In many ways, the influence and power that Britain could hold over the policies of the individual 6outh &merican states meant that they could almost be termed as being part of Britain>s informal empire. The islands in the region that were formally anne"ed were done so mostly out of strategic naval considerations.

*** Hong Pong, with a population of about C.@ million at mid).---, is a small but dynamic city which has earned an international reputation as a leading commercial and financial center as well as a highly efficient port. 6ubsequent historical and political events led to the development of the manufacturing industry. Hong Pong has also seen a rapid e"pansion of its services sector in the past two decades, contributing over @: per cent of Hong Pong>s Dross 8omestic !roduct $D8!% in recent years. Hong Pong has a two)tier system of representative government. &t the central level, the 5egislative 4ouncil legislates, approves ta"ation and public e"penditure and raises questions on the wor of the Dovernment. &ccording to the Basic 5aw, the 5egislative 4ouncil is to be constituted by election.

*** 3ailing to discover any account of the purposes, for which nature is arranged as it is, and finding the e"planations actually offered by the philosophers to be suspect and non illuminating, 6ocrates abandoned all his effort to find out why things are as they are by e"amining nature itself. He turned instead to the e"amination of NlogosN that is, statements, arguments, or in general, words)as a way of discovering something true. The distinctive feature of 6ocratic inquiries is that they too as their immediate ob(ect not some phenomenon in the natural world but some person and his ideas. 6ocrates hoped that by methodologically and repeatedly e"amining someone>s ideas he might ultimately lead him to the discovery and establishment of the truth.

*** 4ollege students who eat all their meals at one of the college or university regulated food services are li ely to be offered a well) balanced diet. The offering of well)balanced meals does not ensure, however, that the students ma e wise selections. In addition many students eat their meals in restaurants or other public eating)places where they may not be offered foods that provide all the nutrients needed by the body. 4ollege students, generally spea ing, are well fed< few of them show e"treme deficiency symptoms. Aany students, on the other hand, are operating at a level below their achievement potential because of the insufficiencies in their diet.

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*** 8oes advertising encourage waste by persuading consumers to buy goods that they do not needH In reply to this, it has been pointed out that all the consumer really needs, is a bare minimum of clothing, food and shelter, and that one of the distinguishing mar s of any civili7ed community is that it lives well above the minimum subsistence level. Aost advertising is designed to influence the consumer>s spending power. In western countries, advertising has played a great part in bringing labour saving equipment, and so a degree of leisure, and even lu"ury, to millions. &dvertising that encourages the public to want more is also claimed to act as an incentive ma ing people want to earn more in order to buy the goods advertised, and therefore ma ing them wor harder. 3or this reason advertising has been defended as having an essential part to play in the move towards higher standards of living. The defenders of advertising also point out that it is not solely concerned with encouraging the public to spend. Ban s, insurance companies and building societies are amongst the commercial advertisers who encourage saving.

*** &lthough the idea of the s yscraper is modern, the inclination to build upward is not. The Dreat !yramids, with their broad bases, reached heights unapproached for the ne"t four millennia. But even the great Dothic cathedrals, crafted of bul y stone into an aesthetic of lightness and slenderness are dwarfed by the steel and reinforced concrete structures of the .-th century. It was modern building materials that made the true s yscraper structurally possible, but it was the mechanical device of the elevator that made the s yscraper truly practical. Ironically, it is also the elevator that has had so much to do with limiting the height of most tall buildings to about ?- or @- stories. &bove that, elevator shafts occupy more than .: percent of the volume of a tall building, and so the economics of renting out space argues against investing in greater height.

*** Though Italy>s national boundaries have altered relatively little since unification in the +@C-s, national identity is qualified by sharp internal differentiation. 1conomic and occupational structures, standards of living, political loyalties, cultural traditions and even language vary substantially between parts of the country. 'nly since the +,?-s has there e"isted a comprehensive system of regional government with financial and legislative authority. However, the division of powers between central and regional governments is imprecise, and in practice the latter depend on substantial resources from the former. In the absence of clear and effective rules, relations between the regions and the central government are determined by a process of political bargaining. In this process, political alliances and personal lin ages play a vital role. In this respect, the Italian system may be defined as a ind of federalism.

*** 6ir !hilip 6idney was a +Cth)century 1nglish poet and critic. His 8efence of !oesyis the only ma(or wor of literary criticism in si"teenth)century 1ngland, a period during which Italy and 3rance produced large numbers of critical treatises, heavily influenced by &ristotle>s !oetics. By contrast, 6idney>s te"t is highly eclectic, drawing together aesthetic principles from several traditions and emphasi7ing especially those principles that are of primary importance to the 1li7abethansE ideal imitation, moral teaching and decorum. 5oo ing bac to &ristotle, 6idney defines poetry as an imitation of nature, but lin s that imitation to his view of the poet as ma er. The poet imitates not the real nature we see but rather he imitates an ideal nature. 6idney also ma es large claims for the didactic role of poetry, following Horace>s idea that poetry teaches by delighting.

*** 5and cleared of trees is e"posed to erosion, which can be severe in deforested areas having slopes greater than +: to +? percent. If land is not disturbed any further and new growth becomes established, erosion may gradually subside. If, however, vegetation on the cutover land is continually removed by man or livestoc , erosion will intensify, and environmental problems can be severe. When a forest is removed from a slope, the rate of water runoff is increased two to tenfold or more, depending on the degree of clearing, slope, and rainfall. &ll too often this leads to flooding of agricultural land in the lowlands. In !a istan, for e"ample, almost . million hectares of standing crops on the lowlands were destroyed by floodwater in +,?0, and about +-,--- villages were wiped out. 6ince valuable soil is lost in floods, the quantity of the arable lands decreases. &lluvial silt deposited elsewhere is rarely usable enough to compensate for such losses.

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*** In modern times, it was perhaps the Ngentleman scientistsN of the nineteenth century who came closest to a genuinely ob(ective form of scientific research. These privileged amateurs en(oyed a financial independence which most scientists today cannot have, and which enabled them to satisfy their scientific curiosity without the need to please patrons. With the growth of scientific research after World War II, science has become an e"pensive occupation. Aany scientists today loo bac upon the +,C-s as a golden age of modern)day science, when research was mainly funded by the ta"payer, and scientific enquiry was seen by governments to be part of the public good, and worth paying for. Today, the situation is very different. N&cademic freedomN is now often little more than an illusion for most scientists wor ing at universities or in publicly) funded research institutes. Aoreover, science is now largely dominated by the interests of the industrial world, and hence, hardly deserves the name NscienceN.

*** 6ome people believe that meat consumption contributes to famine and depletes the 1arth>s natural resources. Indeed, it is often argued that cows and sheep require pasturage that could be better used to grow grain for starving millions in poor countries. &dditionally, claims are made that raising livestoc requires more water than raising plant foods. But both these arguments are illogical. &s for the pasturage argument, this ignores the fact that a large portion of the 1arth>s dry land is unsuited to cultivation. 3or instance, desert and mountainous areas are not suitable for cultivation, but are suitable for animal gra7ing. However, modern commercial farming methods prefer to raise animals in an enclosed space feeding them on grains and soybeans. /nfortunately the bul of commercial livestoc is not range)fed but stall)fed. 6tall)fed animals do not ingest grasses and shrubs $li e they should%, but are fed an unnatural array of grains and soybeans ) which could be eaten by humans. The argument here, then, is not that eating meat depletes the 1arth>s resources, but that commercial farming methods do. 6uch methods sub(ect livestoc to deplorable living conditions where infections, antibiotics, and synthetic hormones are common. These all lead to an unhealthy animal and, by e"tension, to an unhealthy food product.

*** 3ast)food is such a pervasive part of &merican life that it has become synonymous with &merican culture. 3astfood was born in &merica and it has now swolleninto a O+-C)billion industry. &merica e"ports fast)food worldwide and its attendant corporate culture, has probably been more influential and done more to destroy local food economies and cultural diversity than any government propaganda programme could hope to accomplish. 2o corner of the earth is safe from its presence and no aspect of life is unaffected. 3ast)food is now found in shopping malls, airports, hospitals, gas stations, stadiums, on trains, and increasingly, in schools. There are .0,--restaurants in one chain alone, and another .,--- are being opened every year. Its effect has been the same on the millions of people it feeds daily and on the people it employs. 3ast)food culture has changed how we wor , from its assemblyline itchens filled with robotic frying machines to the trite phrases spo en to customers by its poorly paid parttime wor force. In the /nited 6tates, more than :? per cent of the population eat meals away from home on any given day and they spend more money on fast) food than they do on higher education, personal computers, or even on new cars.

*** The chief triumph of this boo is its depiction of Wellington. He is not simply the famous British general who defeated 2apoleon at Waterloo. He remains a great general but he is also shown to have had feet of clay inside his splendid boots. 3or e"ample, the writer dwells on Wellington>s vanity and his unattractive lac of generosity in sharing the credit for his victories. This is a splendid boo . 2ever less than interesting, but always trenchant. It redefines Wellington without diminishing his achievements and ends by reminding us that it was 2apoleon who so forcefully articulated a wish that there should be Na 1uropean code of laws, a 1uropean (udiciary ... one people in 1uropeN. The ogre>s dream is coming true.

*** 1ven though there have been truly significant advances in modern medicine, health problems still abound and cause untold misery. &lthough heart disease and cancer were rare at the beginning of the .-th century, today these two diseases stri e with increasing frequency, in spite of billions of dollars in research to combat them, and in spite of tremendous advances in diagnostic and surgical techniques. In &merica, one person in three suffers from allergies, one in ten has ulcers and one in five is mentally ill. 1very year, a quarter of a million infants are born with a birth defect and undergo e"pensive surgery, or are hidden away in institutions. 'ther degenerative diseases such as arthritis, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, and chronic fatigue afflict a significant ma(ority of &mericans. 3urther learning disabilities ma e life miserable for seven million young people and their parents. These diseases were e"tremely rare only a generation or two ago. Today, chronic illness afflicts nearly half of all &mericans and causes three out of four deaths in the /nited 6tates.

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*** It may be that golf originated in Holland but certainly 6cotland fostered the game and is famous for it. In fact, in +9:? the 6cottish !arliament, disturbed because football and golf had lured young 6cots from the more soldierly e"ercise of archery, passed an ordinance that banned football and golf. #ames I and 4harles I of the royal line of 6tuarts were golf enthusiasts, whereby the game came to be nown as Nthe royal and ancient game of golfN. The golf balls used in the early games were leather)covered and stuffed with feathers. 4lubs of all inds were fashioned by hand to suit individual)players. The great step in spreading the game came with the change from the feather ball to the present)day ball introduced in about +@:-. In +@C-, formal competitions began with the establishment of an annual tournament for the British 'pen championship. There are records of Ngolf clubsN in the /nited 6tates as far bac as colonial days. However, it remained a rather sedate and almost aristocratic pastime until a .-)year)old 3rancis 'uimet of Boston defeated two great British professionals, Harry Jardon and Ted *ay, in the /nited 6tates 'pen championship at Broo line, Aass., in +,+0. This feat put the game and 3rancis 'uimet on the front pages of the newspapers and stirred a wave of enthuslasm for the sport

*** The /6 2ational Institute of 6tandards and Technology $2IT6% will soon be testing a controversial theory about the collapse of the World Trade 4enter towers. &ccording to an analysis by a leading fire)safety e"pert, had the fire)proofing insulation on the towers> steel structures been thic er, the towers would have survived longer and might even have remained standing after they were hit by the hi(ac ed planes. The wor is being sei7ed on by lawyers representing victims> families and insurance companies. If confirmed, it could also lead to changes in building codes. 2I6T is responsible for drawing up the final report on the towers> collapses and recommending if any changes are needed. It is widely accepted that the collapses were caused by the failure of the buildings> steel structure as it was wea ened by the heat of the fires.

*** The economic news from 1urope was particularly disappointing in the second half of .--.. Aoreover, recent surveys from the region imply little prospect of improvement in the near future. !erhaps the most worrying aspect has been the sharp decline in conditions in Dermany)the area>s largest and most important economy. 8omestic demand in Dermany is very wea and, with the global economy also struggling, Dermany>s manufacturers have not been able to e"port their way out of trouble as they have done in the past. With the economy in such a wea state, it is no surprise then that 1uropean stoc mar ets have followed the /6 stoc mar ets> downturn over the past C months. While individual share pries may be lower and mar et valuations loo attractive, the economy does not. *ecovery seems some way off and strong equity performance from 1urope>s mar ets seems unli ely in .--0. *** The long)e"pected decline in the dollar is now well under way. 3or years economists have predicted that &merica>s huge currentaccount deficit would eventually cause its currency to plunge. 6o far the dollar>s slide has been fairly gradualE it is down by +0= in tradeweighted terms over the past year, though it has dropped by almost twice as much against the euro since its .--+ pea . &s the decline seemed to pic up speed this wee , #ohn 6now, Deorge Bush>s Treasury 6ecretary, declared that he favours a Nstrong dollar policyN. That was surely the wrong answer, even leaving aside the debatable issue of whether cabinet secretaries can influence the level of e"change rates. & wea er, not a stronger dollar, is what the world needs now)so long as policyma ers elsewhere respond appropriately. &merica promoted a strong dollar throughout the +,,-s, when inflation was still thought to be the main enemy. Today it ma es less sense. 1ven after its recent slide, the dollar seems overvalued. Aoreover, with ample space capacity in &merica, deflation loo s a bigger ris than inflation.

*** 6cientist who study earth>s moon have two big regrets about the si" &pollo missions that landed a do7en astronauts on the lunar surface between +,C, and +,?.. The biggest regret, of course, is that the emissions ended so abruptly, with so much of the moon still une"plored. But researchers also lament that the great triumph of &pollo led to a popular misconceptionE because astronauts have visited the moon, there is no compelling reason to go bac . In the +,,-s, however, two probes that orbited the moon raised new questions about 1arth>s airless satellite. 'ne stunning discovery was strong evidence of water ice in the perpetually shadowed areas near the moon>s poles. Because scientists believe that comets deposited water and organic compounds on both 1arth and its moon, well)preserved ice at the lunar poles could yield clues to the origins of life.

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*** 8uring the past few decades four 1ast &sian economies ) 6outh Porea, Taiwan, 6ingapore and Hong Pong ) have achieved the fastest rates of economic growth the world has ever seen. In +,C. Taiwan stood between Saire and the 4ongo on the global ran ing of income per headE by +,@C its neighbors were Dreece and Aalta. In +,C. 6outh Porea was poorer than 6udanE by +,@C it was richer than &rgentina. Today the four NdragonsN account for +- per cent of manufactured e"ports worldwide, not far short of &merica>s +. per cent. /nderstanding this miracle is the most urgent tas in development economics. But most economists are content to cite the dragons as proof of their favorite theories ) whatever those theories may be. 3ree mar eters point to the dragons> reliance on private enterprise, mar ets and relatively undistorted trade regimes. Interventionists point with equal assurance to clever bureaucracies, non)mar et allocation of resources and highly distorted trade regimes.

*** &lthough women have made huge strides in catching up with men in the wor place, a gender gap still persists both in wages and levels of advancement. 4ommonly cited e"planations for this gap range from charges of se" discrimination to claims that women are more sensitive than men to wor versus family conflicts and thus less inclined to ma e sacrificesfor their careers. 2ow, however, two new studies suggest that another factor may be at wor E a deeply ingrained difference in the way men and women react to competition that manifests itself even at an early age. &pparently, females tend to be far less responsive to competition than males ) a tendency with important implications for women and business. It may hurt women in highly competitive labor mar ets, for e"ample, and hamper efficient (ob placement ) especially for positions in which competitiveness is not a useful trait.

*** When 5yndon #ohnson assumed the presidency, after the assassination of #ohn 3. Pennedy, in 2ovember of +,C0, he new that in order to accrue political capital he would initially need to champion goals and policies that Pennedy had already been pursuing. 2ot long before his death Pennedy had scrawled the word NpovertyN on a piece of paper and circled it multiple times< this note fell into the hands of his brother *obert and became a symbolic (ustification for #ohnson>s declaration of the War on !overty, early in +,C9. 6imilarly, many of the things that #ohnson pushed through 4ongress in his first two years as !resident, can readily be seen as e"tensions of the avowed policies of the Pennedy &dministration. The details might have been different, but historians generally agree that if Pennedy had lived out his first term and won a second, &merica would have witnessed something similar to the early years of #ohnson>s Dreat 6ociety. 'n foreign policy, too, #ohnson at first strove consciously to follow his predecessor. &nd some historians have argued that in this realm as well, #ohnson indeed pursued a course that Pennedy had already introduced. If Pennedy had lived, according to this line of thin ing, he would have continued a policy of antagonism towards 4uba and steady escalation of /6 involvement in Jietnam. #ohnson certainly believed that this was what Pennedy intended to do.

*** The 6ahara desert ta es up most of 1gypt>s land, so overcrowding is a huge problem. 6i"ty)two million people live squee7ed together into the si" million fertile acres along the 2ile delta and narrow river valley ) (ust five per cent of the total area of 1gypt. Between +. and +: million people live in 4airo alone. /ntil recently, it was impractical and dangerous to even consider moving into the southern desert, where temperatures regularly rise above :- 4 and water is scarce and can only be reached using carefully placed irrigation wells. But in the last .- years a N2ew JalleyN has slowly been ta ing shape. Towns with industrial centres, tourist areas and spacious apartment bloc s are being constructed, factories are springing up. The main development ma ing this possible is the construction of the vast 6hei h Sayed canal, also nown as the Tosh a canal. 2amed for 6hei h Sayed al 2ahya, president of the /nited &rab 1mirates, which is financially bac ing the pro(ect, the canal is part of the irrigation scheme dreamed up by the 1gyptian government to ma e it possible for people to move away from the traffic, pollution and bustle of 4airo. If a Nsecond 2ileN cuts through the desert and water is distributed to surrounding land, people and crops can thrive there as they do around the e"isting 2ile. The area isbecoming nown as the 2ew Jalley.

*** The space shuttle and its roc ets are huge ) some 9.: million pounds at lift)off. &bout @: per cent of that weight is fuel. 6ince it is designed to wor in a vacuum, the shuttle must carry not only fuel but the o"ygen to burn it. Because this is an inefficient way to go, 2&6& engineers have recently tested an engine that gets some of its o"ygen on the run. This should reduce ta eoff weights by half. & spacecraft equipped with this engine would ta e off li e a roc et. But within minutes, incoming air would begin to supplement liquid o"ygen. 'nce the spacecraft reaches a speed of +,:-- miles per hour ) twice the speed of sound ) the liquid o"ygen would shut off completely and the engine would burn fuel mi"ed with air. 4onsequently the craft would accelerate to about ten times the speed of sound. When the air got too thin for the engine to breathe, the ship would shift bac to roc et mode to punch its way into space.

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*** Behavioural biologist #ane &t inson and her colleagues have been studying the subtleties of how crows steal food from one another. &t inson had been watching the birds at the beach as they fed on fish, clams and other small animals in the intertidal 7one. 6he noticed that if a crow had found a particularly large meal that couldn>t be eaten in a single gulp, another crow would often come by and try to steal the food away. 3ood theft is fairly common in the bird world, so the crows> thievery wasn>t une"pected. What really intrigued &t inson was that the birds employed two different tactics to ta e the food. in some instances, the thieving bird would ta e an aggressive approach ) typically involving some chasing or physical contact, such as pec ing in other e"changes, however, the thief would use a more passive methodE merely approaching the other bird secretively and steallng the food without any commotion at all. What the team wanted to now wasE how did these tactics fit into the group foraging practices of the crowsH

*** In many ways, Hollywood seems to e"emplify the most (oyless aspects of capitalism. The NindustryN, as it insists upon calling itself, pac ages artistic ideas and images as commodities and then values those commodities accordmg to how they NpenetrateN mar ets. The system>s worrying inefliciency, of course, is that studios never now what the public at large will want to buy. 6o films are tested in front of preview audiences, revised according to the audience>s suggestions, tested again, and then mar eted with a vigour directly proportionate to the test scores. There are two problems with this approach. The first is that the test)sample si7e is minimal but can determine a film>s fate. The second is that by the time the test audience sees a film it>s too late to change it very much anyway, particularly when twenty, fifty or a hundred million dollars has already been spent.

*** Throughout history, eyewitnesses have reported orange glows, fireballs or flashes in the days before and during an earthqua e. it was in +,C@, however, that the first photographs of Nearthqua e lightsN were ta en during a series of earthqua es in #apan. 6ome showed red strea s across the s y. 'thers loo ed li e a low blue dawn from a distance. in +,,,, floating bails of light in the s y were broadcast on Tur ish television, reportedly filmed the night before the devastating earthqua e of ?.9 on the *ichter scale that illed many thousand people in the Aarmara region of Tur ey. Aysterious or not, repeated sightings of earthqua e lights confirm their e"istence. it has to be said that earthqua e lights are a fairly well nown phenomenon, but we don>t now what they mean, or what causes them. 6eismologists have struggled far years to find a reliable earthqua e predictor. 4ould the lights hold the eyH

*** *eading presents a real parado" to neurobiologists. It was only invented a few thousand years ago, so there really has not been enough time for our brain to evolve speciall7ed ways to do it. How do brain circuits produced by millions of years of evolution in a world without written words adapt to the specific challenges of readingH We now we have to learn the s ill but how does our brain learn to readH in the social sciences, the ma(ority of researchers do not see a problem. There is a widespread view that the brain is a completely adaptable organ, capable of absorbing any form of culture. Ket recent findings from brain imaging studies and neurophysiology throw new light on the organi7ation of the reading circuits in the brain. The findings contradict this simplistic model of a brain that merely absorbs everything from its cultural environment. &nd they suggest that the architecture of our brain is limited by strong genetic constraints though it seerns that it has still some degree of fle"ibility.

*** Auch has been said and written about the declining numbers of and disappointing lac of diversity among &merican college students ma(oring in engineering. &mong the factors cited to e"plain this phenomenon are the lac of e"posure of high school students to the very idea of engineering and the fact that many have insufficient mathematics and science bac ground to gain entrance to engineering school, even if they do identify the profession as a possible career. This is unfortunate, for the ideas of engineering should be integrated into the curricula not only of high schools but also of middle and primary schools. 'ur children are being done a disservice by not being e"posed properly throughout their education to engineering activities identifted as such. &rter all, even pre)school children have the prerequisites in their play for appreciating e"actly what engineering isE design. Indeed, design is everywhere around them throughout their school day, even in their before)school and after)school activities. it need only be pointed out to them that they are designing something, and therefore being engirteers of sorts, in virtually everything that they do.

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*** Why are people pre(udicedH 2ot surprisingly, theories of pre(udice have tended to focus on the more e"treme forms of pre(udice, in particular when there is aggression and violence. &t the turn of the last century, it was popular to consider pre(udice to be an innate and instinctive reaction to certain categories of person $e.g. certain races% much as animals would react in instinctive ways to one another. This approach is no longer popular, as it doesn>t stand up well to scientific scrutiny. However there may be an innate component to pre(udice. There is some evidence that higher animals, including humans, have an inherent fear of the unfamilier and unusual, which might set the mould for negative attitudes towards groups that are considered different in certain ways. There is also evidence for a mere e"posure effect, in which, people>s attitudes towards various stimuli $e.g. other people% ,improve as a direct function of repeated e"posure or familiarity with the stimulus provided that initial reactions to the stimuli are not negative. &nother perspective rests on the belief that pre(udices are learned. Indeed, it has been argued that hatred and suspicion of certain groups are learned early in life before the child even nows anything about the target group and that this provides an emotional framewor that colours all subsequent information about an e"perience with the group.

*** 1urope and #apan do not use fuel economy standards to any significant degree, but instead rely principally on high ta"es to reduce gas consumption. Their average ta" is more than O.-- per gallon, while in the /6, federal gas ta"es are only +@ 1/*' per gallon and average state ta"es .. 1/*' per gallon. Higher prices at the pump rusulting from higher ta"es increase consumer demand for cars with better fuel economy. They also encouarege consumers to reduce their driving. *esearch shows that federal ta"es on gasoline would have to increase by a bit less than :- euro per gallon to cut gasoline consumptin in the /6. &lthough a :1/*' incerase is a lot compared with the present average total ta" of 9- 1/*', it would raise retail gas prices to only a little more than O. per gallon, ta" included. This is far below prices in 1urope and #apan. 1ven if federal ta"es on gas were doubled, /6 retail gas prices would still be much below those in other developed nations.

*** By the early +,th century, the eminent 3rench 7oologist Deorges 4uvier believed he had found roc solid evidence for the Biblical great flood. While studying the geological strata around !aris, 4uvier found that fossils of sea creatures in one ancient layer of chal were overlaid by those of land creatures. Then (ust as abruptly, the layer above contained sea creatures again, with the top layer showing evidence of a vast and rapid inundation around present day !aris. 4uvier regarded these sudden changes in the fossil record as evidence for sudden catastrophes which devastated life on 1arth, of which the great flood was (ust the most recent e"ample. 4uvier>s discoveries, published in +@+. won support from a large number of eminent scientists such as the geologist 6ir #ames Hall. However there were a few who were deeply sceptical, pointing out that the evidence of a global flood was far from conclusive. Aost sceptical of all were the followers of the 6cottish geologist #ames Hutton. In +?,: he had published a two volume te"t based on the view that the slow steady processes that shape our planet today, such as erosion, were also crucially important in the distant past.

*** 2o child is too young to play and therefore to engage in engineering, even though it is of a primitive ind. We all did so as children ourselves when we devised our own toys and games and sometimes even imaginary friends to en(oy them with us. The idea of playfulness is embedded in engineering through the concepts of invention and design. 2ot that engineering is trivial< rather, the heart of the activity is to give imagination its freedom to dream and turn those dreams into reality. 4hildren do e"perience the essence of engineering in their earliest activities, yet there is seldom any recognition that this is the case. They may hear the word NengineerN only in connection with railroad locomotives and have no idea that their playful activity could become a lifelong profession. 1ngineers themselves are understandably reluctant to equate their professional activity with mere child>s play. &fter all, they studied long and hard to master complicated nowledge of atoms and mole ules, stresses and strains, heat and power, current and voltages, bits and bytes. They use computers for serious modelling and calculation, not for fun and games. They design and build real towers and bridges that test the limits of reliability and safety, not the ones that totter and fall down with little consequence.

*** Throughout his wor ing life, 6ha espeare wor ed as an actor in the midst of a troupe. We now little about his first years in 5ondon. 3or a few years between +:@: and +:,. his name disappears altogether from the public records, and the most li ely reason for this is that, for at least some of this time, he was wor ing for one of the city>s acting companies. &s a (unior member, he would not be listed among the troupe>s principal players. In the late +:@-s theatrical activity in 5ondon was largely concentrated in 6horeditch and 6outhwar districts of 5ondon. 6ha espeara could have lived anywhere, but 6horeditch, which would have been cheap and convenient, is a li ely candidate for a young actor. In his early career 6ha espeare may have moved from troupe to troupe in order to survive. Whatever the case, wor ing conditions must have been similar. 6undays, religious holidays and disasters aside, a company would perform a different play each afternoon of the wee , though some plays would be repeated in the wee s ahead. &n actor usually had to eep at least 0- parts in his memory and a leading player such as &lleyn or Burbage must have ept in mind nearly :-- lines a wee .

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*** 3or two decades after World War II, mass production reigned supreme. Aass production techniques pushed companies into standardi7ed products, long product life cycles, and rigid manufacturing, emphasi7ing efficiency and low cost over fle"ibility. 6pecial orders cost more. But today>s consumers are very choosy. They want quality, value and products specially tailored to their needs, but always at the lowest possible price. 3or now mass customi7ation has come to the fore. Aass customi7ation uses information technology to produce and deliver products and services designed to fit the specifications of individual customers. 4ompanies can customi7e products in quantities as small as one with the same speed and low cost as mass production methods. Aass customi7ation systems use information ta en from the customer to control the flow of goods.

*** Before the !olish)born 3rench)&merican mathematician Benoit Aandelbrot made his mar on the world, scientists li ed to forget about the imperfections and irregularities of nature. The study of perfect squares, triangles and planes had dominated their field for over .,--- years, since the Dree geometer 1uclid wrote maths> oldest treatise N1lementsN and provided us with the tools to measure these flawlessly smooth shapes. 1arly question about how to measure the real shape of a tree, a coastline or anything with a rough edge could not be tac led by 1uclidean geometry and had therefore been ignored. But Aandelbrot changed all this when he invented fractal geometry, which enables us to measure roughness. NAy whole career has been one long, ardent pursuit of the concept of roughnessN, he says. NThe roughness of clusters in the physics of disorder, of turbulent flows, of e"otic noises, of chaotic dynamical systems, of the distribution of gala"ies, of coastlines, of stoc )price charts and of mathematical constructions.N

****ecent activity in several /6 church communities has seemed almost unbelievableE churchgoers have gathered around huge fires and cheered as they cast Harry !otter boo s into the flames. They fear that the incredibly popular series about a school for young wi7ards is spurring children and adolescents toward a life of witchcraft and onto the dangerous path toward 6atanism. 3or these congregations, #.P. *owling>s boo s are none other than the wor of the devil herself. To most people, however, the Harry !otter boo s and films are merely compelling adventure stories, not a threat to children>s psyches. But what has been forgotten in the e"citement of N!ottermaniaN is that boys and girls have been fascinated by magic and sorcery for generations. 6urveys about magical practices among adolescents vary widely, but some indicate that as many as 99 per cent have shown some slight, passing interest in it. &lthough satanically motivated violence occasionally ma es headlines, research shows that less than : per cent of young people ta e part in more e"tensive witchcraft, and very few end up in the ind of organi7ed devil worship that can lead to such acts as ritual murder.

*** 1verybody e"periences tensions. &n"iety and tension are essential functions of living, (ust as hunger and thirst are. They are our selfprotecting reactions when we are confronted by threats to our safety, well)being, happiness or self)esteem. 6o, while an occasional encountering of an"iety and tension may be disagreeable, it is quite normal, and it need not to be a cause for concern. The time to become watchful is when emotional upsets come frequently, sha e us severely and fail to disappear after a while. *** Therapists have to be very careful before they ma e a diagnosis of delusional disorder. & great many complaints are founded on fact. It is possible that a patient is really being harassed at wor , that her husband is deceiving her, or that her business partner is cheating her. Indeed, therapists must be careful not to mislabel facts as delusions, a trap nown as Nthe Aartha Aitchell effectN. Aartha Aitchell was the wife of former /6 attorney general #ohn Aitchell. In 'ctober +,?., he was accused of having ordered the brea )in at the 8emocratic campaign headquarters in the Watergate Hotel in Washington, 8.4. Ars Aitchell repeatedly told the press that her husband was being made a scapegoat to protect the real culprit ) !resident *ichard A. 2i"on. The White House spread disinformation about Ars Aitchell, saying she had a drin ing problem and implying that her statements were delusional. When the scandal was ultimately unravelled, Ars Aitchell>s statements were proved true and she was shown to be utterly sane and with no drin ing problem.

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*** We can only guess when 6ha espeare wrote his plays. He may have had his own writing NseasonN perhaps in the quieter winter months, but he never stopped acting probably ta ing two or three minor parts instead of a ma(or one. He seems to have chosen for himself the more static and undemanding roles in his plays, such as old &dam in &s Kou 5i e It and the Dhost in Hamlet. His audiences included many habitual playgoers, and many must have nown 6ha espeare and he must have nown them. We can imagine, as a recent biographer has said, Nthat there might have been a comple", subtle communicative e"change when he appeared in one of his own playsN. In spring +C+0, he purchased his first property in 5ondon. He was renting it out by +C+C, but may oriTinally have entertained other intentions for the property. It would certainly have been a handy place to stay, being near the Dlobe, which was his theatre. !erhaps the destruction of the Dlobe in +C+0, which probably prompted him to sell his share in the theatre company, altered his plans for it. He may not have given up acting, but his writing career was over by the end of that year. In +C+9, he returned to his hometown, 6tratford)upon)&von, and died there in +C+C.

*** 3amily)owned companies are bad for business, a new study argues ) at least when they dominate a large portion of a country>s economy. 'utside the /nited 6tates and Britain most ma(or corporations are in the hands of a few wealthy families, rather than, as in the /6 and Britain, being owned by a wide networ of shareholders. The power of these small families often e"tends far beyond the companies they own directly, than s to a system of Ncontrol pyramidsN in which they e"ercise indirect control over a large number of smaller companies. This concentration of corporate power doesn>t merely leave a high percentage of wealth in the hands of billionaires it also retards growth, diminishes efficiency, and limits economic freedom. Aoreover, Na tiny elite that cannot be sac ed,N as the study puts it, is li ely to pursue Neconomic entrenchmentN, in which property rights and financial openness are restricted to protect a few families> economic and political prerogatives or rights.

*** We should care about dying languages for the same reason that we care when a species of animal or plant dies. It reduces the diversity of our planet. In the case of language, we are tal ing about intellectual and cultural diversity, not biological diversity, but the issues are the same. &s a result of decades of environmental publicity and activism, most people have come to accept that biodiversity is a good thing. But linguistic diversity has not en(oyed the same publicity. 8iversity occupies a central place in evolutionary theory because it enables a species to survive in different environments. Increasing uniformity holds dangers for the long)term survival of a species. The strongest ecosystems are those which are most diverse. It has often been said that our success in coloni7ing the planet can be accounted for by our ability to develop diverse cultures which suit different environments.

*** 'ne of the greatest natural catastrophes the world will ever see could be little more than a decade away. The film 6uper volcano traces the evolution of an enormous volcanic eruption, one that not only wipes out several states of &merica but that threatens the entire planet. But is such an eruption really possibleH Well, super volcanoes certainly aren>t fiction. They>re a normal part of the way the 1arth wor s and occur perhaps every :-,--- years. 1very statistic associated with a super)eruption is always wildly over) e"aggerated. Aolten magma is blasted out at a rate +9- times greater than the flow of water over the Jictoria 3alls. &sh and gas are thrown more than :- m upwards to the edge of space before falling over one percent of the 1arth>s surface. 1nough ash would pile up on the ground to bury Britain under a blan et 9m thic . 3urther, devastating winds carrying burning gas and red hot ash would scour the land surface over an area of +-,--- square ilometers. Worst of all, a super)eruption is foIIowed by a dramatic fall in global temperatures, leading to years and years of bitter cold nown as a volcanic winter.

*** The discovery of an ancient tomb in modern 4hina is so commonplace that it often annoys as much as e"cites, because it can delay construction for months or even years. 6o when archaeologists were called in last Aay to chec structures discovered during the e"pansion of a bone meal factory in a southern suburb of Bei(ing, they weren>t e"pecting to find anything of great interest. To the archaeologists> surprise, the structures were the remains of two traditional domed tombs, each over a thousand years old. 'ne was flooded and badly damaged, but the other contained beautifully)preserved wall frescoes from the +-th century. FIt>s only recently that the 4hinese have been publishing artifacts from ancient tombs, and it>s unusual to see them in the Western press,G says 8r #essica *awson, !rofessor of 'riental &rt and &rchaeology at '"ford /niversity.

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*** 1ngineering is a in to writing or painting in that it is a creative endeavor that begins in the minds eye and proceeds into new frontiers of thought and action, where it does not so much find as ma e new things. #ust as the poet starts with a blan sheet of paper and the artist with a blan canvas, so the engineer today begins with a blan computer screen. /ntil the outlines of a design are set down, however tentatively, there can be no appeal to science or to critical analysis to (udge or test the design. 6cientific, rhetorical or aesthetic principles may be called on to inspire, refine and finish a design, but creative things do not come of applying the principles alone. Without the s etch of a thing or a diagram of a process, scientific facts and laws are of little use to engineers. 6cience may be the theater, but engineering is the action on the stage.

*** #ust as every teenager thin s he is brighter than his parents, every decade considers itself superior to the one that came before. 'ver the past few months, we of the .--- decade have made it quite clear that we are morally heads above those who lived in the +,,-s. Weve done it first by establishing a reigning clichU for that period. #ust as the +,C-s are nown for student unrest, the +,@-s for *eagan, Thatcher and the Kuppies, the +,,-s will henceforth be nown as the second Dilded &ge. They will be nown as the age when the real problems in the world were ignored while the illusions of the dotcom types were celebrated. It was the age of effortless abundance, cell phones on every ear, stoc mar ets that only went up and Aercedes sport utility vehicles. 2ever before had business leaders en(oyed so much prestige, and never before had capitalism had fewer mortal enemies. Bill Dates couldnt be on enough business)maga7ine covers< tycoons li e him felt free to assume the role of global sages, writing boo s with such weighty titles as FThe *oad &head.

*** The natives of the 5ewis Island now wind ; sometimes too well. 1very winter the &tlantic gales come blasting across the northern tip of 6cotlands 'uter Hebrides. The wind hardly slows down even after stri ing land< in the islands marshy interior, gusts regularly e"ceed +C- ph. 1veryone stays indoors but the sheep. Tourists arrive in summer, lured by mild temperatures and unspoiled countryside< even so, theres rarely a calm day. FThe weather here is changeableG, says 2igel 6cott, spo esman for the local government. FBut the wind is constantG. The brutal climate could finally be 5ewiss salvation. The place has been growing poorer and more desolate for generations, as young people see sunnier prospects elsewhere. But now the energy industry has discovered the storm)swept island. The multinationals &A14 and British 1nergy are tal ing about plans to erect some 0-- outsi7e wind turbines across a few thousand hectares of moorland. If the :-- million)pound pro(ect goes through, the array will be 1uropes largest wind farm, capable of churning out roughly + per cent of Britains total electrical needs ; and generating some badly needed (obs and cash for the people of 5ewis.

*** BB49, a comparatively new TJ channel, has a character of its own. 3rom the start it aimed to be Fa place to thin G, and it was always designed as something Fthat the commercial mar et would never doG, says *oly Peating, its controller and formerly head of arts at the BB4. Its first wee s schedule indeed verged on a parody of non)commercial TJ, with township opera from 6outh &frica and a performance by a 6enegalese singer in a 5ondon church hall. & top)rated show will typically draw some :-,--viewers ; almost negligible in television terms. Ket that narrow appeal ma es BB49 a model of what a publicly financed broadcaster ought to do. It has roamed into territory where its ratings)driven sister channel, BB4+, seldom dares to tread. 8espite a tiny 0:m budget, it boasts an intelligent prime)time tal show and a world news programme so internationally minded that its 5ondon provenance is barely visible. BB49 may wear its gravity a little too heavily at times, but it supplies a variety and thoughtfulness unavailable on prime time BB4+. The more the other BB4 channels chase the ratings, and the more that BB49 refuses to be dictated to by them, the more the channel loo s li e a model for what BB4 television could loo li e.

*** In this century, the wealth and success of nations will depend li e never before on the ability to produce and use nowledge. /niversities have long been instrumental in generating nowledge and ideas. But in an increasingly globali7ed world, and in the face of rapid scientific change, they will need to thin about a set of new challenges and how best to prepare their students for the coming decades. /niversities will need to teach a new ind of literacy, in which global awareness will play an important role. They also need to deal with the dilemmas posed by the accelerating pace of change brought on by scientific and technological advances. We are on the brin of once)in)human)history progress in combating disease through the application of modern science. 8octors will have at their disposal blood tests that will tell you with substantial predictive power how long you will live and from what diseases you are li ely to suffer. The Internet and the application of information technology may well represent the most profound change in the way nowledge is disseminated since the printing press. We are close to understanding the first second of the history of the cosmos.

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*** /nli e the older forms of occultism, such as magic and astrology, organi7ed occultism is a modern phenomenon. 3ew of the various organi7ed occult movements have e"isted for more than +:- years< some were formed as a belated countermovement to the 1nlightenment, when people began to follow rational schools of thought. Todays occult views are based on the idea that there are events within nature, as well as within ones spiritual life, which seem mysterious and cannot be e"plained by science. 1"amples include e"trasensory perceptions such as telepathy and tele inesis, and haunted places or people. Believers maintain that these phenomena stem from un nown powers that can often be accessed only by some people with special abilities. *** In 3inland now, everything is all right. 3ifteen years after one of the worst recessions any 1uropean country has seen, triggered by the collapse of the 6oviet /nion, the 3inns feel very content. Their small country of a population of : million is the first in the World 1conomic 3orums list of the worlds most competitive countries, and the second in its business)competitiveness inde". It is also the first in the '148s world ran ing of educational performance and has the second)highest share of research)and)development spending in the 1uropean /nion. Aoreover, the country is reversing its demographic decline and, hence, its fertility rate is one of the highest in 1urope. !erhaps best of all the 3inns are facing globali7ation without paranoia. Theirs is one of the few 1uropean countries to have succeeded in businesses in which international prices are falling because of global competition and technological change. In most of 1urope public opinion and even business Ulites seem gloomily resigned to being overwhelmed by India and 4hina. 3inland suggests that this fate is not inevitable.

*** The assumption that a persons attitudes determine his or her behaviour is deeply ingrained in Western thin ing, and in many instances the assumption holds. However, research has shown that the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is comple". & classic study conducted during the +,0-s was the first to question the lin . & white professor travelled across the /6 with a young 4hinese couple. &t that time, there was quite strong pre(udice against &sians, and there were no laws against racial discrimination. The three travellers stopped at over .-- hotels, motels and restaurants, and were served at all the restaurants and all but one of the hotels and motels without problem. 5ater, a letter was sent to all of the establishments visited,as ing them whether or not they would accept a 4hinese couple as guests. 'f the +.@ replies received, ,. per cent said they would not. In other words, these proprietors e"pressed attitudes that were much more pre(udiced than their behaviour.

*** When you stay as a guest in someones house, you give up your anonymity. This becomes quite a challenge if you are the ind of person who cherishes independence. However, when you and your host are on the same wavelength, you can have a trip more special than money can buy. 6ome years ago when I went to &uc land, 2ew Sealand, for the first time, my hosts were a couple, about my age, whom I had met while travelling in 1urope. They had a full programme lined up for me. They drove me around and showed me their favourite hot springs and also the beach where a popular TJ series had once been filmed. &t mealtimes, they introduced me to their favourite restaurants, where I sampled cheeses from south 2ew Sealand that dontget e"ported, and fruits grown locally. 2ormally such a tight schedule would ma e me nervous, but I found myself happily relinquishing control to my hosts, who truly understood the pleasures of their native country and en(oyed sharing them. I couldnt have encountered this 2ew Sealand on my own.

*** /ntil the giant &merican energy company 1nron collapsed, and its director Penneth 5ay was imprisoned, his life had been a model of the &merican dream of rising from rags to riches on the strength of merit and hard wor . His beginnings were socially and financially very modest. He was born in Tyrone, Aissouri, in +,9., as the son of a preacher who was also a part)time salesman. He helped his father ma e ends meet by cutting grass and delivering papers. His start in the energy industry seemed similarly modest. &fter obtaining a doctoral degree in economics from the /niversity of Houston, he got his start in the booming Te"an oil industry. In +,@: he merged Houston 2atural Das with Inter2orth of 2ebras a inorder to form 1nron. &s 1nron became stronger, Ar 5ay turned increasingly to politics and was one of the biggest donors to the Bush)4heney campaign. &fter Ar Bush entered the White House, Ar 5ay had hopes of a seat in the cabinet, perhaps as energy secretary or even at the Treasury. However, for reasons that remain unclear, Ar Bush overloo ed him, so his professional life ended in frustration.

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*** There seems no question but that the cloc dial, which has e"isted in its present form since the seventeenth century and in earlier forms since ancient times, is on its way out. Aore and more common are the digital cloc s that mar off the hours, minutes, and seconds in ever)changing numbers. This certainly appears to be an advance in technology. Kou will no longer have to interpret the meaning of Fthe big hand on the eleven and the little hand on the five.G Kour digital cloc will tell you at once that it is 9E::. &nd yet there will be a loss in the conversion of dial to digital, and no one seems to be worrying about it. &ctually, when something turns, it can turn in (ust one of two ways, cloc wise or counter)cloc wise, and we all now which is which. 4loc wise is the normal turning direction of the hands of a cloc , and counter)cloc wise is the opposite of that. 6ince we all stare at cloc s $dial cloc s, that is%, we have no trouble following directions or descriptions that include those words. But if dial cloc s disappear, so will the meaning of those words for anyone who has never stared at anything but digitals.

*** When Ao7ambique and 6outh &frica ended their internal conflicts in the early +,,-s, they enacted widescale amnesties, and in both countries the rule of law quic ly improved. In each of them, political leaders opted to move past the violence and in(ustices of the past and to focus on the tas s of social and political reconstruction. &s part of that reconstruction, each country became a multiparty democracy in which the accountability of leaders and other ey norms of the rule of law could finally ta e root. The restoration of public security, meanwhile, allowed the provision of basic services. &nd though their criminal)(ustice systems remained woefully underfunded, both were finally able to start providing citi7ens with basic protections. While the legal, social and political improvements in 6outh &frica between +,,9 and .--9 were impressive, in poorer Ao7ambique, the improvement was smaller but still mar ed.

*** The late 4hinese !rime Ainister, 4hou)1n 5ai, upon being as ed whether the 3rench *evolution had been a good thing in world history, was reported to have saidE FIt is still too early to tell.G Watching the Western media analy7e the recent emergence of 4hina as a ma(or investor in &frica and li ely to become a new factor to rival the historical 1uro&merican ascendancy in &frican politics, one is even more (ustified in saying that it is Ftoo soon to tellG what the outcome of the 4hinese love affair in &frica will be. Besides 4hina, India is also increasingly mentioned as a new source of large)scale investments in &frica. 3or the moment, the emergence of the &sian superpowers, themselves once in the sphere of British imperialism, as investors and trading partners in &frica, seems to offer an opportunity of sha ing the FmarginalisationG into which most &frican countries have fallen since the collapse of the 6oviet bloc in +,@,.

*** 2o human dream is more universal than the longing for a paradise on earth, a place free of the ravages of time and disease, where the best in nature flourishes while the worst is forbidden to enter. By definition, such magical lands cant be near at hand< they must be remote and inaccessible ; destinations to be reached by pilgrimage or a heroic (ourney. &ncient Tibetan Buddhist te"ts spo e of (ust such a ingdom, where wise ings, blessed with long life spans, await the day when they will ta e power over the world, ushering in a golden age of peace and (ustice. This mythical ingdom was called F6hambala,G and its location was believed to be a valley in northern India. 6aid to be enclosed by a double ring of snow)capped mountains, this fabled valley of 6hambala resembled a Fmandala,G which is Buddhisms circular symbol of the unity of all creation. Pnown only to a few 1uropean enthusiasts of &sia in the +,th century, the myth of 6hambala was populari7ed in the .-th century by the famous *ussian mystic, Aadame Blavats y, who claimed she received telepathic messages from the mystic valley.

*** 1ditors have two primary functions which sometimes overlapE findingIselecting manuscripts, then polishing them for publication. &cquisitions editors perform the first chore. The approach they adopt depends on several factors. The idea for a college te"t, for e"ample, usually originates inside the publishing house< the acquisition editors (ob is then to choose a suitable author to produce the manuscript. In a trade boo division, on the other hand, the acquisitions editor may be more passive, carefully reading manuscripts and queries that are mailed in, then recommending the best of these for development as a boo . In the former case, the acquisitions editor may be nowledgeable in a given area $economics, perhaps, or one of the sciences% while the second type might be more of a generalist. 4opyeditors, who whip the manuscript into shape for the press, must possess a superb bac ground in 1nglish and bring to their wor high standards of accuracy and thoroughness along with a remar able attention to detail.

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*** Today, the Berlin 4risis of +,C+, in which the 6oviet /nion demanded that Western powers cut their ties with Berlin, may be the mostforgotten crisis in the annals of the 4old War. 1ven most Berliners who lived through the event remember little about it. Ket this crisis over Berlin brought &merica and the 6oviet /nion, the two superpowers of the post)World War II period, close to war. In fact, since the very end of World War II, Berlin had been the centrepiece of a struggle between these two superpowers. It was here that World War II ended in +,9: when, following the occupation and defeat of 2a7i Dermany by the allied armies of the /nited 6tates, Britain, and 3rance from the west, and the 6oviet /nion from the east, the city had been captured and divided into the separate 7ones of 1ast and West Berlin. 6oon afterwards Dermany had itself split into 1ast and West, and the border between the two had become the dividing line $the so)called Firon curtainG% between 6ovietcontrolled 1astern 1urope and free, capitalist Western 1urope. Thus, situated behind this iron curtain and stuc a hundred miles inside 1astern territory, West Berlin was claimed, protected and supplied by the Western powers. In +,9@, 6talin imposed a bloc ade, cutting West Berlin off from its Western suppliers. The /nited 6tates responded with an airlift, eeping the 7one alive for more than 0-- days before &llied access was restored.

*** 2arva is a quiet northeastern 1stonian town bathed in sea bree7es. Though small, with a population of (ust over ?.,---, it occupies a large place in *ussian history. It was here in +?-- that, by attac ing the 6wedes, who were then in control of much of the Baltic coast, *ussia launched its final campaign in a centuries)long quest to become a 1uropean power. The battle ended in defeat for the *ussians, but the war did not< by +?.+ *ussia had conquered the Baltic territories as far southwest as *iga, the capital of present)day 5atvia, and had built a new capital, 6aint !etersburg, on the Dulf of 3inland. 5ater in that century, *ussia, through a partition agreement with &ustria and !russia, gained control of the rest of the Baltics, and would retain them until the fall of the 6oviet /nion in +,,+.

*** 3ollowing World War II, 1uropean countries largely gave up their colonial possessions and, by the +,:-s and +,C-s, had already begun to receive growing numbers of immigrants from their former colonies. In many instances, these included the descendants of the slaves in the colonies, who had been forced to wor . In this respect, Britain is a case in point. Though in small numbers, &fricans and Indians had come to Britain long before the tens of thousands who came as colonial immigrants in the +,C-s and thereafter. The first &fricans who came to Britain were probably soldiers during the *oman possession of that country in antiquity. In modern times, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, &frican and Indian princes and scholars visited Britain. 'thers coming to Britain were in service positions< for instance, inthe eighteenth century, blac &frican and Indian young men were fashionable as servants in the homes of the wealthy. &fricans and Indians also came to Britain as sailors and traders, and port towns, such as 5ondon, Dlasgow, Bristol, 4ardiff and 5iverpool, developed small blac populations in the early nineteenth century, some of which persisted into the twentieth century. *elations between these populationsand the native white population were varied, historians citing instances both of hostility and solidarity.

*** 6et in +,9+ in 5eningrad, Helen 8unmores novel The 6iege opens with deceptively gentle scenes of 4he hovian melancholy. &fter the death of her mother, .0)year)old &nna 5evin, the protagonist, gives up her artistic studies to loo after her :)yearold brother and her politically suspect father &braham, who, as a writer, has fallen out of favour with 6talins cultural police. 6o she (umps at the chance to ma e a drawing of the retired actress Aarina !etrovna, with whom &nnas father might once have had a romantic relationship. But &nnas worries about art and romance are soon swept away as the Dermans besiege her native city. &t this point, 8unmores novel transforms abruptly as well, shifting from a romantic narrative into a study of survival under most e"treme hardships. &nnas abundant artistic creativity is put touse providing food and fuel for her helpless family, and her drawing s ills are called on to s etch a neighbours starved baby so that the grieving mother might remember her lost child. Indeed, the novel presents a stri ing contrast between the gentle display of human emotions and the rude dictates of survival under the most inhuman circumstances.

*** & couple of months ago 2&6& as ed the scientific community what inds of research it should conduct when it returns humans to the moon. In doing so, 2&6& wanted prioriti7ed research ob(ectives for the robotic orbiters and landers that will be used primarily for reconnaissance purposes prior to later e"plorations by astronauts of the lunar surface. *ecommendations made by scientists varied greatly, but they can be summari7ed. The top priority that scientists have recommended is the development of programmes for lunar data analysis. 2e"t is the e"ploration of the moons south pole, which is called Fthe &it en basin,G an impact scar mostly on the moons bac side. Then comes an instrument networ for probing the interior of the moon, and this is followed by roc samplereturns, scientifically selected landing sites, and analysis of any icy polar deposits.

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*** In many primitive communities there is a taboo on mentioning a mans name e"cept in certain special circumstances, because his name is believed to contain within it something of himself, which would be lost and wasted if his name were uttered without first ta ing special precautions. This belief about words is widespread. &mong the more primitive and the uneducated, it is universal. & remar ably matter)offact practical application of it occurs even in the present day in the Tibetan prayer)wheel. If, thin s the Tibetan peasant, a prayer uttered once does some good, then the same prayer uttered many times will do more good. Therefore, since he assumes that the efficacy lies in the prayer as an entity in itself, he writes it round the rim of a wheel, and then frugally employs the water of a mountain stream to turn it all day long, instead of wastefully employing his own lungs and lips to say it again and again.

*** Thomas 1dison began conducting e"periments during his childhood. To start with, there were hundreds of unsuccessful e"periments but 1dison eventually invented and patented .,:-items, including the electric lamp and phonograph. He was determined to Fgive laughter and lightG to people, but, until he actually managed to do so, most people ridiculed him. Without losing hope, 1dison attempted over +,--- unsuccessful e"periments in his efforts to ma e an electric lamp. When people told him he was wasting his time, energy, and money for nothing, 1dison e"claimed, F3or nothingL 1very time I ma e an e"periment, I get new results. 3ailures are stepping stones to success.G 8etermined to give people electric lamps, 1dison said hed meet his goal by early +@@-. In 'ctober, +@?,, he created his first electric lamp, and in so doing, received much praise. !eople reali7ed that 1disons invention was not affected by rain or wind, remaining constant through bad weather. #ust as he had hoped, 1dison provided people with light and laughter.

*** The distinction between F(ournalismG and FliteratureG is quite futile, unless we are drawing such a violent contrast as that between Dibbons Historyand todays paper< and such a contrast itself is too violent to have meaning. Kou cannot, that is, draw any useful distinction between (ournalism and literature merely on a scale of literary values, as a difference between the well)written and the supremely wellwrittenE a second)rate novel is not (ournalism, but it certainly is not literature.The term F(ournalismG has deteriorated, so let us try to recall it to its more permanent sense. To my thin ing, the most accurate as well as most comprehensive definition of the term is to be obtained through considering the type of mind, concerned with writing what all would concede to be the best (ournalism. Theres a type of mind, and I have a very close sympathy with it, which can only turn to writing, or only produce its best writing, under the pressure of an immediate occasion< and it is this type of mind which I propose to treat as the (ournalists. The underlying causes may differE the cause may be an ardent preoccupation with affairs of the day, or it may be $as with myself% la7iness requiring an immediate stimulus, or a habit formed by early necessity of earning small sums quic ly. It is not so much that the (ournalist wor s on different material from that of other writers,as that he wor s from a different, no less and often more honourable, motive.

*** Muestions of education are frequently discussed as if they bore no relation to the social system in which and for which the education is carried on. This is one of the most common reasons for the unsatisfactoriness of the answers. It is only within a particular social system that a system of education has any meaning. If education today seems to deteriorate, if it seems to become more and more chaotic and meaningless, it is primarily because we have no settled and satisfactory arrangement of society, and because we have both vague and diverse opinions about the ind of society we want. 1ducation is a sub(ect which cannot be discussed in a voidE our questions raise other questions, social, economic, financial, and political. &nd the bearings are on more ultimate problems even than theseE to now what we want in education, we must now what we want in general, we must derive our theory of education from our philosophy of life.

*** 5eonardo da Jinci is a member of a very small class of Ftransformative geniuses,G not ordinary or common geniuses, who have contributed abundantly to their fields, but rather the ones who have created or defined entire fields. In literature, no one as s, FWho was the greatest writerHG Honest debate can start at 2umber Two. 6ha espeare, the consensus choice as greatest writer, is a member of this class of transformative geniuses. 6imilarly, Isaac 2ewton is recogni7ed as the greatest among scientists and mathematicians< 5udwig van Beethoven, and possibly Bach and Ao7art, are the transformative geniuses among composers. The most recent transformative genius the world has seen may have been &lbert 1instein, a scientist li e 2ewton ; and Time Aaga7ines FAan of the 4enturyG for the .- th century. In ran ing artists,one can start the debate at 2umber Three ; a ran for which *aphael and *embrandt are candidates, or perhaps one of the great 3rench Impressionists, or the .- th centurys most famous artist, !icasso. The ran s of 2umber 'ne and 2umber Two, however, are reserved for 5eonardo and Aichelangelo, ta en in either order. These two are far above all other artists. Aichelangelo lived a very long lifetime of eighty)nine years, and was productive to the end. 5eonardo, on the other hand, lived si"ty)seven years, and left behind (ust a do7en paintings. &nd only a half of these are incontrovertibly one hundred per cent by him. In contrast, *embrandt painted hundreds of paintings, :? of himself alone< van Dogh created nine hundred paintings in a period of nine years. 6o how can we put 5eonardo at the very pinnacleH The answer is really quite simpleE his do7en or so paintings include the 2umber 'ne and the 2umber Two most famous paintings in the history of art ; The 5ast 6upperand Aona 5isa.

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*** The ma(or sciences of the Hellenistic &ge were astronomy, mathematics, geography, medicine, and physics. The most renownedof the early Hellenistic astronomers was &ristarchus of 6amos $0+-).0- B.4.%, sometimes called the FHellenistic 4opernicus.G His primary accomplishment was his deduction that the 1arth and the other planets revolve around the 6un. This view was not accepted by his successors because it conflicted with the teachings of &ristotle and also with the Dree conviction that humanity, and therefore the 1arth, must be at the centre of the universe. 5ater, in the second century &.8., &ristarchuss fame was overshadowed by that of !tolemy of &le"andria. &lthough !tolemy made few original discoveries, he systemati7ed the wor s of others. His principal writing, The &lmagest,based on the view that all heavenly bodies revolve around the 1arth, was handed down to medieval 1urope as the classic summary of ancient astronomy.

*** The most significant political change in eastern 1urope during the late +,@-s was the collapse of communism in 1ast Dermany and the unification of 1ast and West Dermany. &lthough long considered the most prosperous of the 6oviet satellite countries, 1ast Dermany suffered from severe economic stagnation and environmentaldegradation. Waves of 1ast Dermans registered their discontent with worsening conditions by massive illegal emigration to the West. This e"odus together with evidence of widespread official corruption led to the resignation of 1ast Dermanys long) time, hard)line premier, 1rich Honec er. His successor, 1gon Pren7, promised reforms, but he was nevertheless faced with continuing protests and continuing mass emigration. In the end, on 9 2ovember +,@,, the government, in a move that ac nowledged its powerlessness to hold its citi7ens captive, opened its border with 47echoslova ia. This move effectively freed 1ast Dermans to travel to the West. In a matter of days, the Berlin Wall, which had been the embodiment of the 4old War, the Iron 4urtain, and the division of 1ast from West, was demolished by groups of ordinary citi7ens. #ubilant crowds from both sides wal ed through the gaping holes that now permitted men, women, and children to ta e the few steps that symboli7ed the return to freedom and a chance for national unity.

*** The 3rench *evolution transformed the political and diplomatic landscape of 1urope suddenly and dramatically. The transformation of industry came more gradually. By the +@0-s or +@9-s, however, writers and social thin ers in 1urope were increasingly aware of une"pected and e"traordinary changes in their economic world. They began to spea of an Findustrial revolution,G one that seemed to parallel the revolution in politics. The term has stayed with us. The Industrial *evolution spanned the hundred years after +?@-. It represented the first brea through from an agricultural and overwhelmingly rural economy to one characteri7ed by large)scale manufacturing, more capital)intensive enterprises, and urbani7ation. It involved new sources of energy and power, faster transportation, mechani7ation, higher productivity, and new ways of organi7ing human labour. It triggered social changes with revolutionary consequences for the West and its relationship with the world. 'f all these changes, perhaps the most important one was to be seen in energy. 'ver the space of two or three generations, a society and an economy that had traditionally drawn on water, wind, and wood for most of its energy needs came to depend on steam engines and coal. In other words, the Industrial *evolution brought the beginnings of Fthe fossil fuel age.G

*** The causes of World War II were rooted in the peace settlement at Jersailles in +,+,)+,.-. The peace had created as many problems as it had solved. The senior &llied heads of state yielded to demands that involved anne"ing Derman territory and creating new states out of the eastern 1uropean empires. In doing so, the peacema ers created fresh bitterness and conflict. The Jersailles treaty and its champions, such as /6 !resident Woodrow Wilson, proclaimed the principle of self)determination for the peoples of eastern and southern 1urope. Ket the new states created by the treaty crossed ethnic boundaries, involved political compromises, and frustrated many of the e"pectations they had raised. The unsteady new boundaries would be redrawn by force in the +,0-s. The &llied powers also ept up the naval bloc ade against Dermany after the end of World War I. This forced the new Derman government to accept harsh terms that deprived Dermany of its political power in 1urope. The bloc ade and its consequences created grievances that made the Derman people feel angry and completely humiliated.

*** The *enaissance originated in Italy for several reasons. The most fundamental reason was that Italy in the later Aiddle &ges was the most advanced urban society in all of 1urope. /nli e aristocrats north of the &lps, Italian aristocrats customarily lived in urban centres rather than in rural castles and consequently became fully involved in urban public affairs. Aoreover, since the Italian aristocracy built its palaces in the cities, the aristocratic class was less sharply set off from the class of rich merchants than in other 1uropean countries. Hence, whereas in 3rance or Dermany most aristocrats lived on the income from their lands while rich town dwellers, called bourgeois in 3rench, gained their living from trade, in Italy so many town)dwelling aristocrats engaged in ban ing or mercantile enterprises, and so many rich mercantile families imitated the manners of the aristocracy that, by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the aristocracy and upper bourgeoisie were becoming virtually indistinguishable. 3or instance, the noted 3lorentine family of the Aedici, which had emerged as a family of physicians $as the name suggests%, made its fortune in ban ing and commerce, and rose into the aristocracy in the fifteenth century. 'bviously, social mobility as such brought about a great demand for education in the s ills of reading and counting necessary to become a successful merchant, but the richest and most prominent families sought above all to find teachers who would impart to their sons the nowledge and s ills necessary in politics and public life.

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*** The +C th century in 1ngland is generally nown as the Tudor period, which historically lasted from +9@: to +C-0. &mong the famous Tudor sovereigns were Henry JII, Henry JIII, and 1li7abeth I. In fact, the early years of the Tudor period were mar ed by significant changes in trade and in the arts of war. Henry JII made commercial treaties with 1uropean countries. 1conomically, 1ngland, which had always been a sheep)raising country, was by now manufacturing and e"porting significant amounts of cloth. &s lands were enclosed to permit gra7ing on a larger scale, people were driven off the land to the cities, and 5ondon grew into a metropolitan mar et with sophisticated commercial institutions. These changes had an impact on the traditional feudal social order, which also began to decline< also, due to the introduction of cannons and firearms, the feudal system of warfare became obsolete. Ket, it would be a mista e to imagine these changes as sudden and dramatic. In fact, it was a slow and long process whereby 1ngland was transformed into a modern sta

*** In the last third of the +, th century, new technologies transformed the face of manufacturing in 1urope, leading to new levels of economic growth and comple" realignments among industry, labour and national governments. 5i e 1uropes first industrial revolution, which began in the late +@ th century and centred on coal, steam and iron, this FsecondG industrial revolution relied on innovation in three ey areasE steel, electricity, and chemicals. 3or instance, steel, which was harder, stronger and more malleable than iron, had long been used as a construction material. But until the mid)nineteenth century, producing steel cheaply and in large quantities was impossible. That changed between the +@:-s and +@?-s, as new and different processes for refining and mass)producing alloy steel revolutioni7ed the metallurgical industry. &lthough iron did not disappear overnight, it was soon eclipsed by soaring steel production. 6o, steel began to be used for various purposes. In Britain, for e"ample, shipbuilders made a quic and profitable switch to steel construction, and thus ept their lead in the industry. Dermany and the /6, however, dominated the rest of the steel industry. By +,-+, Dermany was producing almost half as much steel as Britain and was able to build a massive national and industrial infrastructure.

*** The Aississippi is one of the worlds great continental rivers, li e the &ma7on in 6outh &merica, the 4ongo in &frica, or the Jolga in1urope. Its waters are gathered from two)thirds of the /6 and, together with the Aissouri, which is its chief western branch, the Aississippi flows some C.9-- ilometres from its northern sources in the *oc y Aountains to the Dulf of Ae"ico, which ma es it one of the worlds longest waterways. The Aississippi has been called the Ffather of watersG. Through all its lower course, it wanders along, appearing la7y and harmless. But people who now the river are not deceived by its benign appearance, for they have had many bitter struggles with its floods. They have had to learn that nothing is to be gained by fighting against the rages of the mighty stream. To control it, &mericans have had to accept some of the rivers own terms and to underta e the patient wor of conserving and rebuilding soil, grasslands and forests, far bac where the waters begin to gather.

*** In +?C9, there was a serious quarrel over ta"ation between the British government and its colonies in &merica. The British government continued to thin of the colonists as British sub(ects. In +?--, there had been only .--.--- colonists, but by +??- this number rose to ..: million. 'bviously, such large numbers needed to be dealt with carefully. 6ome &merican colonists decided that it was not lawful for the British government to ta" them without their agreement. !olitical opinion in Britain was divided. 6ome felt that the ta" was fair because the money would be used to pay for the defence of the &merican colonies against 3rench attac . But several important politicians agreed with the colonists that there should be Fno ta"ation without representationG. Hence, in +??0, at the port of Boston, a group of colonists threw a shipload of tea into the sea rather than pay ta" on it. The event became nown as Fthe Boston Tea !artyG. The British government responded by closing the port. But the colonists then decided to prevent British goods from entering &merica until the port was opened again. The colonists action was regarded as a rebellion, and the British government decided to defeat it by force. Thus, the &merican War of Independence got underway. The war lasted from +??: until +?@0. The British government had no respect for the colonists fighting ability. The result was a disastrous defeat for the British forces. &t the end of the war, Britain lostall the &merican colonies e"cept 4anada.

*** The 4opernican revolution began over :-- years ago with the reali7ation that the 1arth was not the centre of the universe, but we still await its grand finaleE the anticipated discovery of life elsewhere. Where else might we find lifeH The vast scale of the universe ma es it virtually certain that there are other 1arthli e settings. In our own solar system, Aarss distance from the 6un ma es it sufficiently 1arth)li e< so, especially with increasing evidence for occasional liquid water, many are loo ing there for the first signs of e"traterrestrial life. *ecently, however, a new contender has emerged, and surprisingly it is from the cold outer solar systemE it is #upiters moon 1uropa. &s one of the four satellites of #upiter, discovered by Dalileo in +C+-, 1uropa is now believed to have water in a liquid state, even though it is so far from the 6un. Thus, the possibility of liquid water on 1uropa has opened the door to speculation about life on this satellite of #upiter.

KPDS 2009 SONBAHAR

*** & ey feature of globali7ation has been the transformation of the world economy, highlighted by the rapid integration of mar ets since +,?-. In a series of historic changes, the international agreements that had regulated the movement of people, goods, and money since World War II were overturned. To begin with, the postwar economic arrangements sealed by various treaties steadily eroded in the late +,C-s, as Western industrial nations faced a double burden of inflation and economic stagnation. & crucial shift in monetary policy occurred in +,?+, when the /nited 6tates abandoned the postwar gold standard and allowed the dollar to range freely. &s a result, formal regulations on currencies, international ban ing, and lending among states faded away. They were replaced with an informal networ of arrangements managed autonomously by large private lenders, their political friends in leading Western states, and independent financial agencies such as the International Aonetary 3und $IA3% and the World Ban . The economists and administrators who dominated these new networ s steered away from the interventionist policies that had shaped postwar planning and recovery. Instead, they relied on a broad range of mar et)driven models termed Fneoliberalism.G

*** 5i e nearly all the peoples of the ancient world, the *omans too slavery for granted. 2othing in *omes earlier e"perience had prepared it, however, for the huge increase in slave numbers that resulted from its western and eastern conquests. In +9C B.4., fifty) five thousand 4arthaginians were enslaved after the destruction of their city< not long before, one hundred and fifty thousand Dree prisoners of war had met the same fate. By the end of the second century B.4., there were a million slaves in Italy alone, ma ing *oman Italy one of the most slave)based economies nown to history. The ma(ority of these slaves wor ed as agricultural labourers on the vast estates of the *oman aristocracy. 6ome of these estates were the result of earlier *oman conquests within Italy itself. But others were constructed by aristocrats buying up the land holdings of thousands of small farmers who found themselves unable to compete with the great estate)owners in producing grain for the mar et.

*** 8uring the latter part of +,@-, Iraq invaded Iran and hoped to sei7e its southern oil fields. Iran counterattac ed. The result was a murderous eightyear conflict mar ed by the use of chemical weapons and human waves of young Iranian radicals fighting the 6oviet)armed Iraqis. The war ended with Irans defeat, but not the collapse ofits theocratic regime. In the short term, their long defence of Iranian nationalism left the mullahs more entrenched at home, while abroad they used their oil revenues to bac grass) roots radicalism in 5ebanon and militants elsewhere who engaged in anti)Western terrorism. 'ver the years, the strongest threats to the Iranian regime ultimately have come from within, from a new generation of young students and wor ers who have discovered that their prospects for prosperity and democratic rights have not changed much since the days of the shah.

*** /ntil the late thirteenth century, 1uropean maritime commerce had been divided between a Aediterranean and a 2orth &tlantic world. 6tarting around +.?-, however, Italian merchants began to sail through the 6trait of Dibraltar and on to the woolproducing regions of 1ngland and the 2etherlands. This was the essential first step in the e"tension of Aediterranean commerce and coloni7ation into the &tlantic 'cean. The second step was the discovery by Denoese sailors, during the fourteenth century, of the &tlantic island chains nown as the 4anaries and the &7ores. 1fforts to coloni7e the 4anary Islands and to convert and enslave their inhabitants began almost immediately. But an effective conquest of the 4anary Islands did not begin until the fifteenth century, when it was underta en by !ortugal and completed by 6pain. The 4anaries, in turn, became the base from which further !ortuguese voyages down the west coast of &frica proceeded. They were also the F(umping)off pointG from which 4hristopher 4olumbus would sail westward across the &tlantic 'cean in hopes of reaching &sia.

*** The finest e"ample of By7antine architecture is the church of 6aint 6ophia $Holy Wisdom% in Vstanbul, constructed by the emperor#ustinian in the si"th century. 1vidently, its structural design was something altogether new in the history of architecture. The central feature of the design was the application of the dome principle to a building of square shape. The church was designed in the form of a cross, with a magnificent dome over its central square. The main problem for the architects was how to fit the circumference of the dome to the square area it was supposed to cover. The solution was to have four great arches spring from pillars at the four corners of the square. The rim of the dome was then made to rest on the eystones of the arches, with the curved triangular spaces between the arches filled with masonry. The result was an architectural framewor of marvellous strength, which at the same time made possible a style of imposing grandeur and delicacy. The dome itself hasa diametre of +-? feet and rises to a height of nearly +@- feet from the floor. 6o many windows are placed around its rim that the dome appears to have no support at all but to be suspended in midair.

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*** The heroic myths and epics of a society teach its members the appropriate attitudes, behaviour, and values of that culture. These myths are of particular interest and value to us. 2ot only are they e"citing adventure stories, but in these myths we see ourselves, drawn larger and grander than we are, yet with our human wea nesses as well as our strengths. &s for heroes, they are the models of human behaviour for their society. They earn lasting fame by performing great deeds that help their community, and they inspire others to emulate them. Heroes are forced by circumstance to ma e critical choices where they must balance one set of values against competing values. They achieve heroic stature in part from their accomplishments and in part because they emerge from their trials as more sensitive and thoughtful human beings. Ket heroes are not the same throughout the world. They come from cultures where individuals may earn fame in a variety of ways. This permits them to e"press their individuality. However, in spite of their e"traordinary abilities, no hero is perfect. Ket their human wea nesses are often as instructive as their heroic qualities. Their imperfections allow ordinary people to identify with them and to li e them, since everyone has similar psychological needs and conflicts.

*** 'ur nowledge of the Aycenaean civili7ation in Dreece is based primarily upon what archaeologists have been able to discover. 3ortunately, they have located and studied the ruins of a number of important Aycenaean sites both in Dreece and in Troy, the site of Homers FIliumG in Tur ey. The material available to archaeologists is very limited, due to the ravages of time, weather, fire, and theft. The materials that have survived include ob(ects such as (ewelry, pottery, metal utensils, and various inds of weapons. In addition, archaeologists have found a large number of clay tablets, inscribed with a language called F5inear B,G which they can read. It now becomes clear that the Aycenaean civili7ation in full bloom far surpassed in comple"ity and wealth many of the Dree civili7ations that followed it. The Aycenaeans were an aggressive people who loved fighting, hunting, and athletic contests. Their land was mountainous and their soil roc y and dry. Therefore, they too to the sea and became fearsome raiders of other communities. In this way they acquired e"traordinary wealth.

*** The father of modern socialism, Parl Aar" $+@+@)+@@0% was barely nown in the early nineteenth century. His reputation rose later, after +@9@, when a wave of revolutions and violent confrontation seemed to confirm his distinctive theory of history and ma e earlier socialists emphasis on peaceful reorgani7ation of industrial society seem naive. &s a child, he grew up in Trier, in the western section of Dermany, in a region and a family eenly interested in the political debatesand movements of the revolutionary era. His family was #ewish, but his father had converted to !rotestantism in order to be able to wor as a lawyer. Aar" studied law briefly at the /niversity of Berlin before turning instead to philosophy and particularly to the ideas of Hegel. With the so)called Koung Hegelian, a group of rebellious students who hated the narrow thin ing of a deeply conservative !russian university system, Aar" appropriated Hegels concepts for his radical politics. His radicalism made it impossible for him to get a post in the university. He became a (ournalist and, from +@9. to +@90, edited the *heinische Seitung $*hineland Da7ette%. The papers criticism of legal privilege and political repression put it on a collision course with the !russian government, which closed it down and sent Aar" into e"ile ; first in !aris, then Brussels, and eventually 5ondon.

*** The loss of global biodiversity is occurring at an alarming rate. 6ince the +,?-s, the area of tropical forests destroyed worldwide e"ceeds the land mass of the 1uropean /nion. &nimal and plant species are disappearing. 'verfishing has depleted stoc s around the world. !oor farming practices have depleted soils while allowing the invasion of harmful species. 8estruction of wetlands has left low)lying areas e"tremely vulnerable to storms and natural disasters. 1specially in 1urope, ecosystems have suffered more human)induced damage than those on any other continent. 'nly about 0 per cent of 1uropes forests can be classified as undisturbed by humans, and the continent has lost more than half of its wetlands. The spread of urbani7ation and the over) e"ploitation of resources is having an enormous impact on biodiversity.

*** 'il has provided humanity with many benefits, including affordable energy to reduce our wor loads and improve our mobility. Because oil is such an important and visible part of our daily lives, and because it is e"ceptionally open to political manipulations, it often receives an enormous amount of attention. This is especially true whenever its price increases sharply, and e"perts immediately get to wor to diagnose the cause and consequences of the price increase. In fact, the future of oil is not that much different from its pastE undoubtedly, oil production and consumption will become cleaner and more efficient, but prices will continue to be volatile, and the oil industry will continue to be blamed for conflicts, corruption, and pollution. &nd for all the current tal about the end of the oil age, it will remain a vital source of energy as it is now, nearly a century after the first warnings about soaring consumption and limited resources.

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*** In antiquity, prior to the third century B.4., physics had been a branch of philosophy. It was made a separate, e"perimental science by &rchimedes of 6yracuse, who lived between .@? and .+. B.4.. He not only discovered the law of floating ob(ects, or specific gravity, but also formulated with scientific e"actness the principles of the lever, the pulley, and the screw. &mong his memorable inventions were th compound pulley and the screw propeller for ships. &lthough he has been considered the greatest technical genius of antiquity, in fact he preferred to devote himself to pure scientific research. Tradition relates that he discovered F&rchimedes principle,G that is, specific gravity, while pondering possible theories in his bath< when he reached his stunning insight, he dashed out na ed into the street crying F1ure aLG $FI have found itLG%.

*** The *omans were descended from a cluster of peoples who had crossed the &lps into Italy during the second millenium B.4. and spo e a variety of Indo)1uropean dialects. *ecent archaeological research has pushed the origins of the city of *ome bac to at least the tenth century B.4., several centuries earlier than the traditional date ?:0 B.4., which the *omans themselves considered their citys foundation year. *omes strategic location along the Tiber *iver brought it many different advantages. Trading ships could navigate the Tiber as far as *ome, but no farther< the city could thus serve as a port without being threatened by attac from the sea. *omes famous hills increased the defensibility of the site. In other words, as a city, *ome was situated at a (unction across the Tiber, ma ing it a ma(or land and river crossroads.

*** Dovernment planners and social scientists from many countries are developing a number of strategies to help us adapt to global warming. 3or e"ample, what should people living in coastal areas doH They can move inland away from the dangers of storm surges, although this solution has high economic costs. &n alternative plan, which is also e"tremely e"pensive, is to build di es to protect coastal land. The 8utch, who have been doing this sort of thing for several hundred years, have offered their technical e"pertise to several developing nations threatened by a rise in sea level. We also have to adapt to shifting agricultural 7ones. Aany temperate countries are in the process of evaluating semitropical crops to determine the best ones to substitute for traditional crops if or when the climate warms. 8rought)resistant species of trees are being developed by large lumber companies now, because the trees planted today will be harvested many decades later when global warming may already get much worse.

*** When air pollution, including acid rain, is combined with other environmental stresses, such as low winte temperatures, prolonged droughts, insects, and bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases, it can cause plants to decline and die. Aore than half of the red spruce trees in the mountains of the northern /nited 6tates have died since the mid)+,?-s. 'ther tree species, such as sugar maples, for e"ample, are also dying. Aany still)living trees are e"hibiting symptoms of forest decline, characteri7ed by a gradual deterioration and often eventual death. The general symptoms of forest decline are reduced vigour and growth, but some plants e"hibit specific symptoms, such as yellowing of needles in conifers. &ir pollutants may or may not be the primary stress that results in forest decline, but the presence of air pollution lowers plant resistance to other stress factors. When one or more stresses wea en a tree, then an additional stress may be enough to cause death.

*** In 1ngland, transportation had improved a great deal during the years before +@0-, but moving heavy materials, particularly coal, remained a problem. It is therefore significant that the first modern railway, built in +@.: for the transportation of coal, ran from the 8urham coal field of 6toc ton to 8arlington near the coast. 4oal had traditionally been transported short distances via tramways, or trac s along which horses pulled coal carts. The 6toc ton)to) 8arlington railway was a logical e"tension of a tramway, designed to answer the transportation needs arising from constantly e"panding industriali7ation. The man primarily responsible for the design of the first steam railway was Deorge 6tephenson, a self) educated engineer who had not learned to read until he was seventeen. The locomotives on the 6toc ton 8arlington line travelled at fifteen miles an hour, the fastest rate at which machines had yet moved goods overland. 6oon they would move people as well, transforming transportation in the process.

KPDS 2011 LKBAHAR *** &n &ustralian historian proposed that the ey to understanding &ustralia was Fthe tyranny of distanceG. &ustralians were far removed from their British ancestors, far from the centres of power in 1urope and 2orth &merica and far from each other )with the ma(or cities separated by distances of some @-- m. Time, however, has bro en down that sense of distance. &ustralians today do not see 5ondon or 2ew Kor as the centre of the world. The pro"imity to &sian economies li e 4hina is an economic strength. Transportation and communications lin s have ta en away the sense of remoteness felt by past generations. However, the technology that truly promises to end the tyranny of distance is high)speed broadband, whose benefits we are still only beginning to understand though it has already been a decade since the fren7ied dotcom era. That is why the &ustralian government is rolling out the worlds most ambitious broadband pro(ect ) a national networ that will bring fibre to homes in more than +,--cities and towns covering ,0= of residences. 2e"t generation wireless and satellite technologies will cover the other ?=. The networ will operate at lightning speeds and involve an estimated investment of O9- billion through an independent state)owned enterprise in partnership with the private sector.

*** 2ot long afterthe 1uro came into being in # anuary +,,,, Dermany was moc ed as being the sic man of 1urope, its economic fortunes in sharp contrast to the fast)growing countries at the geographical borders of the new currency 7one. Aore than a decade on, however, the tables have turned. 1ven as the peripheral economies of 6pain, Dreece and Ireland continue to struggle, .-+. will be the year in which Dermany puts a firm stamp on the 1uro 7one. This will be felt in three related spheresE in Dermanys new)found economic strength, in its preference for, and insistence on greater honesty in public finances and in its growing influence on the 1uropean 4entral Ban . 1uropes economy is set to slow in .-+. as governments address their increasing budget deficits. Dermany will en(oy faster gross domestic product growth than the average in the richer parts of the currency 7one $whose membership eeps on increasing%. Dermany is less burdened by household debt and has a smaller budget deficit than almost all its peers ) and so has less need to raise ta"es or curb public spending. The country is also better placed to benefit from the boom in emerging mar ets.

*** The idea that &merican Indians could have built something resembling a city was so foreign to 1uropean settlers that when they encountered the 4aho ia Aounds in Illinois in Aidwest &merica, they thought they must have been the wor of a foreign civili7ationE either the !hoenicians or the Ji ings. 1ven today the idea of an Indian city runs so contrary to &merican notions of Indian life that no &nglo 6a"on &merican can absorb it. The first person to write an account of the 4aho ia Aounds, the earliest and finest city built by Indians, was Henry Brac enbridge in +@++. When he reported his discovery, li ening it to 1gyptian pyramids, newspapers widely ignored it. He complained of this to his friend, former president Thomas #efferson, and the word of F4aho iaG did eventually get around. /nfortunately, most &mericans were not very interested. The /nited 6tates was trying to get the Indians out of the way, not appreciate their history. The Indian *emoval &ct of +@0- which ordered the relocation of eastern Indians to lands west of the Aississippi was based on the assumption that Indians were nomadic savages with no ability to ma e good use of land. 1vidence of an ancient city, close to the si7e of Washington, 8.4. at that time, would have spoiled the story line.

*** In +,,0, 3rances *auscher and her team published a scientific paper that changed the world. 6he had ta en a number of students and randomly divided them into three groups. 'ne group listened to Ao7arts 6onata for Two !ianos in 8 Aa(or, the second group heard a standard rela"ation tape, and the third sat in silence. 1veryone then completed a standard test of spatial intelligence. Those who had listened to Ao7art scored far higher than those in the other two groups. #ournalists reported the findings, with some e"aggerating the results, declaring (ust a few minutes of Ao7art led to a substantial, long)term increase in intelligence. The idea spread, some reporting that even babies became brighter after listening to Ao7art. But when other scientists tried to replicate *auschers results, they concluded that the effect, if it e"isted, was much smaller than was first thought. 3or instance, Dlenn 6chellenberg had children learn eyboard s ills, have voice training, ta e drama classes or, as a control, do nothing. 4lear IM improvements were observed in children who were taught eyboard s ills or given voice lessons, whereas those given drama lessons were no different from the control group. It seems that the focused attention and memori7ation required in certain tas s, not (ust listening to Ao7art, helps childrens self discipline and thin ing.

*** Women seem to be particularly vulnerable to depression during their reproductive yearsE *ates of the disorder are highest in females between the ages of .: and 9:. 2ew data indicate that the incidence of depression in females rises after giving birth. In .--? !atricia 8iet7 reported that +-.9= of 9,0,@ mothers had been depressed in the nine months following childbirth compared with @.?= in the nine months before pregnancy and C.,= during pregnancy. Aore than half of the women with post natal depression had also been depressed during or before pregnancy suggesting that a previous occurrence of depression may be the biggest ris factor for acquiring the illness postpartum depression. But the hormonal changes that occur in a new mothers body are also thought to contribute to postpartum depression. 8uring pregnancy, a woman e"periences a surge in blood levels of oestrogen and progesterone. Then, in the first 9@ hours after childbirth, the amount of these two hormones falls suddenly, almost bac to normal levels. This chemical instability could contribute to depression. 'f course, hormonal flu" does not fully e"plain postpartum depression. &fter all, this biochemical fluctuation occurs in all new mothers and yet only a relatively small proportion of them become depressed.

KPDS 2011 SONBAHAR

*** &mericans tend to thin that varieties of 1nglish are more determined by region than by any other factor, such as age, ethnicity, gender and social class. The linguist Henry 6mith, for instance, maintained that each region of &merican 1nglish is highly distinctive. 6cholars who have investigated the matter have been influenced by the theory of dialect geography formulated in the +, th century by 1uropean dialectologists. &s a result, investigations have presumed the idea of long)settled and stable regions ; an idea appropriate for 1urope but less suitable to the more recent and fluid settlement patterns of the /6. 1ven so, &merican 1nglish dialects are conventionally treated under four headingsE 2orth, 4oastal 6outh, Aidland, and West. The 2orthern dialect stretches from 2ew 1ngland to 2ew Kor and was shaped by migration from the +? th century colonial settlements. The 4oastal 6outhern dialect centres on the &tlantic port cities of the states of Jirginia, the 4arolinas and Deorgia, formed in a time of plantation and ranch agriculture. The Aidland dialect is spo en between 2orth and 6outh Aidlands according to some dialectologists while others emphasi7e its affiliation with its neighbours and describe it as 5ower 2orth and /pper 6outh. 3inally, the Western dialect is used in the area that covers 4alifornia and the !acific 2orthwest.

*** To succeed in school, children must master three s ills ; reading, writing and arithmetic ; but not all students readily grasp these basic s ills. &mong 1nglish)spea ing children, an estimated . to +:= have trouble with reading or spelling, broadly classified as dysle"ia. 3rom + to ?= struggle to do math, a disability nown as dyscalculia. 6tatistics vary but dysle"ia appears to be more common among 1nglish spea ers than among spea ers of highly phonetic languages such as Tur ish and Italian. It is believed that at least one child in most elementary school classes in the /6 suffers from dysle"ia. Both dysle"ia and dyscalculia defy easy e"planation. 2either disorder is the result of faulty eyesight or hearing, both of which can also delay language acquisition but are easily corrected. Instead, children with dysle"ia and dyscalculia have wor ing sensory organs, apparently normal sensory and motor development and, sometimes, above)average intelligence. &fter more than +: years of research, investigators now believe these conditions frequently involve so)called partial functional deficits of the sensesE In affected children, the eyes and ears accurately register sights and sounds, letters, numbers and spo en syllables, but that information is misinterpreted as it is processed in the brain.

*** The 8ead 6ea is a place of mysteryE the lowest surface on earth, the purported sites of 6odom and Domorrah, a supposed font of curative waters and, despite its name, a treasure trove of unusual microbial life. Ket its future is anything but a mystery. &fter centuries of stability ; owing to a delicate equilibrium between freshwater supply from the #ordan *iver and evaporation under the relentless Aiddle 1astern sun ; the sea is now disappearing. #ordanians to the east, Israelis to the west and 6yrians and 5ebanese to the north are pumping so much freshwater from the river catchment that almost none reaches the sea. Israel and #ordan are also siphoning water from the 8ead 6ea to e"tract valuable minerals, hastening the decline. Thousands of sin holes have formed in the receding seas wa e, curtailing tourism and development along the border because no one can predict where the ne"t gaping hole will suddenly open, potentially swallowing buildings, roads or people. 4oncerned over losing a valuable natural and cultural resource, officials from Israel, #ordan and the !alestinian &uthorities have proposed an enormous conveyor system that would steadily refill the 8ead 6ea with water from the *ed 6ea to the south. 6cientists are testing how the mi"ing of the waters might affect the la es chemistry and biology.

*** The 3irst World War could be called the War of the 'ttoman 6uccession. It was, in part, a struggle between &ustria and *ussia for domination in the areas in the Bal ans once ruled by the 'ttoman 1mpire. Its first shots were fired in the former 'ttoman city of 6ara(evo. Throughout the summer and autumn of +,+9, as the 1uropean powers were loc ed in battle, the 'ttoman government hesitated. 3inally, at the end of 'ctober, against the wishes of his colleagues, 1nver !asha decided to attac *ussian targets with the new warships in the Blac 6ea. His decision led to war across 1urope, the collapse of the 'ttoman 1mpire and the end of stability in the Aiddle 1ast. Initially, the alliance between the 'ttoman 1mpire and the 4entral !owers wor ed well. In the first half of the .- th century, Dermany was not the source of horror that it later became. Britain, 3rance and *ussia were the enemies to be feared and resented. By comparison, Dermany appeared friendly. The 'ttoman government calculated that its alliance with the 4entral !owers would restore the glory of the empire, help it recover some of the islands lost to Dreece in +,+0, and perhaps lead to an e"tension of territory in Tur ish)spea ing central &sia.

*** 3or some people, living in an affluent area can actually be a health ha7ard. This is the provocative conclusion of a study of the death records of more than @,--- people living in four ma(or /6 cities. The ill effects of being poor or living in economically disadvantaged areas have been demonstrated before, but it is unusual to consider that poor people living in richer areas may be no better off. Aarilyn Win leby, a researcher at 6tanford /niversity in 4alifornia, decided to loo into this and was surprised to find that the death rates in four 4alifornian cities were actually highest for poor people living in the richest neighbourhoods. Her study offers two possible e"planationsE !oorer people living in rich areas may have to pay proportionally more for housing, intensifying the effect of poverty< alternatively, their health may suffer from the stress caused by continually being reminded that they are at the bottom of the pile. &nother researcher, *ichard Wil inson, from the /niversity of 2ottingham in the /P, also suspects that stress is largely to blame. He reviewed more than +:- studies and concluded that health is generally poorer when differences in income are larger.

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*** 8eception gains a slight edge over deception detection when the interactions are few in number and are among strangers. If you spend enough time with the people you interact with, they may lea their true intent through their behaviour. However, when interactions are anonymous or infrequent, behavioural cues cannot be read against a bac ground of nown behaviour, so more general attributes must be used. Because of the negative consequences of being detected, people are e"pected to be nervous when lying. In response to concern over appearing nervous, people may e"ert control, trying to suppress behaviour, with possible side effects detectable by the listener such as a planned, rehearsed impression. 5ying is also cognitively demanding. Kou must suppress the truth and construct a falsehood that is plausible, then tell it in a convincing way and remember the story. 4ognitive load appears to play the biggest role. When lies are not well)rehearsed, people have to thin too hard, and this causes several effects, including overcontrol that leads to blin ing and fidgeting less and using fewer hand gestures, longer pauses and higher)pitched voices. 'f course, if self)deception is involved, you are less li ely to give off the normal cues of lying that others might perceive.

*** & behavioural pattern is considered to be innate when it is essential for survival and already present at birth, as it is predetermined by the genetic ma e)up of the organism. & refle" is the simplest form of an innate behaviour. It is a programmed reaction to an outside stimulus that is carried out unconsciously. 3or e"ample, the eyelids close automatically as soon as a draft of air stimulates the surface of the eye and the pupils of a cat will contract as soon as it loo s into bright light. These are refle"es that an organism does not have to learn< they are referred to as unconditioned refle"es. &n unconditioned refle" is always an unconscious response, and therefore it is impossible to suppress it at will. 6uch a refle" always requires a stimulus that triggers a certain behaviour. Aany unconditioned refle"es e"ist in order to protect the organism, for e"ample coughing, nausea, or the draw bac refle" of the body part that touches a hot ob(ect. &natomically, a refle" is based on a chain of stimulus and reaction, which is referred to as a refle" arc. & well) nown e"ample is the nee (er or patellar refle" in humans, which is triggered by a light hit to the patellar tendon in the nee. The nee (er refle" is often used in medicine to test the function of the spinal cord and associated nerves. The real purpose of this refle" is to protect humans from in(ury when tripping.

*** 8uring the +,,-s, the country that was viewed by &merican leaders and many others in the West as the most important challenge for a transition to democracy was *ussia. The 4linton administration emphasi7ed that one of its high priorities in foreign policy was the success of the movement to democracy and a mar et economy in the states of the former 6oviet /nion, in particular *ussia. & senior official asserted that Fhelping the *ussian people to build a free society and mar et economy is the greatest strategic challenge of our time,G and that F*ussia was the single most important foreign policy priorityG of the 4linton administration. *ussia was by far the largest of the former republics of the 6oviet /nion in both population and land area. In addition, its geographical location gave it influence on issues in several regions in which the /6 was interested, and it had greater strategic military capability than any other country e"cept the /6. 'n a deeper level, *ussia represented what remained of the former geopolitical and ideological rival of the /6. If the state that had been the core of the superpower which was considered to be the main adversary of the /6 and of democracy could, within a relatively short time, be changed into an ideological soul mate of the /6, the symbolic implications would be profound.

*** *elatively few people en(oy the opportunity to travel to other countries. By far the most common form of travel is that by residents of a country within that country. International travel, although given high priority by segments of the populations of industriali7ed nations, is still a minority activity. &s a very rough guide, we estimate that e"penditure worldwide on domestic tourism may be worth up to ten times that amount on international tourism. Ironically, there are relatively few countries that collect domestic travel and tourism statistics, while much more information is available on international tourism. Why is thisH 3irst of all, international travel involves, by definition, the crossing of a frontier. It is therefore easier to observe and monitor. 8omestic tourism involves movement internally and is therefore more difficult to research. 4ountries that only ma e use of registration forms at hotels miss out on all aspects of domestic tourism that involve staying in other accommodation establishments or with friends or relatives. & number of countries do not even try to measure domestic tourism due to its very nature. 3or e"ample, in many developing countries, very little domestic movement involves staying in paid accommodation, and so it does not compete with demand from international visitors.

*** 6pecies diversity provides the foundation for individual ecosystems and thus is the prerequisite for the functioning of the biosphere. It is an immeasurable source of food and medicinal products, and an irreplaceable resource as a gene pool. 8ue to the increasing destruction and pollution of natural habitats, over)fishing and hunting, humans are destroying the biological multitude of life, and with that, the basis of their own well)being. The public is concerned when a well) nown species li e the tiger, whale, or mountain gorilla becomes endangered< however, the ma(ority of other cases are hardly ever noticed by the public. &part from the decline of species diversity within habitats, loss of genetic diversity within individual species has also been observed. The destruction of individual populations leads to a reduction in genetic regeneration capacity within a species. 3or instance, selective deforestation reduces the quality of the genetic material of affected tree species, since only strong, healthy trees are logged and the wea er ones are left behind. Human inds intentional or unintentional introduction of e"otic animal and plant species to new habitats plays an important role as well. These so)called Fneo7ic speciesG can become a threat to local species and lead to their complete e"tinction. 3or instance, the flightless Piwi bird in 2ew Sealand is threatened with e"tinction by introduced rats and feral cats.

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*** 3or hundreds of thousands of years, human civili7ations tended to barter for goods, trading shells and precious stones for food and other important commodities. 3or the first evidence of money as currency, we need to go bac :,--- years to where modern)day Iraq now sits, to find Bthe she el. Though this was the first form of currency, it was not money as we now and understand it today. It actually represented a certain weight of barley, a ind of plant, equivalent to gold or silver. 1ventually, the she el became a coin currency in its own right. In much the same way, Britains currency is called Bthe pound, because it was originally equivalent to a pound of silver. The ancient Dree s and *omans used gold and silver coins as currency, with the 5atin Bdenarius ultimately giving birth to Bdinar in various countries including #ordan and &lgeria, and providing the Bd that served as an abbreviation for the British penny before decimali7ation in +,?+. It also gives us the word for money in 6panish and !ortuguese ; Bdinero and Bdinhero. The first ever ban notes were issued in ? th )century 4hina, though it too another +,--- years before the idea of paper money was adopted in 1urope, by 6wedens 6toc holms Banco in +CC+.

*** British scientists have begun studying a rare meteorite to reveal more about the history of Aars. The roc , named BTissint after the Aoroccan area where it crashed in #uly .-++, was recovered from the ground (ust five months later ; not enough time to be too contaminated. FThe Tissint sample is probably the most important meteorite to have landed on the 1arth in the last +-- years,G says 8r. 4aroline 6mith, curator of meteorites at the 2atural History Auseum in 5ondon. &n analysis of the roc revealed its Aartian origin. It would have been removed from Aars when an asteroid struc the planet, staying in space as debris before being attracted by the 1arths gravity. 'f the 9+,--- officially recogni7ed meteorites, C+ come from Aars and the Tissint roc is only the fifth that was witnessed falling. 8r. Tony Irving of Washington /niversity, who performed some initial analysis on the sample, does not thin there is much chance of finding fossili7ed life within it. But the British team could reveal whether minerals have been affected by water or contain elements such as carbon. 6mith says FWere not loo ing for microbes, but were loo ing for the chemical and environmental signatures to indicate whether Aars, at some point in its past, may have provided a suitable environment for life to e"ist.G

*** &lthough many community newspapers are (ustifiably proud of their hard)hitting local editorials, perhaps half of all community papers carry no editorials at all. !ublishers who refuse to editoriali7e often claim that editorial harassing is resented in small communities. 'thers are fearful of alienating readers and advertisers. 6till others say they do not have enough time to develop polished, well)researched editorials on a regular basis. Aany publishers are leaders in the commercial and political lives of their towns, and are so much a part of the local power structure that their editorials would not be persuasive anyway. Those who editoriali7e assert that editorials and opinion columns give identity to their newspapers and leadership to their communities. Indeed, some of the most inspired writing the /6 has produced ; the B4risis essays of Tom !aine, the 3ederalist !apers e"plaining and defending the 4onstitution, the stirring commentary of William &llen White of Pansas ; first saw the light of day as editorial or column material in a community newspaper. 4ourageous hometown editors regularly win !ulit7er !ri7es and other professional honours for crusading editorials on local issues.

*** While playing computer games is sometimes seen as a solitary pursuit, a study at Brigham Koung /niversity shows that it actually enhances social connections. 6tudying the effect of multiplayer online games on marriages, researchers found that in the ?C= of the cases where the couple played together, games actually aided the relationship. In other words, couples that gamed together stayed together. Dames may have other effects on us too. The famous psychologist, !hilip Simbardo, recently spo e out on the sub(ect. In his +,?+ 6tanford !rison 1"periment, in which volunteers were randomly assigned the roles of prisoner or guard, he showed that human behaviour is heavily influenced by environmental and social pressures. Aore recently, Simbardo even suggested that e"posing children to morally ambiguous situations in games could be useful in helping them develop their own moral compass. 'ne possibility is to e"plore virtual worlds through computer games that could enable people to e"perience and understand concepts that they would otherwise find difficult to imagine. Dames about society, populated by real people and open to all, could help test how different cultural bac grounds could be brought together in peace.

*** Innovation is not a synonym for invention ; an invention has to be ta en to the mar et to be regarded as innovation. Innovation must change the way people do something. In an essay on creativity, Teresa &mabile and others describe innovation as Bthe successful implementation of creative ideas within an organi7ation. 4reativity, which includes invention, is only the starting point for innovation, which is a necessary but not sufficient condition for it. &s &mabile implies, the business of innovation needs to be managed all the way from the creative inspiration through to a launchable product or service. Innovation is not restricted to products and services. It might be internal to the business, in the form of new and more effective organi7ational structures or processes. It could be a new way of mar eting or distribution, li e online grocery deliveries. By todays thin ing, innovation can also be in the form of a significant improvement to an e"isting commodity. When you build a better product, not necessarily a revolutionary one, the whole world will want to buy it. & lot of small types of innovation li e this are more a in to continuous improvement, which ma es up @:),-= of the average corporate development portfolio.

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WWW History is one of the few school sub(ects commonly mandated in education systems throughout the world. 3urthermore, the use of history te"tboo s to support student learning is an almost universally accepted practice. However, the widespread international presence of the humble history te"tboo should not disguise its ideological and cultural potency. Indeed, essential to understanding the power and importance of history te"tboo s is to appreciate that in any given culture they typically e"ist as the eepers of ideas, values and nowledge. 2o matter how neutral history te"tboo s may appear, they are ideologically important, because they often see to in(ect the youth with a shared set of values, national ethos and an incontrovertible sense of political orthodo"y. Te"tboo s stand as cultural artefacts that embody a range of issues associated with ideology, politics and values which in themselves function at a variety of different levels of power, status and influence. 1mbedded in history te"tboo s are narratives and stories that nation states choose to tell about themselves and their relations with other nations. Typically, they represent a core of cultural nowledge which future generations are e"pected both to assimilate and support.

*** 3armers in many countries utili7e antibiotics in two ey waysE at full strength to treat animals that are sic and in low doses to fatten meat)producing livestoc or to prevent veterinary illnesses. &lthough even the proper use of antibiotics can inadvertently lead to the spread of drug resistant bacteria, the habit of using a low dose is a formula for disasterE the treatment provides (ust enough antibiotic to ill some but not all bacteria. The germs that survive are typically those that happen to bear genetic mutations for resisting the antibiotic. They then reproduce and e"change genes with other microbial resisters. &s bacteria are found literally everywhere, resistant strains produced in animals eventually find their way into people as well. Kou could not design a better system for guaranteeing the spread of antibiotic resistance. To cease the spread, 8enmar enforced tighter rules on the use of antibiotics in the raising of poultry and other farm animals. The lesson is that improving animal husbandry ; ma ing sure that pens, stalls and cages are properly cleaned and giving animals more room or time to mature ; offsets the initial negative impact of limiting antibiotic use.

*** Imagine an industry that runs out of raw materials. 4ompanies go ban rupt, wor ers are laid off, families suffer and associated organi7ations are thrown into turmoil. 1ventually, governments are forced to ta e drastic action. Welcome to global ban ing, recently brought to its nees by the interruption of its lifeblood ; the flow of cash. In this case, we seem to have been fortunate. In the nic of time, governments released reserves in order to start cash circulating again. But what if the reserves had not been thereH What are we going to do when our supplies of vital materials such as fish, tropical hardwoods, metals li e indium and fresh water dry upH We live on a planet with finite resources ; that is no surprise to anyone ; so why do we have an economic system in which all that matters is growth ; more growth means using more resources. When the human population was counted in millions and resources were sparse, people could simply move to new pastures. However, with , billion people e"pected around .-:-, moving on is not an option. &s politicians reconstruct the global economy, they should ta e heed. If we are to leave any ind of planet to our children, we need an economic system that lets us live within our means.

*** FThe Aarshall !lan was not a simple program for transferring massive sums of money to struggling countries, but an e"plicit ; and eventually successful ; attempt to reindustriali7e 1urope.G say 1ri *einert and Ha)#oon 4hang. It follows that if &frica really wants economic prosperity, it should study and draw valuable lessons from the Aarshall !lans dar twinE the Aorgenthau !lan implemented in Dermany in +,9:. *einert tells the story bestE When it was clear that the &llies would win the 6econd World War, the question of what to do with Dermany, which in three decades had precipitated two World Wars, reared its head. Henry Aorgenthau #r, the /6 secretary of the treasury, formulated a plan to eep Dermany from ever again threatening world peace. Dermany, he argued, had to be entirely deindustriali7ed and turned into an agricultural nation. &ll industrial equipment was to be destroyed, and the mines were to be flooded. This program was approved by the &llies and was immediately implemented when Dermany capitulated in +,9:. However, it soon became clear that the Aorgenthau !lan was causing serious economic problems in DermanyE deindustriali7ation caused agricultural productivity to plummet. This was indeed an interesting e"periment. The mechanisms of synergy between industry and agriculture wor ed in reverseE illing the industry reduced the productivity of the agricultural sector.

*** Aany athletes credit drugs with improving their performance, but some of them may want to than their brain instead. Aounting evidence suggests that the boost from human growth hormone $HDH%, an increasingly popular doping drug, might be caused by the placebo effect. In a new double)blind trial funded by the World &nti)8oping &gency, in which neither researchers nor participants new who was receiving HDH and who was ta ing a placebo, the researchers as ed participants to guess whether or not they were on the real drug. Then they e"amined the results of the group who guessed that they were getting HDH when, in fact, they had received a placebo. That group improved at four fitness tests measuring strength, endurance, power and sprint capacity. The study participants who guessed correctly that they were ta ing a placebo did not improve, according to preliminary results presented at the 6ociety for 1ndocrinology meeting in #une .-++. FThe finding really shows the power of the mindG said Pen Ho,an endocrinologist at the Darvan Institute in 6ydney, &ustralia, who led the study. 6he maintains that many athletes are reaping the benefits of the placebo effect, without nowing whether what they are ta ing is beneficial or not.

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*** There are about forty distinct inds of wild cats nown to inhabit the earth today. They range in si7e from the mighty 6iberian tiger to several little spotted species about the si7e of the average domestic cat. The cats are the most efficient land predators left on earth. They combine power, speed,patience, camouflage, and considerable individual s ill. &ll swim well, most climb with great agility, and at least for short distances, most can move with ama7ing swiftness. The &frican lion can reach a speed of almost forty miles per hour when it charges.

*** We are warm)blooded animals. The temperature inside us is generally higher than the temperature outside us. It follows from this fact that, (ust as a ettle of hot water cools as it loses heat to the air around it, so the human body is continually losing heat. But, unli e the ettle, it does not cool down, for all the time fresh quantities of heat are being generated inside. The body is both ma ing heat and losing some of it at the same time. The loss of heat is controlled by a very delicate mechanism. The body resembles a thermostat heater in that while it gives off heat it manages to remain at the same temperature.

*** 4ivil engineering offers a particular challenge because almost every structure or system that is designed and built by civil engineers is unique. 'ne structure rarely duplicates another e"actly. 1ven when structures seem to be identical, site requirements or other factors generally result in modifications. 5arge structures li e dams, bridges, or tunnels may differ substantially from previous structures. The civil engineer must, therefore, always be ready and willing to meet new challenges.

***Denetics is the study of mechanisms of the hereditary process. Aodern genetics began with the e"periments of Dregor Aendel in +@C:. He studied the inheritance of different factors in peas, and found that some traits were NdominantN and some NrecessiveN, the NdominantN appearing in a ratio of very nearly three to one.Aendel>s results were ignored for many years until their rediscovery at the beginning of the twentieth century.

*** &ll our sources of power are Bnatural< we have found that matter can be turned into energy and energy into matter, but that nothing can be created. We can convert one into the other with relative ease, but all our power is based upon the control of natural sources, in the sense that the energy or fuel is never man)made. It already e"ists in the wind and in rivers< or it may be stored up as in oil or coal.

*** Deologists are especially interested in the mineral content of roc s. &ll roc s consist of one or more minerals, many of which are needed as raw materials for industry or have properties which ma e them valuable or useful. Dold, for e"ample, is valuable. 8iamonds are both valuable and useful. 4oal is also found in roc s, usually underground and it is vitally important as fuel in modern life. Britain is rich in coal because it was covered in dense forest more than 0-- million years ago. 4oal is formed from the remains of trees and the other plants which have gradually been compressed and hardened in the roc structure of the earth.

*** To astronomers, the great accomplishment of the flights to the moon was the bringing bac of roc s from the lunar surface. It was the first e"traterrestrial material ever to reach 1arth, with the e"ception of meteorites. The lunar roc s seemed to show that the moon was virtually free of water and of organic material and was, therefore, a world utterly without life. In fact, this had been suspected by astronomers, since the +C--s< but there had been some hope of traces of air and water that might have made possible very primitive life at the bacterial level, if nothing more.

*** 5ong after the discovery of electricity, man found that he could use the great power to produce it. &t first, he used natural waterfalls.5ater, man began to build dams to generate hydroelectric power. 8ams are immense structures which hold bac the water of a river and form a la e behind. The water is let through under control and allowed to fall through pipes to the turbines below. The rushing water drives the turbines, and as they revolve, they spin electromagnets< these magnets generate electricity.

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*** 3eeling the pulse is part of the doctors> routing in e"amining a patient in hospitals. The nurse counts the pulse night and morning. The pulse gives the doctor useful information about his patient>s condition, so helping him to diagnose the trouble. The cause of the pulse is the beating of the heart. &t each heart beat from four to si" ounces of blood are pumped into the main artery of the body, and in consequence a wave of pressure goes along the arteries all over the body. It is this wave which is the pulse the doctor feels at the wrist. & beat of the heart is responsible for each wave.

*** & bruise is caused by damage to the tissues under the s in, which leads to bleeding. The common everyday bruise is due to the tearing of some small blood vessels and to the escape of blood beneath the surfaceE it usually causes no more than a slight bluish discoloration and clears up without treatment. & severe blow, however, may cause bruising in the muscles, usually accompanied by tears in the fibers of the muscleE the pool of blood that results may lead to a large and painful swelling.

*** 2obody should be ashamed of being depressed. It is either a natural aspect of grief, or an illness which is treatable. It is normal to be depressed after a divorce or the death of a loved one. But, in today>s rushing society, people may feel they should recover from depression faster than is really natural. *ecovery from mourning should be e"pected to be a matter of many months, not wee s, and nobody should be afraid to let this depression run its natural course. In fact, trying to rush the pace or brighten up with antidepressants is seldom the best route to a full recovery.

*** Tooth decay is dealt with by drilling out the decayed matter and filling up the resulting cavity. &ll decay and wea ened areas must be removed, otherwise decay will continue beneath the filling. The cavity should be prepared so that the filling will stay in securely and withstand pressure from chewing. High speed electric drills are now usual and so is the use of an in(ection of a local anesthetic to ma e the procedure painless. & lining of chemical element is put into the prepared cavity to protect the pulp from heat and chemicals. The filling, placed on top of this, is usually an amalgam of silver, tin, copper, 7inc alloy and mercury.

*** 6tudies show that more than two cups of coffee a day can cause unpleasant symptoms such as nervousness, irritability, stomach pain and insomnia. Thus, although many people build up a certain tolerance for the stimulant e"periments indicate that caffeine users ta e longer to fall asleep than non)users and they also wa e up more often. The effects ofcaffeine are similar in persons of all ages, but certain groups are particularly sensitive to the drug, including the elderly, children, pregnant women, and those suffering from heart disease, hypertension, and emotional illness.

WWW 4olour blindness is a genetically transmitted condition in which a person cannot detect all colours. The defect is more common in men than in women. Aost colour blind people can see only two basic colours, and they tend to confuse other colours, especially red with green. This impairment can bring about problems because many colour blind people do not reali7e that their eyesight is defective. They have learned to use the colour terms that everyone else uses, and they are not aware that they do not see what others see. There is a ris that their condition might place them in danger.

*** The presence of fever in a patient does not necessarily prove that he is suffering from an infection. &n accurate clinical diagnosis will depend on several important factors ) the age and the se" of the patient, the clinical history and any physical signs which point to a focus of infection. Whatever may be the underlying cause of fever, the important thing is to eep the patient as comfortable as possible. This will include eeping the temperature down. 3urther, good nursing in clean surroundings with frequent bed)bathing will add greatly to the patient>s wellbeing and may even prove lifesaving.

*** 1"cessive vitamin consumption is a potential problem. 6ome people ta e unnecessarily large quantities of 0vitamins and minerals for years, assuming that if a little is good for them, a lot must be better. There is no evidence to support their convictions. In fact, a study released last month in a public health (ournal says that people who ta e supplements are not healthier and do not live longer. &ccording to researchers almost no one needs to ta e them. Jitamin deficiencies are almost none"istent in the West e"cept for among some elderly people whose diets do not usually include sufficient fresh fruit and vegetables.

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*** &ny criminal (ustice system is an apparatus that society uses to enforce the standards of conduct necessary to protect individuals and the community. It operates by apprehending, prosecuting, convicting, sentencing these members of the community who violate the basic rules of group e"istence. The action ta en against lawbrea ers is designed to serve three purposes beyond the immediately punitive one. It removes dangerous people from the community< it deters others from criminal behavior and it gives society an opportunity to attempt to transform lawbrea ers into law) abiding citi7ens.

*** The literature of any society reveals the values, the conflicts and the e"periences, both past and present of its members. Through the literature of a people it Is possible to gain some insight into their attitudes, beliefs and problems. Auch of human e"perience is similar because basically all men have similar needs, and the reader may find his own concern voiced by character in a novel written centuries before

*** 4hronic psychological stress depends much more on the person than on what happens to him. 6omeone promoted above his abilities will probably be under constant stress but some personalities may not be aware of the pressure, or of not being up to the (ob. 'n the other hand, someone in a position well within his abilities may still find everything a strain. !erhaps it is because he does not reali7e he can do it easily or because he wants to win promotion< or simplybecause that is his way of going about things.

*** The emergence of hew processes for producing goods and services that provide better quality at lower cost them. Aass production has transformed the nature of wor . This is a fundamental change in economic life. !eople perform a much more central role in the new production system. There is now more democracy in the wor place. & reduction of business hierarchies, the creation of production teams, more wor er participation in decision ma ing and employee ownership are some of the indicators of this economic democracy. The heart of this process is not technology< it>s a new set of social relations in the wor place which means that most wor ers now en(oy more wor satisfaction.

*** In a competitive economy, the consumer usually has the choice of several different brands of the same product. Ket underneath their labels, these products are often nearly identical. 'ne manufacturer>s toothpaste tends to differ very little from another manufacturer>s. Two different brands of shampoo may vary only in scent and color. &nd the tobacco in two different brands of cigarettes frequently come from the same fields. This close similarity means that a shopper has little reason to choose one brand over another. Thus, manufacturers are confronted with a problemE how to eep sales high enough to stay in business. Aanufacturers solve this problem by advertising.

*** The urge to dance is one of the most powerful of human Vnstincts. 2early all dances from antiquity to the +,th century had one important common characteristic. They alternated between collective movements and solo twins, in which every dancer or couple in succession would become the centre of attention and then merge bac into the crowd. Thus dancing e"pressed both the communal and the individualistic impulse of humanity, holding the two in delicate balance tothe benefit of healthy society.

*** & great deal of archaeological evidence has revealed the importance of water supply systems in the ancient world. !robably the most impressive system were built by the *omans, whose aqueducts still stand in modern Italy, 6pain, 3rance and Tur ey. *ome itself had a water supply estimated at :-million gallons a day or about :- gallons a day for each resident of the city. The water has delivered to fountains where people collected it in pots and then carried it to their homes< only a few buildings and residences had connections to the main pipelines.

*** The term NThird WorldN is used to denote the poor nations of &frica, &sia and 5atin &merica as opposed to the N6econd WorldN of communist developed nations. The terminology is far from satisfactory, as there is a great social and political variation within the NThird WorldN. Indeed, there are some countries where e"treme poverty prevails, and these could be regarded as a NfourthN group.

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*** Weeds are plants out of place, either as the wrong plant in cultivated ground, or as any plant where none should be. They can cause considerable financial loss through the cost of their control and the damage they do to crops. !lants which become really troublesome as weeds are those which persist despite man>s efforts to control them. 6uch persistency is due to several factors of which perhaps the most important are prolific seed production, coupled with die often remar ably long periods of dormancy of the seed, and the ability of vegetative parts of some plants to survive mechanical damage and adverse conditions and to set up new plants. Weeds may be controlled by hand, by cultivation and other mechanical means, by biological means and by chemical weed illers. 4hemical weed illers are widely used, either to give a total ill and suppress all vegetation or to control weeds selectively in crops.

*** 6trictly spea ing the term NavalancheN should be restricted to falls of snow and ice in mountainous regions but popular usage has e"tended its meaning to cover roc fails and landslips in all environments. The period of greatest danger from avalanches proper is during a thaw, when melt)waterma es a good lubricant for the snow and ice ban ed steeply against roc faces. The rising cloud of white dust, the vertical grooves and patches of bare roc formed by the scouring action, and the dull roar of the avalanche are all common features of mountains above the permanent snow line. *oc fragments may also be carried down, for the recurrent free7ing and thawing of water lodged in (oints and crevices of the roc forms a powerful agent of disintegration. The action is the same as that which leads to burst pipes. 3ree7ing causes e"pansion of the water in the spaces of a (oint and produces a pressure sufficient to brea the roc .

*** & typical e"plosives factory is divided into two partsE the Nnon) dangerN and NdangerN areas. The main business of the non)danger area lies in the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acids for the nitration processes, including the recovery of these acids from the waste products of nitration. 'ther raw materials are also prepared in the non)danger area. The actual manufacture of e"plosives and their mi"ing and pac ing are carried out in the danger area, sub(ect to rigorous safety measures. The main danger in manufacture is ignition by spar , friction or impact, the latter two being especially ha7ardous if the e"plosive is allowed to become contaminated with gritty material. 2a ed lights, steel tools or anything which might produce spar or flame are therefore e"cluded from the danger buildings. 1ach building has a NcleanN floor which may be approached only in specially cleaned shoes, while the wor ers are provided with factory clothing to ensure that grit is not carried into the buildings.

*** &ircraft landing)wheel bra es are fitted to all si7es of aircraft for arresting motion after touch)down, for steering during ta"iing by differential control of port and starboard bra es, and to hold the aircraft stationary while the engine is warmed)up or tested. 6mall aircraft have simple two)shoe internal e"panding bra es manually operated and very similar to the standard road)vehicle bra e, but the larger machines require power)operated bra es using compressed air or hydraulic pressure from compressors or pumps driven by the engine. Besides being as light and compact as possible, landing)wheel bra es must remain effective and balanced during very high rates of energy dissipation due to the great weight of the aircraft and the very high landing speeds.

*** The culmination of the classic age of the machine tool was the wor of #oseph Whitworth. His pre)eminence lay not so much in any far)reaching innovations as in the quality and accuracy of the wor manship he was able to obtain. It was Whitworth who introduced the standard screw thread which was used in British engineering until +,9@, and it was he who revolutionised standards of measurement. Indeed, the many measuring machines of the second half of the +, th century, though increasing the facility, did not greatly increase the accuracy Whitworth had attained. &t the Dreat 1"hibition of+@:+ his planing, slotting, sha ing, drilling, punching and shearing machines made him the outstanding machine)tool ma er of the age.

*** The main advantages of electric traction on railways are that it is both pleasant and efficient. It brings the removal of a smo e nuisance from tunnels and from the vicinity of larger cities. 3urther, owing to high acceleration, it is possible to provide a more frequent and faster service on densely populated suburban lines. The trac capacity is improved by electrification on mountainous lines because of increase of speed, both up and down the gradient, generally using electric forms of bra ing in the latter case. 6ome of the ma(or electrification schemes of the world, for instance, those in 6wit7erland and 6weden, have been largely dictated by the desire to operate the railway system without dependence upon imported fuel.

*** #ust as railway bridges were the great structural symbols of the +, th century, highway bridges became the engineering emblems of the .- century. The invention of the automobilecreated an irresistible demand for paved roads and vehicular bridges throughout the developed world. The type of bridge needed for cars and truc s, however, is fundamentally different from that needed for locomotives. Aost highway bridges carry lighter loads than railway bridges do, and their roadways can be sharply curved or steeply sloping. To meet these needs, many turn)ofthe)century bridge designers began wor ing with a new building materialE reinforced concrete, which has steel bars embedded in it. &nd the master of this new material was 6wiss structural engineer *obert Aaillart, who designed some of the most original and influential bridges of the modern era.

*** Botanic gardens may be regarded as having a threefold functionE to please and educate the public< to carry out investigations regarding the economic value of native and foreign plant products and acclimatisation of plants< and to act as centres of information and scientific investigation in various fields of botany, such as anatomy, morphology and physiology, for which museums, libraries and laboratories are also needed. The search for drugs and spices particularly has tempted men from early times to e"plore all parts of the world and this has promoted a close lin between e"ploration and botanic gardens. 'ne well) nown botanic garden is the *oyal Botanic Darden at 1dinburgh which was founded in +C?- by *obert 6ibbald for the cultivation of medical plants. 6ince that date it has been removed to several different sites. It is now one of the ma(or botanic gardens in Britain with an area of over C- acres.

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*** &spirin used to be regarded as a safe cure for numerous ills, and was widely used both in its soluble and insoluble form. 2ow, however, it is not so well thought of. It is useful for the relief of headache or other pains and it will reduce a fever for . or 0 hours and so ma e a patient feel more comfortable, but e"cept in very rare cases it will cure nothing. Aoreover, there have been some very serious cases of poisoning as a result of ta ing aspirin. This is why children>s aspirins are not recommended, for they are often nicely flavoured, so the children are tempted to eat them li e sweets. 3or small children, suitably small quantities of ordinary adult soluble aspirin should be used after having chec ed the dose with the doctor.

*** 4ombined active and passive prophylactic immunisation is designed to obtain both the immediate but temporary benefit of protectionE afforded by serum and the more remote but lasting benefit afforded by vaccine in(ection. It has been used chiefly in diphtheria. If, for e"ample, this disease brea s out in a school, a small dose of serum, such as :-- antito"ic units, may be in(ected at once into all the children, and a first dose of diphtheria prophylactic vaccine given simultaneously. & second dose of vaccine is administered four wee s later. The serum confers passive protection during the time that active immunity is developing. 6ince the main effect of the serum passes off in 0)9 wee s and active immunity is not established for :)C wee s, there may be a short intermediate period of relative susceptibility, but it has been found in practice that, provided the children are protected torn infection by temporary segregation of carriers, there is very little ris of diphtheria brea ing out again. &n outbrea can thus be brought to an abrupt end. *** Worms are intestinal parasites, but the only common types found in Britain are . threadworms, the tiny thread)li e worms which cause irritability and itching in the s in of children, less often in adults. Then there are round)worms, > somewhat resembling the ordinary )garden earthworm, which seldom lead to symptoms. 3inally the third group is the tapeworms which may reach a , length of 0 or even C m. Aany parasitic worms lead a double life, they spend part of their life in the human intestine and the other part in the muscles of another animal. The tapeworm, for e"ample, while in the human intestine, lays eggs which pass out of the body in the e"creta, and are then swallowed by various animals, especially in those parts of the world where human e"creta are used as manure in the fields.

*** 6ome underweight people en(oy an active, healthy life, but others are underweight because of smo ing habits or poor health. &n underweight person, especially an older adult, may be unable to preserve lean tissue during the fight against a wasting disease such as cancer or a digestive disorder, especially when accompanied by malnutrition. Without adequate nutrient and energy reserves, an underweight person will have a particularly tough battle against such medical stresses. In fact, many people with cancer die, not from the cancer itself, but from malnutrition. /nderweight women may become infertile. 1"actly how infertility develops is unclear, but contributing factors include not only body weight, but also restricted energy and fat inta e and depleted body fat stores.

*** 3or many years whooping cough has been regarded merely as a bother to the patient and a nuisance to others< as, in fact, a trivial disease. /nfortunately< this is not soE because statistics show that it has caused more deaths than polio, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and measles put together. Whooping cough begins in a child as an ordinary cold with cough and slight fever, and this stage lasts for a wee or ten days. Then begins a series of coughs following in rapid succession, during which time, the patient is unable to breathe. The NwhoopN is caused by the noisy in drawing of breath when the fit stops. The face may become blue and congested. Bronchitis is usually present, and bronchopneumonia may result as a complication, so inoculation of all children before the disease has a chance to stri e them is most important.

*** Typhus used to be nown as N(ail feverN because it was frequent in prisons< but overcrowding, poverty, and bad hygienic surroundings anywhere are suitable conditions for epidemics of typhus. Improved conditions in industrialised countries have made it unusual, since typhus is carried from one person to another by infected body lice. Typhus comes on suddenly with a rise in temperature to about 0, R4, but within four days it may be as high as 9. R4. There may, or may not, be a rash at this time, and in the second wee , when the temperature is at its highest, there is delirium, physical wea ness, and a wea pulse.

*** Thalidomide was unique. In every animal test used in the late +,:-s, it had a clean bill of health. It was chemically related to other drugs which had been in use for a long time. 'ver)dosage with thalidomide was unli ely to prove fatal. It was mar eted in 1urope and in Britain as a Nsafe sedativeN. The tragic results that followed its use by women in the early wee s of pregnancy are how well nown. Babies were born with severe deformities of limbs, internal organs or both. That effect could not have been foretold from any animal tests in use at that time. 6ince that date new drugs have been sub(ected to strict testing in various animal species to chec the effect on foetal development, along with the older tests for to"icity which had always been underta en by well) nown drug companies.

*** Basic sanitary facilities are absent in many parts of the tropics, particularly in rural areas, and this state of affairs is responsible for the prevalence of preventable diseases such as hoo worm infection, dysentery and cholera. The solution lies in the provision of toilet facilities which are suitable for the local conditions, and the villagers must be educated to use them and to appreciate their value to the community. In view of the need to improve the fertility of the soil, local authorities are becoming increasingly interested in simple methods of composting village waste, in this way invigorating the soil with valuable humus without the ris s of infection involved in the old practices of direct application.

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*** If the term employment is used in its wider sense as meaning wor which is of economic value not only to the family but to the community, women have at all times been thus employed. In primitive societies and in agricultural communities women shared in the productive wor on the land, in the wor shops and the home< they too part in trade and they cared for the old, the sic and the infirm at a time when there were no health and welfare services in the modern sense. Indeed, in any society in which the productivity of labour is low, women>s active participation in the daily wor is indispensable. To this day, women wor in the fields in all agricultural communities< they spin and weave, do building wor and various other inds of hard physical labour in many parts of the world which have not yet reached the threshold of industrialisation.

*** Jenice is famed for its architecture and for its paintings. Jenetian architecture reflects the By7antine influence, though Dothic became the main style in the +9th century< and the first *enaissance building dates from the second half of the +:th century. The Jenetian school of painters did not come into prominence until the +:th century. The best nown of this school are Dentile and Diovanni Bellini, Titian, Tintoretto and Jeronese. The centre of Jenetian life is 6t Aar >s square which is paved with marble. *ound this and the ad(oining !ia77etta are grouped buildings of great beauty and interest. &t the eastern end of the square is the basilica of 6t Aar , a fitting cathedral for the patriarch of Jenice.

*** If you wish to glimpse the ancient trophies of !edra 3urada, in a difficult, mountainous area of northeastern Bra7il, you must be prepared to face intense dry heat, treacherous roc y ground, sudden flooding, boulders falling from cliffs, aggressive sna es and swarms of mosquitoes. It>s worth it, though, for the archeological treasures to be found there are e"ceptionally ancient. *oc paintings ) vivid depictions of prehistoric ways of life, including dancing, hunting, war and se" rituals ) have been dated at more than +.,--- years old, while curious pebble structures, primeval bonfires and early stone tools are up to :-,--- years old. The discovery of the remains had a profound effect on our nowledge of &merican prehistory, for they suggested that the first people in the 2ew World arrived not via a bridge of ice from 6iberia but by sea from &frica or possibly even &ustralia.

*** *adical changes in the life of western society were brought about by the new technical inventions of the +@+ and +,th centuries which resulted in a gradual but complete reorganisation of the productive process. This is generally nown as Nthe Industrial *evolutionN. The outstanding feature of this industrial revolution was the increasing specialisation of labour and, with it, the removal of more and more industries from the home to the factory. &t the same time, a growing number of activities such as ba ing, soap ma ing and dressma ing were ta en over by industry. These changes profoundly affected the lives of women. Aany of them wor ed in the new factories for very low wages and for e"cessively long hours< others wor ed at home for manufacturers.

*** 2ew evidence suggests that 2oah>s flood really did happen. & recent e"pedition has confirmed that a huge flood occurred ?--years ago in the Blac 6ea. The theory was first put forward last year by marine geologists William *yan and Walter !itman. In their boo 2oah>s 3lood, they argue that the great flood resulted from the last ice age, which pea ed +.,--- years ago. When the poles fro7e, ocean levels dropped and cut off the Aediterranean from the Blac 6ea, which dropped +:- m to become a la e with fertile shores. When the ice thawed, the Aediterranean rose bac up and bro e through what is now nown as the Bosphorus with a force equal to .-- 2iagara 3alls for a period of two years. The Blac 6ea rose, consuming a mile of shore a day. Those who had settled there fled, spreading their stories of the flood.

*** Winchester is a cathedral city in 1ngland. 'nce a royal city and residence of the ings of Wesse", Winchester competed with 5ondon to be capital of 1ngland and rivalled 6alisbury as a great centre of learning. The progressively intensified agricultural use of the land and the increasing population of the nearby towns and villages gave prosperity to Winchester and turned it into a ma(or economic centre. Wool was an important local product, and its collection and distribution formed part of the city>s economy. /nder Ping &lfred, whose statue stands in the city, the cultural and ecclesiastical life of Winchester became firmly established.

*** Ar Aellon senior was a 4roesus whose golden touch gave him a grip on much of &merican industry, including power, mining, civil engineering and insurance. His son, !aul Aellon, was a very different sort of person but no less remar able. His achievement was that he managed to dispose of more money and goods than any other &merican of his time, but did it in an unobtrusive and well)regarded way. The great capitalists of the +,th century, particularly &ndrew 4arnegie and #ohn *oc efeller, pioneered &merican philanthropy. 4arnegie said the same aggressive energy that had made a capitalist rich should be employed to return his profits to society. The man who died rich, died disgraced, 4arnegie thundered. Without necessarily agreeing with such strictures, !aul Aellon set out to redistribute some of his wealth. Both men thought that what &merica needed was culture. 4arnegie had favoured public libraries. Ar Aellon went for public art galleries.

*** Deorge Jancouver was a British naval e"plorer who served as a seaman on 4aptain 4oo >s second voyage round the world $+??.) ?:% and as a midshipman on his third voyage $+??C)@-%. He then saw service in the West Indies. In +?,+ he was placed in charge of an e"pedition to the northwest coast of 2orth &merica to see for a passage to the interior of the continent which was rumoured to e"ist in those parts. 'n the outward voyage by the 4ape of Dood Hope, a portion of the southwest coastline of &ustralia was e"amined, and Tasmania, 2ew Sealand and Hawaii were visited. Jancouver spent three years in carefully surveying portions of the west coast of 2orth &merica. He was the first to circumnavigate Jancouver Island, to which his name was given by the 6paniards tocommemorate his achievement. The standard of his survey was e"ceptionally high and worthy of his old captain, #ames 4oo < and his voyage practically disproved the e"istence of a water)passage to the interior along these coasts.

DS FEN 2001 SONBAHAR *** The *oyal 6ociety is the national academy of science for Dreat Britain and 2orthern Ireland but, unli e other national academies, is and always has been independent of state control< it is not maintained by grants from public funds and manages its own affairs. 6ince its foundation, however, ings, statesmen and government departments have regularly sought its advice on scientific matters< it has never hesitated to assist governments when convinced that the national interest called for scientific action. Within ten years of its foundation the society, at the invitation of 4harles II and his ministers, grappled with problems of national food supply, arboriculture, naval architecture and navigation. Throughout the +@ th century it wor ed with the admiralty on what was then called Fthe problem of the longitudeG in the solution of which are associated the names of the astronomers 1dmond Halley and 2evil Aas elyne, the chronometer ma er #ohn Harrison and the navigator #ames 4oo . It found a cure for (ail)fever and advised on the protection of ships of war against lightning< it organi7ed a geodetic survey of the British Isles and appointed scientific personnel to several &rctic and &ntarctic e"pedition. *** The first flight by a power driven manned aeroplane too place in +,-0 and its subsequent development as a military weapon was so rapid that all the belligerents entered World War I totally unprepared to defend themselves against it. The first bombing raids, however, compelled the consideration of anti)aircraft measures, and Britain, in particular, attac ed by Seppelin airships and Dotha aircraft was forced to develop a range of speciali7ed anti)aircraft equipment which came to include guns, searchlights, sound)locators and predictors, giving it a qualitative ascendancy in this field retained until the end of World War II. Indeed the first night attac on 5ondon caused such public consternation that its gun defences had to be doubled within forty)eight hours and, though they hit few planes, their presence was of great psychological value. *** 6cientists can now speed up the process of genetic change through biotechnology. 3armers need no longer wait patiently for breeding to yield improved crops and animals, nor must they even respect natural lines of reproduction among species. 5aboratory scientists can now select desirable traits from any of a number of species and insert those traits into the genetic material of crops and animals. &mong the new products of biotechnology are tomatoes that stay fresh much longer than the usual ones and so promise less waste and higher profits. 2ormally, tomatoes produce a protein that softens them after they have been pic ed. 6cientists introduce into a tomato plant a gene that is a mirror image of the one that codes for the NsofteningN en7yme. This gene fastens itself to the *2& of the native gene and bloc s its action. & vine)ripe tomato with this special gene rots more slowly than a normal tomato, allowing growers to harvest at the most flavourful and nutritious red stage. The tomatoes will still last much longer during shipping and mar eting than regular tomatoes harvested when green *** To obtain power from the sun>s rays is to use nuclear power developed at no e"pense in a laboratory ,0 million miles away, for the radiant energy of the sun is maintained by nuclear transformation of chemical elements occurring in the sun>s interior at temperatures of many million degrees, and at pressures of many million atmospheres. The resources of solar power are enormous. If +-- per cent efficiency could be secured in the transformation of radiant solar energy into mechanical wor , a horsepower per square yard of ground surface would be available under cloudless s ies. The e"pense of collecting solar energy still prevents its competition with the usual power sources .Ket, unless the vague promise of safe thermonuclear power from oceans becomes reali7ed, solar power must supply the enormous and growing requirements of posterity within two centuries. Because the ground sources $coal, oil and uranium% as they near e"haustion will become more costly than solar power. *** The design of ships is governed by scientific principles and economic considerations but in practice it has many of the qualities of an art. The designer may be supplied with the precise and detailed requirements of an owner or he may receive only the barest outline of requirements such as the weight of cargo to be carried and the speed. The dimensions chosen and the main characteristics of the ship are governed by the trade in which the vessel is to compete. High)density cargoes such as iron ore require little cubic capacity< low)density cargoes such as bananas require vast cubic capacity. The ports which the vessel must enter may impose restrictions on length and draught. !assage through canals may restrict both draught and breadth. The nature of the cargo may determine the si7e of cargo holds and of the hatchways through which the cargo is loaded and unloaded. &vailable facilities at the ports to be entered affect the loading and unloading apparatus to be installed in the vessel.

*** 1rosion is regarded not merely as the physical removal of soil by water and wind, but rather as the deterioration of all the component parts of the habitat in which man and his crops and livestoc have to e"ist. 6ince there is no conclusive evidence for any ma(or climatic change in historic times to e"plain this deterioration, we must conclude that the eroding ofthe total environment has been due primarily to thoughtless destruction of the vegetative cover. This has led to deterioration of the microclimate above and below the surface, generally in the direction of a general drying out of the soil which has e"posed it to erosive action of wind and rainfall of high intensity or frequency, and to the loss of organic matter in the soil, thus reducing its capacity to resist erosion by conserving the water that falls on the surface. If everything possible is done within the total environment to conserve the naturally planted or cultivated vegetation, this will also ensure optimal conservation of soil and water. *** The world>s nuclear plants have accumulated vast stoc s of highly radioactive waste. Worldwide, high)level waste is currently stored above ground, and no government has a clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most e"perts believe that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long term, the problem isfinding sites that everyone can agree are geologically stable. 8ecaying radioactive isotopes release heat. &s a result, high)level waste must be constantly cooled< otherwise, it becomes dangerously hot. This is why many e"perts want to store waste above ground until it has decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed repositories several hundreds of metres below ground. &ccording to one recent theory, however, waste should be lowered down boreholes drilled to 9 ilometres. The tric is to e"ploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding roc and contain any lea ing radioactivity.

*** 6ounds produced by continuous vibration tones are spreads waves of compression through the air. Where there is a solid boundary such asthe walls of a room the sound waves are reflected so that the sounds within the room are prolonged beyond what they would be in the open. The sounds produced by the voice or by a musical instrument then reverberate through the room after the actual tone production has ceased. When the sound waves stri e the walls some of the sound energy travels on and is either absorbed in the material or may penetrate to the other side< but with the usual hard, unyielding walls of which most buildings are made, more than ,-= of the sound energy is reflected bac into the room at each impact, so that some time must elapse before all is spent. It is this reverberation which, in its e"cess, is the prime cause of the faulty acoustics of many pre .-th century buildings.

DS SALIK 2001 SONBAHAR *** 1urope faces Na serious ris of an uncontrollable resurgence of malariaN, warns the WH' in a new report. 8rainage, drugs and insecticides had eradicated malaria from the whole of 1urope by the +,C-s. 2ow civil disorder and irrigation threaten to bring it bac unless controls are stepped up, the report says. It seems that more 1uropean travellers are bringing malaria bac from countries where it is endemic, and the big fear is that local mosquitoes could acquire the parasite from such travellers and re)establish a local chain of transmission. Three recent cases in 5u"embourg and two in 2ew Kor have fuelled concern over air travel as a means of reintroduction. The cases in 5u"embourg all occurred within a few ilometres of the country>s international airport, and were probably caused by mosquitoes stowing away on aircraft coming in from the tropics. *** The value of heat for the preservation of food has been nown for thousands ofyears, but it was not reali7ed until the nineteenth century that a very mild heat treatment far below boiling point, made liquid foods such as mil eep much longer. The discovery followed the wor of the 3rench scientist 5ouis !asteur on wine and beer. The process, called after him Npasteuri7ationN, is a carefully controlled mild heat treatment. It was found that the process served two purposes< it delayed the souring of mil , and it destroyed the dangerous disease germs which sometimes occur in this product. These germs include the bacteria which cause tuberculosis, undulant fever, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, dysentery, diphtheria, scarlet fever and septic sore throat.

*** Headache, li e bac ache, is one of the commonest types of pain with which man ind is afflicted. It may arise under a diversity of circumstances. & blow to the head causes pain, and after a severe head in(ury with concussion, headaches may continue for wee s or months. The coverings of the brain, or meninges, are sensitive structures and, when inflamed, as in cases of meningitis, or irritated $as with meningeal haemorrhage%, headache may be a prominent feature. The arteries of the brain are also sensitive, and many inds of headache are referable to arterial disease, more especially to influences which distend the lumen of the arteries, or which distend and then contract the arterial walls. But the brain itself is insensitive and lacerations or gunshot wounds of the cerebral substance may produce headache only in so far as the bony s ull and the meninges are at the same time damaged. Tumours of the brain produce headache, not because the brain tissue is involved, but because the raised intracranial tension alters the diameter of the intracranial arteries.

*** The brain, li e all of the body>s organs, responds to both inherited and environmental factors that can enhance or diminish its ama7ing capacities. 'ne of the challenges researchers face when studying the human brain is to distinguish among normal age)related physiological changes, changes caused by diseases, and changes that result from cumulative, e"trinsic factors such as diet. The brain normally changes in some characteristic ways as it ages. 3or one thing, its blood supply decreases. 3or another, the number of neurons, the brain cells that speciali7e in transmitting information, diminishes as people age. When the number of nerve cells in one part of the cerebral corte" diminishes, hearing and speech are affected. 5osses of neurons in other parts of the corte" can impair memory and cognitive function. When the number of neurons in the hindbrain diminishes, balance and posture are affected. 5osses of neurons in other parts of the brain affect still other functions.

*** !eople infected with tuberculosis are difficult to treat because the bacteria can lie dormant in the body. In this state, they are unaffected by antibiotics and do not spar an immune response. But they can reactivate and cause disease when the body>s immune system is compromised. 6ome people believe that proteinsthat deliver a wa e)up call to dormant bacteria could be used to fight tuberculosis. There are two ways wa e)up proteins might be used therapeutically. 'ne is to tric the bacteria out of dormancy so that they can be 7apped with antibiotics. The other is to use the proteins as vaccines. &n in(ection of wa e)up proteins might prime the body to notice a subsequent infection earlier than would otherwise be the case and attac the bacteria as they activate.

*** Haemorrhage is an escape of blood from the vessels through which it normally circulates. The quantity lost may be microscopic, or may amount to quite a large quantity< large haemorrhages usually arise from a large artery or vein, while bleeding from a capillary may be shown only by a minute red spot in the s in. Aany haemorrhages are trivial and require no specific treatment. 1"amples of these are such common domestic accidents as cut fingers and nose bleeds. 'thers form some of the ma(or emergencies of medicine. The principles of treatment are to arrest haemorrhage, to combat shoc by restoring normal blood volume, and to eep the patient quiet, comfortable and confident.

*** !hysical activity deserves attention in any program to reduce coronary heart disease $4H8% ris . 6ome evidence suggests that weight training can raise high)density lipoprotein $H85% if underta en regularly, but frequent and sustained aerobic activity may be more effective in lowering low)density lipoproteins $585% and raising H85. 3urthermore, aerobic endurance)type activities, such as bris wal ing, underta en faithfully for 0- minutes or more as a daily or every)other)day routine can strengthen the heart and blood vessels< alter body composition in favor of lean over fat tissue< e"pand the volume of o"ygen the heart can deliver to the tissues at each beat and so reduce the heart>s wor load< change the hormonal climate in which the body does its wor in such a way as to lower blood pressure< and bring about a redistribution of body water that eases the transit of blood through the peripheral arteries. These changes are so beneficial that some e"perts believe that physical activity should be the primary focus of cardiovascular disease prevention efforts.

*** In &merica, Britain and several other countries, the years after World War II were notable for increased interest in, and research on, methods of teaching retarded children. Today no one educational procedure is generally accepted, but there is agreement that teaching should so far as possible be individually orientated. 'bviously, special material must be used, suitable to the child>s chronological age and general interests, and a variety of ways have been suggested to stimulate the apatheticand remedy loss of confidence. 6ince inability to analy7e spontaneously and ma e deductions tends to characteri7e the intellectually dull, care must be ta en at all stages of teaching to brea down material and demonstrate each step clearly.

DS SOSYAL 2001 SONBAHAR *** 2o eighteenth century ing of 1ngland could have raised the vast sums needed to build a Jersailles, and no 1nglish nobleman would have cared to compete with the Derman princelings in lu"ury and e"travagance. 6till, it is true that the building cra7e did reach 1ngland. The most stri ing e"ample is Aarlborough>s Blenheim !alace, which is on a massive scale. But this is an e"ception. The ideal of the 1nglish eighteenth century was not the castle but the country house. The architects of these country houses usually re(ected the e"travagances of the Baroque style, it was their ambition not to brea any rule of what they considered >good tasteN, and so they were an"ious to eep as closely as possible to the real or pretended laws of classical architecture. &rchitects of the Italian *enaissance who had studied and measured the ruins of classical buildings with scientific care had published their findings in te"tboo s to provide builders and craftsmen with patterns. The most famous of these boo s was written by &ndrea !alladio. This boo of !alladio>s came to be considered as the ultimate athority on all rules of taste in achitecture in eighteenth)century 1ngland. To build one>s villa in the !alladio manner was considered the last word in fashion. *** Throughoutthe history of music, composers have always sought to find new and original means of e"pression. Without this urge no progress could have been made. In our modem age, the desire to e"periment is stronger than itever was before. This is partly because the instability of world affairs has given rise to a feeling of unrest and insecurity, and partly because more people are being better educated and concerned with culture. The arts are now, as a result, more sophisticated, even more artificial. In the past the ideal was the natural and spontaneous e"pression of beauty, but it no longer is. In order to avoid the obvious and the commonplace, some composers have, perhaps, moved too far from the main stream of music, and this has sometimes led to eccentricity. But there is a positive side to all thisE there is a healthy lac of complacency. *** & state of war may be brought to an end in one of four ways. In the first place, one belligerent may completely overrun the territory of its enemy, whose armies and government are in consequence entirely disrupted. This state of affairs, nown as debellatio, came to pass In the case of Dermany in World War II. 6econdly, states may drift from a state of war to one of peace without any formalities to mar the transition. 6uch was the case in the war between !oland and 6weden in +?+C. Thirdly, formal declarations of peace may be made by one or both of the belligerents. &n e"ample of this is seen in the (oint resolution of the /nited 6tates 4ongress of +,.by which the war with Dermany was terminated. 5astly, there remains the most common method of ending a state of war, namely, by ma ing a treaty of peace. By this means belligerents can define with precision the e"act terms upon which they have ended the conflict *** By the +,:-s, &frica was among the least developed of the continents and. according to /nited 2ations estimates, as much as ?-= of its resources of land and labour were devoted to subsistence production and only about := of its total population was engaged in wage)earning employment But even with agriculture there was increasing production for e"portE cocoa in Dhana, groundnuts and ail)palm products in 2igeria, cotton in /ganda, coffee in Penya, and mai7e and sheep)rearing in southern &frica were outstanding e"amples. Ainerals were particularly important in bringing about the opening up of the interior of &frica. 3or centuries some parts, li e the Dold 4oast $now Dhana% had produced gold, and during the +, th century first diamonds and then gold were discovered in 6outh &frica, and since then numerous other minerals have been e"ploited including copper and cobalt. *** Aost large firms have mar eting or advertising departments that wor in con(unction with their advertising agencies. 'nly one part of the company>s sales budget will be spent through the advertising agency. 4ompanies have their own sales force for calling on wholesale and retail organi7ations. In many cases, they also produce a proportion of their sales literature and shop display material. But with the larger companies sales promotion efforts are usually combined under a single mar eting policy. which is often wor ed out by the company itself in con(unction with its advertising agency. The advertising agency may also be consulted over pac aging systems and the distributing of new products that are being put on the mar et.

*** The term intelligence is often used by biologists as synonymous with the capacity to learn. &n animal that learns to adapt itself to a wide range of situations is said to be more intelligent than one whose behaviour is largely governed by instinct. In psychology, on the other hand, so wide a definition is not satisfactory. The simpler forms of teaming, at least, can scarcely be said to manifest intelligence in any sense remotely consistent with the ordinary meaning of the term. It is customary, therefore, to distinguish between learning of a more or less repetitive and mechanical type and the solving of genuinely new problems by creative means. It is the latter rather than the former that we ordinarily ascribe to intelligence and most psychologists allow their definition of this term to be guided by popular usage.

*** 6ir Walter *aleigh entered court under the protection of the 1arl of 5eicester, and was soon in high favour with Mueen 1li7abeth. 3uller>s often quoted story of how *aleigh threw down his plush cloa on a muddy road for the queen to wal on, lac s authority, but it is in eeping with his faculty for quic decision and characteristic of the romantic sentimentality pervading the 1li7abethan court. He owed his advancement to good loo s, a plausible tongue, an ingenious wit and magnificent clothes. But he was proud, haughty and impatient, and everywhere e"cept in his native 8evon he made numerous bitter enemies. He was consulted confidentially on Irish affairs but at no time was he one of the Mueen>s official advisers, possibly because 1li7abeth, despite her affection for him, saw through his ambitions and doubted his wisdom. But she was lavish in her favours, and in a few years raised him to affluence.

*** 6ir *obert !eel will always be remembered as the one who created the Aetropolitan police force but first he set about reducing the savagery of the criminal law and he also introduced various prison reforms. 6uch changes could not be ris ed without an efficient police force. 6o in +@., he set about creating (ust that. The original characteristics of the new police were that they were to be an organi7ed non)military force of paid constables $with officers% under two magistrates, as (oint commissioners, responsible to the home secretary, an office li e that of Ainister of the Interior. To emphasi7e their civilian character, they wore as uniform a dar blue highcollared swallow)tail coat and a heavy chimney)pot hat $not to be superseded by the tunic and helmet until about +@C:%, and carried no arms but only a truncheon. /ntil +@@: they had no whistle, only a rattle for summoning assistance. Their earliest instructions were prefaced with the following words which still appear in the forefront of their standing ordersE the primary ob(ect ofan efficient police force is the prevention of crime is committed. The protection of life and property, the preservation of public tranquility, and the absence of crime, will alone prove whether the ob(ects for which the police we reappointed have been attained.

DS FEN 2002 LKBAHAR

*** The *hine ) *uhr area became the greatest industrial region of Dermany, because it had at its heart the great coal field of the *uhr. Aining is now almost entirely northeast and westwards across the *hine. The region contains the greater part of the Derman iron, steel and heavy engineering industries. The great integrated iron and steel plants mostly cluster on the *hine waterway. 6peciali7ed steel plants and engineering wor s are more widespread. With a decline in coalmining and the dismantling after World War II of certain steel plants,some of the older *uhr towns have diversified their industries considerablyE vehicles, electrical goods and clothing are now being produced.

*** Britain has a target to deliver +- per cent of its electrical power from renewable resources by .-+-. &nd despite what one might hear from some quarters, superb natural and technical resources already e"ist that could ma e this possible. &ll that is lac ing is the political will< but at present, the government seems reluctant to ta e any positive action. &t present NnewN renewables, such as landfill gas, wind, solar, wave power and small)scale hydropower contribute around one per cent to the /P>s electrical generating capacity. Denerating power from landfill gas is already fully economic< but has limited scope for growth as the country moves away from land filling waste. 1nergy recovery from waste is highly controversial and also limited in capacity. 6o, if Britain is to meet her interim target of five per cent by .--0 and +- per cent by .-+-, she must loo to other renewables for growth.

*** !ost war radar has been developed for an enormous range of uses from police radar speed traps to the ballistic missile early warning systems. &t sea it is used on ships of all si7es from the super tan ers down to pleasure craft, and the air it guards military and civilian aircraft against collisions. It is even used to eep trac of the orbital (un yard created by innumerable space launches. *adar found an une"pected use in astronomy and space navigation. *adar signals were bounced off the moon in +,9C and reflections were obtained from Jenus and the sun in the late +,:-s. 6ubsequently, radar maps were made of the moon and Jenus ) not that such long ranges are essential for radar maps to prove themselves useful. 3or e"ample, satellite)borne radar aimed at the earth has actually led to the discovery of previously un nown remnants of a Aayan canal drainage system in 4entral &merica.

*** Dlaciers originate in areas that lie above the limit of prominent snow. Thus in tropical climates glaciers are only to be found at very great heights, whereas in polar regions they flow into the sea. The largest glaciers are found in regions receiving the heaviest snowfall. The great glaciers of the Himalayas lie in the path of the monsoon, which deposits on them the full measure of its vast water vapour content. The largest glacieri7ed areas after &ntarctica are in Dreenland, 2orth &merica, and in central and south central &sia. It has been estimated that the volume of the world>s glaciers and ice sheets e"ceeds ++,---,--- cubic miles which, if returned to the oceans, would raise the sea ) level by some .-- ft, submerging all e"isting seaports and much land besides.

*** & contraption that automatically fits deer with a pesticide impregnated collar is helping to tac le the menace of 5yme disease, which is usually spread among people by tic s that live on the deer. This disease is now one of the fastest spreading infectious diseases in the /6 and can be fatal. Trapping and treating every deer in a forest with pesticides isn>t easy, so a machine has been designed to do it. The animals are lured to a feeding tray where have to place their heads in a J)shaped through to get to the food. The machine eeps an open pesticide impregnated collar at the ready, drooping ne"t to the trough where the deer will put its nec . &s the animal ta es the food, its nec presses down on a switch that triggers a spring) loaded arm. This propels one end of the open collar over the nec where it meets the other end. The two ends (oin using Jelcro, so within seconds of the animal>s arrival the collar is complete.

*** The report, 8ams and 8evelopment, which has been recently published, provides star evidence that the world>s 9:,--- large dams which bloc over half of the world>s rivers, have been failed e"periments. They have failed to produce as much electricity and water, or control as much flood damage, as their bac ers claim. They regularly suffer huge costoverruns and time delays. They have made up to @- million people homeless, and their benefits have largely gone to the urban well)off not the rural poor they displace. Aoreover, their effects on ecosystems have been disastrous.

*** Transport represents .. per cent of total energy consumption in industriali7ed countries, mainly in the form of automobiles. &lthough this is the fastest growth sector in such countries, the rate of increase in road transport energy demand has slowed in most developed countries since the late +,C-s. This has reflected both improved vehicle efficiency and a slowing down in the level of acquisition of automobiles by households. These developments have encouraged hopes that saturation levels may operate at lower levels than sometimes pro(ected. In developing countries, transport represents +9 per cent of total energy consumption but the number of automobiles is appro"imately .-I+--- people, compared to C--I+--- people industriali7ed countries. In attention to strictly technical improvements that can be made to automobiles and truc s, there is another important area of action which could help in the solution of the problems, namely, system operation. In this category, there is a variety of actions that could be performed more efficiently such as transporting passengers and freight by other means, such as bus and rail that would result in lower energy consumption and therefore, lower emissions.

*** 'ur understanding of submarine volcanic eruptions has improved substantially in the past decade owing to the recent ability to remotely detect such events and to respond rabidly with brief surveys and sampling at the eruption site. But these data are necessarily limited to observations after the event. In contrast, the +,,@ eruption of the &"ial volcano on the #uan de 3uce ridge was monitored by on site sea)floor instruments. 'ne of these instruments, which measured bottom pressure, was overrun and entrapped by the +,,@ lava flow. The data recorded by this discovered. The data recorded by this instrument reveal the duration, character and effusion rate of an eruption on a mid)ocean ridge.

DS SALIK 2002 LKBAHAR

*** Ioni7ing radiation has proved to be most valuable, for e"ample, in clinical diagnosis and radiotherapy. However, inadvertent e"posure to relatively high doses of ioni7ing radiation is capable of in(uring and illing cells, inducing mutations, producing developmental abnormalities in fetuses e"posed in utero, or even producing latent cancers. 'n earth, it is impossible to escape e"posure to radiation. 4osmic rays bathe the earth continuously, as do terrestrial concentrations of radionuclides, such as radon gas. The two constitute natural Nbac groundN radiation. 3ew humans in developed countries escape diagnostic Q)rays, and many require radiotherapy as a potential cure for various types of neoplasia, The NearlyN in(urious effects of radiation appear only when certain cumulative levels of e"posure to radiation have been e"ceeded. However, the later appearing consequences may have no thresholds< hence, the public>s concern about the possible carcinogen city of even low)level e"posures.

*** The government of Britain is again loo ing at fluoridation of the public water supply as a possible means of achieving nationwide improvements in dental hygiene. To the casual observer, given the highly erroneous impression that the presence of fluoride in toothpaste is beneficial in the prevention of dental caries, such a measure may understandably appear desirable and worthy of public support. However, many water authorities across the country have long understood the ris s associated with fluoridation< but the government and the various official organi7ations that support such a measure continually deny these ris s. It should be reali7ed that there are two forms offluoride. 'ne of these is calcium fluoride, which is a natural substance occurring in water at verylow levels of -.-+)+ parts per million and a substance which the various organi7ations involved in promoting fluoridation constantly draw attention to when attempting to (ustify their case. The other form of fluoride is sodium fluoride, which occurs alongside various related substances such as fluosilicic acid and is an e"tremely dangerous industrial byproduct produced by such industries as aluminum, ceramics, phosphate fertili7ers and nuclear power. This form of fluoride is an accumulative poison even more to"ic than lead and only slightly less to"ic than arsenic.

*** 3or years, it has been assumed that obesity is the result of Ntoo much food and too little e"erciseN. While this ma"im is largely correct, the etiology of obesity can be much more comple". There is a well)documented familial tendency, but whether this is of environmental or genetic origin is unclear. 6tudies of twins separated at birth and living apart provide strong evidence for a substantial genetic influence. 4hildren of overweight parents, when adopted by NleanN families, have a greater tendency to become obese than do adoptees from non)obese natural parents. N1nergy efficiencyN may contribute to obesity< with reserves of fat deposits readily available to metaboli7e in the obese, a given amount of activity requires a smaller e"penditure of energy. This theory has been invo ed by those who complain that they Ngain weight whether they eat or notN, and indeed there is evidence of differences in energy efficiency among individuals. 6imilarly, obesity has been attributed to abnormally low basal metabolic rates $BA*s% since obese individuals do show lower BA*s. However, this fact is due to an artifact of BA* measurement< a larger proportion of the total fat mass of an obese person is inert, lowmetaboli7ing fat, a fact that ma es BA* calculations lower.

*** The importance of early detection of deafness in childhood is generally recogni7ed. 8etection is normally a two)stage process of which the first is a screening test of hearing. 6creening tests sift out children with impaired hearing from those with normal hearing and can be successfully administered at any time after the age of seven months. 4hildren who fail a screening test are given a diagnostic test, as the second stage in the process, to determine the nature and e"tent of their hearing loss. Both screening and diagnostic tests must be appropriate to the developmental level of the children to whom they are administered. 6pecial techniques for testing babies and young children have been evolved at Aanchester /niversity. When deafness has been diagnosed, parents are advised to see guidance about the management and early training of their children at the audiology clinics established by an increasing number of local authorities and hospitals.

*** The site of a hospital needs careful consideration. Aore and more people now agree that a hospital should, wherever possible, be part of the community it serves. This ma es for the convenience of patients, particularly outpatients, and eases staff recruitment. Whilst it may be necessary to serve small communities by peripheral separate outpatient departments, in general, in)patient and outpatient buildings should be on the same site. It is not, however, always practicable to build e"tensively in a town or city, and it is difficult to ma e provision for e"pansion. The actual design of a hospital is also of great importance. Aedicine is ever changing, and it is difficult to forecast changes that lie ahead. 8octors invariably call for fle"ibility in planning, which is really only practicable if hospital construction is on ground)floor level and if the wards and the special investigatory departments are so designed that they can be readily e"tended.

*** By far the most common sleep complaint is insomnia. &bout a third of &mericans have trouble failing asleep or staying asleep, problems that result in listlessness and loss of alertness during the day. Aost of the time the distress is temporary, brought on by an"iety about a problem at wor or a sudden family crisis. But sometimes sleep difficulties can e"tend for months and years. 3aced with a chronic situation, insomniacs frequently medicate themselves with alcohol or drugs. 8octors warn that in most cases sleeping pills should not be ta en for longer than two or three wee s. 6uch drugs can lose their effectiveness with time, and it ta es higher and higher dosages to wor . !eople run the ris of becoming dependent on the pills.

*** &sthma may be defined as a malady characteri7ed by attac s ofbreathlessness due to paro"ysmal narrowing of the small bronchi and bronchioles. &sthma may start at any age, but most commonly in childhood. The typical attac starts suddenly with breathlessness and whee7ing, the difficulty being mainly in e"piration. & small amount of viscid mucus is usually e"pectorated towards the end of the attac . &ttac s may occur at any time, but especially during the night or in the early morning. Their duration is variable, some ending in an hour or so, others, especially if complicated by bronchitis, continuing for days. The frequency of the attac s varies from one or two a year to several daily. 8uring attac s the lungs become over)distended with air, since the obstruction to respiration is greater in e"piration than in inspiration and the muscles of forced inspiration, which are brought into action, are stronger than the e"piratory muscles.

DS SOSYAL 2002 LKBAHAR *** In surveys of British public opinion, (ournalists typically ran below politicians, lawyers and usedcar salesmen as trustworthy characters. &nd yet we depend upon (ournalists to guide us through today>s rapidly evolving, information)rich Nmedia ageN. The internet, digital television and technologies as yet unborn all promise to revolutioni7e how we learn about what>s going on, in a world increasingly shaped by the forces of economic globali7ation. But there is surely no substitute for good)quality, probing (ournalism. &fter all, it is the great crusading craft. It is the great support of democracy. In every society, authority ) whether government, corporate or pressure group ) needs to be constantly and vigorously challenged by an independent press. In every society too, that challenge rarely comes from the right. Indeed, in theory at least, it should come from the campaigning, liberal media. *** &s one steps out of the busy commercial streets in front of the station in a #apanese city and moves on into the side streets, one often encounters old shops and historic temples and shrines which hint at the former character of the city. It is in the side streets rather than the mainroads that the original face of a city is to be found. But even in antiqueloo ing houses in side streets, one can often see that their interiors may have been rebuilt and their fittings replaced in an attempt to eep abreast of the times. This applies in farming villages as well as cities< old)style houses and buildings decrease year by year, and in some cases the changes have been even more radical than those which have occurred in the cities. But although outward appearance and facilities may have been renovated, there has surely been no renovation in the sensibilities and attitudes of the people who live in these new environments.

*** The advertising techniques and methods used today were for the most part devised in Britain, 1urope and &merica, and as a new technique evolved in one country it was quic ly ta en up elsewhere. The practice continues on a worldwide scale. The simplification of the words and illustrations in advertisements has come about as the result of the s ill of copywriters, artists and photographers combined with the findings of advertising research wor ers. &dvertisers have found it is often more effective to concentrate on putting across one aspect of their product than to go into lengthy descriptions. They have sei7ed on the truth of the saying that a picture can be worth a thousand words. 6ome critics of advertising have argued that an advertiser should be content to furnish the public with information about his product and draw the line at persuasion, but in practice the dividing line between informing and persuading is impossible to draw. !ersuasion starts at the point where information is first supplied, particularly when, as must happen for reasons of space and time, the information given is selective. *** The growth of the importance of libraries in both the social and the scientific spheres has led to a great development in library science and in educational training for the profession of librarianship. In Dermany and 3rance requirements for admission to the profession of librarian have been laid down by the state< in other countries where there are library schools and professional e"aminations, professional qualifications are usuallye"pected though they are not necessary for admission to the profession. The &merican 5ibrary &ssociation, founded in +@?C, was the first such association to be established in the world, and has been responsible in no small measure for the advances in library techniques in &merica and elsewhere. 5ibrary associations now e"ist in most countries< the 1nglish 5ibrary &ssociation, founded in +@?@, holds national and local conferences, maintains an e"cellent library and information bureau, promotes facilities for professional education, conducts e"aminations $elementary, intermediate and final% and maintains a register of qualified librarians. *** The art of 5eonardo da Jinci, li e his character, is full of conflicting tendencies and apparent contradictions. His tireless curiosity, combined with his deep feeling for all living things, led him as a scientist to e"plore the entire range of natural phenomena, while at the same time a fantastic creative imagination caused him as an artist to transform the results of his scientific researches in a thousand ways. These two elements of his nature alternated throughout his life and e"plain his restless changes of occupation and the fact that he never devoted himself e"clusively to painting for very long at a time. &lthough in his versatility and scientific interests he is usually regarded as the quintessence of the man of the renaissance, yet some of the products of his tortured imagination are a direct reminder of the middle ages. 1ven in his artistic output conflicting tendencies are apparent. In the N5ast 6upperN he reaches the pea of his renaissance classicism, whereas in other wor s, such as the &nghiari cartoon, his sense of restless movement clearly foreshadows the baroque. 3inally, in the N8elugeN drawings, he produces wor s, which are completely unrelated to 1uropean art and suggest that of the 3ar 1ast. *** The e"tension of 3rench as a second or acquired language is particularly stri ing. This was to some e"tent the result of military and political prestige, but the virtues of the language itself and 3rench cultural achievements actually played a much greater role. The lead which 3rance too in the +. th century in literature and in other domains made its language a sort of lingua franca of the cultured classes of 1urope< and in the +? th and +@ th centuries 3rench was cultivated assiduously by the royal courts and the upper classes of most 1uropean countries and was written by many non3rench authors. But even before the end of the +@ th century 3rench began to lose ground, and the movement was accelerated by the revival of national sentiment in 1urope at the turn of the century and later by the rise of 1nglish under the influence of Britain and &merica. Aany things, however, have found their supreme e"pression in 3rench< and its precision, beauty and eloquence ma e it a classical language in the true sense of the word.

*** In the past decade the term Ninternal mar etingN has emerged in many companies to describe the application of mar eting internally within the firm. This seems to be an area where practice appears ahead of theory. 8espite the e"istence of many internal mar eting programs no boo s, at least in 1nglish, have been published on internal mar eting and only a handful of articles have addressed this important and emerging area. There are two ey aspects to this. 'ne involves the notion of the internal customer. That is, every person wor ing within an organi7ation is both a supplier and a customer. Here we are concerned with getting staff to recogni7e that both individuals and departments have customers and then determining what can be done to improve levels of customer service and quality levels within the organi7ation. The second aspect is concerned with ma ing certain that all staff wor together in a manner that is attuned to the company>s mission, strategy and goals. *** Hans 4. &ndersen, the 8anish author, was born on . nd &pril at 'dense in 3unen. His father, a poor shoema er, was devoted to reading and thin ing, but died when Hans was a child. His mother was a simple, uneducated woman, who after her second marriage san still deeper into poverty and too to drin ing in her old age. &ndersen, who loved her dearly, has told her story in N6he was Worth 2othingN. His grandmother did her best to spoil the boy, who was given to daydreaming. &fter a very meager education in a pauper)school it was intended to apprentice him to a tailor, but as a fortune)teller had foretold that 'dense would one day be illuminated in his honor, his mother permitted him to go to 4openhagen, where he tried to become an actor or a singer, but cut a pitiable figure. 3ortunately, ind people supported him. Than s to the support and guardianship of #onas 4ollin, an influential councilor of state, &ndersen at the age of +? was sent to school. In +@.@ he matriculated and at once began to write, mostly plays and poems. In the 0-s he traveled abroad twice. 3rom +@0: his fairy tales began to appear in installments, and were soon translated into almost all the 1uropean languages, and gained for him a world reputation. The full ac nowledgement of his own countrymen, for which he longed so much, came much later. But it came at last. He lived to see 'dense, his native town, illuminated in his honor as prophesied.

DS FEN 2002 SONBAHAR *** Aore than half of astronauts suffer from space sic ness, also nown as 6pace &daptation 6yndrome. 6ymptoms include headaches, nausea, vomiting and poor concentration. The main cause of space sic ness is disorientation caused by e"posure to 7ero gravity conditions. The human body is used to a much stronger gravitational field on 1arth and organs in the inner ear, along with canals that sense motion, tell the brain about the location of the limbs relative to the ground. In other words, theyre responsible for balance. /nfortunately, the signals from these organs in the inner ear go wrong in 7ero gravity, leading to space sic ness. 'ver time though, the brain learns to ignore them and relies instead on visual clues, such as the position of the feet, to determine balance. &stronauts quic ly readapt to 1arths gravity within a few days and there are probably no long)term effects from this strange affliction.

*** William Willcoc s was born +:- years ago in a tent beside a canal in northern India, where his father wor ed for the colonial government. He learnt his engineering in India before heading for 1gypt in +@@0. There he rose to become director)general of reservoirs, and a legend on the ban s of the 2ile. He built the first &swan dam, then the largest in the world, went on to revive the ancient irrigation systems of Aesopotamia, and watered deserts from south &frica to India. But he was deeply troubled by the discovery that much of what his fellow water engineers did in their colonial playgrounds was worse than useless.

*** The acronym Bradar, for radio detection and ranging, has been credited to the /6 2avy, which used it officially towards the end of +,9-, but the concept of radar is somewhat older. Hert7 showed that metals would reflect electromagnetic waves and Tesla is said to have suggested using this phenomenon in a radar)li e manner in +@,,. & few years later a Derman, 4hristian Hulsmeyer, received patents for a ships anticollision device. &lso many radio engineers and e"perimenters observed that passing aircraft or ships interfered with their e"periments. &lthough these features are all suggestive of radar, none was actually radar unless the term is very loosely defined. In the +,0-s, however, several of the ma(or powers became aware of the military possibilities of radar and wor on it started immediately in the /6&, Britain, 3rance, Dermany, Italy, #apan and the 6oviet /nion. By the end of World War II, military radar, and military radio navigation aids too, were well developed.

*** Why do transformers humH This is one of those questions which seems easy but has surprising hidden depths. The simple e"planation is that electric currents create magnetic fields, and the alternating current of mains electricity used by transformers creates a magnetic field that changes at :- cycles a second. This in turn triggers a regular motion of the metal molecules inside the transformer, nown as magnetostriction. Its this motion that ma es the surrounding air vibrate, creating the hum. But why does the metal respond in this wayH The answer lies in a property of the electrons in the metal nown as Bspin ) a property which can only be e"plained by reference to 1insteins theory of relativity, which is beyond the understanding of most of us.

*** &viation is about to go bac to its roots. 2early +-- years after the Wright brothers first heavier)than)air powered flight, the /6 &ir 3orce is testing an e"perimental plane that uses Fwing warpingG, which is the steering and control technique that ept 'rville Wright aloft in +,-0. But this time round, it will be at supersonic speeds. /nli e conventional aircraft wings, which use movable surfaces li e flaps on the wings and the tail, wing warping bends the entire wing. The /6&3 call it Factive aeroelastic wingG technology, and is investing O9+ million in the pro(ect in the hope that it will lead to lighter, more manoeuvrable supersonic planes.

*** Time travel has been a favourite science fiction theme ever since it was first used in H.D. Wellss trailbla7ing novel FThe Time AachineG. But not everything it describes is science fictionE travelling forward in time, for e"ample, is a proven fact. 1insteins theory of relativity predicts that an observer moving relative to 1arth can leap into 1arths future, and the effect has been confirmed using atomic cloc s. 8ramatic time warps require speeds close to that of light, which is possible in principle but would ta e a ma(or feat of engineering, not to mention a lot of money. Doing bac in time is far more problematic. *elativity does not rule out an observer being able to ma e a (ourney through space)time and return to the past. But all scenarios so far discussed require e"otic circumstances.

*** 5i e so many &merican waterways, the 4hesapea e Bay, an enormous, semi)saline body of water that is treasured for its aquatic life, became badly polluted during the .- th century. But it has regained much of its biological vitality since the early +,?-s, than s to concerted ecological stewardship. In this effort, the 4onowingo dam has provided valuable assistance. 1nvironmentalists are not often fond of dams, which have a habit of trapping migratory fish and disrupting sensitive water ecosystems ) not to mention loo ing ugly. But the 4onowingo dam on the 6usquehanna river in eastern Aaryland is an e"ception. 6ince its construction in +,.@, the 4onowingo dam has not only generated electricity but also trapped vast amounts of sediment behind its imposing walls. This was not a function the builders had planned for, but in recent years its value has become clear. The water flowing past the 4onowingo dam is much cleaner than it would otherwise be. 1ven &mericas onceendangered national symbol, the bald eagle, can be seen perching near the dam, waiting to swoop down and sei7e a meal of fish by its talons.

*** In a biography of Bardeen, recently published, he does not fit the popular stereotype of scientific genius, for he is surprisingly sane and ordinary. &s far as character goes, he had several assets. To start with he was a notable team builder. Tenacious when it came to attac ing problems, he had the gift of brea ing a large problem down into smaller, more soluble parts and then reassembling the whole. &s a teacher, his habit of stopping to thin allowed his students to do so too. Dovernment and industry valued his advice ) according to one commentator, he helped Qero" to build one of the finest industrial laboratories in the world in the fields of organic and disordered solids during the late +,?-s. But, perhaps, the most telling aspect of Bardeens character was his willingness to share the credit with others. 3or e"ample, he deliberately stayed away from the meeting of the &merican !hysical 6ociety in Aarch +,:?, at which his theory of superconductivity was first presented, so that the contribution of his young co)researchers would be recognised.

DS SALIK 2002 SONBAHAR

*** &n antibiotic that removes metals from the brain is emerging as a prime candidate for treating &l7heimer>s. This boosts a controversial theory that blames the accumulation of metals, rather than the formation of insoluble plaques, for the disease>s characteristic mental deterioration. The antibiotic, clioquinol, binds to copper and 7inc and is small enough to get into the brain. It is no longer manufactured but was last used in the +,?-s to treat intestinal infections. 2ow, in various medical schools, efforts are being made to resurrect the drug to treat &l7heimer>s.

*** 6ome :9 million &mericans have disabilities and that number has been . increasing. It includes more than +- million children with developmental disabilities ) a number accentuated by the fact that :- per cent of children with disabilities are not identified until school age. 1arly identification of developmental disabilities is crucial, as it has been shown to improve , outcomes. & good e"ample of this is autism, where early identification and treatment can lead a child to impressive gains in communication, social s ills and learning. It>s also clear that having a developmental disability puts one at ris for secondary conditions. The lac of recreational opportunities, for e"ample, can lead to the development of obesity as well as withdrawal, depression and isolation. &gain, early identification can help prevent these problems.

*** 4ataracts are age)related thic enings in the lenses of the eyes that impair vision. If not surgically removed, they ultimately lead to blindness. 4ataracts occur even in well)nourished individuals as a result of ultraviolet light e"posure, o"idative stress, in(ury, viral infections, to"ic substances and genetic disorders. Aany cataracts, however, are vaguely called senile cataracts ) meaning Ncaused by agingN. In the /nited 6tates, morethan half of all adults C: and older have a cataract. '"idative stress appears to play a significant rolein the development of cataracts, and the antio"idant nutrients may help minimi7e the damage. 6tudies have reported an inverse relationship between cataracts and dietary inta es of vitamin 4, vitamin 1 and carotenoids. Ta ing supplements of vitamins 4 and 1 seems to reduce the li elihood of developing age)related cataracts. *** The treatment of hypochondriasis has traditionally been difficult. Where it is secondary to another condition it usually resolves with treatment of the primary disorder. 3or e"ample, hypochondriasis, which is secondary to depression, will usually resolve when the depression is successfully treated. *ecognition and early diagnosis are important. *eassurance, combined with a serious appraisal of symptoms and an e"planation of psychological factors may then be effective. It is not enough simply to tell the patient that there is nothing wrong. It is important to ac nowledge the patient>s distress and provide an alternative model, introducing psychological factors. & dismissive attitude that Nit is all in your headN is counterproductive. Aanagement regimes based on regular brief appointments with one ey doctor and avoiding admission to hospital are useful. They have been found greatly to improve physical functioning and cut costs on investigations and hospital admissions by one third. *** The birth of a younger infant whilst an older child is in the toddler or preschool period is such a normal event that the proper handling of the situation should be regarded as an integral part of childcare. !ut in its simplest terms, the problem is one of the older child being displaced by the new baby as the centre of attention and focus of his mother>s affection. 6uch a displacement is inevitable, but its effects on the older child can either be helpful to his development $as when he accepts the baby with pleasure into his family circle and so ta es a step forward from the egotism of babyhood% or harmful when (ealousy predominates over any pleasure in having a brother or sister and the child becomes hostile to his mother and more demanding of her attention, returning to many of the practices of babyhood which he had outgrown. Thus a child or three or four may demand to sleep in his old cradle, to ta e mil from the bottle or breast, to be constantly carried, or may restart wetting the bed. &ny or all of these symptoms may appear transiently in a child who subsequently adapts well to the new situation, but when they persist they indicate that the child is receiving less attention and affection than he needs. *** Aorphine, which is given as a pain iller to many people with cancer, might stimulate the growth of tumours, say researchers in the /6. Their worrying findings have been questioned by others in the field, but all agree that further studies are urgently needed to settle the issue. In test)tube e"periments and in mice, Palpna Dupta and her colleagues found that morphine encourages the growth of blood vessels, nown as angiogenesis. The increased blood supply accelerated the growth of breast tumours in mice. &lthough the researchers have not yet loo ed for this effect in people, Dupta warns that morphine could be harmful for patients with any form of solid tumour that depends on a healthy blood supply. 6he stresses that nobody should yet consider altering their use of morphine because of her findings. NBut clinical studies must be done,N she says.

*** &rtificial sweeteners permit people to eep their sugar and energy inta es down, yet still en(oy the delicious sweet tastes oftheir favourite foods and beverages. The 3ood and 8rug &dministration $38&% has approved the use of four artificial sweeteners ) saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium $acesulfame)P% and sucralose. Two others have petitioned the 38& and are awaiting approval )alitame and cyclamate. 6accharin, acesulfame)P and sucralose are not metabolised in the body< they pass through the idneys unchanged. In contrast, the body digests aspartame as a protein. In fact, aspartame is technically classified as a nutritive sweetener because it yields energy, but for all practical purposes, that energy is negligible. 6ome consumers have challenged the safety of using artificial sweeteners. 4onsidering that all compounds are to"ic at some dose, it is hardly surprising that large doses of artificial sweeteners $or their components or metabolic byproducts% have to"ic effects. The question to as is whether their ingestion is safe for human beings in quantities people normally use $and potentially abuse%. The answer is yes, e"cept in the case of aspartame, which may present a problem for certain people and so carries a warning on its label.

*** &n ulcer is an erosion of the top layer of cells from an area, such as the wall of the stomach or duodenum. This erosion leaves the underlying layers of cells unprotected and e"posed to gastric (uices. The erosion may proceed until the gastric (uices reach the capillaries that feed the area, leading to bleeding, and reach the nerves, causing pain. If Dl bleeding is e"cessive, iron deficiency may develop. If the erosion penetrates all the way through the Dl lining, a life)threatening infection can develop. Aany people naively believe that an ulcer is caused by stress or spicy foods, but this is not the case ) at least not at first. The stomach lining in a healthy person is well protected by its mucous coat. What, then, causes ulcers to formH Three ma(or causes of ulcers have been identifiedE bacterial infection with Helicobacter pylori, the use of certain anti) inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen and napro"en, and disorders that cause e"cessive gastric acid secretion. The cause of the ulcer dictates the type of drug treatment. 3or e"ample, people with ulcers caused by infection receive antibiotics, whereas those with ulcers caused by drugs discontinue their use. In addition, all treatment plans aim to relieve pain, heal the ulcer, and prevent recurrence.

DS SOSYAL 2002 SONBAHAR

*** 4inema today is all too often (ust about plot or special effects. 6o really great films, successfully weaving together sound, image and time to tell a really cinematic story, are always special. 'n show in 2ew Kor earlier this month was a remar able e"ample. &le"ander 6o urov>s N*ussian &r N e"plores the 0-- )year) long history of the Hermitage museum in 6t. !etersburg, It ta es you an uncut ,- ) minute wal through 0: of its historic rooms and halls. This has never been done )before and the result demonstrates impressively how much film can achieve.

*** The global mar et for coffee has failed, and needs a complete overhaul so that farmers can get more for their beans. The plunging price of coffee over the past decade has certainly caused regrettable misery for many farmers. Big coffee companies now stand accused of placing profits before people. If efforts are made to cut down on the profits, the companies will almost certainly fight bac to eep up their e"cessive profits. It is li ely that they will win because the trade barriers set by rich countries means that it is hard for coffee farmers to change over and grow other crops.

*** 3or more than 9- years the radical thin er William !hilips edited !artisan *eview, a maga7ine of small circulation and little money but with a great deal of influence. Writers and commentators whose words later commanded audiences of millions first saw their names in print in a publication that might sell +:,--- copies if things were going well. Aary Ac4arthy, Bernard Aalomud and 6aul Bellow were apprentice contributors. 5eading 1uropean writers such as #ean !aul 6artre and &lbert 4amus were introduced to &merican readers through the *eview. The maga7ine was defending T. 6. 1liot, 3ran7 Paf a and #ames #oyce long before their acceptance as central to modern culture.

*** When economists try to e"plain why the internet is more popular in one country that another, they usually point to factors such as the number of !4s. telephone lines or average years of schooling. But something less quantifiable may be more importantE trust. This, at least, is the result of a recent study, which compared +? countries. The Internet>s anonymity and vastness encourage misrepresentation and fraud. Thus, people who are normally suspicious $and there are a lot of them% lend to shun the medium, while more trusting ones embrace it

*** 6outhern &frica>s food crisis loo s li e being the worst in a decade. &round +9.: million people are dangerously hungry, and many have been reduced to eating wild leaves and herbs . 'ne might then e"pect food aid to be welcomed. But Sambia is refusing to accept &merican donations because much of its corn and soya is genetically modified. Sambia>s president, 5evy Awanawasa, calls he stuff NpoisonN and refuses to import, despite a warning from the /2 World 3ood !rogramme, on 6eptember +Cth that relief supplies in his country could run out in two wee s.

*** &fghanistan>s terrain, climate and tradition of gardening ma e it a good place for growing fruit. In the +,?-s, e"port of fruits and nuts provided about 9- = of the country>s foreign e"change. &bout C- = of the world>s dried fruit came from &fghanistan. In the +,,-s, the 3ood and &griculture 'rgani7ation $3&'% helped to create over 0-- fruit ) tree nurseries throughout the country to replace orchards destroyed during a decade of occupation by the 6oviet /nion. 3urther fighting ruined more of &fghan agriculture, including the vineyards of the 6omali plain. But it was the lac of water and the lac of money that devastated the country>s orchards, most of which are now in a sorry state. 6uch fruits and vegetables that are being produced now are difficult to distribute or e"port because many of the country>s roads and bridges have been destroyed.

*** Which 1uropean country has the worst record for shopliftingH The answer is Britain and she holds the record now for the second year running, according to a survey released on 6eptember +,th. Britons not only steal more than their continental counterparts, they are also less competent employees on the shop floor, resulting in Britain having the worst overall rate of retail Nshrin ageN ;a measure of losses by retailers from theft, mispricing and other wastage. 4ontinental 1uropeans are actually not much better. 6hrin age is increasing alarmingly in some countries and is generally on the rise. 8enmar is a notable e"ample. &ccording to one survey, shrin age there is , = up on last year. 6hrin age costs the 1uropean economy a surprisingly large amount, in fact, the total annual cost has been estimated at around @0- billion which is equivalent to a shoc ing @@- per person in the region. That is more than the costs of the much)higherXprofile car crime or domestic burglary.

*** 6weden maintained a position of neutrality during both World Wars and this, in part at least, enabled her to build up an elaborate structure of welfare legislation that many larger nations were later to imitate. The first ma(or step was the establishment in +,++, of old)age pensions. 1conomic prosperity based on its neutralist policy enabled 6weden, together with 2orway, to pioneer in public health, housing, and (ob security programs. 3orty)four years of 6ocialist government were ended in +,?C with the election of a conservative coalition. !resently, the 6ocialists were again returned to power, only to be ousted in 6eptember +,,+. The new coalition of four conservative parties promised to reduce ta"es and cut bac on the welfare state but not alter 6weden>s traditional neutrality. /nder them, in a +,,9 referendum, voters approved (oining the 1uropean /nion. &lthough supportive of a 1uropean monetary union, 6weden decided not to adopt the euro when it first appeared in +,,,.

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*** It seems that a programme designed to destroy 4olumbia>s huge illegal drugs business could be poisoning farmers and damaging the environment. Bac ed by +.0 billion of /6 government funds, drug enforcers routinely identify fields of coca plants and opium poppies, and spray them from the air with herbicide. &round +.-,--- hectares have been sprayed with the herbicide NglyphosphateN. But although glyphosphate is considered to be relatively safe for humans and the environment, the 4olombian government has received over a thousand complaints from people who claim to have suffered ill effects after coming into contact with the chemical. *eported symptoms range from s in and eye irritations to coughing and vomiting. 6ome critics suspect additives to the spray are responsible. 'thers on the ground complained that the spray had illed food crops when it drifted onto them from nearby fields.

*** 4an coal ever become a friend of the environmentH 4oal)fired power stations supply half the electricity used in &merica, and a similar amount in many other industrial countries, but are responsible for @-= of the power industry>s emissions of carbon dio"ide the most worrisome of the so)called Ngreenhouse gasesN. Because of special e"emptions, much of the country>s coal)derived electricity comes from plants that are more than 0- years old. Aany of these plants are approaching the end of their commercial lives, and the thought of having to replace a lot of dirty old power stations, with new ones that will have to comply with the 4lean &ir &ct, is causing a nightmare in the power industry. 6uddenly, energy engineers are tal ing about Nclean coalN technology. That message has been heard before. There was similar e"citement over clean coal in the mid)+,@-s and early +,,-s. 5arge sums of ta"payers> money were handed out to firms developing clean coal. The difference this time, say energy engineers, is that a number of electricity suppliers have actually started building facilities that use clean coal.

*** To understand topics such as the origin of the universe, the ultimate fateof blac holes and the possibility of time travel, we need to understand how the universe wor s. We now have a good idea about what the basic building bloc s of matter might be. !hysics in the .- th century was built on the twin revolutions of quantum mechanics $a theory of matter% and 1instein>s theory of space, time and gravitation nown as relativity. But it>s e"tremely unsatisfying to find two ultimate descriptions of reality when you>re loo ing for (ust one. Trying to unify the two theories presents formidable technical and conceptual obstacles that have challenged some of the finest theoretical physicists for decades.

*** When it is completed late ne"t year, a 0,)storey apartment building under construction in 6an 3rancisco will be the tallest precast concrete structure ever built in an area of high seismic activity. Its builders are using an innovative new structural connection thatcould revolutioni7e the way buildings are built in seismic 7ones. 4onventional cast)in)place and precast systems survive earthqua es by dissipating the energy through the structure, often doing irreparable damage to themselves in the process. The new connection, developed with help from the /niversity of Washington, consistsof high)strength steel reinforcing cables and NmildN steel bars that stretch slightly during an earthqua e, then pull the building bac into place. The steel components also considerably reduce seismic energy before it can attac the structure. This means less damage to beams, walls and ceilings.

*** In terms of pure science, the discovery that the universe is in the grip of a strange Nanti)gravityN force that is ma ing it e"pand ever faster, is the most significant of the last decade. The possibility that such a force might e"ist has been nown for years, with theorists finding that it ept reappearing out of 1instein>s theory of gravity. 3or years they tried to avoid it coming up with all sorts of arguments for why the force couldn>t really e"ist. 2ow they>re being forced to face it, and to face the embarrassing fact that they can>t e"plain the single most important force in the universe.

*** &ir)starved soil could have been a ey player in the largest e"tinction ever tostri e 1arth. The claim follows the discovery of a rare mineral in ancient soil collected from &ntarctica. The e"tinction, at the end of the !ermian period .:- million years ago, wiped out virtually all marine life and some ?- per cent of land animals. But the reason for the e"tinction, which preceded the rise of the dinosaurs, has been a longstanding pu77le. 2ow a team of geologists thin they have found what could be a ma(or factor in the e"tinction. They collected fossili7ed soil samples that formed in &ntarctica (ust after the !ermian period ended. The soil contained noduleshaped minerals that have been identified as berthierine. This iron)rich mineral forms only in environments where o"ygen is scarce. 6o, if the o"ygen levels in the soil were low enough to allow berthierine to form, then it follows that the soil would not have been able to support plant life. 6uch intolerably low levels of o"ygen would be enough to ill the plants off completely.

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*** Transplants of foetal eye tissue from aborted foetuses seem to have improved the vision of two out of four people with a degenerative eye disease. It is too early to be sure the improvements are real and lasting, but on the strength of the results, the team pioneering the surgery has as ed regulators for permission to carry out further operations. Before the e"perimental surgery on her left eye a year ago, 1lisabeth Bryant, who is C0, could barely see anything with it. N2ow I can see people>s eyes, noses and mouths when they>re sitting across the room from me. 5i e the other patients in the trial, she has advanced retinitis pigmentosa, a hereditary disease that causes degeneration of the retina. It affects around + in 0:-- people in Western countries. Those involved in the transplants admit that there is a danger of creating false hope, but point out that the potential benefits of the procedure are so great that wor on it must continue. They believe it could lead to a treatment for common diseases, such as age) related macular degeneration, which is responsible for half the blindness in Britain. This is a condition which seems to be on the increase and occurring at younger age levels.

*** Today when you are ill, you may try three different medicines before finding one that wor s ) and sometimes none wor at all. But soon a simple test could determine which medicine would be most effective before you begin treatment, saving you time, money and possibly your life. 1"perts estimate that as many as 9-= of people ta ing medication respond less than perfectly to it. The result is that . million &mericans are hospitali7ed for adverse drug reactions each year< +--,--- die. With .-= complete and a rough draft of the other @-=, the Human Denome !ro(ect will help eliminate such adverse reactions. 'ne of the first genetic tests to predict a patient>s drug response is being developed in 6weden. 'nly about 0-= of 6wedes with high blood pressure respond to &41 inhibitors ) a class of appro"imately .- drugs that lower blood pressure. That means the other ?-= continue to suffer from high blood pressure and are also e"posed to the drug>s side effects, which include difficulty in breathing, idney dysfunction and di77iness.

*** 3ungi that infect the s in live only in the dead, topmost layer and don>t penetrate deeper. 6ome fungal infections cause no symptoms or produce only a small amount of irritation, scaling and redness. 'ther fungal infections cause itching, swelling, blisters and severe scaling. 3ungi usually ma e their homes in moist areas of the body where s in surfaces meetE between the toes, in the groin and under the breasts. 'bese people are more li ely to get these infections because they have e"cessive s in folds. 6trangely, fungal infections on one part of the body can cause rashes on other parts ofthe body that aren>t infected. 3or e"ample, a fungal infection on the foot may cause an itchy, bumpy rash on the fingers. These eruptions represent allergic reactions to the fungus.

*** What would conversation be li e without hand gesturesH 8ifficult, and in countries li e Italy, perhaps unimaginable. It was her travels to Italy, in fact, that inspired #ana Iverson, a psychologist at the /niversity of 4hicago, to see whether we learn gesturing from others or if it is an innate part of spea ing. 6he as ed .9 children, +. of whom had been blind from birth, to compare the amounts of water in two identical glasses, then compare them again after the water in one glass was poured into a dish. $The blind children e"plored the water and receptacles with their hands.% &s ed how they arrived at an answer, both blind and sighted children used the same gestures as they spo e, including cupping one hand into a 4 shape and imitating the act of pouring. Blind children gestured even when tal ing to an e"perimenter they new was blind. The fact that someone who had never seen gestures before would gestureN, says Iverson, Neven to a partner who they now can>t see, suggests that gesturing and spea ing are tightly connected in some very fundamental way in our brainsN.

*** What differences are there in intellectual function between men and womenH Aa(or se" differences in function seem to lie inpatterns of ability rather than in overall level of intelligence $measured as IM%, although some researchers have argued that there e"ists a small IM difference favouring human males. 8ifferences in intellectual pattern refer to the fact that people have different intellectual strengths. 3or e"ample, some people are especially good at using words, whereas others are better at dealing with e"ternal stimuli, such as identifying an ob(ect in a different orientation. Two individuals may have differing cognitive abilities within the same level of general intelligence. 6e" differences in problem solving have been systematically studied in adults in laboratory situations. 'n average, men perform better than women at certain spatial tas s. In particular, men seem to have an advantage in tests that require the sub(ect to imagine rotating an ob(ect or manipulating it in some other way. They also outperform women in mathematical reasoning tests and in navigating their way through a route. Women, on average, e"cel on tests that measure recall of words and on tests that challenge the person to find words that begin with a specific letter or fulfill certain specific conditions. They also tend to be better than men at rapidly identifying matching items and performing certain precision manual tas s.

*** *ecent research in 4anada suggests that our arteries may narrow slightly when we breathe in the sort of traffic pollutants found in urban areas during rush hour. The small restriction in blood flow may not be a problem for healthy people, but it could be fatal for those with cardiovascular disease. *esearchers at the /niversity of Toronto as ed healthy volunteers to inhale a mi"ture of o7one and particles less than ..: micrometers across for two hours. The width of their brachial artery, a large vessel in the arm, reduced by between . and 9=. Breathing o7one or particulates by themselves, or breathing filtered air, did not cause constriction. It is unclear how this effect is mediated, but there can be no doubt that heart disease and airborne pollution are deadly allies. In the /6, for e"ample, the 1nvironmental !rotection &gency has estimated that air pollution contributed to C-,--- heartrelated deaths in +,,C. With the health sta es so high, environmental scientists have been given the tas of measuring levels of different particulates in the atmosphere, and trac ing them bac to their source. & particle>s behaviour is partly determined by its density. But its si7e is the most important factor, and the smaller particulates are, the more potentially dangerous they are to health.

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*** 5eonardo>s importance as a painter may be summari7ed by saying that he was the first master of the high *enaissance style, and of all his scientific researches that which he most fully devoted to this end was his study of light and shade. Aany changes came about in Italian painting around the turn of the +:th)+Cth century, for which he more than anyone else was responsible. &s regards sub(ect matter and composition, painting became less realistic and more classical but as regards treatment it became more naturalistic and closer to life, which was partly the result of increased nowledge of anatomy and an interest in light and shade. Inhis rare e"cursions into classical sub(ects, such as the N5edaN, 5eonardo>s approach is intensely personal. Indeed, drawings by 5eonardo which seem to derive from antique art are e"cessively rare and there is no evidence of his interest in the celebrated collections of 5oren7o the Aagnificent or !ope 5eo Q, even though he was living in close contact with both of these. This trend is not belied by the N5ast 6upperN even though it epitomi7es the spirit of classical art.

*** 2orway was transformed by the discovery of oil and gas in the 2orth 6ea in the +,C-s and its previously agricultural)based economy saw an e"plosion of wealth. But since then a fierce but seemingly misplaced sense of national pride appears to be preventing 2orwegian companies from ma ing sensible business decisions to capitali7e on the natural advantages the country has been handed. 6tate intervention has supported entrepreneurial business ever since, but now times are tougher. 4ompanies in other parts of 6candinavia have reali7ed that in order to eep ahead in a global economy, and win foreign mar et share, they not only need greater financial power but also partners with local nowledge. However, rather than ta ing a similar proactive approach, 2orwegian companies are adopting a defensive stance and seem perple"ed by a sudden wave of hostile ta eover bids.

*** &t first sight, doing away with paper and letting computers register votes seems an attractive proposition, at least in theory. 1lectronic votes can be easily counted and recounted. &t a moc election held in !alm Beach, /6&, for instance, it too no more than an hour to count all the votes. Ironically it is computer scientists, not officials, who are counseling caution. There is no way to verify that ballots are recorded, transmitted and tabulated properly, argues one computer)science professor. 3or one thing, it is theoretically impossible to determine whether computer systems are free from programming bugs. Aany people feel that elections should not be paperless. They would li e to see touch)screen systems connected direct to a printer to produce physical evidence of a voter>s choice. 6uch a printout could be inspected by the voter and ept as evidence in case there were problems with the electronic voting system.

*** It is thought that sails were invented by the 1gyptians around 09-- B.4. Harnessing wind power for sea transport was a crucial factor in the development of civilisation, enabling 1gyptian sailors to carry the timber they needed from the thic ly forested coasts of 5ebanon, and later ta ing them to 4yprus where there were plentiful deposits of copper and to the coasts of &natolia. Trade began to flourish in the eastern Aediterranean, but ofthe thousands of ships which came and went from &natolian harbours, some were inevitably wrec ed in storms. The ships and cargoes which san to the seabed over the centuries are today providing illuminating evidence about maritime and commercial history. 6ince the first underwater e"cavations were carried out in Tur ish coastal waters in +,C-, much has been discovered about shipbuilding technology in antiquity and the commodities the ships were carrying. /ndoubtedly, the most important wrec e"cavated so far is the /luburun Wrec , which is the earliest of all, dating from the late Bron7e &ge. This ship san 00-- years ago and is accounted one of the most important ten archaeological discoveries of the .-th century. The gold seal of Mueen 2efertiti and a two)leaf wooden boo , the oldest boo in the world, are among the hundreds of remar able finds.

*** 4hief imperial architect 6inan was in his eighties when he built the 6elimiye, which mar s the 7enith of his lifelong endeavour to perfect the domed building. The 6uleymaniye Aosque had ta en him nearly to the 7enith of his creative power, but 6elimiye was the crown of his genius. The mosque was built to commemorate the conquest of 4yprus, perhaps 6elim ll>s sole military achievement. 1ither because no hilltop remained in Istanbul worthy of such a monument or perhaps as a gesture of loyalty to a city where 6elim had spent nine years of his life, it was decided that the mosque should be built in 1dirne. The chosen site was the hill of 6anbayir overloo ing the city, and the acquisition of land commenced. In those years horticulture was one of the main sources of income in 1dirne, and 6anbayir was covered with flower nurseries growing principally tulips. The story goes that a woman who owned a small tulip garden here ob(ected to selling her land, and resisted official pressure for a considerable time. 3inally, they too her to see 6inan, hoping the architect could persuade her. 6he agreed, but on one condition, that in some part of the mosque there should be a sign that there had once been a tulip garden. 6inan ept his word and had an inverted tulip motif carved on one of the marble pillars at the eastern corner of the mue77in>s gallery in the centre of the mosque.

*** The serious writer is an interpreter, not an inventor. 5i e a good actor, he is an intermediary between a segment of e"perience and an audience. The actor must pay some consideration to his audienceE he must be careful, for instance,to face toward it, not away from it. But the great actor is the one who is wrapped up in the thoughts and feelings of the role he is playing, not the one who is continually stealing glances at the audience to determine the effect of his last gesture or bit of business. The actor who begins ta ing his clues from the audience rather than from the script soon becomes a NhamNE he e"aggerates and falsifies for the sa e of effects. The writer, too, though he must pay some consideration to his reader, must focus his attention primarily on his sub(ect. If he begins to thin primarily of the effect of his tale on his reader, he begins to manipulate his material, to heighten reality, to contrive and falsify for the sa e of effects. The serious writer selects and arranges his material in order to convey most effectively the feeling or truth of a human situation. The less serious writer selects and arranges his material so as to stimulate a response in the reader.

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*** The Aichigan factory of a leading car manufacturing company already has its place in industrial history. It is famous primarily on account of record)brea ing models produced there between +,.? and +,0+. 2ow the refitted factory is bac in the limelight as one of the world>s most architecturally advanced buildings. The height of new technology will be its 9.,--- square meter roof. 8ubbed a Nliving roof by the company, it consists of a ground)hugging plant called sedum which is growing in a ?.C cm)thic matli e material. The sedum insulates the roof, reducing heating bills by as much as five per cent and saving on replacement costs. It lasts twice as long as a standard roof because it doesn>t shrin or e"pand when the temperature varies. It is also e"pected to become a habitat for butterflies and birds. 1mbedded in the roof are 0C s ylights that let in natural light. 'n sunny days the factory will operate with up to half of its lights switched off. The company also intends to clear the soil around the factory to remove the chemical by)products of years of steel manufacturing. The car company will plant native bushes, flowers and trees that will brea down polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

*** The amount of engineering and e"ertion required to do wor in space came as a surprise in the early days of the manned space program. 3or instance, when the astronauts 1ugene 4eman and Thomas 6tafford launched into space aboard Demini , on #une 0rd, +,CC, they had no way of nowing that a nightmare would begin as soon as 4eman began a space wal . 3rom the moment he emerged from the capsule, everything 4eman did was much harder than he had e"pected. 1very weightless movement triggered an equal opposite reaction, and he found himself repeatedly flying out to the end of the umbilical cord connecting him to the Demini capsule and then rebounding in an une"pected direction. 6tafford finally ordered 4eman to forget about the +-) million)dollar bac pac and return to the capsule. 8oing so turned out to be the most alarming part of the space wal , as 4eman discovered, that his pressuri7ed suit wouldn>t fle" enough to allow him bac inside so that operation alone too him thirty laborious minutes. Then the struggle to close the hatch was so prolonged and difficult that 6tafford decided he needed to lie, so the ground crew would not panic. N4oming in, no problemN he fibbed as he and 4eman improvised a lever to force the latch into position. It finally closed.

*** &ncient Babylonian manuscripts, 8ar &ge chronicles and 2ew &ge prophecies, all spea of catastrophes stri ing the 1arth with devastating consequences< and all regard these disasters as instances of divine punishment. Aany describe global inundations ) floods that engulf continents, wiping out entire civili7ations. 'thers describe fires that rain down from the s ies. /ntil recently few scientists too these tales of catastrophe seriously, regarding them as hangovers from a superstitious age. But today these ancient accounts are regarded as potentially valuable evidence for events that have played a ey role in the history of our planet, from its very formation 9.: million years ago. These events are every bit as catastrophic as the legends claimedE cosmic impacts that have dealt severe blows to life many times in the past ) and will do so again. The dramatic view of 1arth history now emerging could hardly be more different from that held by many scientists even as recently as the +,@-s.

*** 3rom its birth during World War II, there is one tas to which cutting)edge computer technology has always been appliedE code) brea ing. In +,90, mathematicians and engineers at Bletchley !ar , Buc inghamshire, built 4olossus, the forerunner of the modern electronic computer. Its tas was to brea the 5orent7 ciphers, used by Hitler and his generals for their most secret communications. 4onsisting of thousands of valves, optical devices and pulleys, 4olossus loo ed ungainly but wor ed brilliantly. 'ne of its ma(or triumphs was to reveal that Hitler had been ta en in by &llied deception tactics leading up to 8)8ay, thus clearing the way for the real invasion in +,99. 1ver since, government code) brea ing centers have bought the fastest supercomputers the moment they emerge, 8uring the 4old War, the ey challenge was to find and e"ploit the slightest wea ness in the cipher systems used by the 6oviet /nion, ac nowledged to be the most secure in the world. Their efforts ultimately led to the downfall of all of the 6oviet>s NAagnificent 3iveN British spies.

*** 4entral heating, available in the /6 since the early +,th century, became popular only after the 4ivil War. Typically, coal)burning furnaces fuelled the early systems. The furnaces warped and crac ed, causing gases to escape, and had to be sto ed frequently. It too years and countless small improvements, but by the mid) +,.-s the systems had become reliable and, with the emergence of oilfired furnaces, more convenient. 2atural gas, which became widely available with the building of a pipeline infrastructure after World War II, had developed into the leading fuel by +,C-. Its acceptance resulted in part from its versatility ) unli e oil, it can power appliances such as clothes washers and dryers, ovens, ranges and outdoor grills. Because it comes primarily from /6 and 4anadian fields, natural gas is also less vulnerable than oil is, to war and embargo. 'il remains the predominant fuel in a few areas, such as 2ew 1ngland, where natural gas pipelines have not yet thoroughly penetrated. 'il users in many regions have the advantage of being able to buy a season>s supply in advance at favorable rates and, in contrast to most gas users, can easily change their supplier.

*** The /6 company, N6cientific &pplications and *esearch &ssociatesN $6&*&% Inc, has developed crowd)dispersal weapons for the /6 military that generate high)intensity sound waves. 6ound levels of +.- to +0- decibels cause pain and blurred vision< above +9- decibels, sound produces profound discomfort throughout the body. 1ar plugs are no protection. These acoustic systems have a directed beam, pro(ecting the sound in a narrow fan. They include high)intensity sound generators with power levels of up to Cilowatts and are combustion driven, using a series of small e"plosions to create a noise or drive a siren or whistle.

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*** 8ar )s inned people require longer sunlight e"posure than light) s inned peopleE heavily pigmented s in arrives at the same plateau of vitamin 8 synthesis in three hours as fair s in in 0- minutes. The ultraviolet $/J% rays of the sun that promote vitamin 8 synthesis are bloc ed by heavy clouds, smo e or smog. 8ifferences in s in pigmentation and smog may account for the finding that dar ) s inned people in northern, smoggy cities are more prone to ric ets. 3or these people, and for those who are unable to go outdoors frequently, dietary vitamin 8 is most important. 8eficiency is especially li ely in older adults because they typically drin little or no mil , their e"posure to sunlight is limited, and the s in, liver and idneys lose their ability to ma e and activate vitamin 8 with advancing age. 8epending on the /J radiation used, the /J rays from tanning lamps and tanning booths may also stimulate vitamin 8 synthesis but the ha7ards outweigh any possible benefits. If the lamps are not properly filtered, people using tanning booths ris burns, damage to the eyes and blood vessels, and s in cancer.

*** In the search to heal wounds without leaving a scar, researchers have loo ed at some 0,--- treatments. Aany of these treatments have not lived up to e"pectations, and none can induce repair that leaves the s in in pristine condition. 2ow /6 and British scientists have come up with three different recipes for advanced bandages that give the repair of in(ured s in a quic start, but then brea down, leaving behind only healed tissue. This type of bandage eliminates the need to change dressings, cuts the ris of infection and sometimes ma es scariess healing possible. When s in is in(ured, the weave)li e structure of collagen fibres is destroyed. To minimi7e blood loss and infection, the body produces a quic fi" by using cells, called fibroblasts, which lay down thin linear strips of replacement collagen. When s in cells grow on the replacement collagen, they produce pale, less fle"ible material. &voiding this scar tissue means getting the body to rebuild the comple" fibrous structure of the original.

*** 8espite millennia of preoccupation with every facet of human emotion, we are still far from e"plaining in a rigorous physiological sense this part of our mental e"perience. 2euroscientists have, in modern times, been especially concerned with the neural basis of such cognitive processes as perception and memory. They have for the most part ignored the brain>s role in emotion. Ket in recent years, interest in this mysterious mental terrain has surged. 4ataly7ed by brea throughs in understanding the neural basis of cognition and by an increasingly sophisticated nowledge of the anatomical organi7ation and physiology of the brain, investigators have begun to tac le the problem of emotion. 'ne quite rewarding area of research has been the inquiry into the relation between memory and emotion. Auch of this e"amination has involved studies of one particular emotion ) fear )and the manner inwhich specific events or stimuli come, through individual learning e"periences, to evo e this state. 6cientists have been able to determine the way in which the brain shapes how we form memories about this basic, but significant, emotional event. We call this process Nemotional memoryN.

*** Deneral levels of health in developed societies have steadily improved over the last hundred years or so, largely because of the introduction of public health services, and, indeed, the welfare state. This progress, however, seems to bear little relationship to the delivery of medicine. While scientific medicine has generated some solutions, it has also produced deadly problems. 4rucially, it has led to a virtual ta eover of healthcare by pharmaceutical corporations and an acceptance that pharmaceutical medicine is primary and best. Ket the e"tent of the damage done by drugs is enormous. In the /6 in .--- it was estimated that there were over two million severe adverse drug reactions, of which +-C,--- were fatal. 6imilar calculations suggest that in 1ngland, adverse drug reactions are the third most common cause of death. 8rug companies have always supported clinical medicine. Aedicine>s high)ran ing professional bodies were themselves set up with help from pharmaceutical companies, and still receive grants for running costs, hospitality, building and printing. Diven this funding, is it surprising that reports sponsored by such bodies so often critici7e the use of vitamins, food supplements, nutritional and alternative medicineH Today, however, the corporati7ation of medicine is gaining speed and reaches far beyond the professional institutions of medicine.

*** N!laceboN is a 5atin word which means NI will pleaseN, in medicine it has come to mean a treatment ) a sugar pill or saline in(ection ) that, in itself, has no physical effect. In spite of this, placebos have often been found to relieve physical symptoms such as pain, swelling, inflammation, or even depression. &pparently, in such cases, it is the act of treatment rather than the treatment itself that is effective. Why there should be such a thing as the placebo effect remains problematic. Aany doctors have suggested that it was selected by evolution as a means of managing the resources of the immune system. Diven that placebos seem to wor , in part, by suppressing the immune response, they may be a way of conserving the body>s energy at critical moments. !atients may even get depressed to stop them from being too active and so slowing recovery. It is a high price to pay, but then evolution is not a merciful master.

*** &ccording to the World Health 'rgani7ation $WH'%, around one in four people suffers from mental health problems at some stage in their lives, with depression being the single most common form. In Britain, suicide now accounts for around .- per cent of all deaths among young people, with attempted suicide having increased by :- per cent since +,,-. Ket despite such star statistics, the issue of mental fitness remains way off the agenda. Instead, people are relying on medication more than ever before which is li e ta ing pain illers hoping they will turn you into a long)distance runner. How much better it would be if there were some way of training ourselves to become mentally as well as physically fit. 2ow, it seems, there is. It is a technique that has been around for a long time, but only very recently has hard scientific evidence emerged to bac claims for its effectiveness. It does not involve any special equipment or special diets, and best of all it is free. It is called meditation.

DS SOSYAL 2003 SONBAHAR *** 6mo ing has become unfashionable in most Western countries over the past decade or more, yet its incidence remains high. 1ven legislation against smo ing in a shared wor space and banning it on public transport has had limited success, when measured by a decline in the percentage of people still addicted to smo ing. In these countries, the highest rates of smo ing tend to be found among people in the .-)., age group, teenage women and wor ing)class groups. 6mo ers tend to be well)informed about illnesses related to their habit, such as lung cancer and heart disease. 8espite this nowledge, current smo ers tend to underestimate the ris of dying from smo ing when compared with former smo ers and those who have never smo ed. &ntismo ing campaigns have used a wide variety of media and techniques to discourage smo ing. 3or e"ample, one campaign adopted a television commercial and poster, while another used a direct)mail approach, along with radio advertisements. Jarious celebrities have helped by performing at places of wor and by recording verbal messages. There have been different target groups. 'ne campaign aimed to reach women, who outnumber men in the under)+@ smo ers group, stressing the benefits of not smo ing with respect to health, beauty and fitness. &nother used baby stic ers. &nother campaign highlighted the benefits of a smo e)free wor place and was conducted in ma(or clothing chain stores, supplemented by radio and television advertisements. There is a socially supportive conte"t nowadays to quit, and the recognition that passive smo ing is dangerous may help some in the future to quit permanently.

*** The ability to recogni7e people automatically by analy7ing bodily characteristics such as fingerprints, faces and eyeballs, collectively nown as biometrics, has long been a goal of technologists and governments ali e. !lans for large)scale pro(ects to incorporate biometric scans into passports, identity cards and visas are now under way in several countries. 6ince #anuary : th the /6 has been scanning foreigners from particular countries as they arrive at its airports. Both the /6 and 1urope plan to start issuing biometric passports as soon as ne"t year. Biometric identity cards are being adopted in Hong Pong and 'man, and Britain plans to follow suit. Biometric technology has been around for quite a while, but has not been widely adopted, for good reasonE while it can improve security in some situations, its costs more frequently far outweigh its benefits. 1ven the most advanced systems falsely re(ect a small proportion of legitimate users, and falsely accept illegitimate ones. &t best, the introduction of biometric identity documents will produce a marginal increase in security, at enormous cost. But at worst, biometrics could, in fact, reduce security in several ways.

*** !eople are fascinated by (uries. They are the focus of a disproportionate number of novels and movies, and the +,,: murder trial of '.#. 6impson virtually brought the /nited 6tates to a standstill because people could not miss the e"citing televised court proceedings. #uries represent one of the most significant decision)ma ing groups, not only because they are presented as a symbol of all that is democratic, fair and (ust in a society but also because of the consequences of their decisions for defendants, victims and the community. & case in point is the +,,. 5os &ngeles riots, which were spar ed by an une"pected >not guilty> verdict delivered by an all)white (ury in the case of the police beating of a blac suspect. #uries are groups and thus are potentially prey to the deficiencies of group decision)ma ing. In addition to these problems, there are a number of issues to do specifically with the tas confronted by (uries. 'ne issue is the influence of laws and penalties on the (ury. Harsh laws with stiff penalties tend to discourage (uries from convicting, which is quite the reverse of the intention of legislators who introduce such laws. #uries have to deal with enormous amounts of information presented in court. It has been suggested that information delivered later in the trial is more heavily weighted in decision)ma ing. 3urther, inadmissible evidence,that is the evidence given by witnesses or inter(ected by counsel but is subsequently ruled to be inadmissible for procedural reasons by the (udge, still has an effect on (ury deliberation.

*** Dauguin began his career as a painter late in life. Born in !aris in +@9@ he was raised by his widowed mother in !eru, where his paternal half !eruvian grandmother lived. NKou now. I have Indian blood, Inca blood, in meN he later wrote, Nand it>s reflected in everything I doN. &t +?, Dauguin (oined the 3rench 2avy and sailed around the world, encountering many native cultures during the ship>s ports of call. In +@?., he married a 8anish woman named Aette Dad and they settled in !aris, where he wor ed as a stoc bro er for a decade. &ll the while, Dauguin collected contemporary art by the impressionists )in particular *enoir, Aonet, !issarro, who later became a friend, and 4e7anne, whose primitive style and sweeping colors affected him deeply. In +@@0, at 0: Dauguin abruptly left his wife, his five children and his bourgeois lifestyle to devote himself to art. He traveled to Brittany, where he painted and sculpted, and to Aartinique, where he discovered the vibrant beauty of the tropics. Then he moved to &ries, in !rovence, where he and his friend Jincent van Dogh painted colorful landscapes and planned their escape to Tahiti, which they imagined as e"otic, bountiful and free of stifling 1uropean mores.

*** & growing percentage ofthe &merican economy and of other advanced industrial economies in 1urope and &sia depends on imports and e"ports. 3oreign trade, both e"ports and imports, accounts for a little over .: per cent of the goods and services produced in the /nited 6tates, and even more in countries such as #apan and Dermany. This percentage will grow in the future. The success of firms today and in the future depends on their ability to operate globally. Dlobali7ation of the world>s industrial economies greatly enhances the value of information to the firm and offers new opportunities to businesses. Today, information systems provide the communication and analytic power that firms need for conducting trade and managing businesses on a global scale. 4ontrolling the far)flung global corporation, which includes communicating with distributors and suppliers, operating .9 hours a day in different national environments and servicing local as well as international reporting needs, is a ma(or business challenge that requires powerful information system responses. Dlobali7ation and information technology also bring new threats to domestic business firmsE because of global communication and management systems, customers now can shop in a worldwide mar etplace, obtaining price and quality information reliably, .9 hours a day. This phenomenon heightens competition and forces firms to play in open, unprotected worldwide mar ets. To become effective and profitable participants in international mar ets, firms need powerful information and communication systems.

*** The typical &frican)&merican seems uninterested in saving for retirement. 6tatistics show that in recent years &mericans in general have become increasingly less disciplined about saving. However, this trend is disturbingly prevalent among blac &mericans. 'nly :,= of &frican&mericans say they or their spouses have saved for retirement, compared with ??= of white wor ers, according to a recent survey. What are the reasons for this disparityH Historically, there>s been a cultural disconnection between the retirement portrayed in the glossy brochures ) lavish vacations in high)priced villas ) and the &frican)&merican reality. Aost blac s e"pect to go on wor ing even after they have officially retired, rather than lying around on a beach. Their e"perience in retirement has never been li e mainstream white &merica. NTypicallyN, they say, >we wor until we dieN. *esearchers have often attributed the savings gap for &frican)&mericans to lower wages or to a lower comfort level with the stoc mar et. Those factors do play a part, but even educated professional blac s earning si"figure incomes tend to ignore their retirement and follow a wasteful way of life. 1conomists say the behavior mirrors that of first)generation immigrants who engage in conspicuous consumption. NBlac professionals today are often first)generation college graduates who, li e other groups, want to symboli7e that they have succeeded.N

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*** & curious form of renewable)energy generation may be on the hori7on ) with underwater turbines. These units harness the power of tidally driven currents, which flow bac and forth li e cloc wor , ma ing it possible to generate electricity on a predictable schedule. In this respect, underwater turbines are more attractive than their wind)driven counterparts, which are now employed widely to help power electric grids. /nderwater structures are also less li ely to be damaged by violent storms which have little effect on submerged ob(ects. &nd using underwater turbines sidesteps the common ob(ections to conventional hydropower ) that damming a river stops migrating fish and inundates land upstream. /nderwater turbines have long been used on a small scale. But soon now they will be used on a large scale to produce megawatts of electric power.

*** Biologists value marine organisms because their primitive systems are good models for more comple" organisms, such as humans) 8espite being genetically further from us than more common research mammals, we share a surprising number of evolutionary lin s with these basic animals. By understanding their life processes and the way their systems react when things go wrong, scientists hope to continue ma ing important discoveries that could help increase the chances of finding cures for serious diseases such as cancer and &I86. &s research continues, understanding increases about how our bodies and minds wor , but there is still a lot to learn. 'bviously it ta es a long time to wor out all the mechanisms, and there are still many new bioactive compounds to be found in marine organisms. But by using sea creatures to better understand human characteristics and disorders, progress is being made.

*** &rchitects and engineers engage in design quite e"plicitly, and they typically do so with distinct ob(ectives. &rchitects tend to focus on form over function, whereas engineers tend to do the opposite. 3or most architects, the design of a building has firstly to do with how it loo s, both inside and out, and how it fits in with nearby buildings. &rchitects are also e"pected to give considerable thought to how the building will be used, how people will move through it, how it will feel, although such considerations do not always seem to be foremost in their minds (udging by results, indeed, if architectural criticism is ta en at face value, architects do seem to be principally concerned with the te"ture of a building>s facade, the appearance of its public spaces, the furniture with which it is filled. &rchitects seem to pay close attention to details, even down to the nature of the lighting fi"tures and the hardware on doors and windows, but not always to how they will be operated or how they will fulfill their purpose. 2evertheless, such considerations collectively constitute architectural and interior design.

*** Aany people who are perfectly rela"ed driving along the highways become nervous when they get on an airliner, although most nowfull well that flying is safer than driving. The statistics are indeed clear on this point. 3or e"ample, a paper published in +,,+ documented the substantially lower ris of flying compared with driving in the /nited 6tates. 6ome of the many millions of &mericans who flew over the ne"t few years probably derived comfort from such hard facts. But now, a decade later, things have changed. The hi(ac ing of four large (ets on 6eptember ++, .--+, and the disastrous events that ensued led many to avoid flying in the /nited 6tates during the following months. 3or e"ample, in the fourth quarter of .--+, there was a drop of +@ per cent in the number of passengers compared with the same time period in .---. Aany still avoid air)travel. &ccordingly, it would be appropriate to again calculate the ris s involved in flying and driving, ta ing into account the latest statistics, including the tragic deaths of the passengers on those four hi(ac ed planes.

*** 1lectric heating, which appeared in less than + per cent of homes in the /nited 6tates in +,:-, now dominates most areas with mild winters and cheap electricity, including the 6outh and the 2orthwest. Its popularity, at least in the 6outh, was spurred by the low cost of adding electric heating to new houses built with air) conditioning. In the 2ortheast and Aidwest, electricity has not been a popular fuel because of its high cost for cold)weather heating and because it delivers heat at ,- to ,:R3, compared with +.- to +9-R3 for gas and oil, which many in cold climates find preferable. In some areas, such as 4alifornia, electric heating has not progressed because of building code restrictions. Bottled gas, which is somewhat more e"pensive than utility gas, is the fuel ofchoice in rural areas not served by utility pipelines. Wood, the dominant fuel throughout the /6 economy until the +@@-s, is the leading heating fuel in (ust a few rural counties. Home heating, which accounts for less than ? per cent of all energy consumed in the /6, has had a commendable efficiency recordE from +,?@ to +,,?, the amount of fuel consumed for this purpose declined 99 per cent despite a 00 per cent increase in the number of housing units and an increase in house si7e. This improvement came about than s to better insulation and more efficient equipment following the energy crisis of the +,?-s.

*** The &merican chestnut was once the most common canopy tree in the deciduous $non)evergreen% forests of the eastern /nited 6tates. It shaded areas from 2ew 1ngland to Deorgia until the fungus 4ryphonectria parasiticawiped out the species in the terrible forest disaster of the early .-th century. The fungus continues to ill chestnuts before they can mature. The vacuum left by the chestnut>s destruction is now filled with other species. 4onsiderable research has gone into understanding what happened to the &merican chestnut. But some scientists remain interested in getting to the root not of its destruction, but rather of the centuries of dominance en(oyed by the massive, fragrant and economically important tree.& team of scientists recently put forward the idea that the &merican chestnut may have been engaged in the chemically charged competition nown as allelopathy. &n allelopathic plant releases potentially to"ic substances into the environment through its roots, its leaves or processes such as evaporation. Blac walnut, sycamore and sassafras trees are (ust a few nown allelopaths that limit the germination of competitor. It>s li ely that the list will soon branch out to include chestnut. )))

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*** 3or a drug to wor , it has to get to the place in the body where the problem lies, and that>s why the science of pharmaco inetics is important. 1nough of the drug has to stay at the site of action until the drug does its (ob, butnot so much that it produces severe side effects or to"ic reactions. 1very doctor nows that selecting the right dose is a tric y balancing act. Aany drugs get to their site of action through the bloodstream. How much time these drugs need to wor and how long their effects last, often depend onhow fast they get into the bloodstream, how much of them gets into the bloodstream, how fast they leave the bloodstream, how efficiently they>re bro en down by the liver, and how quic ly they>re eliminated by the idneys and intestines.

*** & British businessman, 8avid Dreen, was determined to provide India with good)quality, lowprice lenses for use in cataract surgery. He got a group of e"pert engineers to design lenses that could be produced cheaply, and got support to start a lens factory, as part of &urolab, in India. 2ow, the typical eye surgeon in India does .,:-cataract operations a year as opposed to +.: or so in the /6. Than s in part to such a steady demand and to India>s cheap labour, &urolab today can sell roughly ?--,--- lenses a year for as little as O9 each and still ma e a profit. &urolab, which operates as an independent nonprofit organi7ation, made money from the beginning, it reinvests all proceeds into e"panding its operations and designing new products, such as sutures and eyeglasses. But even at O9 a lens, how can the very poor afford eye surgeryH &t this point the &ravind hospital provided the help that was needed. It set up a scheme in which patients pay whatever they can. Those who are relatively well)off pay more for their surgery, subsidi7ing the very poorest, who pay nothing. 1ven with these subsidies, the &ravind hospital ma es O. for every dollar it spends on cataract surgery. This has enabled it to open up five more hospitals, catering to some +-- million Indians.

*** In this e"periment, patients were placed into a refrigerated chamber for several minutes, and measurements were ta en of both their lung capacity and the temperature within their trachea. 'n one of the e"perimental study days, the sub(ects were as ed to breathe entirely through their nose< on the other, their nose was clipped tightly and they breathed through their mouth. The patients> lung capacity dropped significantly on the mouth)breathing day ofthe e"periment< this correlated highly with a significant cooling of the trachea. 'n the day they breathed only through their nose, however, their lower airway function changed only minimally and their intra)tracheal temperature remained close to normal. These studies demonstrate that nasal breathing has an important protective effect on the lower airways, most li ely because the nose is more effective at warming and moisturi7ing inspired air before it passes into the lungs. In addition, a nose that is clear and free of inflammation is better able to filter and remove airborne allergens and pollutants than is the mouth.

*** The federal 1lderly 2utrition !rogramme is intended to improve older people>s nutrition status and enable them to avoid medical problems, live at home, and stay out of institutions. Its specific goals are to provide low)cost, nutritious meals, opportunities for social interaction and shopping assistance. The 1lderly 2utrition !rogramme provides for communal meal programmes. &dministrators try to select sites for communal meals so as to feed as many eligible people as possible. Jolunteers may also deliver meals to those who are homebound either permanently or temporarily< these efforts are nown as Aeals on Wheels. The home)delivery programme ensures nutrition, but its recipients miss out on the social benefit of the communal mealsites< every effort is made to persuade older people to come to the shared meals, if they can. &ll persons aged C- years and older and their spouses are eligible to receive meals from these programmes, regardless of their income. However, should demand e"ceed supply, priority is given to those who are economically and socially needy. &n estimated .:= of the nation>s elderly poor benefit from these meals every day of the wee .

*** The 2orwegian)born psychologist 5ovaas devised a highly structured form of behaviour modification called N&pplied Behavioural &nalysisN $&B&% as an aid for autistic children. The theory behind &B& rests on the assumption that autistic children have inefficient neurocircuits ) specifically, connections that are not as efficient as those found in normal children. In normal children, a connection may go from & to B, but in the autistic brain the connection may go from & to 4 to 8 to 1 before finally reaching B. Inefficient connections result in more NnoiseN, which is believed to hinder social and cognitive development. 5ovaas>s therapy ta es advantage of the brain>s ability to adapt and be retrained. When people learn a particular s ill, such as throwing a baseball, they are reinforcing neurocircuits that are specific to that s ill. When autistic children are taught a specific behaviour through constant repetition,the therapy is training the neurocircuits to respond in a certain way and somehow teaching the brain to receive these signals, which would otherwise be drowned out in a sea of noise. In order to be effective, 5ovaas has stressed that &B& therapy must be started early, must be sufficiently intensive, and must be carried out in part by the parents.

*** & chemical naturally produced in the body that wor s in a similar way tocannabis is thought to hold the ey to treating obesity. & recent study found that oleylethanolamide $'1&% significantly decreased the appetites of lab rats, with a resulting loss of weight. 6cientists are (ust beginning to understand '1&, which they believe is manufactured in the small intestine. It is a naturally occurring molecule in the same class of compound as cannabis> active ingredient and acts on the same receptors. However, rather than increasing the appetite,'1& has the opposite effect. The chemical did not affect various functions of the rats>, nervous systems as other weight loss drugs do. N'1& is li e a cousin to cannabis ) it has similar properties but a different personality. In this case, it creates the opposite reactionN, says the head researcher. '1& could solve the problem of obesity, which greatly increases the ris of diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, stro e and some cancers.

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*** 3lorida>s more than +,--- miles of coastline contain about +:drawbridges, more than are found in any other state. &s these bridges age and 3lorida grows and changes, many of them now have to be replaced. But replaced with whatH *ecently there have been very many controversies over drawbridges. 'ne involved the Belleair Beach 4auseway, which was built in +,:-. When it approached the end of its :-)year lifespan, the choice for a replacement came down to three optionsE a drawbridge the same height as the e"isting span $.+ feet above high tide% but wider, to accommodate modern traffic levels< a drawbridge with a height of 9: feet< and a fi"ed span C: feet tall. 1ach choice had its advantages and disadvantages. The two drawbridges would have created the least disruption in nearby communities. 'pening a drawbridge inconveniences motorists, however, and can cause a dangerous delay for ambulances or in other emergencies. & drawbridge also costs more to build and maintain. & high fi"ed span would be cheaper and eliminate the delays, but it would require e"tensive property acquisition to accommodate its approaches. It would also tower over the area and bloc the views of many residents, and some tall boats would be unable to fit underneath. However after much debate and many hearings, the country board settled on a high fi"ed span.

*** &t one point, during what was still a time of hopeful e"perimentation with nuclear technology, the /6 considered using atomic bombs to blow a trench through the isthmus of !anama. The idea was to replace the :-)year)old !anama 4anal, whose loc s were too narrow for the world>s growing fleet of super)tan ers and aircraft carriers, with one that would be more suited to modern conditions. The problem was not (ust the si7e of the loc s but their very e"istence. 6hips don>t simply sail through the !anama 4anal< they have to be lifted @: feet to the elevation of the highest point along the way and then brought down to sea level again. 1ach ship>s trip through requires :. million gallons of fresh water, more than most &merican cities use in a day, all of it flowing through huge gravity)fed tubes. The source of this water supply is a vast artificial la e whose dam also provides the electrical power for the whole operation. To fill up and empty a single loc ta es 9- minutes on average, and when any one of the +. loc s shuts down for maintenance, ship traffic can bac up for days. 3inally, with all that complicated machinery, if the canal were to be sabotaged $as had happened to the loc less 6ue7 4anal in +,:C%, correcting the damage might ta e years.

*** & new and quic er method to chec or prove the e"istence of weapons of mass destruction $WA8% is being developed. 3irst, one needs to now where they may be hidden and then a high)velocity pro(ectile can be fired at the target. High)tech sensors pac ed into the pro(ectile will then instantly beam bac confirmation that the weapons are there if indeed they are. It>s a high)ris concept that raises many questions, not least its technological feasibility and the political protests that would follow if such a device were ever built or used. But the /6 military is ta ing the idea seriously. 5ast year, in a two)page research paper commissioned by the army, e"perts from the Institute for &dvanced Technology detailed real test results of a prototype pro(ectile designed to verify the e"istence of WA8s. They say such a device offers a way to inspect for weapons without permission or cooperation. To inspect reinforced concrete bun ers or factory buildings suspected of housing WA8s, the researchers designed a pro(ectile that can penetrate several meters of hardened concrete, without damaging its load of sensors. Its casing is built from &erAet +--, a nic elcobalt steel with traces of molybdenum and chromium. Heat)treating the casing after it is made gives it an e"tremely hard surface. The tapering pro(ectile is .0- millimeters long, with a ma"imum calibre of 9: millimeters.

*** If the solar company>s claims are borne out, its high) efficiency cells will bring solar power closer to becoming a practical option for home owners. The average power demand of a household is .,--to 0,--- watts. With solar cells around .- per cent efficient, this demand can be met with about +: square meters of solar panels, which is compact enough to fit on a rooftop. It has been estimated that ready)to)install arrays will sell for around O+- per watt. That cost may eventually fall further. 3or, as one spo esman for the company saidE FThe trend is towards higher efficiencyN. 'thers agree, but say silicon may not be the material that ultimately delivers it. Thin films of cadmium telluride, for instance, are showing promise in the lab. 'ne 5ondon)based solar energy systems supplier is very impressed with some new solar cells that have (ust come on the mar et, both on account of their efficiency and also because they are practical. They are very easy to connect together,N he points out, you can (ust put tabs on the sides of the bac contacts and connect one cell to another without wires.N

*** To engineers, design typically has less to do with aesthetics and appearance and more to do with fabrication and performance. 1ngineers tend to focus on the structure behind the faTade. They worry about how the building will be built, how it will stand, whether it will sway too much in the wind, whether it will survive an earthqua e, whether it will crac or lea . 1ngineers designing the structural frame of hotel buildings ta e into account the strength and stiffness of ballroom floors, where large crowds will gather and rhythmic dancing will occur. 1ngineers are e"pected to thin about how a building will be heated and cooled, how air will circulate among its spaces, how energy efficient it will be. In the ideal world, the design efforts of architects and engineers complement each other, resulting in a building that is both a (oy to loo at and a pleasure to use. But all too often in practice, things do not wor out li e that, and the users of the building pay the price. In most buildings, the wor of the architect mas s, cloa s and hides the wor of the engineer. 1ngineering criticism is almost unheard of in public discussions of building design, although it does sometimes come to the fore when buildings fall down, as in the case of the collapse of the World Trade 4enter towers.

*** 6mo e is clouding our view of global warming, protecting the planet from perhaps three)quarters of the greenhouse effect. That might sound li e good news, but e"perts say that, as the cover diminishes in coming decades, we>re in for a dramatic escalation of warming that could be two or even three times as great as official best guesses. This was the dramatic conclusion reached last wee at a wor shop in Berlin. 6cientists have suspected for a decade that aerosols of smo e and other particles from burning rainforest, crop waste and fossil fuels are bloc ing sunlight and counteracting the warming effect of carbon dio"ide emissions. /ntil now, they rec oned that aerosols reduced greenhouse warming by perhaps a quarter, cutting increases by -..R4. 6o the -.CR4 of warming over the past century would have been -.@R4 without aerosols. But the Berlin wor shop concluded that the real figure is even higher )aerosols may have reduced global warming by as much as three) quarters cutting increases by +.@R4. If so, the good news is that aerosols have prevented the world getting almost two degrees warmer than it is now. But the bad news is that the climate system is much more sensitive to greenhouse gases than previously guessed. In fact, warming could go up by ? to+-R4.

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*** The Derman economy isn>t getting any healthier. Drowth remains stagnant and businesses remain pessimistic about the future. *eal gross domestic product in the third quarter grew by -.0=, after a -..= rise in the previous quarter. Household spending was the main engine of growth in the period. 1"ports also helped, rising ..?=. The wea ness came largely in business investment, and construction spending also fell again. Dovernment loans slowed. 4ompanies> views of current conditions have stabili7ed. However, future e"pectations worsened, with the inde" dropping to ,:.@. That doesn>t promise well for a rebound in business spending. &nd recent rises in ta"ation and spending cuts by the government could weigh on consumers.

*** Aodern psychology considers childhood an e"tremely important period of human development. Western culture views children as vulnerable and requiring a great deal of attention, care and shelter from harm. Aany laws are designed to protect children from dangerous toys, dangerous substances and even dangerous parents. 'ur belief that all children ought to have a free public education and that they should remain in school until adolescence similarly reflects the view that childhood is a special and important time. But these attitudes toward children reflect a relatively recent conception of early development. The Dree and *oman civili7ations, for instance, which e"tended from about C-- B.4. to about 9-- &.8., are usually regarded as periods of great enlightenment. Ket the status of children during those times was hardly enviable. &lthough such great Dree thin ers as !lato and &ristotle wrote of the importance of education, they also defended practices that today would seem unthin able. Infanticide, the illing of newborns, was routine and viewed as an appropriate way to deal with babies who were illegitimate, unhealthy or simply unwanted.

*** 2on)lethal weapons are typically given names that ma e them sound ac ceptable< for e"ample, the term Nrubber bulletN was adopted to suggest something soft and harmless. #elly batons, sponge grenades and bean bags sound li e something from a children>s party, and you need to be aware that these Nbean bagsN are canvas bags of lead shot. 6imilarly, the very term Nstin bombsN ma es them sound li e a practical (o e instead of a chemical warfare agent. 6ometimes language is deliberately used to mislead, as in the case of Nrubber)coated bulletsN. These are steel balls the si7e of marbles with a thin rubber coat, able to penetrate the s ull. There are also so)called Nplastic bulletsN, which are high velocity bul lets made of !J4.

*** 3or more than ten years, *ussia>s relations with the advanced countries of the western world had been a torrid and unsatisfying mi"ture of unrequited love, misunderstanding and dashed hopes. &ctually, recently there have been big shifts on both sides. The West is no longer trying to recast *ussia in its own image. The days are gone when politicians in the /6 used the International Aonetary 3und $IA3% as a foreign policy fund to promote particular policies and politicians in *ussia. These days, *ussia runs itself more or less as it li es. Its economic growth may be slow but it is encouragingE *ussia registered its third consecutive year of real growth in .--+, with the average income up by := and at a time when the world>s big economies were sluggish. &lthough good official connections in business still matter hugely, the days of central planning are gone for good, as is the wild era of looting and barter that followed the collapse of communism. *ussia delivers its oil and gas on ti me and is steadily paying off its foreign debts. 4ompared with what might have happened, the outside world finds that cheering.

*** The !ostal 6ervice has the longest history of monopoly power in the country and has the distinction of being mentioned in the /6 4onstitution. In the past, the post office was impressive in using its monopoly to maintain high wages despite a widespread reputation for poor service. But these past accomplishments have been severely diminished by its inability to control the entry of competitors. 3irst came 3ed1" 4orp. and its associates, then the fa" machine, and then, most destructively, the Internet and e)mail. The failure to get 4ongress to classify all these innovations as first class mail and therefore the e"clusive domain of the !ostal 6ervice demonstrates a tremendous loss of muscle. Therefore, this contestant fails to measure up and should probably not even be nominated in the future.

*** Behavioral scientists have identified many powerful factors that drive us to war ) factors so numerous and so compelling that it is hard to imagi ne how we will ever overcome them. 1volution seems to have equipped us with strong tendencies to organi7e and ill. &s Deneral #ohn #. !ershing stated, NAen go to war because they en(oy it.N 5i e many mammals, we also possess the natural tendency to protect our territory. 6ociety is capable of suppressing genetically)based tendencies, but when it comes to war, most cultures actually fuel the flames. We deliberately instill nationalistic pride in our children, and we teach them to assume roles and follow orders which are all characteristics of the good soldier. In addition we reduce the individuality of people by giving them uniforms< we diffuse responsibility by having them use weapons in teams< we dehumani7e enemies by labeling them heathens, animals and so on. Throw in financial incentives, some propaganda and a charismatic leader or two, and we become more prone to war than ever.

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*** 'n 0+ 'ctober +,,9, a turboprop airliner heading for 4hicago, Illinois, crashed into a soybean field at *oselawn in Indiana. &ll C@ people aboard died. &lthough the weather was cold and damp that day, no one could believe it when investigators revealed that the crash was caused by a build)up of ice on the wings. 2ot only did this modern plane have a fully functional de)icing system, but according to /6 3ederal &viation &dministration $3&&% standards, the 3rench)built &T*)?. should have had no problems flying in the cold, damp conditions. The pilots even new their craft was icing up and attempted to clear it, following de)icing procedures e"actly.

*** &fter a heavy rain one day .--,--- years ago, someone small wal ed across some sand. 6and covered the trac s and eventually they hardened into sandstone. Aore centuries passed, and the sandstone eroded. 6ome construction wor ers on a brea in 2ahoon, 6outh &frica, discovered the trac s, which were thought to be 0-,--- years old. 2ow geologist 8ave *oberts, at the 4ouncil for Deoscience in 4ape Town, has redated the impressions and says they are .--,--- years old, the oldest human footprints on 1arth. NWe have far more powerful dating techniques nowN, says *oberts. He used thermoluminescence, a dating method that measures when sand grains were last e"posed to light. 'nly about seven inches long, the prints clearly show five toes and a well) developed arch.

*** It cannot be denied that buying locally grown food really does offer big advantages, not (ust in freshness, but also in environmental savings. Imported foods, especially those flown in from the opposite hemisphere, use up huge amounts of (et fuel ; +.? calories of fuelper calorie of 4alifornian lettuce flown to Britain, and CC calories of fuel per calorie of 6outh &frican carrot< that at least is what a green research group based in 5ondon has estimated. Auch of that cost is hidden from consumers, because air fuel attracts no ta" ; an advantage guaranteed by international treaty. &nd under the Pyoto !rotocol, carbon emissions from international transports aren>t added to national carbon)emission tallies, because nobody can agree whose account to charge them to. But the fuel used to import food and drin to Britain continues to account for four million tonnes of 4'. emissions annually, which is about ..: per cent of the national total.

*** By .-.-, total meat consumption in developing countries is predicted to have more than doubled. Ket livestoc , especially in wealthy countries, already munches its way through 0C per cent of the world>s grain harvest. &ll that grain e"acts a heavy environmental cost, because the increased demand pulls farmers towards growing mai7e and soybean and away from pasture and fodder crops such as alfalfa that do so much for soil health. &nd grain)fed animals tend to be housed in huge feedlots, where crowding causes disease and veterinary surgeons use more antibiotics, and where vast mountains of manure pollute the surroundings. 4onsumers could reverse many of these problems by demanding meat from grass)fed livestoc , or simply by eating less meat. &nd as an added bonus for overfed Westerners, the meat from grass)fed cattle is leaner than that from grain)fed animals.

*** In the first half of the .-th century, acid rain ) whether natural or unnatural ) was a hidden phenomenon. By the +,:-s, however, its effects were becoming apparent to scientists in 6candinavia with the loss of fish from mountain la es. & networ of rainwater monitoring stations was set up across 1urope, which very soon proved the e"istence of acid rain as a result of human activities. &cid rain was also charged with illing vast tracts of forest in Dermany. The effects of long)range sulphur pollution were loo ing so worrying that the issue was placed before the world at the /2 4onference on the Human 1nvironment in 6toc holm in +,?.. The outcome was that states are now responsible for ensuring that their activities do not damage the environment of other states. This paved the way for the development of programmes for reducing long)range air pollution. The most important of these was the 4onvention on 5ong)*ange Transboundary &ir !ollution, attended in +,?, by the world>s leading industrial nations.

*** When it came to replacing the bridge at #ohn>s !ass, there were certain special problems to be ta en into consideration. The previous bridge had had a life span of only 0- years, but in that time the currents had caused e"tensive damage. But a more serious problem connected with the currents is that the bridge has to open on demand, rather than on a fi"ed schedule. 4urrents at the inlet are particularly fierce, and ma ing boats wait would be too dangerous. This unpredictability ma es life even tougher for motorists. Ket a fi"ed bridge would ma e a stretch of the Intracoastal Waterway impassable to boats taller than C: feet, so that option was ruled out almost immediately. When an e"amination of the bridge>s records showed that increasing the height would reduce the frequency of closings only slightly, the state decided to build a new drawbridge with the same height as the old one.

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8espite all the attention we give to our hair, and putting aside the fact that the first synthetic hair dyes were created in +,-?, it has really only been in the last :- years or so that hair has been scientifically studied. Before that, it was deemed too trivial to be worthy ofthe attention, but the amount that scientists can now tell about a person from the study of their hair,often simply by loo ing at it under a microscope, is remar able. Humans have around five million body hairs which is as many as a chimpan7ee has, although ours are smaller and finer. They come in three types. &n unborn baby has a ind of fine down all over its body that begins to grow about +. wee s after conception. 2ormally, these NlanugoN hairs are shed a few wee s before birth, although some premature babies are born with them. &fter birth and throughout our lives, humans are covered in short NvellusN hairs (ust a centimetre or two long and with little or no pigment. 3inally, the pigmented, thic er hairs that grow in varying quantities on our heads, groin, armpits, forearms and legs, and $on men% chests, stomachs and faces, are NterminalN hairs.

*** 1vidence from epidemiological studies carried out in the /6 shows that a sedentary life)style increases the incidence of more than .- chronic diseases. 'ne such study, a 2urses> Health 6tudy, concerned ?-,--- female nurses aged 9- to C: years, it was found that, when nurses wal ed the equivalent of three or more hours per wee at a bris pace, they had 0- per cent less coronary artery disease, ischemic stro e and type). diabetes, as compared to sedentary nurses. In another study, some site)specific cancers were found to be also more prevalent when moderately active females become inactive. Breast cancer rates rose .: per cent among the sedentary in one study, and each one)hour decrease of recreational physical activity per wee during adolescence was associated with a 0 per cent increased ris of breast cancer. Indeed, physical inactivity is now the third leading cause of death in the /6 and contributes to the second leading cause, which is obesity. !hysical inactivity is one of the causes of at least + in @ deaths.

*** Health care professionals may quic ly dismiss alternative therapies as ineffective and perhaps even dangerous, but their clients thin otherwise. In a survey of over +,:-- people, + out of every 0 had used at least one alternative therapy in the past year for a variety of medical complaints from an"iety and headaches to cancer and tumours. Jisits to alternative therapies outnumbered visits to primary care physicians. Interestingly, those who see alternative therapies seem to do so not so much because they are dissatisfied with conventional medicine, but because they find these alternatives more in line with their beliefs about health and life. Aost often, people use alternative therapies in addition to, rather than in place of, conventional therapies. 'nly a few of the people surveyed saw an alternative therapist without also seeing a physician< all of those with life)threatening conditions such as cancer, diabetes or lung problems who used alternative therapies saw a medical doctor as well. In fact, it seems that most people see alternative therapies for nonserious medical conditions or health promotion. They simply want to feel better, and access is easy.

*** & century ago, most people who suffered traumatic in(uries or contracted serious infections died soon afterward. &lso those who developed heart disease or cancer had little e"pectation of a long life after the disease was diagnosed. 8eath was a familiar e"perience, and most people e"pected little more than comfort care from doctors. Today, death is often seen as an event that can be deferred indefinitely rather than as an intrinsic part of life. The leading causes of death for people over age C: years are heart disease, cancer, stro e, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and dementia. Aedical procedures commonly e"tend the lives of people who have these diseases, often giving people many years in which quality of life and function are quite good. 6ometimes, however, procedures e"tend life, but the quality of life and function decline.

*** The veterinarians who oversee laboratory animals often find themselves in the position of having to perform procedures that may not be in the best interest of their nonhuman patients. The vet>s goal then is to produce the best possible outcome for the animal under the circumstances. When 5arry 4arbone started out in that profession, he hoped to improve the condition of laboratory animals while at the same time accommodating the needs of researchers. /nfortunately, he found that, in practice, the ability of veterinarians to advocate effectively for animals is limited by a variety of factors. His new boo is the fruit of the e"tensive research he conducted to discover what determines how we view laboratory animals and why policies concerning their care have developed as they have. He e"amines the ob(ectivity of those who presume to now what these animals want and to spea for them, showing that personal beliefs, theories and ideologies colour even the most scientific reports.

*** 8iscussion about the use of antidepressants by children, which is always a hot topic, boiled over in 6eptember when hearings revealed that both the drug industry and the 3ood and 8rug &dministration $38&% had concealed strong evidence about the dangers associated with the most widely prescribed drugs, a class nown as selective serotonin reupta e inhibitors $66*Is%. The analysis of the test results, which pharmaceutical companies had failed to release to the public and which the 38& had sat on for a year, indicated that these 66*Is double the suicide ris in depressed (uveniles yet help no more children in trials than placebos do. The highprofile congressional and 38& hearings were made all the more dramatic as parents recounted how their children had moved from moderate depression to suicidal depression within days of starting 66*Is. 6ome of these children had died during the year of delayed 38& action.

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*** 3rom birth to age +-, our developmental focus is on learning how to be human beings ) learning to move, to communicate, tomaster basic s ills. These often require the mastery of learned social and cultural conventions, traditions, and rituals, such as movements associated with various games, differences in spo en or written languages, and our culture>s definition of good manners. The initial development is slow and aw ward, but children generally function at a rapid automatic level by age +-. &dults usually allow young children to ma e mista es. We smile indulgently and offer support rather than criticism as toddlers trip and as .)year)olds ma e language errors. We are there principally to protect their safety and to applaud their successes because we reali7e that toddling leads to wal ing and running, and babbling leads to spea ing, reading and writing.

*** In his three)and)a)half years in the (ob, the !resident of Harvard /niversity seems to have upset a large number of people. 3irst, he said students were getting too many N&N grades because of grade inflation, Zwhich was correct%. Then he attac ed a professor on account of his e"tra)curricular activities. 2ow he has suggested that one of the reasons women achieve less in science and maths is that they have less innate ability. The !resident>s )comments were off the record< but he has since confirmed that he did draw attention to the possibility that innate differences, rather than social factors, such as education and treatment in the wor place, might have a rote to play. This has resulted in a great deal of violent criticism from many quarters. But, scientifically spea ing is he correctH

*** The reasons for language death range from natural disasters to different forms of cultural assimilation. 6mall communities in isolated areas can easily be wiped out by earthqua es, hurricanes, tsunamis and other natural disasters. 'n +?th #uly +,,@, a ?.+ magnitude earthqua e off the coast of !apua 2ew Duinea illed more than ...M- people and displaced a further +-,--- people. Aany villages were destroyed< and some 0-= of the villagers were illed. The people in these villages had been identified as being sufficiently different from each other in their speech to (ustify the recognition of four separate languages, but the numbers were very small. Aoreover, as the survivors moved away to care centers and other locations, these communities and thus their languages could not survive the trauma of displacement.

*** Immigrants have long complained about /6 employers who cheat or abuse them and threaten to have them deported if they protest. Denerally, the problem has been confined to the lowest rungs of the wor force, such as Ae"ican farm hands who enter the country illegally. But nowadays, the wea /6 economy has spar ed an outbrea of abusive treatment among the legions of professional immigrant employees who floc ed to the /6 on perfectly valid visas during the late)+,,-s boom. /sually, theirs are the cases of employers who do not pay full salary or benefits.

*** In 5ondon>s theatres, tastes seem to be changing. Though audiences are not falling, that>s mostly than s to the allure of musicals, not plays. The commercial 5ondon Theatres ran at C:= capacity in .--0, the most recent year for which figures are available. But this disguises a big difference between musicals and plays. 3or the musicals, attendance averages C@= of capacity< for plays, attendance is somewhat lower, at :C=. 6o if a show doesn>t contain some singing and plenty of dancing, half the chairs are li ely to remain empty. &nd In a business in which the costs are all fi"ed, a few more tic ets sold can ma e all the difference. However, 5ondon>s subsidi7ed theatres are doing unusually well. 3or e"ample, at the 2ational Theatre, which receives around Y+9 million in public money every year, attendance has been running at over ,-= of capacity for the past .- months. That>s partly than s to sponsorship and partly to aggressive programming.

*** 6pain>s third)largest ban , Banco !opular, raised some eyebrows recently when it agreed to buy !ortugal>s Banco 2acional for OC0@ million. 6hareholders voted overwhelmingly in approval of the acquisition. 2ormally, however, !opular>s approach is far more conservativeE a singleminded devotion to organic retail growth in its home mar et as opposed to ta eovers. 'ver the past decade, the ban has wor ed hard to build its base, cultivating the mar et for mortgages, consumer loans, and, recently, loans to small and midsi7e businesses. &s rivals loo ed to the 2ew World and bought up smaller ban s at home. !opular e"panded its retail networ to .,.-- branches throughout 6pain, it also added Internet and telephone ban ing operations that are based in the branches. The effort has paid off. In each of the past three years, the ban has gained 0--,--- customers.

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*** There have been stories in the press about mobile phones spar ing e"plosions at petrol stations. But according to the D6A &ssociation, a worldwide body for mobile phone ma ers, none of these reports has ever been traced bac to a real event. But there is a real safety concern, and it>s not about radio emissions from mobiles as you might have thought. Instead, the D6A &ssociation says there is a theoretical ris that if a hand)held phone is dropped and the battery separates from the phone, it could cause a spar across the contacts. This is equally true of other battery)powered devices such as torches, Wal mans and 48 players. But it>s far more li ely that mobile phones cause a ha7ard at petrol stations by distracting their users while they>re operating a petrol pump.

*** 3ormerly, potatoes were grown on unirrigated land, which often meant they were small and probably misshapen. 2ow, however, farmers routinely irrigate their lands to produce products acceptable to the fast)food industry for its 3rench fries. But in Ainnesota the groundwater that farmers pump for potatoes has turned out to be the same water that helps to sustain the 6traight *iver, a ma(or trout fishery. 1ven modest pumping for potatoes, a federal study eventually concluded, had the potential to reduce the river>s flow by one third during the irrigation season, with adverse impact on the brown trout. 3or now, the trout are not in danger, but that could change if Ainnesota were to approve applications from farmers still eager to see potato planting and irrigation widen.

*** &ll multi)engined aircraft are designed to eep flying in the event of engine failure. 5osing thrust from one Nside of an aircraft unbalances it and causes the nose of the aircraft to turn in the direction of the failed engine. &ircraft have a vertical stabili7er $the upright at the bac % to eep the aircraft>s nose into the wind, with a rudder attached to it for fine tuning. Aoving the rudder into the airflow creates a sideways force, which turns the aircraft around its vertical a"is. When this is applied in the direction of the failed engine, the force created by the rudder will counteract the turn induced by the uneven engine thrust. The vertical stabili7er and rudder are si7ed to control the uneven thrust caused by an engine failure at the most demanding limits or the flight envelope, as they must be capable of generating powerful turning forces.

*** If engineers waited for the development of scientific nowledge to use and organi7e into technological achievements, ours would be a very different world from what we now. In engineering, it is not so much science as it is ingenuity that is applied to solve problems and satisfy needs and wants. If this were not so, the steam engine would never have been invented in the absence of thermodynamics. The Wright Brothers would not have flown since they had no aerodynamics te"tboo s. The astronauts would never have landed on the Aoon nor the rovers on Aars without firm geological nowledge of their surfaces. *ather than following scientific theories and discoveries, engineering leads them. 'perating steam engines prompted the development of thermodynamics, actual powered flight drove aerodynamics, and Aoon and Aars missions brought bac samples and sent bac data that led to increased scientific nowledge about those e"traterrestrial bodies.

*** Damma)ray bursts $D*Bs% are among the most intense areas of research in high)energy astrophysics, and they represent the largest nown e"plosions in the universe. 5ast year, 2&6& launched the 6wift satellite to rapidly locate and observe D*Bs and their afterglows at ")ray, ultraviolet and optical wavelengths. These afterglow observations are particularly important for the understanding or these enormous e"plosions that occur at cosmological distances near the edge of the observable universe. &mateur astronomers, due to their large numbers, their ability to respond quic ly to the randomly located D*Bs and the availability of highly sensitive 448 cameras, have been able to provide important, early data on the optical afterglows of D*Bs in the past few years. Indeed, at least one optical afterglow from a D*B was discovered by an amateur astronomer. 'bservations can be done with even a modest)si7e telescope, provided the observations are made quic ly enough.

*** The people of Blaenavon in 6outh Wales were understandably worried. The opencast mine only + ilometer north of their town had served the great Blaenavon ironwor s when they opened in the Iate+@N+ century. But it had been lying derelict for decades and now British 4oal 'pencast wanted to mine the remaining 0.-,--tonnes of coal. &t opencast sites, for every tonne of coal recovered, up to 9- tonnes of roc has tobe e"tracted. 6o, in the case of Blaenavon, unless precautionary measures were ta en, the air in the town was going to be thic with dust. !recautionary measures were ta en, based on well)tried techniques. 3or instance, tall spray masts were erected around dumps to provide a curtain of rain to entrap and wash out dust from the air, and the wheels of every vehicle leaving the site were washed. 3urther, reclaimed areas were planted with trees and grass from day one. With these and other measures this turned out to be a success story for all concerned. In fact, during the entire mining and reclamation pro(ect not a single complaint about nuisance dust was made to the local authority.

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*** To some people, branding is about the art of lying successfully and creating value out of nothing. & good brand inspires trust, but the relationship between the brand and the reality of the product offered is frequently elastic. Branding is therefore an art and the people who do it best are in great demand. In many business segments entry is easy as barriers are low and there is scarcely any means of differentiating yourproduct from that of the competitor. Branding is all there is left to ma e a difference. Aobile phone companies are a classic lease, in which one company can copy the competitor>s contracts.1ach company offers virtually the same handsets. &part from networ coverage, brand is everything. &nother classic e"ample is airlines. &nyone can charter the same Boeing ?0?and run an airline as long as it can secure slots. The difference is finally down to service and mar eting.

*** &lmost :- years ago, the scientist and novelist 4harles !ercy 6now delivered a lecture at the /niversity of 4ambridge in which he described a problematic situation that he termed Nthe two culturesN. &ccording to 4. !. 6now, as he came to be most commonly nown, it was the circumstances of his involvement in both the physics and the writing communities, mostly in Britain, that gave him an unusually diverse perspective on intellectual life at mid)century. &lthough he noted thatmembers of the two groups that he moved among had similar social origins, possessed comparable intelligence and earned about the same amount of money, they barely communicated with each other. 6now observed that their intellectual, moral and psychological climates had so little in common that they may as well have come from different parts of the world. He feared that the intellectual life of the whole of western society was increasingly being split into two polar groups characteri7ed by physical scientists and Nliterary intellectualsN.

*** In an agreement made outside the courts in Basle, 6wit7erland, 2igerian state representatives, 6wiss federal officers and e"ecutives from a do7en 1uropean ban s have agreed on the return of around +.+ billion euros of the late dictator 6ani &bacha>s investments, to 2igeria. The conclusion of what has been one of the world>s largest investigations into money laundering comes as a huge relief to regulators and ban ers in 6wit7erland, the /P, 5iechtenstein, 5u"embourg and #ersey, the destinations that provided safe havens for &bacha>s stolen millions. In e"posing (ust how easily &bacha was able to ma e deposits of tens or hundreds of millions of dollars in 1uropean ban s that pride themselves on watchfulness and integrity, the 2igerian investigators highlighted ma(or failings in both the legislative and e"ecutive competencies of the 1uropean ban ing community. *eform has already ta en place. /ndoubtedly more will follow, but the sorry tale of how 1urope>s ban s aided the dictator>s outrageous years of theft cannot be forgotten.

*** &s for the lifestyle in the 2etherlands, the 8utch have a deserved reputation for being easygoing. But as with any country, there are some surprises for newcomers to get used to. 3or instance, the amount of bureaucracy stri es them as remar able when they first move to the 2etherlands. Want to light a small fire in your gardenH Kou>ll need permission from the local government. 3ancy painting your houseH Better chec with the government first. & ma(or problem is the tightening up of immigration laws on a large scale. The problem is that the 2etherlands is a small country that is facing a lot of immigration, so they are ma ing it tougher and tougher. But, actually, racism is foreign to the 8utch culture. They are very accepting< they ta e you as you are.

*** With their magnificent architecture and sophisticated nowledge of astronomy, and mathematics, the Aaya boasted one of the great cultures of the ancient world. &lthough they had not discovered the wheel and were without metal tools, the Aaya constructed massive pyramids, temples and monuments of stone both in large cities and in smaller ceremonial centers throughout the lowlands of the Kucatan !eninsula, which covers parts of what are now southern Ae"ico and Duatemala and essentially all of Beli7e. 3rom celestial observatories, they trac ed the progress, for e"ample, of Jenus and developed, a calendar based on a solar year of 0C: days. They created their own system of mathematics, using a base number of .- with a concept of 7ero. &nd they developed a hieroglyphic scheme for writing, one that used hundreds of elaborate signs.

*** !atent laws do little or nothing to help poor countries dig their way out of poverty, and could even ma e matters worse. That>s the controversial conclusion of an independent commission on intellectual property rights appointed by the British government. Its report, launched recently in Deneva, contains :- radical recommendations to help ma e these rights wor to the advantage of poor countries. Britain>s 8epartment for International 8evelopment has already promised to loo hard at the suggestions, but it>s unclear whether the rest of the international community will listen. The World Trade 'rgani7ation has persuaded most countries to sign an intellectual property rights $I!*% agreement that obliges them to impose Western style laws on everything from patents to copyrights by .--C. But the new report argues that these laws only benefit rich countries with strong traditions of invention, and do little to aid the transfer of technology to poor countries. The report argues that poor countries should be given a lot more fle"ibility 6o as to customi7e those laws, and up to a decade longer to do so. &t present, many poor countries don>t have intellectual property laws at all. That means local inventors can>t get protection for their ideas, but it also means people can buy cheap versions of medicine or software that have been patented elsewhere. 6ince poor countries often have little to patent in the first place, the benefits of having no laws can outweigh the disadvantages.

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*** How have terrestrial organisms met the environmental challenges of living on landH 5ife began in the oceans, but many life forms have since adapted to terrestrial life in a sea of air. 1very single organism living on land has to meet the same environmental challengesE obtaining enough water< preventing e"cessive water loss< getting enough energy< and in polar regions, tolerating widely varying temperature e"tremes. How those challenges are met varies from one organism to another, and in large part e"plains the diversity of life encountered on land today. 6ome animals avoid colder temperatures by migrating to warmer climates for the winter, whereas others avoid the cold by passing the winter in a dormant state called hibernation. Aany plants also spend winter in a dormant state. The aerial parts of some plants die during the winter, but the underground parts remain alive< the following spring they resume metabolic activity and develop new aerial shoots. Aany trees are deciduous< that is, they shed their leaves for the duration of their dormancy. 6hedding leaves is actually an adaptation to the FdrynessG of winter. *oots cannot absorb water from ground that is cold or fro7en< by shedding its leaves the plant reduces water loss during the cold winter months when obtaining water from the soil is impossible.

*** 1"cept perhaps for some remote island dwellers, most people have a natural tendency to view continents as fundamental, permanent and even characteristic features of 1arth. 'ne easily forgets that the worlds continental platforms amount only to scattered and isolated masses on a planet that is largely covered by water. But when viewed from space, the correct picture of 1arth becomes immediately clear. It is a blue planet. 3rom this perspective it seems quite e"traordinary that over its long history, 1arth could manage to hold a small fraction of its surface always above the sea X enabling, among other things, human evolution to proceed on dry land. Is the persistence of highstanding continents (ust an accidentH How did 1arths complicated crust come intoe"istenceH Has it been there all the time, li e some primeval icing on a planetary ca e, or has it evolved through the agesH 6uch questions engendered debates that divided scientists for many decades, but the fascinating story of how the terrestrial surface came to ta e its present form is now partly resolved. That understanding shows, remar ably enough, that the conditions required to form the continents of 1arth may be unmatched in the rest of the solar system.

*** Henri )#an van Jeen has carried out a great deal of research into spinning. This is especially true for Fgraveyard spinsG, the term for what happens when fighter pilots get so disoriented they miscalculate how to get their plane bac on course. They can end up in a dangerous and often fatal spin. Jan Jeen wor s at a research lab run by the 2etherlands 'rgani7ation for &pplied 6cientific *esearch, the T2'. The range of research covered by the T2' is vast, and it sees itself as a practical problemsolver. &nd for the 8utch air force, the graveyard spin is certainly a problem that needs solving. Jan Jeens specialty is Fvibrotactile devicesG, which use vibrations to convey information. His latest pro(ect is a vest studded all over with small discsthat can each vibrate independently. In a test room, a pilot is strapped into a seat in a Fcoc pitG. &t the push of a button, the lights go out and the chair starts spinning. &fter a while the chair is stopped. FHell thin hes spinning the other way nowG, says van Jeen. The pilot is told to correct the spin, but instead, he overcorrects massively, and the chair begins spinning again. In the ne"t test, the pilot dons van Jeens vest and is told that the patch of the vest that is vibrating will indicate the direction he should force the (oystic to correct a spin. This time, when the chair stops spinning the pilot manages to eep the seat still. Jan Jeen thin s the vibrotactile vest could do more than save the lives of fighter pilots. Hes now wor ing on lin ing the system to a D!6 receiver so that tourists in a foreign city or blind people in an unfamiliar environment can use the vest to find their way around.

*** In his preface to 6paceflight *evolution, 8avid &shford recalls how he started his research into roc et motors. &s he later e"plains, these were motors that would power aspace plane X one that would launch space travellers and satellites cheaply and reliably into orbit. That was +,C+. &shford admits he would probably have ta en another (ob if hed nown that, 9. years later, satellites would still be launched by roc ets descended from ballistic missiles. The technology is there, but political and budgetary decisions have so far stopped space planes getting off the ground. But &shford presents a compelling argument that a small orbital space plane would cost relatively little to design and develop X the equivalent of (ust two shuttle flights.

*** 3or almost .-- years, the idea of cosmic events affecting life on 1arth was viewed as heretical by the church, which regarded catastrophe as proof of divine intervention, and as nonsense by the scientific establishment, which dismissed it as superstition. Ket in the end, the sheer weight of evidence has swept away all doubt about the reality of global catastrophes. &ttempts to ma e scientific sense of the many legends of global catastrophes date bac to the dawn of modern science itself, in the +? th century. 3ollowing the publication of 2ewtons laws of motion and universal gravitation in +C@?, 1dmond Halley decided to apply them to the mystery of comets. By studying records of their appearance, Halley argued that the bright comets of +9:C, +:0+, +C-? and +C@. were in fact one comet, later nown as the FHalleyG comet, that followed a vast elliptical orbit around the 6un in agreement with 2ewtons laws. But Halley noted something else as wellE a comet crossing the orbit of the 1arth might one day collide with us with devastating consequences.

*** The Wireless Auseum has several of the earliest crystal wireless sets from the +,.-s which ran on electromagnetic waves with no e"ternal power source, and were easily made at home. Jalve radios, which came along in the +,0-s, needed electricity to heat up the valves and the museum has both mains and battery) powered valve radios on display. The collection also has some rare wartime civilian receivers X the only type of valve radio manufactured during the 6econd World War. This was by order of the government, because at this time most manufacturing was focused on the war effort. There are also plenty of modern day transistor radios including a collection of novelty radios dating from the si"ties and seventies.))

DS SALIK 2006 LKBAHAR *** 4ancer describes a class of diseases characteri7ed by the uncontrolled growth of aberrant cells. 4ancers ill by the destructive invasion of normal organs through direct e"tension and spreadto distant sites via the blood, lymph, or serosal surfaces. The abnormal clinical behaviour of cancer cells is often mirrored by biologic aberrations such as genetic mutations, chromosomal translocations, e"pression of fetal or other discordant ontologic characteristics, and the inappropriate secretion of hormones or en7ymes. &ll cancers invade or metastasi7e but each specific type has unique biologic and clinical features that must be appreciated for proper diagnosis, treatment and study. &bout +.. million new cases of invasive cancer are diagnosed each year in the /nited 6tates, and about :--,--- people die annuallyof the disease. 4ancer is the second most deadly disease and is e"pected to surpass heart disease early in the twenty)first century to top that vicious list. 'ver the past half century, the frequency of most cancers has been stable, but some dramatic changes have ta en place. 6teady declines in stomach and uterine cancerhave occurred, the latter undoubtedly due to routine cytologic screening for cervical cancer. The cause of the decline in stomach cancer is un nown. The most stri ing change has been the increases in lung cancer in both men and women, undoubtedly related to smo ing.

*** &ging involves multiple harmful biological events that accumulate in different tissues overtime and gradually reduce an organisms state of maintenance and function. 4alendar time, however, serves as an imperfect measurement of the physiological processes involved in aging.We all now individuals who are the same chronological age but appear to be very different when it comes to physiological age. *ather than counting years X or gray hairs, for that matter X modern gerontologists turn to biological mar ers, or biomar ers, of aging. These physiological parameters indicate an individuals functional level and some biomar ers, such as insulin levels, correlate with mortality. The presence of such biomar ers depends indirectly on patterns of gene e"pression, which are induced by a variety of internal or e"ternal stimuli.

*** 4ardiac transplantation, once considered an e"perimental procedure, has emerged as the therapy of choice for many appropriately selected patients with life)threatening irremediable heart disease. 4ongestive heart failure $4H3%, the primary indication for cardiac transplantation, is the most commonly reported reason for hospital admission. & nowledge of cardiac transplantation medicine is therefore important for all physicians, as transplantation should be considered a therapeuticoption for many of these patients. In the past, post)cardiac transplant care was largely performed by speciali7ed transplant physicians, primarily cardiologists and cardiovascular surgeons. &s survival after cardiac transplantation has improved mar edly over the last decade, the population of patients who are long)term survivors after heart transplantation has grown. !rimary care physicians, as well as cardiologists not based at cardiac transplant centres, often assist inthe care of these patients, most often inconsultation with cardiac transplant physicians. In addition, a physician may be called on to assist in the management and evaluation of a potential cardiac donor.

*** Aedicine is not a science, but a profession that encompasses medical science learning as well as personal, humanistic, and professional attributes. 2onetheless, the delivery of Western medicine depends totally on science and the scientific method. 6ince 3le"ner issued his famous report on the sub(ect in +,+-, &merican medical education has striven to develop a strong scientific base as an integral part of medical education at every levelE premedical, medical, residency and continuing medical education. Biomedical science is fundamental to understanding disease, ma ing diagnoses, applying new therapies and appreciating the comple"ities and opportunities of new technologies. The process of becoming a physician and being committed to lifelong learning requires that one possess the scientific base not only to acquire and appreciate new nowledge but to see new ways for applying it to patient care as well. The physician must be able to understand reports of current research in the medical literature in order to grasp and evaluate the newest and latest approaches, no matter how complicated the field may become.

*** When a patient sees a doctor, the patient is see ing help ;) to regain or retain health. The physicians tas is to wor for the patients health. The doctor does so by treating disease, by relieving discomfort, by assisting the patient with any disability, by preventing premature death, and by ma"imi7ing contentment. $6ome have summari7ed these activities as tac ling Fthe five8sG of health ; disease, discomfort, disability, death, and dissatisfaction%. 'ften there is success in all these areas. In the best of circumstances, the doctor is able to prevent disease and help the patient remain healthy. In other cases, disease and death defeat us. In some cases none of the goals are achieved, but even that outcome must not stop us from trying. By focusing on the health of the patient, the doctor tests the myriad activities of clinical medicine against the health outcome of the patient.

*** In the past, lead poisoning was thought to arise from pica$abnormal ingestion% among children living in old, bro en)down houses with peeling layers of leadbased paints. In the past two decades, lead into"ication has occurred with decreasing frequency. This may in part be relatedto less use of lead in paint and leaded gasoline< several studies relate environmental lead contamination to traffic density patterns. In the /nited 6tates, hundreds of occupations involve potentially significant e"posure. It is estimated that more than @--,--- &merican wor ers have potentially significant lead e"posure. 5ead and other metal wor ers or miners, storage battery wor ers, and pottery ma ers are particularly heavily e"posed. Wor ers in auto manufacturing, ship building, paint manufacture and printing industries are also at substantial ris , as are house painters and those who repair oldhouses. In past centuries lead was addedto wine to sweeten it, a deception that was eventually made punishable by death. *ecently, adding leadto various herbal and fol medicines has resulted in poisoning. Bullets left in the body can result in lead poisoning, especially if a (oint is involved, because synovial fluid appears to be a good solvent for lead. The interval between the bullet getting embedded in the body and clinical evidence of lead poisoning has ranged from . days to 9- years.

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*** The /6 6upreme 4ourt is not aradical institution, nor is it li ely to become one asa result of any particular presidential election. The ris s for the (udiciary in presidential elections are a lot lower than many people imagine. This is not because there are no significant ideological or methodological differences among (udges. 8ifferences do e"ist, and they display party affiliation to some e"tent. &nd they matter ; not (ust on public issues such as abortion rights and racial discrimination but also in those procedures that actually guide the way lower courts handle a large variety of legal cases. That said, the courts have pretty strong institutional defences against radicalism of any ind. 3or one thing, the (udiciarys power is spread among more than @-- federal (udges, no one of whose views matter all that much in the broad scheme of things. 1ven onthe 6upreme 4ourt the idiosyncrasies or ideological e"tremism of any one (udge can have only a limited effect. Without four li eminded (udges, his or her views are (ust noise.

*** Dovernments have learned tovalue innovation these days for good reason. 3ar from being simply some missing factor in the growth equation, innovation is now recogni7ed as the single most important ingredient in any modern economy. It actually accounts for more than half of economic growth in &merica and Britain. In short, it is innovation, more than the application of capital or labour, that eeps the world economy going. &s a result, economists have decided that the innovators of the world are due some special recognition. It is not possible to recogni7e all the countless innovations that have helped to spread wealth, health and human happiness around the world. But a handful of people who have made the biggest contribution to the wealth)creation process in their own fields over the past few years, have been nominated for awards.

*** &merican schools need moretime if they are to teach efficiently. The school year is fi"ed at or below +@- days in all but a handful of states ; down from more than +,- in the late nineteenth century, when 6aturday)morning sessions were common. The instructional day is only about si" hours, of which much is ta en up with nonacademic matters. In +,,9, a national commission calculated that in four years of high school a typical &merican student puts in less than half as much time on academic sub(ects as do students in #apan, 3rance and Dermany. 1"tending the school day orthe school year can get e"pensive and complicated, and reducing nonacademic electives and physical education brings complaints from parents and students ali e. But there is one quite cheap and uncomplicated way to increase study timeE add more homewor . Kou may not be surprised to learn that homewor raises student achievement, at least in the higher grades. 3or young children homewor appears not to be particularly helpful. 1ven among older students it is hard to be sure of the e"tent to whichmore homewor may lead to higher achievement.

*** & nonprofessional)class wor ing mother, who has been forced unwillingly into the labour mar et, is oppressed by various unique forces. 6he is oppressed by the fact that her wor is oftentimes physically e"hausting, ill)paid, and devoid of benefits such as health insurance and paid sic leave. 6he is oppressed by the fact that it is impossible to put a small child in reliable day)care if you ma e only a minimum wage, and she is oppressed by the terrible child)care options that are available at an ine"pensive rate. 6he is oppressed by the fact that she has nothing to fall bac on. If she is out of wor , and her child needs a visit to the doctor and antibiotics, she may not be able to afford those things and will have to treat her sic child with unprescribed medications, which themselves are far from cheap.

*** 8uring the *enaissance, especially in the si"teenth century, it was customary to debate the preeminence of the arts, particularly as between painting and sculpture. The more commonly accepted opinion is represented by Benvenuto 4ellini, who thought that sculpture is eight times as great as any other art based on drawing, because a statue has eight views and they must all be equally good. & painting, he said, is nothing better thanthe image of a tree, man, or other ob(ect. In fact, the difference between painting and sculpture isas great as between a shadow and the ob(ect casting it. 5eonardo, on the other hand, thought that painting is superior to sculpture because it is more intellectual. By this he meant that as a technique it is infinitely more subtle in the effects that it can produce, and infinitely wider in the scope it offers to invention or imagination. Aichelangelo, when the question was referred to him, in his wise and direct way said that things which have the same end are themselves the same, and that therefore there could be no difference between painting and sculpture e"cept differences due to better (udgment and harder wor .

*** Because a play presents its action through actors, its impact is direct, immediate, and heightened by the actors s ills. Instead of responding to words on a printed page, the spectator sees what is done and hears what is said. The e"perience of the play is registered directly upon his senses. It may therefore be fuller and more compact. Where the wor of prose fiction may tell us what a character loo s li e in one paragraph, how he moves or spea s in a second, what he says in a third, and how his auditors respond in a fourth, the acted play presents this material all at once. 6imultaneous impressions are not separated. Aoreover, this e"perience is interpreted by actors who may be highly s illed in rendering nuances of meaning and strong emotion. Through facial e"pression, gesture, speech rhythm, and intonation, they may be able to ma e a spea ers words more e"pressive than can the readers unaided imagination. Thus, the performance of a play by s illed actors, e"pertly directed, gives the playwright a tremendous source of power.

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*** 'ver billions of years, life has evolved into a spectacular diversity of forms ; more than a million species presently e"ist. 3or each, the source of its uniqueness is the particular combination of proteins found within its cells. Ket in the midst of this diversity, the similarities between living things are profound. 3or e"ample, although the fruit fly genome encodes about +9,--- different proteins, and humans have two to three times that number, many proteins are still recogni7ably similar in sequence and tas , reflecting their common ancestry. In fact, when scientists have put human disease genes into flies, they often cause the same symptoms in the insects as they do in people. 3urthermore, addition of a normal human gene can sometimes compensate for the deletion of the same gene from the fly.

*** The most common view among scientists is that mathematics and physics are quite different. !hysics describes the universe and depends on e"periment and observation. The particular laws that govern our universe, such as 2ewtons laws of motion, must be determined empirically and then asserted li e a"ioms that cannot be logically proved, merely verified. Aathematics, on the other hand, is somehow independent of the universe. *esults and theorems, such as the properties of the integers and real numbers, do not depend in any way on the particular nature of reality in which we find ourselves. Aathematical truths would be true in any universe.

*** 4arbon dio"ide $4'.%, li e water and most other pure substances, e"ists in solid,liquid, and gaseous states and can undergo changes from one state to another. 6olid 4'., however, has an interesting propertyE at normal pressures, it passes directly to the gaseous state without first melting to the liquid state. This property, together with the fact that this change occurs at )?@R4, ma es solid 4'.useful for eeping materials very cold. Because solid 4'.cools other ob(ects and does not leave a liquid residue, it is called Fdry iceG. &s for liquid 4'., it is obtained by putting carbon dio"ide gas under pressure. When liquid 4'.evaporates, it absorbs large quantities of heat, cooling as low as ):?R4. Because of this property, it is often used as a refrigerant. If the compressed gas from the evaporating 4'.liquid is allowed to e"pand through a valve, the rapidly cooled vapour forms solid carbon dio"ide FsnowG. This 4'. snow is compacted into bloc s and is the source of dry ice.

*** The entire future of human space e"ploration rests on a patch of lunar ice. 3or the past two years 2&6& has focused on designing a new crew vehicle and launch system that could return astronauts to the moon by .-+@. The agencys ultimate goal is to establish a permanent lunar base and use it for a human mission to Aars. But the grand plan depends on a ris y prediction that 2&6& will find water ice in a permanently shadowed crater basin at one of the moons poles. !lentiful ice deposits would be an asset for lunar colonists, who could use the water for life support or convert it to hydrogen and o"ygen roc et fuel. &nd two orbiters sent to the moon in the +,,-s, 4lementine and 5unar !rospector, found evidence of ice in perpetually shadowed polar areas where consistently frigid temperatures would preserve the water carried to the moon by comet and meteorite impacts. But somescientists have disputed 4lementines radar data, and the anomalous neutron emissions observed by 5unar !rospector could have been caused by atomic hydrogen in the lunar soil instead of ice.

*** The primary means of reproduction and dispersal for 1arths most successful plants is seeds, which develop from the female gametophyte and its associated tissues. 6eed plants show the greatest evolutionary comple"ity in the plant ingdom and are the dominant plants in most terrestrial environments. 6eeds are reproductively superior to spores for three main reasons. 3irst, a seed contains a multicellular, well)developed young plant with embryonic root, stem, and leaves already formed, whereas a spore is a single cell. 6econd, a seed contains a food supply. &fter germination, the plant embryo is nourished by food stored in the seed until it becomes selfsufficient. Because a spore is a single cell, few food reserves e"ist for the plant that develops from a spore. Third, a seed is protected by a resistant seed coat. 5i e spores, seeds can live for e"tended periods of time at reduced rates of metabolism, germinating when conditions become favourable.

*** 8espite bacterias presence in all parts of the planet, their diversity in the worlds soils is poorly understood. To better understand what ma es the organisms thrive, 8u e /niversity researchers tre ed far and wide to collect a few centimetres of dirt as samples from ,@ locations across 2orth and 6outh &merica, then analy7ed each sample for genetic variation. To their surprise, the strongest predictor of high diversity was neutral pH. The acidic soil of the !eruvian &ma7on,for e"ample, harboured far fewer bacterial species than did the neutral dirt of the arid &merican 6outhwest. FThere are a lot of variables that didnt turn out to be very important,G says the researcher *obert #ac son, who adds that a more complete search for different habitats might turn up other stimulators of diversity, such as carbon abundance.

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*** 3ew recent papers in biology have received as much praise as Woo 6u Hwangs .--9 and .--: announcements of cloning human embryonic stem cells ; or fallen as fast into disrepute with the discovery that they were ran fa es. 1mbryonic stem cell $164% research is no less promising today than it was before Hwangs deceit was revealed< most investigators continue to believe that it will eventually yield revolutionary medical treatments. The fact that no one has yet derived 164s from cloned human embryos simply means that the science is less advanced than has been supposed over the past two years. 6till, Hwang has badly undermined the reputation of a field that already has more than its share of political and public relations problems. 6ome longtime opponents of 164 research will undoubtedly argue that Hwangs lies only prove that the investigators cannot be trusted to conduct their wor ethically, and the public may believe them.

*** Bats are creatures of the night that are commonly held in fear. &t first glance, those fears might seem to have some medical (ustification. 5ong nown as vectors for rabies, it is now thought that bats may be the origin of some of the most deadly emerging viruses, including 6&*6. 3rom research with other viruses, virologist 5infa Wang of the &ustralian &nimal Health 5aboratory new bats could get chronic infections from viruses while not getting sic , ma ing them ideal carriers for disease. Bats, civets and a menagerie of other animals were often found caged near one another in live)animal mar ets in &sia. 6o Wang hypothesi7ed that bats might harbour 6&*6 as well. Wang and his colleagues analy7ed blood, throat and faecal swabs from 9-@ wild bats from 4hina. Denetic analysis revealed five bats, which represented three of nine species of horseshoe bats tested, possessed viruses closely related to 6&*6. They reported last 6eptember that the genetic variation within those coronaviruses was far greater than that seen in human or civet 6&*6. Therefore, bats, probably having lived longer with the diseases, may be the origin of the coronaviruses seen in other species.

*** The increasing visibility of homeless mentally ill individuals, particularly in large cities, has aroused public concern and prompted a move toward reinstitutionali7ation. However, an important ethical issue is involved. If such people are not read(usting to society, should they beinvoluntarily committed to a mental hospitalH 'ne of the most cherished civil rights in a democratic society is the right to liberty. It is essential that any action toward commitment safeguard this right. 6ome e"perts believe that legal action is warranted only if a person is potentially dangerous to others. The rare, but highly publici7ed, occasions when a mentally ill person e"periencing a psychotic episode attac s an innocent bystander have generated fears for public safety. But dangerousness is difficult to predict. 6tudies have shown that mental health professionals are poor at predicting whether a person will commit a dangerous act. Aoreover, the legal system is designed to protect people from preventive detention.

*** Auch wor on aging brains has focused on their failings, but a new study loo s at how they succeed. In a /niversity of Aichigan at &nn &rbor report on which brain regions respond to challenging tas s, researchers found that aging brains function differently than young brains. 4indy 5ustig of &nn &rbor used functional magnetic resonance imaging to observe the brains of young adults $aged +@ to 0-% and seniors $C: to ,.% as they tac led simple and difficult mental e"ercises. 3or the easy tas s, brain activity was very similar, but tougher challenges prompted differences. The seniors activated several frontal brain regions that the young adults did not. In addition, the younger people Fturned offG parts of the brain not used during the tas s, but the elders ept those regions active. 5ustig concludes that Folder adults brains can indeed rise to the challenge, at least in some situations, but they may do so differentlyG.

*** *esearchers are a step closer to understanding how &l7heimers disease ta es shape ; literally. & sign of &l7heimers is the presence of protein aggregates in the brain nown as plaques. They are made up of various lengths and conformations of the beta amyloid protein. The proteins lin end to end, forming long, threadli e structures called fibrils. 2ow biologist *oland *ie and his colleagues have constructed a three)dimensional model of the fibrils based on their own e"periments and earlier data published by others. *ie says the model will help investigators to understand protein structure, which could lead to better targeted drugs. 3or e"ample, molecules could be engineered to act as protein binding partners, thus interfering with fibril formation. 6uch a stic y molecule could also be used to diagnose the disease early. The model wor might lend insight to other neurological disorders that involve fibril formation, such as !ar insons disease. *ie says his group will e"tend the three)dimensional wor to other variations of the amyloid protein, because it undergoes many conformational changes on its way to forming a fibril. FWe need to try to trap them in these intermediate statesG, he e"plains.

*** Treating depression could change significantly following the results of a small 4anadian clinical trial that ended in .--:. The procedure used in the study freed several patients from heavy depression that had resisted medication, tal therapy and even electroconvulsive $shoc % treatment. 6tudy co)author Helen 6. Aayberg cautions that any trial so small ; (ust si" patients ; must be considered provisional. Ket four of the si" sub(ectsfelt dramatic and lasting effects. /niversity of Toronto neurosurgeon &ndres 5o7ano implanted battery)powered, pacema erli e devices underneath a patients clavicle, then ran fle"ible, hair)thin electrodes to the subgenual cingulate, a well)buried cortical area that Aayberg had previously found active in depressive or sad states. The electrodes delivered pulses of four volts, +0- times a second. Aayberg hypothesi7ed that in badly depressed patients the subgenual cingulate acts li e a switch left open, allowing depressive circuits to fire more than is necessary. Her results suggest that the regular stimulation might moderate that activity. In .--:, after a year of living with the continuous impulses, the four patients had lowered their scores on the Hamilton 8epression *ating 6cale from the soul)deadening high .-s to between one and eight ; quite healthy.

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*** The young childs reliance on visual impressions is made clear by an e"periment on the conservation of number. If two rows of chec ers are matched one for one against each other, young children will say, correctly, that the rows have the same number of chec ers. If the chec ers in one row are brought closer together to form a cluster, :)year)olds say there are now more chec ers in the straight row ; even though no chec ers have been removed. The visual impression of a long row of chec ers overrides the numerical equality that was obvious when the chec ers appeared in matching rows. In contrast, ?)year)olds assume that if the number of ob(ects was equal before, it must remain equal. &t this age, numerical equality has become more significant than visual impression.

*** 2ot long ago, football was not a good e"ample of globali7ation. The labour mar et in international club football was highly protected. 2ational leagues li e Italys 6erie &and 6pains 5a 5igaimposed quotas on their teams, allowing them to import only a limited number of players. 6ome teams could have only two foreign players on the field. This arrangement, however, began to crumble in +,,:, when the 1uropean court ruled that the difference of treatment of nationals from other 1/ countries was anticonstitutional. This permitted players to move freely within the 1/, and made the club teams much more multi)national. 2ow it is not unusual for a ma(ority of the players on a successful league team to be foreign nationals.

*** In +,C9, Pitty Denovese was murdered outside her home in 2ew Kor 4ity late at night. 6he fought bac , and the murder too over half an hour. &t least 0@ neighbours heard her screams for help, but nobody came to her aid. 2o one even called the police. The &merican public was horrified by this incident, and social psychologists began to investigate the causes of what at first was termed Fbystander apathyG. Their wor showed that FapathyG was not a very accurate term, however. It is not simple indifference that prevents bystanders from intervening in emergencies. 3irst, there are realistic deterrents such as physical danger. 6econd, getting involved may mean lengthy court appearances or other entanglements. Third, emergencies are unpredictable and require quic , unplanned action< few of us are prepared for such situations. 3inally, one ris s ma ing a fool of oneself by misinterpreting a situation as an emergency when it is not. *esearchers concluded that Fthe bystander to an emergency situation is in an unenviable position. It is perhaps surprising that anyone should intervene at allG

*** 8espite various scientific advances, in the early +,--s the public still did not understand mental illness and viewed mental hospitals and their inmates with fear and horror. 4lifford Beers undertoo the tas of educating the public about mental health. &s a young man, Beers developed a bipolar disorder and was confined for 0 years in several private and state hospitals. &lthough chains and other methods of torture had been abandoned long before, the strait(ac et was still widely used to restrain e"cited patients. 5ac of funds made the average state mental hospital ;with its overcrowded wards, poor food, and unsympathetic attendants ;a far from pleasant place to live. &fter his recovery, Beers wrote about his e"periences in the now)famous boo & Aind That 3ound Itself$+,-@%, which aroused considerable public interest. Beers wor ed ceaselessly to educate the public about mental illness and helped to organi7e the 2ational 4ommittee for Aental Hygiene. In +,:-, this organi7ation (oined with two related groups to form the 2ational &ssociation for Aental Health. The mental hygiene movement played an invaluable role in stimulating the organi7ation of child)guidance clinics and community mental health centres to aid in the prevention and treatmentof mental disorders.

*** 8uring the Fhunger winterG of +,99 in &msterdam, over .-,--people died of starvation. Aany of the citys trees were cut down, and the interiors of abandoned buildings bro en up for fuel. When peace came this once most beautiful and urbane of cities was in urgent need of large)scale reconstruction. In the years following the end of World War II in 1urope, modern architecture had an unprecedented opportunity to demonstrate a socially minded, urban style. The consensus today is that in most places it failed. The young 8utch architect &ldo van 1yc was one of the earliest critics of the mechanistic approach ta en by his modernist colleagues to urban reconstruction. The failure of architecture and planning to recreate forms of urban community and solidarity has become a problem in post)war 1urope, as so many acclaimed housing estates, new towns, or newly designed urban quarters, around 1urope, have been troubled by vandalism, disrepair and abandonment. Jan 1yc saw this coming. In +,9? at the age of .@, he went to wor for the 'ffice for !ublic Wor s in &msterdam and, as his first pro(ect, built a small playground. This was in line with his belief that by promoting and shaping the daily FencounterG or Finbetween)nessG of social space, architecture could humani7e cities and create public trust.

*** 1ach year in the touristic town of &grigento, 6icily, hundreds of illegally)built houses are bulldo7ed by the local government. 2ew construction in &grigento, home to many ancient temples which tourists come to see, has been banned since +,C@. In spite of this, hundreds of new and half)built houses can be seen in the hills surrounding the archaeological par . 2ot only do these buildings spoil the landscape, but many are also unsafe and unsanitary. 6ome of the people living in these buildings pour sewage into the sea and pile garbage on roadsides since their houses are illegal and they arent allowed to use the city sewage system and garbage service. 6everal of these houses are also built on dangerous cliffs, sites that would never be allowed by Italys strict building codes.

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*** 8uring our visit in the summer of +,,9 to the 4hernobyl 1"clusion Sone, a region within a 0- m radius of the 4hernobyl 2uclear !ower !lant, we were ama7ed by the diversity of mammals living in the shadow of the ruined reactor only eight years after the meltdown. 8uring our e"cursion through the woods, we trapped some of the local mice for e"amination in a ma eshift laboratory. We were surprised to find that, although each mouse registered unprecedented levels of radiation in its bones and muscles, all the animals seemed physically normal, and many of the females were carrying normal)loo ing embryos. We found that the mice did not have any obvious chromosomal damage. We wondered whether the absence of in(ury could be e"plained by some sort of adaptive change, perhaps a more efficient 82&)repair mechanism, after many prior generations had been e"posed to radiation. But when we transplanted wild mice from uncontaminated regions into cages in the 1"clusion Sone and then e"amined their chromosomes, they were li ewise unaffected by the radiation. In at least this respect, the mice seemed to have a natural FimmunityG to harm from radiation.

*** The concentrations of methane $4H9% and carbon dio"ide $4'.% gases in the atmosphere have both risen dramatically since the start of the Industrial *evolution. However, unli e its more familiar greenhouse)gas cousin, atmospheric methane has recently stopped increasing in abundance. This development wasnt entirely unanticipated, given that the rate of increase has been slowing for at least a quarter)century. The recent stabili7ation of methane levels is something that some scientists are trying very hard to e"plain. Aethane has many sources. 6ome are natural, such as wetlands and plants, and some are the consequences of modern society, such as landfills and wastewater treatment. Aethane is destroyed principally by its reaction with the hydro"yl radical $'H% in the lower atmosphere. 'ne theory about the stabili7ation of methane levels is that deforestation has reduced the number of plants contributing to atmospheric methane. &nother idea is that an increase in the prevalence of tropical thunderstorms may have raised the amounts of the various nitrogen o"ides high in the atmosphere. There, these gases have the side effect of boosting the production of 'H, which in turn acts to destroy methane.

*** In an attempt to settle the question of whether ice e"ists on the moon, 2&6& plans to launch the 5unar *econnaissance 'rbiter $5*'% in .--@. Travelling in a polar orbit only :- ilometres above the moons surface, the probe will focus a high)resolution neutron sensor on the suspected ice deposits to determine their precise locations. But because the ice is probably buried and mi"ed with lunar dirt, 2&6& will also need to land a probe to dig up and analy7e soil samples. This mission, scheduled for .-++, is a challenging one because instruments operating in shadowed areas cannot use solar power. The craft could land at a sunlit site and send a battery)powered vehicle into a dar crater, but the batteries would quic ly die. & radioisotope thermal generator could provide electricity using heat from plutonium decay, but 2&6& is leaning against this option because it is e"pensive and controversial. &nother idea under consideration is sending a probe that could hop from place to place on the lunar surface by restarting its landing roc ets, lifting the craft to +-- metres above its original landing site and moving it to another spot in the crater basin to hunt for ice. Investigating more than one site is crucial because the ice may be unevenly distributed. Ket another alternative would be to fire groundpenetrating instruments at several places in the shadowed basin, either from a lander at the craters rim or from an orbiting craft.

*** In +,@-, the physicist 5u[s &lvare7 and his son Walter advanced a startling theory about the demise of the dinosaursE that it was caused by forces that came from beyond this world. They hypothesi7ed that perhaps a meteor impact had ended the age of the dinosaurs. The primary evidence was that in soil core samples ta en in locations around the globe, iridium, a substance very rare on 1arth but prevalent on asteroids, had been found in a thin layer of clay separating the fossil)rich roc of the late 4retaceous period $the end of the dinosaur age% and the sparsely fossiled roc of the Tertiaryperiod that followed. The &lvare7es hypothesi7ed that a very large e"traterrestrial ob(ect had slammed into the planet, sending an enormous fireball into the stratosphere, along with vast amounts of debris. & great cloud of dust enshrouded 1arth, bloc ing sunlight for months, even years, and plants and animals perished in the ensuing cold and dar . When the dust finally settled bac to 1arth, it formed the telltale worldwide layer of iridium in the clay. The scientific world was not impressed by the theory. Indeed, some scientists scoffed at the &lvare7es hypothesis, but in +,,scientists reali7ed that a crater of ++. miles in diametre in Ae"ico and dated at C: million years old might be evidence that the dinosaurs had indeed died out due to the effects of a giant meteor.

*** 6tem cells, unli e all other cells in the body, can copy themselves indefinitely. 6o)called adult stem cells are found in many parts of the body, constantly re(uvenating the brain, remodelling arteries so blood can bypass clogs, and growing new s in to heal wounds. However, adult stem cells have more limited power than embryonic stem cells, which can turn into any type of cell in the body. Indeed, scientists are hoping that embryonic stem cells could be turned into neurons to fi" damaged brains, cardiac cells to repair damaged hearts, or pancreatic cells to create insulin for people with diabetes. Aaybe they could even be used to regenerate whole organs. To date, scientists worldwide have made more than +-- different human embryonic cell lines. 6till, the e"isting lines have serious limitations. Aost have been grown on a lattice of mouse embryonic s in cells for support. 4onsequently, the human embryonic cells are contaminated by mouse cells, and though theyre still useful for research, they cannot at present be used to develop therapies for humans.

*** Aount Jesuvius in southern Italy is actually a volcano inside the e"ploded s eleton of an older volcano. 5oo ed at from above, the remaining ridge of a much larger volcano can be seen on the north side. This older volcano had probably erupted violently long before human settlement. 6outhern Italy is unstable ground. The &frican continental plate, on which most of the Aediterranean 6ea rests, is actually diving beneath the 1uropean plate. That ind of underground collision produces molten roc , or magma, rich in volatile gases such as sulfur dio"ide. /nder pressure underground, these gases stay dissolved. But when the magma rises to the surface, the gases are released. &ccordingly, when volcanoes li e Jesuvius erupt, they tend to erupt e"plosively. To this day, in fact, Jesuvius remains one of the worlds most dangerous volcanoes< some 0.: million Italians live in its shadow. &lthough monitoring devices are in place to warn of the volcanos activity, if there were a ma(or eruption with little warning, there could be a tremendous loss of life.

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*** The most common cause of cyanidepoisoning is smo e inhalation. & source to the public is acetonitrilein the form of artificial fingernail remover. 4yanide poisoning produces cellular hypo"ia by binding with the ferric iron of mitochondrial cytochrome o"idase, disrupting the electron transport chain and the ability of cells to use o"ygen. !atients who inhale cyanide may rapidly develop coma, shoc , sei7ures, lactic acidosis, and respiratory and cardiac arrest. Aild e"posures following smo e inhalation are now being described. 8iagnosis may be difficult in these patients, and emergency administration of an antidote may be lifesaving. !atients with smo e inhalation who show evidence of lactic acidosis should be suspected of cyanide poisoning. The body has a natural en7yme, called FrhodaneseG, which can comple" cyanide and sulphur to form mildly to"ic thiocyanate. Intravenous administration of sodium thiosulphate provides the sulphur necessary to produce thiocyanate and is relatively safe. 6odiumnitrite may also be administered, but its use is reserved for the most critical cases only, because it causes hypertension and methemoglobinemia.

*** 6timulation of several areasof the hypothalamus in the brain causes an animal to e"perience e"treme hunger, a voracious appetite, and an intense desire to search for food. The area most associated with hunger is the lateral hypothalamic area. 8amage to this area sometimes causes the animal to lose desire for food, sometimes causing lethal starvation. 'n the other hand, a centre inthe hypothalamus that opposes the desire for food, called the satiety centre, is located in the ventromedial nucleus. When this centre is stimulated electrically, an animal that is eating food suddenly stops eating and shows complete indifference to food. However, if this area is destroyed bilaterally, the animal cannot be satiated< instead, its hypothalamichunger centres become overactive, so that it has a voracious appetite, resulting in tremendous obesity.

*** When doctors suspect meningitis, they must quic ly determine whether it is from a bacterial, viral, fungal, or other type of infection or from irritation caused by something other than an infection $for e"ample, a chemical%. The possible causes are many, and the treatment differs for each. The test usually used to diagnose meningitis and determine its cause is the spinal tap, or lumbar puncture. & thin needle is inserted between two bones in the lower spinal column to withdraw a sample of cerebrospinal fluid from an area (ust below the spinal cord. The doctor then e"amines the fluid for bacteria under a microscope and sends a sample of it to the laboratory to be cultured and identified. The bacteria can be tested for susceptibility to treatment with different antibiotics. The sugar level, an increase in protein, and the number and type of white blood cells in the fluid also help determine the type of infection.

*** The ultimate importance of the pulmonary ventilatory system is to continually renew the air in the gas e"change areas of the lungs, where the air is in pro"imity to pulmonary blood. These areas include the alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles. However, during normal quiet respiration, the volumeof air is only enough to fill the respiratory passageways down as far as the terminal bronchioles, with only a small portion of the inspired air actually flowing all the way to the alveoli. 6ome of the molecules in the inspired air travel the final short distance to the alveoli through diffusion, but most never reach the gas e"change areas of the lungs, instead going to fill respiratory passages where gas e"change does not occur, such as the nose, pharyn" and trachea. This air is called dead space airbecause it is not useful for the gas e"change process< the respiratory passages where no gas e"change ta es place are called dead space. 'n e"piration, the air in the dead space is e"pired first, before any of the air from the alveoli reaches the atmosphere. Therefore, the dead space does not aid in removal of the e"piratory gases from the lungs.

*** In dialysis with an artificial idney, the rate of movement of solute across the dialy7ing membrane depends on four variablesE the concentration gradient of the solute between the blood and the dialy7ing fluid, the permeability of the membrane to the solute, the surface area of the membrane, and the length of time that the blood and fluid remain in contact with the membrane. Thus, the ma"imum rate of solute transfer occurs initially when the concentration gradient is greatest $when dialysis is begun% and slows down as the concentration gradient is dissipated. In a flowing system such as haemodialysis, in which blood and dialysate fluid flow through an artificial idney, the dissipation of the concentration gradient can be reduced, and diffusion of solute across the membrane can be optimi7ed by increasing the flow rate of either or both the blood and dialy7ing fluid.

*** Jirologist *obert Webster thin s that the H:2+ strain of the avian influen7a virus poses the most serious public health threat since the 6panish flu pandemic of +,+@, which illed an estimated 9- million to +-- million people worldwide. &lthough the H:2+ strain has so far shown no signs that it has acquired the ability to transmit easily from person to person, Webster says that it is only a matter of time before it does. 3or that to happen, Webster and others believe that a version of the human flu virus, which is easily transmittable between people, and the H:2+ avian virus would have to infect the same mammalian cell at the same time and re) combine their 82&. If H:2+ pic s up those genes from the human flu virus that enable it to spread from person to person, Webster says that virtually nobody will have immunity to it, and many deaths may ensue.

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*** The *oman city of !ompeii in &.8. ?, was a thriving provincial centre, a few miles from the Bay of 2aples, with a population of between +-,--- and .-,--- people. Its narrow streets, made narrower by street vendors and shops with cloth awnings for shade, were full of shoppers, tavern)goers, slaves, and vacationers from the 2orth. & huge new aqueduct supplied running water from the 5ower &pennine mountains, which flowed from fountains throughout the city, even in private homes. But the ey to !ompeiis prosperity, and that of smaller settlements nearby li e 'plontis and Ter7igna, was the regions rich blac earth provided by Aount Jesuvius volcanic eruptions. F'ne of the ironies of volcanoes is that they tend to produce very fertile soils, and that tends to tempt people to live around themG, says geologist !hilip #aney. Had *oman nowledge in the summer of &.8. ?, been less mythological and more geological, the !ompeiians might have recogni7ed the danger signs from Aount Jesuvius and escaped the volcanic eruption that was to follow.

*** 6upporters of todays international criminal tribunals say that their wor builds on the post)World War II tribunals in 2uremberg and, to a lesser degree, To yo. &s a matter of legal doctrine, that is true. The category of Fcrimes against humanityG, for e"ample, was developed at 2uremberg and is now a central element in many prosecutions. But there is a critical difference between now and then. The courts in 2uremberg and To yo were part of a broader political pro(ect that aimed to rehabilitate Dermany and #apan, respectively, both socially and economically, not simply to try guilt or innocence or hand out harsh punishments. These were military courts that operated with military efficiency, and the &llies could then focus fully on the reconstruction of these countries. Ket, the international courts for the former Kugoslavia, *wanda, and the new International 4riminal 4ourt $I44% in the Hague, on the other hand, operate under civilian law and provide generous protection to defendants. The result is a ballooning of the court timelines and costs. 3or instance, it too the International 4riminal Tribunal for *wanda $I4T*% +- years to complete the same number of trials that 2uremberg conducted in less than a year. Indeed, it is clear that, because of their protracted proceedings and e"cessive costs, todays war crimes trials cannot serve the decisive political and social function that 2uremberg did.

*** &rtist !aul 4U7anne wanted to ma e paint FbleedG. The old masters, he said, painted warmblooded flesh and made the trees loo warm and alive, and he would too. He wanted to capture Fthe green odourG of his !rovence fields and Fthe perfume of marble from 6aint)JictoireG, the mountain that was the sub(ect of so many of his paintings. He was bold, spreading and slapping paint onto his still)lifes with a palette nife. FI will astonish !aris with an appleG, he boasted. In the years when his friends Aanet, Aonet, !issarro and *enoir were finally gaining acceptance, 4U7anne wor ed furiously and mostly in isolation, ridiculed by critics and moc ed by the public, sometimes tearing up his own canvases. He wanted more than the quic impressions of the Impressionists, and devoted himself to studying the natural world. He called himself a Fslave to natureG, but he new that he could never completely capture the natural landscape on canvas.

*** The ability to deal with numbers and mathematical concepts reveals an interesting pattern of differences between girls and boys. Dirls usually begin counting before boys. Throughout the primary)school years and middle school, girls are better at computational problems, whereas boys do better with mathreasoning problems. 8uring this period, girls also tend to get higher grades. By high school, however, boys begin to perform better, especially at the higher levels of ability. 6ome psychologists believe this advantage is genetic, but others thin that it may derive, in part, from males use of more effective strategies and their lower level of an"iety when approaching mathematics problems. It has also been suggested that the se" differences come about to some degree because girls view math as a male activity $and, therefore, have less interest in it% and because some parents and teachers offer greater encouragement to males in this area. 6ome studies support this analysis, but others do not. In this area, too, biological and sociali7ation factors probably combine to produce the observed differences.

*** &ngolas emergence as a serious player in the global oil sector has been underlined by the publication of its latest production figures. &fter several years of slow output growth, the fruits of the multi)billion dollar deepwater investment programme are finally feeding through. Thus, production reached +.0 million barrels a day during the final quarter of .--:. With the new deepwater fields now coming into production, the governments target of producing . million barrels a day by .--@ now seems eminently within reach. In the meantime, official &ngolan government figures indicate that oil production averaged +..: million barrels a day during the course of .--:, a steep (ump on the year before. In addition, the governments estimate of proven oil reserves has finally been increased from :.9 billion barrels to +..9 billion barrels. This shows that, as sub)6aharan &fricas second biggest oil producer after 2igeria, &ngola is in an e"cellent position to overta e countries such as 5ibya and &lgeria in the table of oil powers on the continent as a whole.

*** The printing press was first introduced into 1ngland by William 4a"ton in the last quarter of the fifteenth century. 8uring his earlier travels in 1urope, he had seen the newly invented system of printing from moveable type in Dermany. He set up his own press in 5ondon in +9?C. This initiated a ma(or change in 1nglish literature. 2ow boo s did not have to be laboriously copied by hand. 6oon, they would become relatively cheap. With boo s easily obtainable, more people could learn to read, and more boo s would be produced. The e"perience of literature would soon shift from the breathless group of listeners gathered in a hall or around a fire, hearing an old tale told once more, to the solitary individual, alone with the thoughts and feelings of another person spea ing from the printed page.

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*** *obots ma e unli ely green warriors, but they could soon be doing their bit for the environment. Trials of a 8anish robot that maps the position of weeds growing among crops suggest that herbicide use could be reduced by ?- per cent if farmers used it to adopt more selective spraying techniques. &ctually, the robot drives across fields scanning the ground for any weeds and noting their positions. & later version will be able to ill the weeds too by applying a few drops of herbicide. But the longer)term goal is to avoid herbicides altogether by having the robot pluc the weeds out of the ground rather than poisoning them. &lthough weed illing robots have already been put to wor in the /nited 6tates, they cannot be used for agricultural purposes because they do not distinguish between plant species and tend to treat anything green as a weed. Instead, they are used to clear unwanted plants from railways and airport runways.

*** The world now recycles (ust over :- per cent of the paper it uses. *eprocessing plants are being established in most countries. However, trees will never be fully spared because of the use of wood fibres themselves. !ure pulp is rich in water, which provides for ample hydrogen bonding that holds fibres together when made into paper. But each time a fibre is cleaned, de)in ed and dried in a reprocessing plant, only @- per cent of the bonds are recovered. &fter four or five recyclings, a fibre can no longer ma e strong enough bonds. 1ngineers can do little that is economically viable to overcome this physical limitation, so they focus on reducing the cost of reprocessing fresher fibres. 'ne main challenge is finding a better way to neutrali7e Fstic iesG, which is the mess of adhesives from stamps, labels, seals, tape, maga7ine spines and various other sources, that (am the machinery. The industry has been wor ing for a decade to find a chemical process that will brea down stic ies, but no full solution has been found yet.

*** The first documented scheme for in)flight refuelling came from a young *ussian aviator named &le"ander de 6evers y. His father owned a plane and taught him to fly when he was in his early teens. In +,+?, when he was .0, 6evers y proposed a method for e"tending flightE 'ne plane could carry e"tra fuel and deliver it to another through a hose. &fter the *ussian *evolution, *ussias new Bolshevi government sent him to the /nited 6tates to study aircraft design, and he stayed there when political developments made his return to *ussia dangerous. He got a (ob as an aeronautical engineer for the /6 War 8epartment and was awarded the worlds first patent for air)to)air refuelling, in which large fuel tan ers would supply fuel to fighter aircraft while in flight. 6evers y went on to a distinguished career in airplane design and achieved perhaps his greatest fame as the author of the influential +,9. boo Jictory through &ir !ower. He never put his refuelling plan into action, though, and other aviators later came up with ideas of their own.

*** Aount 1verest is the highest mountain on 1arth above sea level, but it is not the worlds tallest. That honour goes to the Hawaiian volcano Aauna Pea. When measured from its base on the !acific 'cean floor, it is about +,--- metres taller than Aount 1verest. Aauna Pea is part of a :,C--) ilometre)long chain of volcanoes stretching westward from the main Hawaiian island. This volcanic chain is formed by small convection streams called Fhot spotsG, (ust below the 1arths crust, where magma rises from the hotter parts of the mantle, the region between the crust and the core of the earth. These hot spots melt sections of the tectonic plates moving above them, causing magma and bits of the molten plate to erupt onto the sea floor. 'ver time, the lava accumulates, forming a mountain that rises above sea level. The moving tectonic plates carry the newly)formed mountain away from its original location, as newer volcanoes continue to form in the same spot.

*** 'ne of the most pressing international priorities is to control the dissemination ofnuclear materials that could be used in attac s by terrorists or rogue states. 2uclear materials contain unstable isotopes, which emit ")rays and gamma rays. The characteristic energies of these photons provide a fingerprint revealing which radioactive isotopes are present. /nfortunately, some isotopes that occur in benign applications emit gamma rays with energies that are very similar to those emitted by materials used in weapons, which leads to ambiguous identifications and false alarms. This problem has been worrying the /nited 6tates, which is installing thousands of radiation portal monitors to detect the gamma rays emitted by nuclear materials carried by vehicles crossing the 4anadian and Ae"ican borders. 'ne of the worst fears of the authorities is that terrorists might smuggle highly)enriched uranium into the country to build a crude Hiroshima)style atomic bomb.

*** Aeteorites offer glimpses of the earliest stages of planetary formation. 6tony)iron meterorites come in two main classesE pallasites and mesosiderites, and it was previously thought they may have had similar origins. & new study, however, has revealed that their o"ygen isotope properties differ and that they come from distinct places. &ccordingly, the characteristics of mesosiderites suggest they came from the third largest asteroid, Jesta, which is the target of the 2&6& 8awn Aission. 'n the other hand, pallasites are made of mi"ed core)mantle material from a disrupted asteroid, indicating that e"tensive asteroid deformation was an integral part of planetary enlargement in the early solar system.

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*** !ain is a signal that protects us from harmful stimuli. &n e"cess of any type of stimulus such as pressure, heat, cold, e"cessive mechanical stretch, and specific chemical compounds stimulates pain receptors. In the human body, pain receptors are the tips of certain sensory neurons found in almost every tissue. However, most internal organs are poorly supplied with pain receptors. 3or this reason, pain from internal structures is often difficult to locate. In fact, pain is often not pro(ected bac to the organ that is stimulated. Instead, it is referred to an area (ust under the s in that may be some distance from the organ involved. The area to which the pain is referred is connected to nerve fibres from the same level of the spinal cord as the organ involved.

*** !rotected inside the bony vertebrae of the spine is an inch)thic gelatinous bundle of nervous tissue called Fthe spinal cordG, which acts as the central communication conduit between the brain and the rest of the body. Aillions of nerve fibres carry motor information from the brain to the muscles, while other fibres bring sensory information from the body to the brain. In its structure and functions, the spinal cord may be compared to a transcontinental telephone cable (am)pac ed with wires, each of which carries messages both ways. But what happens if that cable is cutH 6ignals cannot get through, communication is lost, and the cable must be repaired or replaced. In humans, though, this is not a simple process due to the sensitive nature of the spinal cord. The spinal cord is rarely severed because the vertebrae provide rigid protection. However, a traumatic blow to the spinal column and subsequent bleeding, swelling and scarring can crush the delicate nerve bundles and prevent signals from passing. The result may be a debilitating in(ury.

*** 'ur idneys e"crete metabolic wastes and help regulate the volume and composition of body fluids. Their vital function is compromised in more than +0 million people in the /nited 6tates who suffer from idney disease. In fact, idney disease ran s fourth in prevalence among ma(or human diseases in the /nited 6tates. Pidney function can be impaired by infections, poisoning by substances such as mercury, lesions, tumours, idney stones, shoc or circulatory disease. 3or instance, one of the most common idney diseases both in the /nited 6tates and in the world is glomerulonephritis,which is related to the damage of the idneys filtering units. The damage is thought to result from an autoimmune response.

*** Immune deficiency, which in fact means an inadequate immune response, may occur for several reasons. 3or e"ample, it is a side effect of most chemotherapy drugs used to treat cancer. Immune deficiency also occurs naturally. &lthough the immune system is not functional at birth, infants are protected by antibodies they have received from their mother through the placenta, and infants who breastfeed also receive antibodies from their mothers mil . These antibodies offer protection until the infants own immune system develops during the first months of life. In rarecases, the immune system fails to develop, leaving the child without immune protection. 1"posure to any virus or bacterium can be fatal to these children. Therefore, they are sealed into sterile quarters to isolate them from the microorganisms that are part of the normal world.

*** The causes of schi7ophrenia are un nown, although the disease has a strong genetic component. 6tudies of identical twins show that if one twin has schi7ophrenia, there is a :-= chance that the other twin will have it, too. 6ince identical twins share identical genes, this indicates that schi7ophrenia has an equally strong environmental component, the nature of which has not been identified. 4urrent treatments for schi7ophrenia focus on brain pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter. 8espite their ability to alleviate symptoms, many of the drugs used to treat schi7ophrenia have such negative side effects thatpatients frequently stop ta ing them. 2ow that the human genome has been sequenced, there is a vigorous effort under way to find the mutant genes that predispose a person to the disease. This effort includes sequencing 82& from families with a high incidence of schi7ophrenia.

*** !eople who believe they may be infected with HIJ, as well as those who now they are, can benefit from various psychological interventions. !eople with high)ris behaviours may have difficulty deciding whether to be tested for HIJ, and psychologists can provide both information and support for these people. & significant minority of homose"ual and bise"ual men, intravenous drug users, and a larger proportion of heterose"ual men and women with multiple partners and inconsistent users of condoms have never been tested for HIJ. Indeed, an estimated ?-= of people who are HIJ)positive have not been tested and thus do not now their HIJ status. Because HIJ infection has a long incubation period, at)ris heterose"ual men and women may contaminate others for years before they learn they have HIJ. However, people learning of an HIJpositive test result typically react with increased an"iety, depression, anger and distress. Therefore, trained psychotherapists are needed to help such people cope with their diagnosis.

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*** We commonly spea of both lawand laws,and these terms, though not used with precision, point to two different aspects under which legal science may be approached. The laws of a country are thought of as separate, distinct, individual rules< the law of a country, however much we may analyse it into separate rules, is something more than the mere sum of such rules. It is, rather, a whole, a system which orders our conduct and in which the separate rules have their place and their relation to each other and to the whole. Aoreover, it is never completely e"hausted by any analysis, however far the analysis may be pushed, and however much the analysis may be necessary to our understanding of the whole. Thus, each rule which we call a law is part of the whole we call the law. 5awyers generally spea of law< laymen more often of laws.

*** We have all heard people from other countries described in very general terms. 3or instance, it has been said that FDermans wor hardG and F&mericans are friendlyG. 6uch generali7ations or stereotypes are very crude, and common sense tells us that not all Dermans wor hard and not all &mericans are friendly. &t the same time, there appears to be some truth in these generali7ations since people from different countries share different characteristics. What these crude statements ac nowledge, however, is that people from differentcountries have distinctive cultures and social customs. & societys culture includes its customs, values, beliefs, ideas and the artifacts it produces. &ttitudes towards such things as wor , leisure, wealth, the role of women, and the value of education in one societys culture might be significantly different from the attitudes and values found in another societys culture. This is also the case regarding attitudes found in different countries towards politics and the political system.

*** 3our years ago in .--0, when !aul Barrett first began planning an ambitious boo on Auslims in &merica, who would have thought thatthe topic would still be of such urgent interest by the time it was published early this yearH But, if anything, intervening events have made Barretts e"ploration of &merican Auslims more timely and important than ever. With the /nited 6tates even more deeply embroiled in warfare in Iraq and &fghanistan, with sectarian conflict e"ploding within the Auslim world, with tensions high among Auslim populations in 1urope, and with relations strained between some leaders of the 4hristian and Islamic religions, readers need as much information as they can get about Islam and its adherents. In his boo , Barrett notes that, despite being targets of suspicion in the wa e of the attac s of 6eptember ++, Auslims in &merica, as a group, offer a perfect illustration of old)fashioned &merican assimilation. 'verall, they are prosperous, well)educated, politically active, and successful in business and the professions.

*** The way in which British people view Britains role in the world is still influenced by its past. Today Britain is an important regional power, but in the recent past it was a world power. /ntil World War II, Britain ruled the largest empire that the world has ever nown. Incredible as it may seem today, during the +,.-s, almost one)fifth of the worlds population lived under British rule. But the empire disappeared rapidly during the +,9-s, +,:-s and +,C-s as the colonies that had made up the empire gained their independence. In the aftermath of the empire, British leaders were not very successful in adapting to play a much smaller part in world affairs. However, Britains allies made it clear that they no longer saw Britain as a ma(or force in world politics. The Fspecial relationshipG which was said to e"ist between Britain and the /nited 6tates wea ened as other 1uropean countries, particularly Dermany, recovered after World War II. 6o, whereas 5ondon had been recogni7ed by &merican leaders as the FcapitalG of 1urope during the +,9-s and the +,:-s, Bonn was seen as the new capital of 1urope during the +,C-s.

*** Pier egaard was one of the most original thin ers of the nineteenth century in 1urope. He wrote widely on religious, philosophical, and literary themes. However, his peculiar manner of presenting some of his leading ideas initially obscured their fundamental significance. He developed his views in strong opposition to prevailing opinions, such as certain metaphysical claims about the relation of thought to e"istence. He reacted against the ethical and religious theories of Pant and Hegel. Aoreover, he opposed the doctrines and ideas which were being advanced by some of his contemporaries li e 3euerbach and Aar". His discussion of the human condition, which emphasi7es the significance of individual choice, has arguably been his most stri ing philosophical legacy, particularly for the growth of e"istentialism.

*** 8eveloping mar ets, historically the domain of hyperinflation and political manipulation, now en(oy high surpluses, than s to record commodity prices and severe fiscal discipline. 6ince .--+ these economies have achieved three times the average annual per)capita economic growth of their developed counterparts and now represent a quarter of global output. 6toc s in emerging mar ets are causing much e"citement among investors. However, too much e"citement invites peril. 1merging mar ets have undeniably changed in the past decade, but lately they are loo ing overgrown, and even a minor crisis could send them tumbling. &nd while the potential triggers for a fall have changed, they are still there. &s economies in the developing world get stronger, governments are getting more assertive and meddling with both companies and neighbouring countries, increasing political ris .

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*** There were many heated debates in the nineteenth century about the relationship between chemical reactions and living organisms. 6ome scientists felt that fermentation was an activity of living things and, therefore, could not ta e place outside of living cells. This was proved by the wor 5ouis !asteur undertoo for the 3rench wine industry. Indeed, in the +@:-s, the 3rench wine industry was having serious trouble with wine that had spoiled. The 3rench emperor, 2apoleon III, called in !asteur to help. !asteur new that the fermentation which produced wine was caused by living yeast cells. But now he found that certain bacteria could also carry out fermentation. He discovered that fermentation by bacteria spoils wine because it produces vinegar $acetic acid% instead of the alcohol produced by yeast. !asteur suggested that the winema ers heat the wine for a short time to destroy the bacteria. They were horrified, but it wor ed. The process, pasteuri7ation, is still usedtoday, especially for mil .

*** !luto, which was until recently regarded as the outermost and smallest planet in the solar system, has never been visited by an e"ploring spacecraft. 6o little is nown about it that it is difficult to classify. Its distance from 1arth is so great that the Hubble 6pace Telescope cannot reveal its surface features. &ppropriately named for the *oman god of the underworld, it must be fro7en, dar , and dead. Its mean distance from the 6un is :,,-- million ilometres. In fact, it has the most eccentric orbit in the solar system, bringing it at times closer to the 6un than 2eptune. 3urthermore, there is evidence that !luto has an atmosphere, containing methane, and a polar ice cap that increases and decreases in si7e with !lutos seasons. It is not nown to have water. The Hubble 6pace Telescopes faint)ob(ect camera revealed light and dar regions on !luto, indicating an ice cap at the north pole. It is not nown if there is an ice cap at !lutos south pole.

*** 3ossils are the remains of organisms which have endured for fantastic periods of time. 3ossils can be bones or teeth or even plant or animal imprints preserved in roc since prehistoric times. The appearance of fossils in roc has been a source of wonder and fascination to man for centuries. The fossil of an ancient sea animal was even found among the possessions of a prehistoric man. Aany people have tried to e"plain fossils. &ristotle believed they were the remains of living creatures, but thought the creatures grew in the roc s. 6ome people believed that fossils were placed in roc s by evil spirits. 'ther e"planationswere remar ably modern. 3or e"ample, Herodotus, an ancient Dree historian, observed fossil seashells in the 5ibyan desert in 9:- B.4. and guessed that the Aediterranean 6ea had once reached much farther south than it does today.

*** Today the world faces a growing crisis over the management of its great rivers. In recent years, most of the great rivers in the world, such as the Kellow *iver in 4hina, the Indus, the 4olorado, and the 2ile, have all periodically run empty because man ind has used their every last drop.Indeed, there is a huge unmet demand in the world for water. Aore than a billion people have no access to clean drin ing water, and while it is hoped that this figure will be halved by .-+:, nobody is sure where the water will come from. With todays trends, one)third of the world population will be seriously short of water by .-.:. !oliticians in 4hina, India, !a istan, 1gypt and other waterstressed countries want their water engineers to find solutions ; and fast.

*** & population is a group of individual organisms of the same ind that are limited to some particular space. The most familiar e"ample is the human population, but there are also populations of animals and plants everywhere on 1arth. In fact, scientists regard a population as a biological unit that has both structure and function. The parts of a population are its individual members. The functions of a population are similar to those of other biological unitsE growth, development, and self)maintenance in a changing environment. Individuals enter a population by birth and by moving in, that is, by immigration. Individuals leave a population by death and by moving out, that is, by emigration. If the environment of a population remains the same, loss and replacement of members are in balance. The population will be able to survive in that particular environment. If the environment changes, however, loss or addition of members increases or decreases the si7e of the population.

*** The huge ice sheet covering Dreenland, which is the worlds largest island, provides a habitat for many arctic species and holds nearly @ per cent of the worlds freshwater. It is, on average, :,--feet thic and is constantly being replaced as snow falls each winter. 'ver the course of centuries, the snow compacts into ice, which slides towards the ocean. In recent years, higher atmospheric concentrations of heat)trapping gases have accelerated that process. &s temperatures rise, the top layers melt, giving way to dar er, heat)absorbing ice and liquid water. The meltwater seeps down to the roc below, lubricating the ice mass and speeding its slide into the sea.

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*** &utism, from the Dree word for Fself,G was first identified as a disorder in +,90. Initially, it was thought to be a psychological disorder brought on by cold or unemotional mothers, and curable by intensive sessions of psychotherapy. 8uring the +,C-s, specialists reali7ed that autistics frequently had epilepsy and abnormal brain scans, which led to the condition being recogni7ed as a brain disorder by the +,?-s. &utism is now nown to be a hereditary neurological condition, about three times more common in boys than girls. /sually, autistics lac the ability to relate normally to other people and have an an"ious desire to maintain a routine, which evolves with age into intense interests or obsessions. Aany autistic people deliver monologues on topics while unaware of other peoples comments or possible discomfort. There are several related, but different, forms of autism. 8epending on the severity, symptoms can sometimes be alleviated with carefully controlled antidepressants, although sufferers typically find it difficult to function normally in society.

*** !eople who fail to eat enough food to meet energy needs ris nutrient deficiencies, including thiamin deficiency. Inadequate thiamin inta es have been reported among malnourished and homeless people. 6imilarly, people who derive most of their energy from empty) calorie items, li e alcohol, ris thiamin deficiency. &lcohol contributes energy, but provides few, if any, nutrients and often displaces food. In addition, alcohol enhances thiamin e"cretion in the urine, doubling the ris of deficiency. !rolonged thiamin deficiency can result in the disease Fberiberi,G which was first observed in 1ast &sia when the custom of polishing rice became widespread. *ice provided @- per cent of the energy inta e of the people of that area, and ricehulls $the outer s in of rice% were their principal source of thiamin. When the hulls were removed, beriberi spread li e wildfire. Because thiamin participates in nerve processes, paralysis sets in when it islac ing. The symptoms of beriberi include damage to the nervous system as well as to the heart and other muscles.

*** Because o"ygen is one of the ma(or substances required for chemical reactions in the cells, it is fortunate that the body has a special control mechanism to maintain an almost e"act and constant o"ygen concentration in the e"tracellular fluid. This mechanism depends principally on the chemical characteristic of haemoglobin, which is present in all red blood cells. Haemoglobin combines with o"ygen as blood passes through the lungs. Then, as the blood passes through the tissue capillaries, haemoglobin, because of its own strong chemical affinity for o"ygen, does not release o"ygen into the tissue fluid if too much o"ygen is already there. If the o"ygen concentration is too low, however, sufficient amounts are released to re)establish adequate tissue o"ygen concentration. Thus, the regulation of o"ygen concentration in the tissues depends principally on the chemical characteristics of haemoglobin itself.

*** The single most effective step people can ta e against hypertension is to find out whether they have it. &t chec )up time, a health)care professional can provide an accurate resting blood pressure reading. /nder normal conditions, blood pressure fluctuates continously in response to a variety of factors including such things as tal ing or shifting position. 6ome people react emotionally to the procedure, which raises the blood pressure reading. 3or these reasons, if the resting blood pressure is above normal, the reading should be repeated before confirming the diagnosis ofhypertension. Thereafter, the blood pressure should be chec ed regularly. In general, efforts to reduce high blood pressure focus on weight control, because e"cess body fat, especially abdominal fat, can precipitate hypertension. Indeed, weightloss alone is one of the most effective nondrug treatments for hypertension. Those who are using drugs to control their blood pressure can often reduce or discontinue the drugs if they lose weight. 1ven a modest loss of : ilograms may significantly lower blood pressure.

*** The evidence lin ing dietary fat with cancer is less conclusive than for heart disease, but it does suggest an association between total fat inta e and some types of cancer. 8ietary fat seems not to initiate cancer development but to promote cancer once it has arisen. 6ome studies report a relationship between specific cancers and saturated fat or dietary fat from animal sources, which is mostly saturated. Thus, health advice to reduce the ris of cancer parallels that given toreduce the ris of heart diseaseE reduce total fat inta e, especially saturated fat. The relationship between dietary fat and the ris of cancer differs for various types of cancers. In the case of breast cancer, some studies indicate little or no association between dietary fat and cancer. 'thers find that total energy inta e is a better predictor than the percentage of calories from fat. In the case of prostate cancer, there does appear to be a strong association with fat. This association appears to be due primarily to saturated fat from meats< fat from mil or fish has not been implicated in cancer ris .

*** 'ral cancers develop in 0-,--- &mericans and cause @,--deaths each year, mostly in people over age 9-. This represents about ..: per cent of cancer cases and +.: per cent of all cancer) related deaths. 4learly this is a high rate considering the small si7e of the mouth in relation to the rest of the body. &long with cancers of the lung and s in, cancers of the mouth are more preventable than most other cancers. 2on)cancerous and cancerous growths can originate in any type of tissue in and around the mouth, including bone, muscle, and nerve. *arely, cancers found in the mouth region have spread there from other parts of the body ; most commonly the lung, breast and prostate. 6creening for oral cancer should be an integral part of medical and dental e"aminations because early detection is critical. 4ancers less than a half inch across can usually be cured easily. /nfortunately, most oral cancers arent diagnosed until theyve spread to the lymph nodes of the (aw and nec . Because of delayed detection, .: per cent of oral cancers are fatal.

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*** The most important idea of the nineteenth century in Britain was that everyone had the right to personal freedom, and this became the basis of capitalism. This idea, which had originated with &dam 6mith in the eighteenth century, spread widely due to the popularity of his boo The Wealth of 2ations. &fter &dam 6mith, several capitalist economists argued that the government should not interfere in trade and industry at all. 3ewer laws, they claimed, meant more freedom, and freedom for individuals would lead to happiness for the greatest number of people. These ideas were eagerly accepted by the growing middle class. However, it soon became very clear that the freedom of factory owners to do as they pleased had led to slavery and misery for the poor, not to happiness or freedom. By +@.-, more and more people had begun to accept the idea that the government must interfere toprotect the poor and the wea . The result was a number of laws to improve wor ing conditions. 3or instance, one of the laws, which went into effect in +@00, limited the number of hours that women and children were allowed to wor .

*** 8uring the economic depression that affected the whole Western world in the +,0-s, with its mass unemployment, poverty and other social ills, governments, for the mostpart, did nothing. The accepted wisdom was that, given time, the free mar et would solve its own problems and that government interference would only ma e things worse. #ohn Aaynard Peynes, the British economist who challenged this belief, argued that it was the proper responsibility of governments to prevent both booms and recessions in order to maintain gradual economic growth and permanent full employment. He maintained that this could be done by manipulating ta"ation, credit and public e"penditure. If the economy was growing too fast, then money and, therefore, demand could be ta en out of the economy by higher ta"es, lower government spending and by ma ing it harder to borrow money. If there was recession and growing unemployment, then the government could put money into the economy through lower ta"es, higher public e"penditure and easier credit. Thus, demand could be encouraged. If, as a result, there was money in peoples poc ets, then more would be spent on goods and more people would be needed to ma e the goods to fulfil the e"tra demand, and this would reduce unemployment.

*** The seventeenth century is probably the first in 1nglish history in which more people emigrated than immigrated. In the course of the century, something over one)third of a million people, mainly young adult males, emigrated across the &tlantic. The largest single group made for the West Indies< a second substantial group made for &merica, in particular Jirginia and 4atholic Aaryland, and even !uritan 2ew 1ngland. The pattern of emigration was a fluctuating one, but it probably reached its pea in the +C:-s and +CC-s. 3or most of those who emigrated, the search for employment and a better life was almost certainly the principal cause of their departure. 3or a clear minority, however, freedom from religious persecution too precedence. Aoreover, an increasing number were forcibly transported as a punishment for criminal acts. In addition to these transatlantic emigrants, an un nown number emigrated to 1urope and settled there. The largest group were probably the sons of 4atholic families ma ing for religious houses in 3rance and elsewhere. There were also some adventurers who were willing to fight in any cause if the pay were good.

*** 6ince the dawn of civili7ation, the Aiddle 1ast, a region at the crossroads of &frica, &sia and 1urope, has been important to large and small powers ali e, from the empires of the 1astto the imperial powers of the West. The opening of the 6ue7 4anal in +@C,, which transformed maritime travel between 1urope and &sia, added to 1uropean interest. The regions other riches also encouraged 1uropean intervention and rivalries. This resulted in a series of confrontations between the 'ttoman 1mpire and its 1uropean adversaries, and finally in the collapse of the former and the direct or indirect 1uropean coloni7ation of large parts of the region in the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. But what added to the Aiddle 1asts importance in the twentieth century was oil, which was found in abundance in the !ersian Dulf and in parts of 2orth &frica. Aoreover, in the strategic conte"t of the 4old War, the regions geopolitical importance provided an additional reason for the superpowers to increase their role and presence.

*** &ncient Dreece consisted of a number of city)states, of which &thens was one of the greatest. In the fifth century B.4., all citi7ens native to &thens could both vote and spea in a government assembly< but this, of course did not apply to women and slaves. This system of Fdirect democracyG was feasible because &thens was a small community. 1ach individual could be involved, gathering collectively in the public square where decisions on government matters, such as laws and foreign affairs, were made. 4ity administrators were e"pected to account for their decisions. What counted in ancient &thens was the authority of the community as a whole. This too precedent over the liberty of the individual. The freedom of the individual to ma e private decisions, such as choosing a religion, was restricted on the grounds that the interests of society were paramount. However, this simple form of democracy had its drawbac s. While subsequent political thin ers praised the concept of directpolitical involvement, it was recogni7ed that this would be impractical in larger communities. Indeed, societies with populations of thousands or millions would never be able to manage the logistical problem of direct participation. It was, therefore, natural that in modern times there emerged the idea of representative democracy.

*** /ntil the early +,C-s, the picturesque ruins of &phrodisias were scattered in and around the very pretty village of Deyre, where the houses had been built largely from remnants of the ancient city. But the present e"cavations, which began in +,C+, have now reached such a scale that the village and its inhabitants have been moved to another site nearby. 6ome of the superb sculptures unearthed are now e"hibited in a new museum, which is located in what was once Deyres village square, while others can be seen around the archaeological 7one, one of the most interesting and beautiful sites in all of Tur ey. 6urprisingly, the e"cavations at &phrodisias have unearthed remains of a settlement dating bac to about :,@-- B.4. The site seems to have been a very ancient shrine of Ishtar, the fertility goddess of 2ineveh and Babylon, who was one of the predecessors of &phrodite, the Dree goddess of love. In fact, the earliest Dree sanctuary of &phrodite on this site dates from the si"th century B.4., and it was from this sanctuary during the ne"t four centuries that the cult of &phrodite spread throughout the Draeco)*oman world.

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*** 8ar matter is the invisible and mysterious material that ma es up .. per cent of the stuff in the universe. It is one of the greatest scientific un nowns. It does not emit light< nor does it reflect light or absorb it. While we are unable to see dar matter itself, we are able to create maps of it. We can clearly pinpoint its location by observing the effects of its mass on light from distant gala"ies. This can be e"plained with reference to 1instein, who points out that a massive ob(ect will curve the fabric ofspace and that light will follow this deformed path. 6o we can loo at how light from gala"ies has been bent and, consequently, infer the quantity and location of the matter that did the bending. In fact, by using this method, a team of astronomers have recently managed to create the first three) dimensional map of the immense structure of dar matter.

*** Hurricanes, which are circular storms spinning around a region of low atmospheric pressure, are powered by energy released by spiralling surface winds that draw heat from the ocean. Warmer seas provide more energy and ma e hurricanes stronger. This is what happened during Hurricane Patrina in &ugust .--:, which submerged 2ew 'rleans and the vicinity. In fact, according to climate scientists, both the intensity and destructiveness of hurricanes have increased mar edly since the +,?-s. In other words, the energy released by an average hurricane appears to have increased by about ?- per cent within the past 0- years. This increase correlates very closely with rises in sea surface temperatures. 3urthermore, tropical oceans have warmed about one degree 3ahrenheit in the past :- years, a rise that is believed to be chiefly the result of global warming.

*** /sing coal to ma e electricity accounts for about a third of &mericas carbon emissions. &s a result, tac ling emissions from coal)fired power plants represents our best opportunity to ma e sharp reductions in greenhouse gases. 3ortunately, the /nited 6tates already has the technology to do that. /nfortunately, right now the country is addicted to coal, a cheap, abundant power source. Burning coal produces more than half the countrys electricity, despite its immense human and environmental costs. &ir pollutants from coal)fired power plants cause somewhere between .-,--- and 0-,--- premature deaths in the /nited 6tates each year. Besides, fifty tons of mercury are pumped into the atmosphere annually from coal plants. In addition, the e"traction of coal, from West Jirginia to Wyoming, devastates the physical environment, and its processing and burning produce gigantic volumes of waste.

*** *ivers and streams generally support communities of organisms quite different from those of la es and ponds. & river or stream changes greatly between its source and the point at which it empties into a la e or the sea. 2ear the source, a streams water is usually cold, low in nutrients, and clear. The channel is often narrow, with a swift current that does not allow much silt to accumulate on the bottom. Aost of the organisms found here are supported by the photosynthesis of algae attached to roc s or by organic material, such as leaves, carried into the stream from the surrounding land. 8ownstream, a river or stream generally widens and slows. The water is usually warmer and may be cloudier because of sediments and other particles suspended in it. Worms and insects that burrow into the mud are abundant, as are waterfowl, frogs, fish, and other water animals.

*** &ccording to the most accurate scientific theory ever created and generally nown as the standard model, all of space is filled with a mysterious stuff called Fthe Higgs fieldG. /nli e magnetic or gravitational fields, which vary from place to place $as, for instance, the fact that things weigh more on 1arth than on the surface of the Aoon%, the Higgs field is e"actly the same everywhere. What varies is how the different fundamental particles interact with it. That interaction, the theory goes, is what gives particles mass. In other words, the Higgs field is what ma es some particles, such as protons and neutrons, relatively heavy, others $li e electrons% subatomic lightweights, and still others $li e photons% utterly massless. If photons werent so light, a person would be shredded by a photon hailstorm every time he or she was e"posed to a sunbeam. Then again, if protons and neutrons werent so heavy, one wouldnt dare to go outside to sunbathe anyway. 6o without mass and its affinity for gravity, there would be no gala"ies, no stars, and no us.

*** !eople have been pushing into forestlands for thousands of years, but during the last century, scientists say, the rate of global forest reduction has reached alarming levels. &bout :- million acres of forest are cleared every year. Auch of 1uropes original forests are gone. The forests of 2orth &merica, which once dominated the landscape, have shrun by almost 9-= in the last two centuries to ma e room for people and meet the demand for lumber and paper. 2ot only have many of the animals that depend on these ecosystems disappeared, but various species of trees have also been depleted. Timber farms on land that once sustained natural forests have little of the biodiversity of the original forests, with pesticides and other chemicals allowing the land to support only a few inds of life.

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*** Jiral infections of the respiratory tract are certainly the most common cause of infectious illness in most countries. !eople in all age groups are susceptible, but for those at the e"tremes of life these illnesses are particularly ha7ardous. Jiral respiratory infections are more common in children under the age of five years, but in the first year of life, they are more severe. In the elderly, degenerative processes of the heart or lungs ma e pneumonia a more frequent and serious complication, and the same is true for patients of all ages suffering from chronic cardiac disease or chronic bronchitis. 'n the whole, the vast ma(ority of viral respiratory infections are mild though often uncomfortable conditions, but sometimes the illness is severe and constitutes a threat to life. /nfortunately, there isno method whereby the spread of infection can be prevented. &dequate ventilation and avoidance of crowds are clearly advisable.

*** Dingivitis is the inflammation of the gums. /nder this condition, the gums become red and swollen and bleed easily. &n e"tremely common condition, gingivitis can develop any time after a persons teeth come in, and it is almost always the result of inadequate brushing and flossing, which allows plaque to remain along the gumline of the teeth. !laque, which is a soft, stic y film made up primarily of bacteria, accumulates especially in faulty fillings and around the teeth ne"t to poorly cleaned partial dentures, bridges, and orthodontic appliances. When plaque stays on the teeth for more than ?. hours, it hardens into tartar, which cant be completely removed by brushing and flossing. &lthough plaque is the main cause of gingivitis, other factors can ma e the inflammation worse, especially pregnancy, puberty, and birth control drugs.

*** &s adolescents begin to assert their individuality, family tensions increase, and battles are fought over clothes and hair styles, late nights and so on. The doctor may find himself consulted< some parents feel that, if their children get into trouble or disagree with them, they must be ill. 'thers see a referee or an accomplice in the battle ofthe generations. 'ften the younger doctor in a partnership has an advantage in dealing with such problems, being able to bridge the generation gap and communicate well with both parents and teenagers. Both generations need education about the other and particularly about current norms of behaviour. 4hildren may have to be reminded that their parents also have rights, and parents, especially those with unrealistic ambitions for their offspring, or those determined to live their lives again through their children, must be taught to give their children more independence.

*** 2arrowly defined, fitness refers to the characteristics that enable the body to perform physical activity. These characteristics include fle"ibility of the (oints, strength and endurance of the muscles, including the heart muscle, and a healthy body composition. & broader definition of fitness is the ability to meet routine physical demands with enough energy reserve to rise to a sudden challenge. This definition shows how fitness relates toeveryday life. 'rdinary tas s such as carrying heavy suitcases, opening a stuc window, or climbing four flights of stairs, which might strain an unfit person,are easy for a fit person. 6till another definition is the bodys ability to withstand stress, meaning both physical and psychological stress. These definitions do not contradict each other< all three describe the same wonderful condition of the body.

*** Aost of the functions of the brain are still un nown, and the ones we now about are very poorly understood. The brain is assumed to be the organ of higher mentalfunction, of the mind and intellect, but there is surprisingly little evidence for this, and no one has any idea what physical structures or mechanisms perform these functions. The brain is nown to control all bodily functions by means of motor and other nerves which carry impulses from the brain outwards to all parts of the body. 6ometimes these are under our voluntary control< mostly, they are involuntary, refle"ive or automatic. *efle"ive actions are the result of impulses passed inwards from the body towards the brain by means of sensory nerves. Information arriving in the brain about various sensations li e heat, pain,touch, position, the need for saliva or gastric (uice or even the thought or smell of food are acted on in the various FcentresG in the brain.

*** The immediate cause of obesity is the prolonged consumption of a diet containing more calories than are needed to provide for the bodys tissue repair, vital functions and physical activities. In modern society, food has become very plentiful and attractive, and the physical effort demanded by many occupations has diminished. Aost people in civili7ed communities eat more than they require, and it is surprising that obesity is not more common than it is. It is difficult to escape the conclusion that there e"ists some un nown mechanism by which the body is enabled to get rid of the surplus calories which would otherwise be stored as fat. If there were not such a mechanism, obesity would be much more common.

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*** In +?@C 6ir William #ones, a British (udge serving in India, made a discovery that transformed nowledge about prehistory and began the formal study of historical linguistics. Turning his spare time towards the study of 6ans rit, the ancient language from which the predominant languages of the 6outh &sian subcontinent derive, #ones discovered that 6ans rit shares features of grammar and vocabulary with 5atin and ancient Dree to an e"tent ine"plicable by sheer coincidence. His interest further aroused, he then e"amined the early Dermanic language called FDothicG, the ancient 4elticlanguages of 1urope, and 'ld !ersian, and found thatthey, too, e"hibited mar ed similarities to 6ans rit. He concluded that all these languages must have evolved from a common but now)e"tinct linguistic source. In the early nineteenth century, both this ancient language and the later languages that derived from it, were labelled FIndo)1uropean,G reflecting their wide distribution from India and Ireland.

*** In +,+9, 1urope had built a seemingly stable peace. Through the comple" negotiations of great power geopolitics, 1urope had settled into two systems of allianceE the &llied !owers which consisted of Britain, 3rance and *ussia, and the 4entral !owers that included Dermany, &ustria,and Italy. Within this balance of power, the nations of 1urope challenged one another for economic, military, and imperial advantage. The rivalry for colonies abroad accompanied a fierce arms race at home, where military leaders assumed that superior technology and larger armies would result in a quic victory in a 1uropean war. Indeed, inthe prevailing atmosphere of international suspicion, such a war seemed li ely to many of 1uropes political and military leaders. Ket none of them predicted thatthe war would brea out so soon. 2or did many e"pect that the assassination in #une +,+9 of the &ustrian archdu e and his wife would spar off that war, which engulfed all of 1urope in (ust over a months time.

*** The 6tone &ge is, in fact, divided into various stages. 8ominating the period is the !alaeolithic &ge, which most anthropologists would e"tend down to roughly ++,--- B.4. Within the 6tone &ge in general, however, scholars also spea of an /pper !alaeolithic 1ra, beginning around 9-,--- B.4. They draw attention to some significant changes in human behaviour around this date, including the appearance of sophisticated cave paintings, and evidence of religious ideas. Humans also began producing the most effective, finely crafted tools such as fishhoo s, arrowheads, and sewing needles made from organic materials, such as wood or animal bone. Ket, despite these important developments, the basic patterns of human life changed little during this era. Jirtually all human societies before ++,--- B.4. consisted of small bands of hunter)gatherers that moved incessantly in search of food. Because they could not stay in any one location for long, these groups left no continuous archaeological record whereby we might trace the development of their culture. 'ur nowledge of them is, therefore, very limited.

*** 6ince +,,0, 4hina has invested in more than fifty oil and gas pro(ects in some thirty nations. In particular, 4hina has focused on acquisitions and partnerships in 6udan and Iran. In 6udan alone, 4hina has reportedly spent O+: billion developing oil fields. In the meantime, 4hina has also begun to use its military to protect its oil investments abroad. *eportedly, troops disguised as oil wor ers patrol 4hinese oil infrastructure in 6udan. Aoreover, in recent years, 4hina has strengthened its military presence in the oil)and gas)rich parts of the 6outh 4hina 6ea, over which sovereignty is still disputed. !erhaps most significant in the short term is 4hinas relationship with Iran. With 6audi &rabia and Iraq clearly within the &merican sphere of influence, 4hina has been steadily courting Tehran and aims to become the biggest buyer of Iranian oil. In return for oil, 4hina has supplied Iran not only with conventional weapons but also with technology and materials that can be used for the manufacturing of nuclear weapons.

*** By the end of the twentieth century, 1ast &sia had become a centre of industrial and manufacturing production. 1specially 4hina began to establish commercial ties with the West in the +,?-s and became the worlds leading heavy industrial producer by the year .---. Its state)owned companies acquired contracts from Western firms to produce products cheaply and in bul , for sale bac to home mar ets in the /nited 6tates and 1urope. Aoreover, the 4hinese government established semicapitalist commercial 7ones around ma(or port cities li e 6hanghai. These commercial 7ones were intended to encourage massive foreign investment on terms that left 4hina a favourable balance of trade for its huge volume of cheap e"ports. Ket, in practice, they en(oyed only mi"ed success. !roblems in farming and a looming energy crisis hampered prosperity and economic growth, but Hong Pong only managed to maintain its traditional economic and cultural ties with the rest of the world. However, in recent years, 4hina has overcome most of these problems and radically upgraded its economic performance.

*** The term FimperialismG means the process of e"tending one nations control over another< it is a process that ta es many forms. Historians distinguish between Fformal imperialismG and Finformal imperialism.G 3ormal imperialism is colonialism, and it was e"ercised by the 1uropeans in the past mainly by direct ruleE the coloni7ing nations anne"ed territories outright and established their own governments to sub(ugate and administer the peoples of these territories. 6ometimes formal imperialism was e"ercised through indirect ruleE the conquering nations reached agreements with native leaders and governed them. There was no single practice of colonial management, and resistance from the natives forced colonial powers to shift strategies frequently. &s for Finformal imperialism,G it refers to a more subtle and less visible e"ercise of power, in which the stronger nation allows the wea er one to maintain its independence while reducing its sovereignty. 3or the 1uropeans in the past, informal imperialism too the form of carving out 7ones of 1uropean sovereignty and privilege, such as treaty ports, within other countries. 1ssentially it meant using 1uropean economic, political, and cultural power to get advantageous treaties or terms of trade. Informal imperialism was not only common, it played an even more fundamental role in shaping global power relations in the +@th and +,th centuries.

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*** &rtificial Intelligence $&I% is the ability of a digital computer or computer)controlled robot to perform tas s commonly associated with intelligent beings. The term is frequently applied to the pro(ect of developing systems endowed with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason, discover meaning, generali7e, or learn from past e"perience. 6ince the development of the digital computer in the +,9-s, it has been demonstrated that computers can be programmed to perform very comple" tas s, such as discovering proofs for mathematical theorems or playing chess, with great proficiency. 6till, although there are continuing advances in computer)processing speed and memory capacity, there are as yet no programs that can match human fle"ibility over wider domains or in tas s requiring much everyday nowledge. 'n the other hand, some e"traordinary programs have attained performance levels beyond those of human e"perts and professionals engaged in certain specific tas s. &I, in this limited sense, is used efficiently and found in applications as diverse as medical diagnosis, computer search engines, and voice or handwriting recognition.

*** The magnets that are used most commonly, such as the ones on compasses, those used for fridge decorations, and in many other everyday tools, are called permanent magnets.This type of magnet produces an e"ternal magnetic field that attracts or repels iron, and it may lose its strength when mistreated. Inside a magnetare groups of atoms called domains. The magneti7ing process, which e"poses a material to increasingly strong magnetic fields, aligns these domains in a single direction, where they become loc ed in a crystalline structure. High heat, radiation, strong electrical currents, or other nearby magnets, though, can damage that structure, nudging the domains out of alignment and diminishing the attractive force. 1lectromagnets, or non)permanent magnets, a less familiar type, have magnetic fields that rely on an electric current. They, thus, do not lose their strength< instead, the strength of the field can be varied as needed. This ma es them appropriate for various applications, such as telephone receivers.

*** &ccording to a recent study by the /niversity of &lberta, parasitic sea lice are illing a population of young wild pin salmon along 4anadas west coast in alarming numbers. The authors of the study say that the entire wild population may be gone within eight years. With their protective scales, adult salmon can safely harbour the lice, but young salmon do not yet have the protective scales,leaving them prone to deep, infection)prone wounds left by the lice. #uveniles live in coastal waters, which are normally far from parasite)carrying adults living farther out to sea. 2ow, however, aqua farms are often located in these same waters, destroying the young salmons safe haven. 6cientists argue that fish farms must be relocated or reduced, but so far, no government regulations have been launched to this end.

*** Dlucose, natures most abundant sugar, may soon be petroleums fiercest rival. 4hemists have long searched for cheap, renewable, and non)polluting alternatives to the .9: million tonnes of petroleumbased plastics produced annually. 3or years, they have been able to convert sugars into the chemical hydro"ymethylfurfural $HA3%, which can be used to ma e plastic. But the process, which used acid catalysts to brea the sugars down, was costly and complicated by impurities and low yields. *esearchers at the !acific 2orthwest 2ational 5aboratory $!255% in Washington replaced the acid catalyst with a metal catalyst, chromium chloride, and used it to brea down glucose, a sugar found in plant starches and cellulose. The resultE HA3 yields increased +- to ?- percent over the old processes and impurities were eliminated. The ne"t step to replacing petroleum is to find a low)impact renewable source for the glucose. 6cientists hope to soon obtain glucose from cellulose rather than from plant starches. 4ellulose is found in straw and sawdust, two waste products from the agricultural and wood industries that do not require precious farmland to be ta en away from food crops.

*** Auch has been said and written about the declining numbers of and disappointing lac of diversity among college students ma(oring in engineering. &mong the factors cited to e"plain this paucity are the lac of e"posure of high school students to the very idea of engineering and the fact that many have insufficient mathematics and science bac ground to gain entrance to engineering school, even if they identify the profession as a possible career. This is unfortunate, for the ideas of engineering should be integrated into the curricula not only of high schools but also of middle and primary schools. By not being e"posed properly throughout their education to engineering activities, children are being done a disservice. &fter all, even preschool children have the necessary conditions in their play for appreciating e"actly what engineering isE design. Indeed, design is practised throughout their school day, even in their before) and after)school activities. It only should be pointed out to them that they are designing something, and, therefore, are future engineers in the ma ing.

*** 4ontrary to popular belief, underground fires are a surprisingly frequent phenomenon, the fuel being coal and the fire travelling along the seams, or the thin layers of roc or mineral. 6uch fires travel slowly due to the limited supply of o"ygen, but can burn for a very long timeE the underground fire at Burning Aountain 2ature *eserve in &ustralia is thought to have been continuing for the past :,:-- years. The number of such subterranean fires worldwide is countless. &ccording to one study, subterranean fires in 4hina alone are consuming some .-- million tonnes of coal a year and pumping into the air as many pollutants as all the cars in the /nited 6tates. &long with numerous human)related factors, such fires are also contributing substantially to global warming.

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*** What controls our breathingH We obviously have some conscious control over it because we can voluntarily hold our breath for a short while or breathe faster and deeper. Aost of the time, however, automatic control centres in our brain regulate our breathing movements. &utomatic control is essential, for it ensures coordination between the respiratory and circulatory systems and the bodys metabolic needs for gas e"change. &natomically, our breathing control centres are located inparts of the brain called Fthe ponsG and Fthe medulla.G 2erves from the medullas control centre signal the diaphragm and rib muscles to contract, ma ing us inhale. These nerves send out signals that result in about +-)+9 inhalations per minute when we are at rest. Between inhalations, the muscles rela", and we e"hale. The control centre in the pons smooths out the basic rhythm of breathing set by the medulla.

*** #osh Jilla was .C and driving home with a friend when his car mounted the erb and flipped over. Jilla was thrown through the windscreen, suffered massive head in(uries and fell into a coma. &lmost a year later, there was still little sign of improvement. He would open his eyes, but he was not responsive to any e"ternal stimuli inhis environment. He was then enrolled in a si")wee study in which an electromagnetic coil was held over the front of his head to stimulate the underlying brain tissue. 6uch transcranial magnetic stimulation $TA6% has been investigated as a way of treating migraine, stro e, !ar insons disease and depression, with some promising results, but this is the first time it has been used as a potential therapy for someone in a comali e state. 4ertain improvements were observed< for instance, he began to say single words. The case has been described as Fintriguing,G but it has also given rise to a lot of cautionary warning.

*** The vertebrae of the spinal column are separated by dis s made of cartilage. 1ach dis has a strong outer layer and a softer inner part that acts as a shoc absorber to cushion the vertebrae during movement. If the dis degenerates, for e"ample following an in(ury or with aging, the inner part of the dis can bulge or rupture through the outer layer. The ruptured inner part of the dis can compress or irritate a nerve root and may even in(ure it. Aost ruptured dis s are in the lower bac and usually affect only one leg. 6uch a rupture can cause pain not only in the lower bac but also down the sciatic nerve, which runs from the spinal column to the buttoc s, leg, and heel. *uptured dis s in the lower bac can also cause leg wea ness, and a person may especially have difficulty lifting the front part of the foot. & ruptured dis that is very large and centrally located in the spinal column can affect nerves that regulate bowel and bladder function, impairing the ability to defecate or urinate and ma ing urgent medical attention necessary.

*** Auscles can obtain the carbohydrate they need, not only from glycogen stores but also from sugar ta en during activity, which elevates blood glucose and enhances endurance. 2ormally, insulin stimulates all the tissues of the body todrain glucose from the blood and store it< however, this is e"actly the opposite of what is needed for performance. 8uring physical activity, the bodys release of the hormone epinephrine eeps insulin from rising in response to glucose entering the blood. !hysical activity also enhances muscle sensitivity to insulin so that the muscles become the primary recipient of blood glucose. 4onsuming sugar is especially useful during e"hausting endurance activities lasting more than an hour. 1ndurance athletes often run short of glucose by the end of competitive events, and they are wise to ta e light carbohydrate snac s or drin s periodically during activity. 8uring the last stages of an endurance competition, when glycogen is running low, glucose consumed during the event can ma e its way slowly from the digestive tract to the muscles and increase the bodys supply of glucose enough to prevent e"haustion.

*** & low calcium inta e during the growing years limits the bones ability to achieve an optimal mass and density. Aost people achieve a pea bone mass by about age 0-, and dense bones protect against agerelated bone loss and fracture. 6tarting before the age of 9-, all adults lose bone as they grow older. When bone loss reaches the point at which bones fracture under common, everyday stresses, the condition is nown as osteoporosis. Today, worldwide, this is one of the most prevalent diseases of aging. 3or instance, in the /6, it afflicts more than .: million people, mostly older women. /nli e many diseases that ma e themselves nown through symptoms such as pain, shortness of breath, s in lesions, tiredness, and the li e, osteoporosis is silent. The body sends no signals saying bone loss is occurring. Blood samples offer no clues because blood calcium remains normal regardless of bone content, and measures of bone density are rarely ta en. However, there are various strategies to protect against bone loss, and eating calcium) rich foods is only one of them.

*** 3itness is determined more by the intensity of e"ercise than the duration. Wor outs should be energetic enough that the muscles are somewhat sore the ne"t day but fully recovered the day after that. To strengthen the heart, e"ercise must be performed at an intensity that increases heart rate at least .- beats above the resting heart rate. The harder a person e"ercises, the faster the heart beats and the stronger the heart muscle becomes. Heart rate is determined by how hard the s eletal muscles contract. When a person starts to e"ercise, the s eletal muscles contract and squee7e the veins near them, forcing blood towards the heart. When the s eletal muscles rela", these veins fill with blood. The alternating contraction and rela"ation of the s eletal muscles serve as a second heart, pumping e"tra blood to the heart. The increased blood flow causes the heart to beat faster and more forcefully. 6o the harder the s eletal muscles contract, the faster the heart beats.

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*** 'f the wealth of geographical and cartographical data remaining from the 1astern world and the Dree s, the *omans were interested only in those elements that best suited their essentially practical needs. They virtually abandoned the studies of cosmography and mathematical geography, preferring to devote ma"imum effort to land surveys carried out by speciali7ed military corps of land surveyors. 3rom their topographical surveys and on) the)spot reconnaissance of places and cities, they formulated their itineraria scripta, publications similar in many respects to our tourist guides, and their itineraria picta, a ind of road map on which they stressed only those topographical features of use to travellers.

*** 4harlie 4haplin, who was born in Britain but spent most of his life in the /nited 6tates, is one of the pivotal figures in film history. He is especially remembered for his wor in the silent movies. 4haplin new that a successful scene was not simply about the starring actor, butabout everything else. The only way to achieve that unity was to get personally involved in every stage of the film< from starring in his films to producing, directing, editing them, and even to composing the music for them. It was not uncommon for him to decide half)way through a film that an actor wasnt suitable for a certain role, and start over with someone new. This constant attention to detail ran many features overtime and over)budget, but the public reaction assured him and the studios that what he was doing wor ed. 4haplin typically improvised his story in front of the camera with only a basic framewor of a script. But on consideration, his art turned out to be firmly rooted, and could be seen, for e"ample, to draw much of its strength from his successful fusion of 1nglish and &merican cultures and traditions.

*** The greatest feat of civil engineering since *oman times was the 3rench achievement between +CCC and +C@+ of the 5anguedoc canal to lin the Aediterranean 6ea with the &tlantic 'cean. It was conceived of by Ping 3rancis I and discussed by him with 5eonardo da Jinci. It was first surveyed in +:0,. &s a result of the civil and religious disorders in 3rance, however, nothing happened until +CC+ when !ierre *iquet wor ed out a scheme for supplying enough water to the summit of the canal. #ean 4olbert secured the interest of the young Ping 5ouis QIJ, and in +CCC the wor started. The whole canal was +:- miles long with +-. loc s, a tunnel, and 0 aqueducts. It evo ed world admiration, and was the prototype of all future 1uropean grand canal designs even though its usefulness to 3rance was quic ly nullified by the rapidly increasing si7e of ocean) going ships.

*** The most important influence on the style of 1nglish furniture was that of the 4hippendale family. 4hippendale furniture is the creation of Thomas 4hippendale, a 5ondon)based cabinet)ma er. His Dentleman and 4abinet)Aa ers 8irector, a folio of furniture designs, was published in +?:9 and had a wide circulation. 4hippendale himself never mar ed his creations, ma ing it harder today for collectors to locate original pieces. 'ne of the best ways to find original 4hippendale furniture is to loo for uneven (oints and tool mar s, as the furniture was made entirely by hand and does not have the perfect angles of a mass)produced product. Though an article of furniture made in 4hippendales manner may bear his name, it is by no means an indication that it was actually made in his wor shop. The +@th century was a time when artisans were beginning to e"ploit various styles, leading to widespread adoption of his name in revivals of his style, so much so that dealers spo e of F4hinese 4hippendaleG, FDothic 4hippendaleG, and even FIrish 4hippendaleG. Aany of these later designs that attach his name bear little relationship to his original concepts.

*** !ottery was one of mans first artefacts. It is the presence of pottery, rather than of the polished stone, that mar s the passage fromthe Aesolithic to the 2eolithic &ges, when agricultural peoples settled both in the Aediterranean area and in the Aiddle 1ast. It is commonly believed that the earliest pottery receptacles copied those of other materials, such as gourds or bas ets. 3rom the fingerprints on them, it is possible to deduce that they were made principally by women. 'riginally, any decoration was indented< that is, patterns were pressed into the soft clay, and it remained so for a long period until new situations, at different times in different parts of the world, produced painted decoration.&s a widespread form of culture, permanently bearing in its shapes and decoration the character of individual periods and peoples, the finding of pottery has been of supreme importance to the archaeologist.

*** &lthough most cities seem to form by accident, for thousands of years some of them have been designed. Whether for defence, beauty, or practicality, urban designers have imposed their ideas of what a city should be about. But ideas are sub(ect to changing needs and fashions. 4enturies ago, a moat or a castellated wall would have been essential. 2ow, greenery is in vogue. While e"isting cities loo for ways of becoming more environmentally friendly, a number of new ones are planned that intend to be totally green. 'ne of these is Aasdar. Aasdars advertising states that Fone day, all cities will be built li e this.G This is not the case. 3or one thing, Aasdar is e"perimental and a wor in progress. What emerges will not necessarily translate well elsewhere. 1ach green city is unique, and getting it to wor depends on its location and economy.

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*** !alaeontology was once limited to digging up fossils and trying to deduce their age with inaccurate methods. However, fossil analysis improved dramatically in the +,C-s, with the advent and refinement of two techniquesE radiometric dating and stratigraphy. The first radiometric method was also nown as carbon)+9 dating, and it was usable for specimens younger than :-,--- years. 5ater, potassium)argon dating revolutioni7ed the field by enabling scientists to detect the radioactive decay of elements found naturally in roc s and soil surrounding much older fossils. 6tratigraphy, which is the study of roc layering, actually was developed well before the +,C-s, but that was the decade scientists began to better understand how geological conditions, earthen layers, and fossil records all relate. The resulting refinement of biostratigraphy, i.e., the study of the complete life of a stratum of earth, allowed scientists to determine the environment and lifestyle of human ancestors based on fossili7ed flora and fauna found within the same layer as the hominine fossils. 6ince the +,C-s, 82& testing has come to be used widely. &s all living organisms have the same genetic code, scientists can use 82& variations as a molecular cloc . &fter splitting with a common ancestor, each generation develops a constant rate of genetic mutations. The molecular cloc allows scientists to calculate how long ago the split occurred based on the number of differences between species. The method is now helping scientists map the routes that humans too out of &frica.

*** 6cientists are e"ploring waysof producing spider sil artificially, a process difficult to repeat effectively. & spiders sil gland is a very efficient chemical factory. Inside its gland, the spider stores a mi"ture of liquid proteins, which it is able to transform into light, strong fibres. &rtificial spider sil could have many applications, from lightweight and durable pac ing materials to parachutes, surgical sutures, and even bullet)proof vests. !roducing it synthetically is a twopart processE scientists must first manufacture the proteins and then find a way to form them into superfine threads. They have had success with the first part, by producing proteins through genetic modification. Binding proteins into fibres as thin and strong as spider sil , however, has proved to be a challenge. *ecently, however, a group of Derman scientists have attempted to solve that problem by using a device modelled on a spiders glands. 5i e the arachnid method, the proteins are mi"ed with potassium phosphate, and then the pH is lowered before pressure is applied as the mi"ture flows through tiny channels, hardening and binding the proteins. 6o far, researchers have been able to ma e fibres of only a fraction of an inch long, but they hope to be able to produce longer, stronger fibres in the future.

*** Baleen whales and toothed whales each have a unique way of vocali7ing. 'nly baleen whales produce long sequences of deep sounds nown as whale songs. They have a laryn", an organ at the top of the trachea, which may be involved in sound production. *esearchers are unclear about the organs role in the songs as whale laryn"es are unli e those of humans, which have vocal chords. Toothed whales, on the other hand, rely on sequences of high)pitched clic s and whistles for both echo location and communication with their mates. Their phonic lips, a structure analogous to human nasal passages, press together when air is forced through them, vibrating the surrounding tissue. The sound waves then penetrate an oily organ in the whales head, called the FmelonG, where they are focused into a beam of sound. When this beam stri es a fish, the seabed, or another ob(ect, the sound is reflected bac to the whale as an echo. Toothed whales can thus locate prey and navigate in total dar ness. However, during their long, deep dives, toothed whales cannot inhale air every time they want to produce a sound. 6o they collect it in a sac at the bac of their head and reuse it.

*** &n organism discovered deep in the ground has ta en astrobiologists by surprise. The organisms unique ability to live in complete isolation from other species, or even light or o"ygen, suggests it could be the ey to life on other planets. It was discovered in fluid)filled crac s in a 6outh &frican gold mine, nearly three ilometres beneath the 1arths surface. When /6 scientists analy7ed the fluid, they e"pected to find genes from a mi" of species.Instead, they found that ,,., per cent of the 82& belonged to (ust one bacterium, a previously un nown species. 6uch a self) sufficient organism is virtually unheard of. It means that this organism e"tracts everything it needs from an otherwise dead environment. &lmost all other nown organisms on the 1arth that do not use sunlight directly do use some product of photosynthesis. However, this newly)found organism gets its energy from the radioactive decay of uranium in the surrounding roc s. It also has genes to e"tract carbon and nitrogen from its environment, both of which are essential for ma ing proteins. 6cientists believe that this organism is (ust the type that could survive on a planet other than the 1arth.

*** The human population continues to grow by more than ?: million people annually. 6ince the first 1arth 8ay in +,?-, emission rates have remained steady at about +.. metric tons of carbon per person per year. /nfortunately, the +,,? Pyoto !rotocol has had little measurable effect on these per)capita emissions, even in the countries that have agreed to national targets. Aore than any other factor, population growth drives rising carbon emissions, and the /6 4ensus Bureau and /nited 2ations both pro(ect that the global population, currently C.C billion, will surpass , billion before .-:-. The implication is that one of the best strategies for reducing future greenhouse gas emissions ispopulation stabili7ation, as quic ly as can be achieved by noncoercive means.

*** & scientific view of something is always an intimate mi"ture of theories and observed facts. The theories are broad, general ideas together with arguments based on them. The arguments are designed to show that, if the general ideas are accepted, then this or the other thing ought to be observed. If this, that, or the other actually is observed, then the theory is a good one< if not, then the theoreticians have to thin again. Thus, theoretical ideas and arguments are continually sub(ected to the severe test of comparison with the facts,and scientists are proud of the strictness with which this is done. 'n the other hand, theories often suggest new things to loo for< in other words, they lead to predictions. These predictions are frequently successful, and scientists are entitled to be proud of that, too. But it follows that no theory is immutable< any scientific view of any sub(ect may, in principle, be invalidated at any time by the discovery of new facts.

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*** The brains capacity for finding new informationprocessing pathways is thought to e"plain the success of artificial cochleas, which have been implanted in the ears ofappro"imately +--,--hearing)impaired people around the world. They typically have an array of electrodes, each of which channels electrical signals toward the auditory nerve. The electrodes can stimulate not (ust a single neuron in the brain but many simultaneously. When cochlear implants first appeared in the +,@-s, many neuroscientists e"pected them to wor poorly, given their primitive design. But the devices wor well enough for some deaf people to converse over the telephone, particularly after an ad(ustment period during which channel settings are fine)tuned to provide the best reception. !atients brains somehow figure out how to ma e the most out of the strange signals. The surprising effectiveness of artificial cochleas ; together with other evidence of the brains adaptability ; has fuelled optimism about the prospects for brainImachine substitution. & case in point is an ongoing pro(ect at the /niversity of 6outhern 4alifornia that see s to create implantable brain chips that can restore or enhance memory.

*** By si" months of age, the infants capacity to digest and absorb a variety of dietary components as well as to metaboli7e and e"crete the resulting products is near the capacity of the adult. 4onsideration of the long)term effects of inadequate or e"cessive inta es during infancy now assumes greater importance. These considerations about delivery of adequate amounts of nutrients are the basis for many of the feeding practices advocated during the second si" months of life. &lthough it is clear that all nutrient needs during this period can be met with reasonable amounts of currently available infant formulas, addition of other foods after four to si" months of age is recommended. In contrast, the volume of mil produced by many women may not be adequate to meet all nutrient needs ofthe breast)fed infant beyond about si" months ofage, especially iron. Thus, for breast)fed infants, complementary foods are an important source of nutrients. 4omplementary foods $i.e., the additional foods, including formulas, given to the breast)fed infant% or replacement foods $i.e., food other than formula given to formula)fed infants% should be introduced step by step to both breast)fed and formula)fed infants, beginning between four and si" months of age.

*** Individual Fban sG of immune cells ta en from pigs might one day be used to boost our own immune systems or to fight HIJ and cancer. 'ur immune systems T)cells, which play a ey role in fighting off diseases, are sharpened during childhood to attac particular pathogens after encountering them. This fle"ibility diminishes after a child reaches young adulthood, but researchers at a /6 university have come up with a way to reviveit. &ccording to them, if a humans immune cells are transferred into a young pig, they could be brought up to ma"imum effectiveness $as in a childs body%, then implanted bac into the person they came from. The research team has already had success with e"periments where human stem cells were in(ected into developing pig foetuses< whenthe piglets were born, the in(ected cells had multiplied and matured into a diverse range of human T)cells, alongside the pigs own immune cells, that were shown to be fully functional. The chief researcher envisions this approach eventually being used to ma e human cells that fight specific diseases. The necessary technology is available now to introduce the technique widely, provided that regulatory authorities can be convinced that it can be safely tested in humans. However, the fearis that dormant pig viruses buried in their 82& could be spread to humans. &nother potential danger is that humanderived cells might pic up surface molecules from the pig. This could ma e the transferred cells themselves targets for immune destruction. The pigs might also produce too few human cells to fight disease.

*** 3ollowing the growth of biological nowledge in the past few decades, a few researchers now believe e"tension of the human lifespan might be within reach. Why do organisms ; people included ; age in the first placeH 5i e machines, people wear out. However, a machine can usually be repaired. & good mechanic with a stoc of spare parts can eep it going indefinitely, to the point where no part of the original remains. The question arises, of course, of whether the machine is worth repairing. It is here that people and nature disagree. 3rom the individuals point of view, survival is a must. Kou cannot reproduce unless you are alive. 6ince ageing is a sure way of dying, it is no surprise that people want to stop it from advancing. Aoreover, even the appearance of ageing can be harmful. It reduces the range of potential partners who find you attractive ; since it is a sign that you are not going to be around for a very long time to help bring up the baby ; and this, in turn, restricts your ability to reproduce. There is a parado", howeverE the individuals evolved desire not to age is opposed by another evolutionary force, the disposable soma. The soma is all of a bodys cells apart from the se" cells. Its role is to get the se" cells, and thus the organisms genes, into the ne"t generation. But evolutionary logic seems to require the soma to age and die in order for a species to continue. There is thus a premium on reproducing early rather than conserving resources for a future that may never come.

*** &sthma is a life)threatening, allergy)driven lung disease common in wealthy countries. But e"actly what causes it is un nown. *esearchers at Washington /niversity believe the direct cause of asthma is a chemical distress signal produced in s in that is damaged by another ha7ard of modern lifeE ec7ema. /nli e asthma, it is not dangerous, so people rarely worry about it. 2evertheless, +?= of children in &merica have it, and similarly high figures are found in &ustralia, Britain, and 2ew Sealand. What is particularly intriguing is that many people with ec7ema go on to develop asthma $in &merica, the figure is ?-=%. That compares with an asthma prevalence of 9)@= in the general population. The Washington /niversity group theori7es that the lin between the two conditions is formed by thymic stromal lympho)poietin $T65!%, a signalling molecule secreted by damaged s in cells that elicits a strong immune response from the body to fight off invaders. Thus, ec7ema)induced T65! enters the bloodstream and, when it arrives at the lungs, sensiti7es them so that they react to allergens that would not previously have bothered them. In other words, they become asthmatic. 6everal e"periments carried out by the researchers, only on mice, have confirmed that s in damage creates susceptibility to asthma by releasing T65!.

*** !atients are admitted to critical care units from a variety of settings, including the emergency department, medical or surgical service, or operating room. Aost critical carepatients are acutely and severely ill, commonly with dysfunction or failure of more than one organ system. The initial assessment must be rapid and focus on real or potentially lifethreatening processes that require immediate intervention. &n e"ample is the resuscitation of a patient with cardiopulmonary arrest. The pace of resuscitation is necessarily quic < physical e"amination may be restrictedinitially to the central nervous, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, and interventions may be limited to the essential &B4s of airway, breathing, and circulation. 5ater, continuous electrocardiographic monitoring, measurement of blood pressure, and other standard procedures should start. In general, management of the critically ill patientshould be based on an understanding of physiology and pathophysiology. Indeed, although the contributions of cell and molecular biology to critical care medicine are substantial, the critical care unit more resembles a physiology laboratory, since the effects of its interventions can be directly observed.

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*** 6cottish philosopher and historian 8avid Hume emerged as an economist also with the publication of his !olitical 8iscourses. The famous &dam 6mith was a friend of his and may have been influenced by HumeE they had similar principles, and both were very good at illustrating and supporting these from history. &lthough Hume did not formulate a complete system of economic theory, as did 6mith in his Wealth of 2ations, he introduced several of the new ideas around which the Fclassical economicsG of the +@th century was built. His economic philosophy can be understood from his main argumentsE that wealth consists not of money but of commodities< that the amount of money in circulation should be ept related to the amount of goods in the mar et< and that poor nations impoverish the rest because they do not produce enough to be able to ta e much part in trade. Beyond this, he urged society to welcome the shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy, without which civili7ation could not be achieved.

*** &lthough an e"tension of the worldwide ban on ivory e"ports to discourage the illegal illing of &frican elephants has been greeted enthusiastically in many places, the rhinoceroses $rhinos% of southern and eastern &frica are still paying with their lives for their horns, which remain pri7ed by the 4hinese for their medicinal and aphrodisiac qualities, and by the Kemenis for ma ing dagger handles. &ccording to a group, called Traffic, thatmonitors the wildlife trade throughout the world, this illegal business is on the rise. 5ast month, the group called for stronger international cooperation along smuggling routes and for more secure management of legal horn stoc s. 3or its part, Simbabwe, where there are a lot of illegal illings, has ta en a very radical decisionE it says it will start dehorning its rhinos. Today only five species of rhino survive in &frica and &sia. In the past, especially in the +,th and .-th centuries, they were slaughtered on a large scale by white hunters. By the +,C-s, fewer than ?-,--- blac rhinos were left in &frica, and, over the ne"t two decades, illegal hunters wiped out ,C= of them. But since +,,:, than s to vigorous conservation efforts, the number of blac rhinos has gone up again, to around 0,?--. The number of white rhinos has nearly doubled over the same period, to over +9,:--.

*** The people of Hong Pong have been e"periencing an identity crisis ever since the British returned the colony to 4hina in +,,? and it became a 6pecial &dministrative *egion with special privileges $for :- years%. &lthough they are proud of their 4hinese ethnicity, culturally they have always felt overwhelmingly Western and therefore much different from their cousins on the mainland. 2ow they have a new worryE a growing threat to Hong Pongs economic success. The 4hinese government recently announced its plan to turn the city of 6hanghai into a global financial and shipping centre by .-.-, a move that is seen as wea ening Hong Pongs traditional and profitable position as international gateway to mainland 4hina. 1ven worse, 4hinas friendlier relationship with former enemy Taiwan is already reducing transit commerce through Hong Pong. &fter an economic contraction of almost @= earlier this year, Hong Pong is feeling real pain, and the (obless rate could approach record levels. 6o the normally hands)off local government has sprung into actionE it has announced two rounds of ta" cuts and various handouts to the poor and to businesses. In addition, the citys long)term planners have recommended that Hong Pongs government focus on developing si" fields ; including education, environmental)related industries, and medical technology ; in which Hong Pong already has an edge.

*** Aany governments these days feel that the path to happiness for society as a whole lies through spending on the welfare of its youngest membersE their health, education, and general well)being. & recent report from a leading international organi7ation, the '148, e"amined these efforts among its 0- member countries in order to learn if the aim was being achieved. 6pecifically, the researchers investigated .+ variables that were then grouped into si" main categories. The results surprisingly showed that while some inds of spending on children do wor , many should be improved or scrapped. &lso, total government spending per child was seen to vary considerably, as did outcomes, but the correlation between these was not strong. Aoreover, the differences in spending levels among countries were not directly lin ed to their relative levels of prosperity. 3or e"ample, rich 6weden is, as e"pected, ind to its children, but poorish Hungary turns out to be generous, too. /p)and)coming 6outh Porea might be e"pected to be a bit reluctant to part with so much money, but the stinginess of 6wit7erland is totally une"pected. 4hildrens lobbies always want more funds, but the '148 report suggests that more money does not reliably yield better results. &merica has one of the highest levels of spending per child, and among the worst outcomes. In contrast, &ustralia spends less, with better outcomes.

*** 'n #uly +, .--,, the /6 state of 4alifornia began enforcing a new menu)labelling law that requires chain restaurants to post on their menus the calories contained in their food items. Three other states ; 'regon, Aaine, and Aassachusetts ; have already passed similar regulations, as have ++ city and county governments. The trend has gathered strength quic ly, mostly because of concern about the nations e"panding waistlines. The ne"t step is to deploy the practice nationally, and the 4ongress is about to debate such a law. !ressure for this type of move is coming from the obese, who represent more than a third of &merican adults, and their defenders. 'verweight people often struggle to estimate the number of calories they consume when eating out and ma e mista es when calculating how much food they should order. !roponents of menu labelling hope that nowing what is in their food may direct people to healthier items. In 5os &ngeles, for e"ample, officials optimistically predict that menu labelling could prevent nearly 9-= of the annual weight gain there. However, the effect of menu labelling on dietary choices remains unclear, and the regulations are too new to produce much evidence. 3urthermore, some critics of the trend believe the public)health benefits of the new legislation are irrelevant. 3or them, the new regulations are welcome as part of a consumers wide)ranging right to now.

*** He is young, dar , and handsome, with a beautiful light tenor voice, and he swept the 5atin Drammy &wards in .--@. But should #uan 1steban &risti7abal, better nown as #uanes, perform his songs at an upcoming Fpeace concertG in the 4uban capital, HavanaH The debate over this 4olombian roc star, who is based in the /6 city of Aiami, has been raging on that citys 6panish) language radio and television shows. 'lder 4uban)&mericans, who left 4uba in the immediate aftermath of the +,:, revolution there, vehemently oppose the concert. They argue that it is (ust the latest attempt by the 4uban regime to manipulate public opinion. Traditionally, these older e"iles have held all the political power in Aiami. But younger ones are pushing bac , especially when it comes to the arts. Beyond the overall 4uban)&merican community, the #uanes concert is seen as a potential great turning point in /6) 4uban relations. & successful outcome could smooth the way for a further softening in &merican policy towards 4uba. &rtists other than #uanes have attempted this ind of bridge)building with 4uba before< for e"ample, left)leaning musicians li e Bonnie *aitt and The !olice appeared there in +,,,, but they had an overtly political agenda. However, #uanes himself, who is widely admired for his humanitarian wor in his native 4olombia, denies having any thought of politics. FAy only message is one of peace, of humanitarianism, and of tolerance,G he said recently.

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*** 6olar panels turn the sunlight into energy when the sun shines directly on them, but as soon as the sunlight decreases, sodoes efficiency. & new antireflective film coating could help panels collect sunshine at ,C per cent efficiency from nearly any angle. The newly)developed film consists of seven layers of nanoscopic silicon and titanium)o"ide rods arranged in increasing densities, with the topmost nearly as porous as air. This funnel)li e structure captures light from almost every direction and focuses it onto the photovoltaic panel while also inhibiting reflection. The film, which is about one hundredth as thic as a human hair, could easily be applied to any solar panel and would help collect .- per cent more light while eliminating the need for the e"pensive hardware usually used to rotate solar panels as the sun moves. Before the new film can be mar eted, the nanoscientists who developed the film must find a way to protect the outermost layers from wind and heat, a process that might ta e another year.

*** It is to a plants advantage to be visually attractive to a specific pollinator so that those animals will see out and concentrate on that particular plant during their search for nectar. This eeps pollen from being spread to other plant species, where pollination wont ta e place. 3lowers appeal to their pollinators sensory systems by using signals such as alluring odours or colours. 3lowers pollinated by nocturnal animals li e bats and moths, which rely more on hearing than smell and sight, usually have dull colours but powerful scents. 3lowers pollinated by daytime animals li e birds and bees, however, rely on a range of colours. Birds see a spectrum somewhat similar to ours but are especially receptive to red, so blossoms pollinated by them tend to be red or orange. Bees, on the other hand, see a different spectrum composed of yellow, blue, green, and ultraviolet. 3lowers pollinated by bees, hence, tend to be in those colours and usually have special mar ings that are visible only in ultraviolet. 5i e runway lights, these mar ings guide insects to the right place to land and find nectar, and in the process, pollinate the plant.

*** The hope with biofuels is that they can offer a carbon)neutral energy source, because the crops that are grown for fuel will remove as much carbon from the atmosphere as will be released when they are eventually burned. This is basically the same thing that happens when we burn coal or oil. The difference is that in the caseof the latter, the carbon was absorbed hundreds of millions of years ago, and this is part of the problem. Humans will ta e (ust a few hundred years to burn through tens of millions of years of oil deposits. To grow enough crops to eep up with our current demand will require lots of additional lands to be cleared for agriculture. If rainforests are cleared to plant sugar cane, all the carbon that is currently loc ed in the trees will be released. The other problem is that adding nitrogen fertili7er to these crops releases nitrogen o"ide, which is another greenhouse gas. & recent study showed that burning mai7e biofuels actually increases greenhouse gas emissions for this reason. However, this is more the fault of the choice of biofuel crop and the production method rather than a flaw in the biofuel concept as a whole. The shrub F(atrophaG, for instance, can be grown on land too poor for trees or other crops to grow on, and is already used for biodiesel in India, 4ambodia, and some &frican countries.

*** & 0?,---)year)old baby mammoth could help to e"plain why the ancient species became e"tinct as well as giving an insight into climate change. *esearchers at a #apanese medical school carried out a computed tomography $4T% scan of the mammoth, which was found fro7en in 2orthern 6iberia. They produced some high) resolution 08 pictures which are being analy7ed to find out about the animals internal organs and diet, and to wor out how she died. The mammoths tissues and s eleton have been studied at a 7oological museum in *ussia. &ir samples from her lungs will also be analy7ed for clues to the 1arths atmosphere at the time of her death. The mammoth, named 5yuba, was found by a reindeer herder buried in permafrost. 6he is unusual because of the proportionof her body that is preserved. &ccording to one e"pert wor ing on 5yuba, with fossils, scientists generally get only bones and teeth, but this specimen is special in that there are also the organs and muscles. The same e"pert notes that it will be interesting to see how this animal managed to adapt to life high in the &rctic and was able to survive, especially in the Ice &ge.

*** 4ats are famous for their aversion to water. However, the fishing cat, a wild &siatic species, has no such tendency. In fact, these felines, about twice the si7e of typical house cats, prefer to be in pro"imity to water, ma ing their homes in the near rivers and marshes. &s their name indicates, the cats fish for their meals, sitting by the water and tapping their paws to create ripples on the surface that resemble insect movements to lure their prey. Their webbed front paws help the fishing cats to remain dry while scooping fish, frogs, and snails out of shallow water. However, they also dive right in to grab large fish and birds in their (aws. 'nce in the water, the cats can swim on the surface or even glide underwater. Their flat tails, significantly shorter than those of house cats, serve as rudders, helping them to ad(ust direction below the water surface. /nfortunately, habitat loss and overfishing have decreased the number of these cats by about :- per cent over the past three generations. *ecently, the International /nion for the 4onservation of 2ature $I/42% changed the status of these cats to FendangeredG from the less)severe FvulnerableG.

*** 6everal years ago, biochemists studying marine ecosystems noticed something unusualE a sponge thriving in the middle of a coral reef that was dying from bacterial infection. The researchers identified a substance made by the sponge in order to defend itself from harmful microbes. They reali7ed that it was a natural antibacterial molecule called FageliferinG. This molecule can brea down the formation of a protective biofilm coating that bacteria use to shield themselves from threats,including antibiotic drugs. 2ow the same researchers are using this natural compound to create innovative ways to fight drugresistant bacteria. They have recently modified the structure of ageliferin to ma e it more potent and formulated to help conventional medications combat otherwise drug)resistant bacteria, such as staph and cholera. The newly) developed chemical does not stop bacteria from proliferating, but it allows the antibiotic to wor again. The researchers hope eventually to incorporate the altered ageliferin as a helper drug within commercial antibiotic products, allowing them to fight off formerly drug)resistant strains of diseases.

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*** & new vaccine that may offer lifetime protection against the flu has shown promise in human trials. It wor s on the deadly type & strain, responsible for pandemics. 4urrent flu vaccines wor by giving immunity against two proteins, called haemagglutinin and neurominidase, found on the surface of flu viruses. However, as these proteins continually mutate, vaccines have to be reformulated every year to eep on wor ing. The new vaccine, nown as &4&A) 35/)&, gets around this problem by homing in on a protein called A., found on all type & strains, that does not mutate so readily. The vaccine could be quic ly produced in response to a flu outbrea . The doses can be mass produced and used at any time, because there is no need to identify the most prevalent strains. In theory, a single in(ection could offer lifetime protection. Whether this will wor in practice is a matter for future trials.

*** & team of scientists have recently identified one of the molecules responsible for the tubular shape of blood vessels. 'riginally nown for regulating blood vessel development for life,the vascular endothelial growth factor $J1D3% proteins analy7ed by the research team have proven to be more interesting than initially thought. The team found that a certain variation of J1D3 attracts an FinstructorG protein. When this variant, with the instructor protein attached, doc s with a receptor on the surface of a cell, a signal telling the cell to form a tube)li e shape with its neighbours is sent to it. When the instructor cell is absent, the cells line up ne"t to one another to form a sheet. 6cientists believe that not only could this contribution allow blood vessels to be created from stem cells, but the discovery might be employed in other tube)li e structuresin the body, such as the lungs and the intestines. 3ar from being confined to blood vessels, the discovery thus opens the door to resolving the problem of three)dimensional reconstruction of organs from stem cells.

*** The loss of one sense encourages the development of the four others. This has now been demonstrated convincingly in a study by a team of doctors. 8uring five days, volunteers ta ingpart in the study were blindfolded and as ed to carry out e"ercises designed to stimulate the sense of touch. When their brains were then tested using an A*I, an area of the visual corte" was shown to have been activated as if, being underused, this area was brought in to help the sub(ects when they had to rely on touch. &bout .9 hours later, after the blindfolds came off, the participants lost this aptitude. !reviously, scientists had always believed that the brain was organi7ed into distinct and highly)speciali7ed systems. This new study, however, shows that the human brain has the ability to reorgani7e itself. In addition, the rapid reversibility of the process suggests that it is not based on the creation of new nervous connections but on the activation of previously inhibited 7ones.

*** & study by a group of scientists has resulted in a ma(or step forward in overcoming drug addiction. &s addiction was nown to cause molecular changes in the brains of addicts, causing their neurons to transmit much stronger signals of dopamine, a messenger molecule involved in reward)see ing behaviours, the scientists were hoping to prove e"perimentally that certain ey proteins in the dopamine)producing neurons influence drug addiction. It was an inspired guess, as the study found that mice in which these ey proteins had been selectively switched off displayed clear addictive behaviour. 3or instance, mice in which the 4lu*+ protein was switched off showed a much longer period of dependence. 4onversely, re)administration of cocaine after a long brea immediately re)ignited the addiction, but mice whose 2*+ protein had been deactivated resisted relapsing into addictive behaviours. The ability of these proteins to determine addictive behavioural patterns ma es them fascinating.

*** !ost)traumatic stress disorder $!T68% is an an"iety disorder that can develop after e"posure to a terrifying event or ordeal. While many scientific studies focus on the molecular mechanisms for learning and memori7ation, scientists need to address the FunlearningG process to tac le !T68. *esearchers have discovered that a receptor for glutamate, the most prominent neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, plays a ey role in the unlearning process. They made this discovery in e"periments where they trained mice to fear a sound by coupling it with an electric shoc to the foot. They found that if, following this fear conditioning, the mice are repeatedly e"posed to the sound without the electric shoc , their fear eventually subsides. However, mutant mice lac ing the gene)coding for metabotropic glutamate receptor : $mDlu*:% are unable to sha e off their fear of the now harmless sound. The researchers believe that a similar mechanism might be perturbed in !T68 sufferers and that metabotropic glutamate receptor : $mDlu*:% may provide a potential target for new therapeutic treatments.

*** & deficiency in Jitamin 8 is nown to cause various diseases due to insufficient calcium or phosphate in the bones. Jitamin 8 is actually an umbrella term that covers a group of steroid molecules. 'f these, only Jitamin 80 requires sunlight to synthesi7e. It is formed in the s in of all mammals when light energy is absorbed by a precursor molecule called ?)dehydrocholesterol. & recentstudy found that at the height of summer, two minutes e"posure of the face and arms to the sun, three to four times a wee , could supply enough Jitamin 80. This rose to +: minutes in the winter. Ironically, Jitamin 8 deficiency, which may also lead to s in cancer, is actually very common in some of the sunniest but most underdeveloped countries in the world. This is not because of malnutrition or a lac of dietary supplements, as most people mista enly thin . In fact, it is because very dar s in colour slows the rate of Jitamin 80 production by a factor of si", and people in these countries are usually heavily veiled when outside, as well. In addition, wearing sunscreen with a sun protection factor greater than eight will also bloc Jitamin 80 production.

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*** 6everal 1/ member states en(oy long)standing political and economic lin s with 5atin &merica. In fact, it was in the +,C-s and +,?-s that the 1/ first began e"panding its ties to the region through a series of diplomatic initiatives and agreements aimed at promoting democracy, addressing development issues, and boosting trade and investment. Aoreover, the 1/ actively wor ed for peace in the troubled 4entral &merican region in the +,@-s. In the meantime, the accession in +,@C of 6pain and !ortugal to the 1/ furtherstrengthened region)toregion ties. 1/ engagement in 5atin &merica increased during the +,,-s as a formal political dialogue was put in place to advance issues of common interest, including how the 1/ and 5atin &merica together can act in concert with other nations and international organi7ations to address global issues and challenges.

*** The &gta 2egritos of the !hilippines, a present)day tribal people, are an e"ample of a culture whose women and men share all subsistence activities. Aost interestingly, the &gta 2egritos women hunt large game with bows, arrows, and hunting dogs. The women are prevented from hunting only during late pregnancy and the first few months after giving birth. Teenagers and women with older children are the most frequent hunters. The women space their children to allow for ma"imum mobility. They eep their birth rate down through the use of herbal contraceptives. By studying these ethnographic e"amples and by questioning the assumptions that have been made about female and male roles in prehistory, anthropologists have concluded that Western societys traditionally low view of womens status is by no means universal.

*** 3or the past 0-- years, musicians and scientists have pu77led over the unparalleled quality of classical 4remonese violins made by the Italian master &ntonio 6tradivari. These classical violins have become the benchmar against which the sound of all other violins is compared. There are many theories as to the FsecretG of 6tradivarius violins. What was obviously first e"plored was the e"act si7e of the violins and ratio of the parts to each other. &lthough instrument ma ers have disassembled their violins, calibrated every dimension of the pieces to within the hundredth of an inch, and replicated the measurements perfectly in new instruments, they have failed to duplicate the 6tradivarius magic. It is also well) nown that the density of the material through which a sound propagates influences significantly the vibration efficiency of the material, therefore the tonal qualities of the instrument. It is also a widely held belief that 6tradivaris well)guarded varnish formula was not (ust a protective coating of the instrument, but actually the most important secret to his violins.

*** 6atellite images of the upper &ma7on Basin in Bra7il ta en since +,,, have revealed hundreds of circles, squares, and other geometric shapes once hidden by the &ma7on rain forests. They hint at a previously un nown ancient society that flourished in the &ma7on. 2ow researchers estimate that nearly ten times as many such structures, of un nown purpose, may e"ist undetected under the &ma7on forest cover. The discovery adds to evidence that the hinterlands of the &ma7on once teemed with comple" societies, which were largely wiped out by diseases brought to 6outh &merica by 1uropean colonists in the +:th and +Cth centuries. 6ince these vanished societies had gone unrecorded, earlier research had suggested that soils in the upper &ma7on were too poor to support the e"tensive agriculture needed for such large, permanent settlements. The researchers say FWe found that this view is wrong, and there is a lot more to discover in these placesG.

*** & companys public relations officer is responsible for creating and maintaining relationships between clients and customers. Through areas such as brand management, advertising, media relations and crisis management, public relations officers see to foster interest, trust and belief in the company and its products. They are aware of how best to carry this out when dealing within their own nations and cultures. However, when dealing with a foreign audience, it is critical thatcross)cultural differences are recogni7ed. By way of illustrating the impact cross)cultural awareness can have on the success or failure of a public relations campaign, a brief e"ample can be citedE an &merican company tried to sell its toothpaste in 6outheast &siaby emphasi7ing that it Fwhitens your teethG. Theyfound out that the local natives chew betel nuts to blac en their teeth because they found it attractive.

*** 3ollowing the terrorist attac s of 6eptember ++, .--+, &mericans understandably rallied around the flag. Having (ust suffered the deadliest attac ever on the /6 soil, a great ma(ority of the people believed another attac was imminent. But &mericans also had enormous faith the FDlobal War on TerrorG would help eep them safe. #ust one month after ,I++, for instance, ,9 per cent of &mericans fully approved of how the fight against terrorism was being handled. The /nited 6tates then quic ly went to war in &fghanistan, closing down a terrorist camp and capturing or illing a number of high)level al Maeda operatives in the process. However, since .--+, terrorists have found their targets on almost every continent, with bombings in Bali, 5ondon, Aadrid, Istanbul, and elsewhere. 2ow &mericans appear less convinced that their country is winning the war on terror. In the face of persisting threats, including a growing number of terroristattac s around the world, numerous reports show that &mericans are losing faith in their governments ability to wage the war successfully and to protect them from the terrorists ne"t ma(or attac .

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*** Wildfires are an important environmental ha7ard in many geographical areas. Those areas most prone to wildfires have wet seasons followed by dry seasons. Jegetation that grows and accumulates during the wet season dries out enough during the dry season to burn easily. When lightning hits the ground, it ignites the dry organic material, and a fire spreads through the area. &ctually fires have several effects on the environment. 3irst, burning frees the minerals that are loc ed in organic matter. The ashes remaining after a fire are rich in potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and other minerals essential for plant growth. Thus, vegetation flourishes following a fire. 6econd, fire removes plant cover and e"poses the soil, which stimulates the germination of seeds requiring bare soil, and encourages the growth of shade)intolerant plants. Third, fire can cause increased soil erosion because it removes plant cover, leaving the soil more vulnerable to wind and water.

*** 4ommercial logging, mostly for e"port abroad, accounts for .+= of tropical deforestation. Aost tropical countries allow commercial logging to proceed at a much faster rate than is sustainable. 3or e"ample, in parts of Aalaysia, current logging practices remove the forest almost twice as fast as the sustainable rate. If thiscontinues, Aalaysia will soon e"perience shortages of timber and will have to start importing logs. When that happens, Aalaysia will have lost future revenues, both from logging and from harvesting other forest products, from its newly vanished forests. Aoreover, in addition to commercial logging, cattle ranching also causes deforestation. In fact, appro"imately +.= of tropical rainforest destruction is done to provide open rangeland for cattle. &fter the forests are cleared, cattle can be raised on the land for si" to ten years, after which time shrubby plants ta e over the range. Auch of the beef raised on these ranches, which are often owned by foreign companies, is e"ported to fast)food restaurants.

*** Aoisture is removed from humid air by mountains, which force the air to rise. &s it gains altitude, the air cools, clouds form, and precipitation occurs, primarily on the windward slopes of the mountains. &s the air mass moves down on the other side of the mountain, it is warmed, thereby lessening the chance of precipitation of any remaining moisture. This situation e"ists on the west coast of 2orth &merica, where precipitation falls on the western slopes of mountains that are close to the coast. The dry lands on the sides of the mountains away fromthe prevailing wind are called Frain shadows.G Denerally, differences in elevation, in the steepness and direction of slopes, and in e"posure to sunlight and prevailing winds may produce local variations in climate nown as Fmicroclimates,G which can be quite different from their overall surroundings. 3or an organism, the microclimate of its habitat isof primary importance, because that is the climate an organism actually e"periences and nows how to cope with.

*** In the early part of the twentieth century, the e"periments carried out by 1rnest *utherford and his colleagues led to the idea that at the centre of an atom there is a tiny but massive nucleus. &t the same time that the quantum theory was being developed and that scientists were attempting to understand the structure of the atom and its electrons, investigations into the nucleus itself had also begun. &n important question to physicists was whether the nucleus had a structure, and what that structure might be. In fact, it has so far turned out that the nucleus is a complicated entity, and even today, it is not fully understood. However, by the early +,0-s, a model of the nucleus had been developed that is still useful. &ccording to this model, a nucleus is considered as an aggregate of two types of particlesE protons and neutrons. & proton is the nucleus of the simplest atom which is hydrogen. The neutron, whose e"istence was ascertained only in +,0. by the 1nglish physicist #ames 4hadwic , is electrically neutral as its name implies. These two constituents of a nucleus, neutrons and protons, are referred to collectively as Fnucleons.G

*** Today scientists draw attention to some of the potential consequences of global warming on wildlife. They point out that each species reacts to changes in temperature differently. 6ome species will undoubtedly become e"tinct, particularly those with narrow temperature requirements, those confined to small reserves or par s, and those living in fragile ecosystems, whereas other species may survive in greatly reduced numbers and ranges. 1cosystems considered most vulnerable to species loss in the short term are polar seas, coral reefs, mountains, coastal wetlands, tundra, taiga, and temperate forests. 'n the other hand, some species may be able to migrate to new environments or adapt themselves to the changing conditions in their present habitats. &lso, some species may be unaffected by global warming, whereas others may emerge from it as winners, with greatly e"panded numbers and ranges. Those considered most li ely to prosper include weeds, pests, and disease)carrying organisms that are already common in many different environments.

*** 1arth and Jenus, being roughly the same si7e and distance from the sun, are often regarded as twin planets. 6o it is natural to wonder how the crust of Jenus compares with that of our own world. &lthough centuries of telescopic observations from 1arth could give no insight, beginning in +,,- the Aagellan space probes orbiting radar penetrated the thic clouds that enshroud Jenus and revealed its surface with stunning clarity. 3rom the detailed images of landforms, planetary scientists can surmise the type of roc that covers Jenus. It seems that our sister planet is completely covered by roc s of basaltic composition, which are very much li e the dar , finegrained roc s that line the ocean basins of 1arth. Aagellans mapping, however, failed to find e"tensive areas comparable to 1arths continental crust.

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*** !ar insons and &l7heimers diseases are the most common diseases which affect many people in the world. &ppro"imately, + million people in the world suffer from !ar insons disease, a motor disorder characteri7ed by difficulty in initiating movements and slowness of movement. !atients often have a mas ed facial e"pression, poor balance, and a fle"ed posture. 5i e &l7heimers disease, which is characteri7ed by confusion, memory loss, and a variety of other symptoms, !ar insons disease is progressive, and the ris increases with age. The incidence of the !ar insons disease is about += at the age of C:, and about := at the age @:. !ar insons disease appears to result from a combination of environmental and genetic factors. 1vidence for a genetic role includes the fact that some families with an increased incidence of !ar insons disease carry a mutated form of the gene for a protein which is important in normal brain function. The symptoms of !ar insons disease result from the death of neurons in the mid) brain. &s a result, at present, there is no cure for !ar insons disease, although various treatments can help control the symptoms.

*** Aany drugs, whether prescribed or abused, affect the nervous system. While about .:= of all prescribed drugs are ta en to alter psychological conditions, almost all the commonly abused drugs affect mood. In particular, levels of serotonin and dopamine are thought to influence mood. 3or e"ample, when e"cessive amounts of norepinephrine are released, people feel energetic and stimulated, whereas low concentrations of this neurotransmitter reduce an"iety. Habitual use of almost any mood)altering drug can result in psychological dependence, in which the user becomes emotionally dependent on the drug. When deprived of it, the user craves the feeling of euphoria $well)being% that the drug induces. 6ome drugs induce tolerance after several wee s. This means that response to the drug decreases, and greater amounts are required to obtain the desired effect. Tolerance often occurs because the liver cells are stimulated to produce more of the en7ymes that metaboli7e and inactivate the drug. /se of some of the drugs, such as heroin, tobacco, and alcohol, may also result in addiction $physical dependence%, in which physiological changes occur that ma e the user dependent on the drug. &ddiction can also occur because certain drugs, such as morphine, have components similar to substances that body cells normally manufacture on their own. The continued use of such a drug causes potentially dangerous physiological effects.

*** Dene replacement therapy is being developed for several genetic diseases. Because many difficulties are inherent in treating most serious genetic diseases, scientists have dreamed of developing actual cures. Today, genetic engineering is bringing these dreams closer to reality. 6uch therapy could ta e two main forms. 'ne approach would be to introduce copies of a normal gene into a fertili7ed egg, using modifications of the technology already used to produce transgenic animals. In some transgenic animals the introduced gene can remain stable from generation to generation, constituting a true Fgenetic cure.G However, this approach raises such comple" ethical problems that it is not being actively pursued at this time. & second strategy ; to introduce the normal gene into only some body cells $somatic cell gene therapy% ; is receiving increased attention today. The rationale is that, although a particular gene may be present in all cells, it is e"pressed only in some. 1"pression of the normal allele in only the cells that require it may be sufficient to give a normal phenotype. &lthough this approach presents a number of technical obstacles, which must be overcome, gene therapies for a number of genetic diseases are undergoing development or are being tested on patients in clinical trials.

*** &nyone who has spent even a little time with an autistic boy or girl soon becomes familiar with the behaviours that set these children apart. But how do parents and doctors now if a baby has autismH 1arly diagnosis has proved difficult, but if it were possible, it would lead to much moreeffective treatment for the younger a child is the more malleable is the brain. 6o, the inability to detect autism until a child is two or three years old is a terrific disadvantage, as it eliminates a valuable window of treatment opportunity, when the brain is undergoing tremendous development. *esearchers, however, are closing in on techniques that could detect autism in babies as young as si" months and perhaps even at birth. The results of these new tests are e"panding the understanding of autism and raising hopes for much earlier, speciali7ed care that could improve a toddlers chances for a more normal life as a child, teenager and adult.

*** The pirate loo is a time)honoured way to fi" childrens Fla7y eyeG. The patch over the good eye forces the wea one to wor , thereby preventing its deterioration. !laying video games helps, too. The neural cells corresponding to both eyes then learn to fire in synchrony so that the brain wires itself for the stereo vision required for depth perception. 5eft untreated past a critical age,la7y eye, or amblyopia, can result in permanently impaired vision. 2ew studies are now showing that this condition, which affects up to : per cent ofthe population, could be repaired even past the critical age. What is more, amblyopia may provide insights into brain plasticity that could help treat a variety of other disorders related to faulty wiring, including schi7ophrenia, epilepsy, autism, an"iety, and addiction. These ailments are not neurodegenerative diseases that destroy part of the neural circuitry. 6o, if the defective circuits could be stimulated in the right way, the brain could develop normally.

*** 3or humans to be able to hear a sound, it must be both loud enough and within the right frequency range ; as measured by the number of vibrations per second, or hert7 $H7%. The average person is most sensitive to sounds in the +,---):,--- H7 range, and most lose the ability to hear very high frequencies $above around .-,--H7% with age. 1ven so a si7eable proportion of the population do seem to remain sensitive to the very low frequency FinfrasoundG. High)frequency sounds have more than (ust audible effects as teenagers in 6windon discovered in .--C. Tired of having crowds of youngsters collecting around the town theatre, the owners installed the Aosquito, a device that emits sonic energy at very high frequencies. 'nly the teenagers could hear it and it forced them to meet elsewhere.

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*** When Timemaga7ine declared its .--C person of the year to be FKouG, the maga7ine was pointing to an undeniable realityE anyone with an Internet connection can be a reporter, political commentator, cultural critic, or media producer. &round the same time, the media scholar H. #en ins and his colleagues published a paper appreciating the Fparticipatory culturesG of creation and sharing, mentorship, and civic engagement that were emerging online, especially among young people. &lthoughTimedid not e"plicitly frame participation in the new media as a youth phenomenon, most of the fifteen Fciti7ens of digital democracyG who were featured in its 8ecember +0 article were under the age of thirty)five. #en ins and his colleagues strongly suggest that young people are especially well)poised to ta e full advantage of Web ..-. 'n the other hand, ever since digital technologies were made available, scholars, educators, policyma ers, and parents have been debating their implications for young peoples literacy, attention spans,social tolerance, and tendency for aggression. 4onsiderable strides are now being made in scholarship in many of these areas.

*** &lthough the /nited 6tatesand the 6oviet /nion became allies during World War II, there seemed to be little doubt that their opposing ideologies would ultimately produce a cold war. The cold war was a global phenomenon and was clearly conditioned by the political, economic, and social aspirations of the two superpowers. Between +,9: and +,@, 1urope became a testing ground for the cold war itself. The 6oviets were convinced that 1astern 1uropean buffer states had to be created to protect the 6oviet /nion from future invasions. &s for the /nited 6tates, the Truman 8octrine, Aarshall !lan, and 2&T' were all intended to eep *ussian ideology within its own borders. When the cold war came to an end following the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 2ovember +,@,, the 6oviet ideology was considered a spent force in 1astern 1urope.

*** The last decade has seen notable changes in disability policy in 1urope. 4hanged assumptions about the concept of disability have been reflected in the adoption of new national and pan)1uropean legislation. &s a consequence, the policy which has sought to separate and segregate people with disabilities in Fspecial schoolsG, labour mar ets, residential accommodation and transport has, to some degree, and in some countries, been reconsidered. &ttempts have been made to develop an integrated approach, opening up (obs, services and housing to all people irrespective of their ability or disability. & ey element of this new approach has been the recognition that segregation and e"clusion is not a necessary consequence of a physical or intellectual impairment, but the result of conscious policy choices based on false assumptions about the abilities of the people with disabilities. The new approach recogni7es the role which discrimination plays in disadvantaging people with disabilities and, conversely, how legislation see s to combat elements of disability discrimination and creates equality of opportunity for people with disabilities.

*** 3or the present, 2&6& appears to be committed to maintaining its human spaceflight program, whatever the cost. However, in the ne"t decade, it may discover that it does not need human characters to tell compelling stories. Insteadof ga7ing at posters of astronauts, children are now playing with toy models of Aars rovers. The ne"t generation of space adventurers is growing up with the nowledge that one can visit another planet without boarding a spacecraft. 8ecades from now, when those children are grown)ups, some of them will lead the ne"t great e"plorations of the solar system. 6itting in quiet control rooms, they will send instructions to far)away probes already launched and ma e the final ad(ustment that points us towards the stars.

*** When prehistoric man returned home from a hunt, he was almost certainly as ed the question we would li e to as todayE FWhat happenedHG Muite possibly, he replied in a factual manner, providing a short report of the land covered, the number of animals spotted, and the results. His face)to)face communication was limited only to those within the sight and sound of the spea er. 1ither because of this or because he thought his communication should be recorded in more permanent form, the caveman eventually began to draw his message, the report of his latest adventurous hunt, on the wall of the cave. This opened up a whole range of possibilitiesE The wall was there twenty)four hours a day, seven days a wee . The caveman could go about his other business, whatever that may have been, and still now that his message was being communicated, for the audience was communicating not with the caveman himself, but with the wall. This was the beginning of mass communication ; impersonal communication with a diverse audience that has a limited opportunity to respond ; and much was gained from it.

*** 3rom the mid)fifteenth century on, most of 1urope had en(oyed steady economic growth, and the discovery of the 2ew World seemed the basis of greater prosperity to come. By the middle of the si"teenth century, however,the situation changed. 2othing li e the upward price trend that affected Western 1urope in the second half of the si"teenth century had ever happened before. 6ince 1uropes population began to grow vastly and the food supply remained constant, food prices were driven sharply higher by the increased demand. &t the same time, wages stagnated or even declined. 'n the other hand, the enormous influ" of silver from 6panish &merica into 1urope, where much of it was minted into coins, caused a dramatic increase in the volume of money in circulation. This, of course, fuelled the spiral of rising prices.

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*** The boo by physicist 5ee 6molin, The Trouble with !hysics,is an all)out attac on string theory in theoretical physics. 6tring theory aims to unify the laws governing all physical forces by combining quantum mechanics with general relativity. It is not very intuitive as it posits the e"istence of +- space)time. 6molin points out that, not once in its 0- years of e"istence, has string theory been validated by a test result. &lthough they ac nowledge this wea ness, the theorys advocates claim that it helps to clarify a number of concepts and, most important of all, it holds the promise of a grand unification. 6molins historical account is both brilliant and lively. The most interesting feature of the boo is his sociological analysis of the way in which string theory has ta en root in academic circles and the mechanisms that allowed it to gain its present almost total dominance. How can a community of li e) minded scientists have secured such a powerful position that it is now able to determine the course of research, to monopoli7e public funding and to decide careers, to the point of abolishing all alternative approachesH Indeed, his analysis is applicable to many other fields and disciplines.

*** 6tars are believed to begin life as collapsing masses of hydrogen gas. which are called FprotostarsG. &s collapsing masses start contracting, they heat up. When the temperature in them reaches +- million degrees, nuclear fusion begins and forms heavier elements, mainly helium at first. The energy released during these reactions balances the gravitational force, and the young star stabili7es as a main) sequence star. The tremendous brightness of stars comes from the energy released during these thermonuclear reactions. &fter billions of years, as helium is collected in the core and hydrogen is used up, the core contracts and heats further. The envelope e"pands and cools, and the star becomes a red giant. The ne"t stage of stellar evolution depends on the mass of the star. 6tars of residual mass less than +.9 solar masses cool further and became white dwarfs, eventually fading and going out altogether. if the stars residual mass is greater than two or three solar masses, it may contract even further and form a blac hole, which is so dense that no matter or light can escape from it.

*** The sheer scale of 1uropean information storage systems and the interoperability of numerous e"isting databases inevitably raise a string of privacy questions. This e"plains the public mistrust of these technologies. In 3rance, the 1dwige police database for retrieving information on all inds of activists from age +0 has been met with public outrage. In Dermany, the creation of a vast FantiterroristG database has provo ed a wave of protest. The /P is also regularly attac ed by ethical questions concerning its database of 82& fingerprints from 9.: million individuals involved in a ma(or or minor crime. 2o wonder people have grave concerns. How much trust can be placed in digital data storage tools when, in .--?, a British company simply mislaid the personal data of .: million individuals or when, in .--@ confidential information on 0- million clients of a Derman ban appeared on the internet for 9@ hoursH The biggest danger is not that these tools could be used by officials who are dishonest about civil liberties, but that they are not secure from e"ternal intrusion or negligence. The architecture of these security systems ought to be foolproof.

*** '7one molecules in the stratosphere absorb incoming solar ultraviolet radiation. With depletion of the o7one layer, more ultraviolet radiation reaches the 1arth>s surface. 1"cessive e"posure to ultraviolet radiation is lin ed to a number of human health problems. These include cataracts, s in cancer, and a wea ened immune system. However, this is not the end of the list. Auch scientific evidence also documents crop damage from e"posure to high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Aoreover, biologists are seriously concerned that the o7one hole over &ntarctica could damage plan ton that forms the base of the food web for the surrounding ocean. & +,,. study confirmed that increased ultraviolet radiation is penetrating surface waters around &ntarctica. This e"tra amount of ultraviolet radiation is negatively affecting &ntarctic phytoplan ton. The productivity of &ntarctic phytoplan ton has declined by at least C= to +.= as a result. If the productivity of phytoplan ton continues to decline, the comple" food web of &ntarctica, which includes fishes, seals, penguins, whales, and vast populations of birds, will beat ris .

*** &re we born with a limited number of heart cells or is the heart able to generate new onesH To this long) debated question, researchers at the Parolins a Institute have come up with an answerE Heart cells are continually replaced. The renewal rate is + = per year up to age .- years and decreases over the years, reaching -.:= in the ?-s. Thus, over a lifetime, less than half of the myocardial cells are renewed. The method used by #onas 3risenna and his team to uncover the hearts ability to produce new cells is totally Innovative. They determine the age of heart cells using the carbon)+9 dating method. 3ollowing the aerial nuclear e"plosions conducted during the 4old War in the +,:-s, large quantities of this radioactive isotope were released into the atmosphere and absorbed by plant, animal and human cells and 82&. But since the 2uclear Test Ban, these quantities of carbon)+9 have decreased quite rapidly. 6cientists have analy7ed the carbon) +9 content of the 82& of heart cells of people born before and after the nuclear tests to determine when these cells were generated. The results of this study open new perspectives in the search for therapies to alleviate cell death in myocardial infarction.

*** !roteins are of central importance in the chemistry of life. These macromolecules serve as structural components of cells and tissues< growth and repair, as well as maintenance of the organism depend on an adequate supply of these compounds. Aany proteins serve as en7ymes, molecules that speed up the thousands of different chemical reactions that ta e place in an organism. The protein constituents of a cell are the clues to its lifestyle. 1ach cell type has characteristic types, distributions, and amounts of protein that determine what the cell loo s li e and how it functions. & muscle cell differs from other cell types by virtue of its large content of the proteins myosin and actin, which are largely responsible for its appearance as well as for its ability to contract. The protein haemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is responsible for the speciali7ed function of o"ygen transport. &lthough carbohydrates and lipids tend to have the same structures, among different species, most proteins are species)specific< that is, their structures vary from species to species. The specific proteins present are largely responsible for differences among species.

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*** The common cold is a misery, a nuisance and a financial burden which costs the /nited 6tates economy alone an estimated O: billion every year. The main problem is that it is not caused by one virus, but by a family of viruses of over .--, ma ing it impossible to vaccinate against. 'nce infected, all one can really do is to ease the symptoms. 8rugs relieve sinus pain and headache, while decongestants reduce blood flow to mucus membranes, unbloc ing the stuffy nose. Aore powerful symptomatic treatments are unli ely. Aedication that carries even the slightest ris of side effects would never be approved to treat a condition which, for most people, is non)lethal, but simply a nuisance. Ket, for the sufferers of chronic lung diseases, such as asthma and bronchitis, colds can be deadly. 3or these people, the new drugs that are being developed could offer a lifeline. &ntiviral drugs, which target the virus directly, are currently in development. These could ill up to half of the cold) producing viruses, greatly lowering the chance of infection.

*** & persons emotional state is not (ust signalled to others by facial e"pression, but by body posture as well. This is the finding of researchers at the Harvard Aedical 6chool. They showed seven people some images of body posture ) happy, fearful, and emotionally neutral li e opening a door or pouring a glass of water. The sub(ects> emotional response to these images was evaluated by studying their brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging $fA*I% scans. It was found that viewing fearful whole) body e"pressions produced higher activity in areas nown to process emotional information than viewing images of meaningful but emotionally neutral body actions. In contrast, viewing happy postures produced higher activity in areas of the brain that process visual information. The research showed that when it comes to conveying emotion, the body could be (ust as important as the face. However, almost all the studies so far into the perception of emotion have focused mainly on the brain activity generated by images of facial e"pressions. 3urther developments on these evaluations will follow after the invention of more advanced devices.

*** It is generally believed that 82& was discovered by the 4ambridge scientists 3rancis 4ric and #ames Watson, who won a 2obel !ri7e in +,C. for revealing its purpose. In fact, everyone is wrongE 82& was actually discovered in +@C,, and its purpose revealed years before 4ric and Watson. In fact, the real credit should have gone to 'swald &very and his team at *oc efeller /niversity, 2ew Kor , who, in +,99, used bacteria to show that 82& passed genetic information from one organism to another. The trouble was that all the e"perts, including even those who advised the 2obel committee, then claimed that 82& was too simple to do this and could not possibly carry all the information needed to build a living organism. This was almost impossible. Thus, &very was repeatedly denied the pri7e. However, by the early +,C-s the 2obel committee agreed, and accepted &very and his team had been right all along and deserved the 2obel !ri7e. But, by then it was too late as &very had died in +,::. This is one of the sad stories in science.

*** 6cientists have thought about the brains intricate form for centuries. In the early +@--s, Derman physician 3ran7 #oseph Dall proposed that the shape of a persons brain and s ull spo e volumes about that individuals intelligence and personality which is a theory nown as FphrenologyG. This influential, even though scientifically unsupported, idea led to the collection of FcriminalG , FdegenerateN and FgeniusG brains. Then, in the latter part of the +,th century, 6wiss anatomist Wilhelm His claimed that the brain develops as a sequence of events guided by physical forces. British polymath 8&rcy Thompson built on that foundation, showing that the shapes of many structures, biological and Inanimate, result from physical self)organi7ation. !rovocative though they were, these early suppositions eventually faded from view. !hrenology became nown as a pseudoscience, and modern genetic theories replaced the biomechanical approach of the +,th century and furthered our understanding of the structure of the human brain. Thus, no matter how e"citing the theories may be more reliable information is a prerequisite for their acceptance.

*** The ear feels bloc ed when the air pressure in the space behind the eardrum, that is to say, the middle ear, is different from e"ternal air pressure. 2ormally this is not a problem because air is supplied to the middle ear from the outside through a narrow tube at the bac of the nose, which is called Fthe 1ustachian tubeN. This is usually closed, but yawning or swallowing opens it up sufficiently to permit the Internal and e"ternal pressures to equali7e. Tilting the head bac also helps because of the way in which the 1ustachian tube is positioned in the head. If the tube is bloc ed, as when we have a cold, a difference in pressure gradually builds up. This stretches the eardrum and ma es sounds seem muffled. !roblems can also arise when there is a rapid change in e"ternal pressure during an aircraft descent or an underwater dive. This is one of the reasons why infants and children start crying while the aircraft is descending. The secret in all cases is to use your chee and throat muscles to create a pressure that opens up the 1ustachian tube.

*** The revelation that H.6 is produced in the cardio)vascular system and helps to control blood pressure caught the attention of many researchers who had been loo ing for novel ways to protect the heart against damage from o"ygen deprivation, as occurs when a clot prevents blood from bringing o"ygen to the heart, leading to the death of cardiac tissue. In .--C, Dary Ba"ter reported that in isolated rat hearts, which were first provided with saline solution to mimic blood supply and then deprived of the saline to mimic a heart attac , administering H.6 to these isolated hearts before halting the saline supply reduced the e"tent of cardiac muscle damage. 5ater, 8avid 5efer showed that mice engineered to produce more H.6 in the heart were better able to tolerate o"ygen deprivation caused by a clot and more resistant to the damage that often ensues when blood flow is restored to tissues after a period of deprivation. 3indings such as these suggest that H.6 could be used to prevent or treat hypertension, heart attac s and stro es in humans. But the gass ability to rela" blood vessels means that its potential applications could e"tend to other blood vessel problems too ) including erectile dysfunction.

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*** 2owadays, we all li e to thin we have got past the racist nonsense of previous centuries, when even the most eminent scientists, white ones, of course, declared white people to be the pinnacle of human progress and other races to be inferior. We now accept that no race is superior to another. There is no question that most societies have made enormous progress in eliminating such overt racial pre(udice. But an unsettling study published by researchers in the /nited 6tates suggests that there is still a long way to go. 1ven today, the study finds, &mericans of various races still unconsciously dehumani7e their blac fellow citi7ens by subtly associating them with apes. In an e"periment in which students were subliminally flashed a photo of either an &frican) &merican or a 1uropean)&merican face, and then shown a blurry picture of an ape, those shown the blac face were quic er to recogni7e the ape. Aore troubling still, this association is not (ust confined to psychologists testsE It also appears to bias peoples (udgements about whether specific instances of police violence are (ustified.

*** 3or centuries, when one country disapproved of another countrys behaviour, political leaders sought ways to communicate their displeasure short of going to war. That is the idea behind economic sanctions. 6anctions allow countries to punish another government without having to resort to violence. &t least, that was the idea. But a recent study reveals that sanctions actually ma e it far more li ely that two states will eventually meet on the battlefield. The researchers e"amined more than two hundred cases of sanctions and found that, when sanctions are added to the mi", military conflict is e"tremely li ely to occur between two countries than if sanctions had not been imposed at all. Because countries generally prefer to enact sanctions that are not especially costly to themselves, target countries often interpret the action as a lac of resolve. This interpretation may lead the country being sanctioned to become provocative in its actions, which may in turn pave the way for a military confrontation.

*** Best nown for his novels .-,--- 5eagues /nder the 6eaand &round the World in @- 8ays,#ules Jerne, the 3rench science fiction pioneer, has always been a ma(or cultural figure in his native land, 3rance. His hometown of &miens continues to remember his contributions with parades, e"hibitions and literary conferences. Ket, in the 1nglish)spea ing world, #ules Jerne has been pigeonholed as merely a young boys adventure writer, even though he was successfully able to foresee heavier)than)air flying machines and moon voyages. In addition, twentieth century pioneers such as the polar e"plorer *ichard Byrd, the roc et scientist Wernher von Braun and the astronaut 2eil &rmstrong have all said that #ules Jernes writings inspired them. But now, #ules Jerne enthusiasts are pushing for a reconsideration of the writer as an influential literary figure, whose C9 novels and stories ) of admittedly varying literary quality ) offer not only startling prophecies but also offer provide a sharp commentary on the 1urope and &merica of his day.

*** The most stri ing achievement of the successful 8anish economy probably relates to labour mar et dynamism. 6uch an achievement Is hard to find throughout the rest of the world. The unemployment rate has been brought down from a previously high level and is now amongst the lowest across 1urope. The 8anish labour mar et model has been called Ffle"lcurityN which Is a combination of fle"ibility and security. How is it possible to blend labour mar et fle"ibility, as in the British model, with a generous unemployment benefit system, as in the continental 1uropean model, while still maintaining high (ob security and satisfaction levelsH The 8anish labour mar et model is based on three pillars. 3irst, moderate employment protection ma es it easy for firms to ad(ust their wor force to new conditions ) easy to fire, easy to hire. 6econd, a generous unemployment benefit system protects (ob losers against significant drops in income, especially for those at the lower end of the income scale, where (ob insecurity is also highest. Third, active labour mar et policies are used e"tensively to bring relevant qualifications to the unemployed and to test availability for wor .

*** & battle between traditional and progressive educators has raged since the +,0-s, when modern approaches to musical teaching were first proposed. 6tephanie !itts, author and editor of the British #ournal o f Ausic 1ducation,charts the course of this battle in her boo & 4entury of 4hange in Ausic 1ducation.Both camps argued for musics inclusion in the school curriculum, but their (ustifications and proposed teaching methods conflicted. 'n the one hand, declared traditionalists, music was a body of nowledge made up of the great symphonies and fol songs of Britain>s repertoire. 6tudents could be taught to appreciate and sing this Fnational songboo G as part of a cultural education. This was the method that dominated the classroom for decades, and is still part of the primary school approach. 'n the other hand, responded the progressives, if music was an e"pression of our inner psyche, then children should be encouraged to play and e"periment in order to learn more about themselves. FBring something to ma e noise withN, they shouted.

*** 3ew operas are as rooted in one place as Ben(amin Brittens !eter Drimes.The title character is a dar ) souled fisherman who goes mad after the death of his apprentice. Drimes was the invention of the poet Deorge 4rabbe, who grew up in &ldeburgh, on the eastern coast of 1ngland, in the later part of the eighteenth century. 4rabbe apparently based Drimes on a detested local character. Aontaga 6later, the operas librettist, wove his elaboration of the tale into various &ldeburgh settings. Britten, who was a resident of the same town for most of his adult life, brilliantly evo ed its sights and sounds in his music ) the crying of gulls, the crea ing of buoys, the endless booming of the waves. The obvious way to stage Drimesis to re)create the original setting of &ldeburgh and let Brittens flawless score do the rest. This was the approach ta en by Tyrone Duthrie, who first directed the opera at 4ovent Darden>s famous opera house, in +,9?.

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*** 1arly in the .-th century, volcanologist Diuseppe Aercalli created a scale to categori7e earthqua es based on the level of damage incurred. This Aercalli intensity scale ranges from 5evel +, which is registered only by seismographs, to 5evel +., which results in severe changes on the 1arths surface and the destruction of almost all buildings. The more popular and more scientific *ichter scale, developed by 4harles 3rancis *ichter, calculates the intensity of an earthqua e as FmagnitudeG $A% on a logarithmic scale. The A)value is determined from the distance between the hypocenter of the earthqua e and the seismological recording station, as well as the amplitudes recorded on seismographs. 1arthqua es with magnitudes less than ..- are not perceivable by people. 1ach number on the *ichter scale represents an earthqua e ten times more powerful than the number below it. Today, scientists use the more precise moment)magnitude scale. To calculate the A)value, this scale multiplies the area of the faults rupture by the distance moved along the fault. The study and measuring of earthqua es is crucial in aiding scientists and engineers with planning for future occurrences, especially because there could be deadly consequences.

*** 3or decades, Dermany has had some of the most enlightened energy policies in 1urope. It has long been admired for setting world)leading growth in wind and solar. But, its decision to end nuclear power by .-.. will set bac efforts to decarboni7e the electricity supply by +- crucial years, and could prove e"pensive for every household in 1urope. Dermanys sudden about)turn, li e all decisions on nuclear energy, was highly political. 5ast year, the government, headed by &ngela Aer el, made the sensible but unpopular decision to e"tend the life of Dermanys nuclear plants to .-0C as a Fbridge technologyG towards Fthe age of renewable energyG. But, after the disaster at the 3u ushima 8aiichi nuclear plant in #apan, public hostility intensified and Aer el retreated. The /)turn may help her in the .-+0 federal elections, but it is a ma(or step bac for the climate. &bout .0= of Dermanys electricity comes from nuclear and +?= from renewable energy sources. Thats a 9-= share for 7ero)carbon in total. The government has admirable plans to raise renewable electricity to 0:= of consumption by .-.-. However, even this planned increase falls := short of filling the hole in 7ero)carbon electricity left by abandoning nuclear power.

*** 6aving the planet might be the selfless motive for driving electric cars, but most owners derive the greatest pleasure from the silence of their vehicles. However, its a pleasure soon to disappear as lawma ers in 1urope and the /6 prepare rules to ma e them noisier. The argument is that pedestrians would be safer, especially those with impaired vision and hearing. &lthough some figures from the /6 do suggest that proportionately there are higher collision rates with electric vehicles, conclusive data is nevertheless scarce. 8o people really navigate the urban (ungle using only their earsH 'r indeed the latest diesel)engined vehicles, which, at low speeds, are very quietH In fact, electric cars offer a rare opportunity to cut both chemical and noise pollution and we should embrace them. The sound made by internal)combustion engines is (ust an unwelcome waste product. 6ome people may find it useful, but then so did those who gathered up the dung from all our horse)driven carriages to use as fertiliser. Insisting that electric cars ma e a noise would be li e passing a law in the early .-th century, obliging drivers of the new)fangled Fmotor vehicleG to deposit a load of well)rotted compost on the side of the road every :- miles.

*** The fate of the dinosaurs may have been sealed half a billion years before life even appeared, by two geological time bombs that still e"ist near our planets core. & controversial new hypothesis lin s massive eruptions of lava that coincided with many of the 1arths largest e"tinctions to two unusually hot sections of mantle .,@-- ilometres beneath the 1arths crust. These sections formed (ust after the 1arth itself, 9.: billion years ago. If the hypothesis is correct, they have periodically burst through the planets crust, creating enormous oceans of lava which poisoned the atmosphere and wiped out entire branches of the tree of life. 8ebates still rage over what caused different mass e"tinctions, including the one that wiped out the dinosaurs. &n asteroid that smashed into the 1arth C: million years ago is no doubt partially to blame for the demise of the dinosaurs. But, a less) nown school of thought has it that this and other e"tinctions occurred when crac s in the crust let huge amounts of lava pour out from the centre of the 1arth. 1ach event flooded at least +--,--- square ilometres, leaving behind distinct geological regions nown as large igneous provinces $5I!s%, such as Indias 8eccan traps, which were formed during the time when the dinosaurs became e"tinct.

*** 4alculus was independently developed by Dottfried Wilhelm 5eibni7 and Isaac 2ewton in the late +?th century. 5eibni7 based his theory on the use of geometric processes to solve mathematical problems. He viewed a curve as being made up of infinitely small segments, whereby the slope of the tangent could be calculated for each segment. He recogni7ed the relationship between differential and integral calculus. 2ewton, on the other hand, was more interested in solving a physics problemE how to determine the instantaneous speed of an accelerating ob(ect. He viewed a curve as a reflection of constant acceleration and imagined a point as an infinitely small segment of a line. The time interval between observations of an ob(ects motion could be reduced to the point that the change in speed disappears. Thus, acceleration or deceleration can be calculated as the sum of the instantaneous speeds of the observed ob(ect. 5eibni7 was later accused of stealing 2ewtons ideas from the correspondence e"changed by the two, and the *oyal 6ociety of 5ondon, influenced by 2ewton, erroneously pronounced him guilty. However, 5eibni7s system eventually became the dominant form of calculus, than s to its elegant notation and simplicity.

***There have been very few studies comparing the microbiological safety of organic and conventional food production. In theory, organic food could be more prone to microbial contamination due to the lac of preservatives and the use of animal waste or manure as fertilisers are more commonly referred to. However, the results of the present studies have not been conclusive due to a number of factors, including a small sample si7e and a failure to ta e into account seasonal and regional variations. 4learly, organic and conventional foods are susceptible to contamination by pathogenic microorganisms at every point in the food chain. It can occur during production from manure and water, during processing from environmental sources and during the final handling and pac ing, possibly as a result of poor human sanitation. 'ne area where organic production systems might pose a higher ris is through the use of newer untreated manure as fertiliser. 6tudies carried out on organic and conventional produce found that 1. coli contamination was +, times greater on organic farms that used manure or compost less than +. months old than on farms that used older materials. Though the ris s are reduced as manure matures, researchers have found that many pathogenic organisms such as 1. coli and salmonella can still survive up to C- days or more in compost and in the soil, depending on temperature and the condition of the soil.

DS SALIK 2011 SONBAHAR *** !atients with hearing loss not correctible by medical therapy may benefit from hearing amplification. 4ontemporary hearing aids are comparatively free of distortion and have been miniaturi7ed to the point where they often may be contained entirely within the ear canal. To optimi7e the benefit, a hearing aid must be carefully selected to conform to the nature of the hearing loss. 8igitally programmable hearing aids are now widely available and allow optimi7ation of speech intelligibility and improved performance in difficult listening circumstances. &side from hearing aids, many assistive devices are available to improve comprehension in individual and group settings, to help with hearing television and radio programs, and for telephone communication. 3or patients with severe to profound sensory hearing loss, the cochlear implant ; an electronic device that is surgically implanted into the cochlea to stimulate the auditory nerve ; offers socially beneficial auditory rehabilitation to most adults with acquired deafness. 2ew trends in cochlear implantation include its use for patients with only partial deafness, preserving residual hearing and allowing both acoustic and electrical hearing in the same ear, as well as bilateral cochlear implantation.

*** 4onservation biologists are applying their understanding of population, community, ecosystem, and landscape dynamics in establishing par s, wilderness areas, and other legally protected nature reserves. 4hoosing locations for protection often focuses on biodiversity hot spots. These relatively small areas have a large number of endangered and threatened species and an e"ceptional concentration of endemic species, those that are found nowhere else. Together, the FhottestG of 1arths biodiversity hot spots total less than +.:= of 1arths land but are home to a third of all species of plants and vertebrates. There are also hot spots in aquatic ecosystems, such as certain river systems and coral reefs. Because endemic species are limited to specific areas, they are highly sensitive to deprivation of their natural environment. &t the current rate of human development, some biologists estimate that loss of habitat will cause the e"tinction of about half of the species in terrestrial biodiversity hot spots in the ne"t +- to +: years. Thus, biodiversity hot spots can also be hot spots of e"tinction. They ran high on the list of areas demanding strong global conservation efforts. 4oncentrations of species provide an opportunity to protect many species in very limited areas. However, species endangerment is truly a global problem, and focusing on hot spots should not detract from efforts to conserve habitats and species diversity in other areas. *** & contagious tumour threatens to wipe out the famous Tasmanian devil, a ferocious marsupial animal. 4ould contagious cancers arise in humans, tooH Diven that humans have great genetic diversity and can avoid behaving in ways that would foster tumour transmission, it might seem safe to assume that our species can readily avoid the fate of the Tasmanian devil. Indeed, if a person were bitten by an infected Tasmanian devil or by a dog with the canine transmissible tumour, the persons genetic ma eup, being so different from that of the animals, would probably ensure a strong immune response able to detect and ill the invading cells. Thus, the bitten individual would not get sic or start spreading the disease to others. There are grounds for concern, though. 4ontagious cancers could, in theory, arise in a group of great apes with low genetic diversity because of population declines. If they were hunted by human populations with many members having impaired immunity, the close contact might enable tumour cells to transfer to humans and then spread. 6uch conditions e"ist where humans with a high HIJ prevalence hunt endangered apes. &lthough this scenario is possible, we suspect that cross)species transmission is not the most li ely way that a contagious cancer would arise in humans. We hold this view in part because no nown cases of cross)species transmission of the dog cancer have occurred in nature, although the disease has been e"perimentally transferred to related canines in the laboratory.

*** In +@@0, 6igmund 3reud was a young neurologist living in Jienna and struggling to ma e ends meet. 5i e many doctors, he became interested in a 6outh &merican drug that was all the rage, cocaine. 'n &pril 0-, +@@0, he too a dose of pure cocaine for the first time. He evaluated its effects on mood, strength and reaction times and wrote up his findings in a pamphlet called \ber 4oca, or F'n 4ocaineG. His comments readE F5ong, intensive physical wor is performed without any fatigue] This result is en(oyed without any of the unpleasant after)effects that follow e"hilaration brought about by alcohol] &bsolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated ta ing of the drug.G 5i e other doctors of his time, 3reud failed to recogni7e that cocaine is highly addictive ; he actually recommended it as a treatment for morphine addiction. But, he did ma e one fascinating observation. &pplied to the tongue or nose, cocaine produces a profound local numbing. 3reud mentioned this to his colleague Parl Poller, an eye specialist who immediately saw its potential and later used it to transform eye surgery. In non)addictive forms, cocaines offspring are now widely used as local anaesthetics in medicine. If 3reud had followed through with his original insight, that cocaine is an anaesthetic, he would probably have stayed a neurologist and never found the time to invent psychoanalysis.

*** !roper diet is an important contributor to preventing tooth cavities. &lthough all carbohydrates can cause tooth decay to some degree, the biggest culprits are sugars. &ll simple sugars have the same effect on the teeth, including table sugar and the sugars in honey, fruits, and mil . Whenever sugar comes in contact with plaque, 6treptococcus mutans bacteria in the plaque produce acid for about twenty minutes. The amount of sugar eaten is irrelevant< the amount of time the sugar stays in contact with the teeth is the important issue. Thus, sipping a sugary soft drin over an hour is more damaging than eating a candy bar in five minutes. & person who tends to develop cavities should eat sweet snac s less often. *insing the mouth after eating a snac removes some of the sugar< brushing the teeth is more effective. In fact, brushing prevents cavities from forming on the sides of the teeth, and flossing gets between the teeth where a brush cant reach. 8rin ing artificially sweetened soft drin s also helps, though diet colas contain acid that can promote tooth decay. 8rin ing tea or coffee without sugar can also help people avoid cavities, particularly on e"posed root surfaces.

*** Aost people are surprised to learn that fat has some virtues. 'nly when people eat either too much or too little fat does ill health follow. It is true, though, that in our society of abundance, people are li ely to encounter too much fat. 3at is actually a subset of the class of nutrients nown as lipids, but the term FfatG is often used to refer to all the lipids. The lipid family includes triglycerides $fats and oils%, phospholipids, and sterols, all important to nutrition. The triglycerides provide the body with a continuous fuel supply, eep it warm, and protect it from mechanical shoc < their component fatty acids serve as starting materials for important hormonal regulators. The phospholipids and sterols contribute to the cells structures, and the sterol cholesterol serves as the raw material for some hormones, vitamin 8, and bile. In foods, triglycerides are the solid fats and liquid oils. The triglycerides carry with them the four fat) soluble vitamins ; &, 8, 1, and P ; together with many of the compounds that give foods their flavour, te"ture, and palatability. 3at is responsible for the delicious aromas associated with si77ling meat and hamburgers on the grill, onions being sautUed, or vegetables in a stir)fry. 'f course, these wonderful characteristics lure people into eating too much from time to time.

DS SOSYAL 2011 SONBAHAR *** 6ince its economic reform began in +,?@, 4hina has gone from being a poor developing country to the second)largest economy in the world. It has also emerged from isolation to become a political superpower. Its meteoric rise has been one of the most important global changes of recent years. However, when it comes to science and technology, most people thin of 4hina as being stuc in the past and only visuali7e a country with massive steelwor s and vast smo ing factories. That may have been true a few years ago, but it is no longer the case. Jery quietly, 4hina has become the worlds second largest producer of scientific nowledge, surpassed only by the /6, a status it has achieved at an awe)inspiring rate. If it continues on its current tra(ectory, 4hina will overta e the /6 before .-.- and the world will loo very different as a result. The historical scientific dominance of 2orth &merica and 1urope will have to ad(ust to a new world. In the West, people are largely familiar with research systems in which money, people, and output stay roughly the same from year to year. *esearch spending in 1urope and 2orth &merica has outpaced economic growth since +,9:, but not by a dramatic amount. 2ot so with 4hina. *** To fully understand unemployment, one must consider the causes of recorded long)term unemployment, that is, the government assistance programs. 3or one thing, government assistance increases the measure of unemployment by prompting people who are not wor ing to claim that they are loo ing for wor even when they are not. The wor registration requirement for welfare recipients, for e"ample, compels people who otherwise would not be considered part of the labour force to register as if they were a part of it. This requirement effectively increases the measure of unemployment in the labour force even though these people are better described FnoemployedG ; that is, not actively loo ing for wor . 6imilarly, unemployment insurance induces people to say they are (ob hunting in order to collect benefit. These programs also contribute to long)term unemployment by providing an incentive, and the means, not to wor . 1ach unemployed person has a Freservation wageG ; the minimum wage he or she insists on getting before accepting a (ob. /nemployment insurance and other social assistance programs increase the wage, causing an unemployed person to remain unemployed longer.

*** In +@,:, &lfred 2obel drafted a holograph will, replacing one that left his vast fortune essentially to relatives, servants, and friends. The new will, for which 2obel will be forever remembered, substantially reduced his personal bequests. It directed that his estate be invested conservatively and that the income from these investments be used to establish annual pri7es to be awarded with no reservations regarding nationality to those people whose activities are deemed to be of the greatest benefit to human ind in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. 2obels will was disputed legally for more than three years. 1ventually, a system was established for the distribution of the income in the form of 2obel !ri7es, the first set of which were awarded in +,-+. &s the income from the 2obel trust has increased, the si7e of each award has grown to the point that in .--:, the typical pri7e was worth over O+.0 million, more than thirty times what the same award had been worth fifty years earlier. The list of 2obel laureates, which has now been e"panded to include a si"th field, economics, contains the names of international giants in their fields. The 2obel legacy is great because of the endowment he established to recogni7e those who contribute most to the benefit of human ind.

*** The recent dramatic unrest in the /P is described as the worlds first decentrali7ed riots, facilitated by social media such as Twitter and the Blac Berry Aessenger networ . But deep psychological forces are also at play. In times of social unrest, violent acts that would usually seem e"treme can quic ly become the norm among groups of people identifying with each other in terms of age, social status or other attributes. When people see looting and rioting happening elsewhere, it shows them what can be reali7ed. 3eeling empowered, they thin they can do pretty much what they li e, and they have a good time doing it. They simply dont thin of it as unacceptable as they would at other times. 6uch collective action is driven by social identity ; by people sharing a common social place. It is too early to now what the rioters might have in common, but it is suspected that it boils down to social class and is defined by economic deprivation. They seem to be targeting the middle class. Its li e a ind of class warfare on the streets of Britain. &lienation from their families, the local community and mainstream society stops agitators from caring about the harm they cause others. It is necessary to challenge the rioters current perception that there are no opportunities for a better future.

*** 6ince early .-+-, global food and oil prices have been on a sustained and synchroni7ed upward trend. &ccording to a recent survey by the /nited 2ations, it is estimated that oil price increases will reduce growth in some developing &sia)!acific economies, as well as putting pressure on inflation and adversely affecting current accounts. High oil prices will increase costs for domestic industry and push up the price of imports and reduce demand for e"ports. 3ood prices have increased by up to 0:=. While adverse climatic conditions have affected supply in many countries, increasing conversion of food crops into biofuels, e"port bans, and heightened speculative activity in food commodities have e"aggerated the price surge. *ising food prices are having dire effects on the poor, and reserving hard won development gains. 8ue to the higher food and energy prices, up to 9. million additional people across &sia and the !acific may remain in poverty in .-++ in addition to the +, million already affected in .-+-. In the worst)case scenario, in which food price inflation doubles in .-++ and the average oil prices rises up to +0-O per barrel, achieving the Aillennium 8evelopment Doal for many least developed countries would be postponed for at least a half decade.

*** 5ower birth)rates and longer lives lead to population aging, which matters for many reasons, but first and foremost because of the costs of retirement. These costs are borne principally by the government and funded through ta"es on the wor ing)age population. The old)age)dependency ratio ; that is, the population aged C: and over divided by the population aged +: to C9 ; is a ey indicator of population aging. 'ther things being equal, the ta" rate for pensions will be proportional to this ratio. In the developed world, this ratio rose from .+. in +,:- to ..+ today, and is estimated to increase to .99 in .-:-. If, in the developed countries, the elderly in .-:- are to receive the level of benefits given to the current elderly, then the level of payroll ta"es needed to fund government pensions will more than double by .-:-. 8ue to higher fertility and immigration, the /6 population is pro(ected to remain younger than those of other '148 countries, and the pension problem will be less severe. Health costs, however, pose an even more difficult problem due to the sociali7ed health)care system for the elderly in the /6. &s the population ages and spending per elderly person rises, government spending on health care will li ely soar.

DS FEN 2012 LKBAHAR *** 6cientists were initially unconvinced that the decrease in the number of amphibians ; animals such as frogs that live on land and in water ; was real, because amphibian populations are notorious for fluctuating widely. However, after statistical evidence showed that the declines were far more widespread than would reasonably be e"pected by chance, most researchers agreed that something was seriously wrong. *eports of declines and e"tinctions accelerated during the +,,-s, and the observations indicated that something specific and troubling was happening to amphibians. &t one locale in 4osta *ica, 9- per cent of the local amphibian species disappeared over a short period. The loss of amphibian species not only contributes to the worlds biodiversity crisis but also has remar able implications for the ecosystems where the declines occur. Without amphibians, lin s to food webs are bro en, and other organisms suffer in often unpredictable ways. &lthough some of the earliest amphibian declines were recorded in the /6, much of the scientific literature focuses on decreases in tropical countries, where losses have often been more dramatic and have involved a larger number of species. This has led to the curious problem of declines in temperate amphibian species receiving insufficient attention. *** Humans have evolved to wor best in the atmosphere and gravity that e"ist on the 1arths surface. To survive in space, astronauts have to ta e an 1arth)li e environment with them such as fresh o"ygen, which is circulated around the craft for them to breathe. The main difference in space is the weightlessness causing astronauts to float around. &s soon as astronauts go into space, their bodies start adapting to this weightlessness. Auscles, bones, heart and blood all undergo changes. &t least half of all astronauts suffer an unpleasant reaction to weightlessness. 'n the 1arth, gravity e"erts a force on our bodies, which gives us weight and eeps us rooted to the ground. It also pulls body fluid downwards. In space, astronauts lose their sense of balance. They can feel sic , and go off their food. It can ta e two wee s for the digestive system to fully ad(ust. Therefore, 2&6& plans no spacewal s during the first three days of a mission, because an astronaut who vomits inside a spacesuit ris s suffocation.

*** &s well as being the largest mountain range on the planet, the Himalayas is also one of the youngest. #ust seventy million years ago, a very short time in geological terms, the Himalayas did not e"ist. &s the Indo)&ustralian tectonic plate collided with the 1urasian plate at the rate of about +: centimetres a year, the ocean floor in between began to rise up to form the mountain range. This means that much of the roc out of which these towering pea s are made was formed at the bottom of an ocean, only to be lifted up thousands of metres into the air. The evidence for this e"traordinary (ourney is not difficult to find. If you loo closely at any piece of Himalayan limestone, you will see it has a chal y, granular structure. What you are loo ing at are the remains of sea creatures. Diven a relatively short timescale and a bit of pressure, these biological remains are quic ly converted into solid roc . 5imestone can also be formed by the direct precipitation of calcium carbonate from water, although the biological sedimentary form is more abundant. We now that the Himalayan limestone is predominantly biological because we have found fossils at the top of Aount 1verest. There is perhaps no better e"ample of the endless recycling of 1arths resources that has been going on since its formation almost five billion years ago.

*** It is safe to bet that a flying motorcycle will never be a practical transportation option. Ket, this process has not stopped an engineering firm in 4alifornia from playing the long odds. The company is building a prototype called the 6witchblade, and it hopes to sell a do)it)yourself it as early as .-+:. &ttractive design and the promise of having air and ground transport in one pac age have ept alive dreams of a flying vehicle. & three)wheel design was chosen because it meets the definition of a motorcycle, which is not as highly regulated as cars are. 3or e"ample, motorcycles do not need bumpers, which would ma e a flying vehicle heavier and more e"pensive. &s the company envisions it, occupants would sit in the aerodynamic 6witchblade, in climate)controlled lu"ury with an instrument display that switches from air to ground readings on landing. The 6witchblade will succeed, the company believes, because it will transform easily between transportation in the air and on the ground. If pilots encountered bad weather while flying, they could put down at an airstrip, fold in the wings and finish the trip by travelling on the ground with no manual disassembly. The reality, however, is more complicated, given that aircraft are prohibited from operating on roads and tightly regulated as to how close they can fly to homes, military installations and environmentally sensitive areas.

*** 2oise drives many species of marine animals to change their behaviour mar edly ; their calling, feeding and migration patterns ; sometimes onto a beach and ending their lives. 3ish li e cod and haddoc in the Barents 6ea have been found to escape from the area when oil)prospecting air guns start firing, drastically reducing fish catches for days. 5arge baleen whales communicate over vast distances in the same frequencies that ship propellers and engines generate. 'n most days, the area over which whales in coastal waters can hear one another shrin s to only +- to .- per cent of its natural e"tent. 4hristopher W. 4lar studies endangered northern right whales, whose habitat includes busy shipping lanes for the port of Boston. F6hipping noise is always there,G 4lar says. FIt doesnt have to be fatal to be problematic over time. The whales social networ is constantly being ripped and reformed.G /nable to communicate, individual whales have trouble finding each other and spend more time on their own. The problem is getting steadily worse for another reason. &s we are ma ing more noise, we are also ma ing the ocean better at transmitting it. 6eawater is absorbing less sound as carbon dio"ide from fossil)fuel burning seeps into the ocean and acidifies it.

*** 2&6&s 8eep 6pace 2etwor is responsible for trac ing, commanding and receiving data from space probes throughout the solar system. 6ome of the spacecraft are so far away and they use such small transmitters that radio signals received from them are about .- million times wea er than a watch battery. To receive such wea signals, the 8eep 6pace 2etwor uses huge dish)shaped antennae up to ?- meters across. To dispatch commands to the most remote spacecraft, the same giant dishes are used to send radio signals from immensely powerful, 9--) ilowatt transmitters. The 8eep 6pace 2etwor s antennae are located at three sites ; Aadrid $6pain%, 4anberra $&ustralia%, and 4alifornia $the /6%. The sites were chosen because they are roughly +.- degrees and a third of the way round the world from each other. &s the 1arth turns, at least one of the stations is always in contact with a space probe. This ensures a .9)hour observation, with overlapping time to transfer the radio lin to the ne"t station. The sites are also surrounded by mountains, which protect them from radio interference.

DS SALIK 2012 LKBAHAR *** The Aarylebone Health 4entre in 5ondon, which opened in +,@?, was the first 2ational Health 6ervice practice to employ complementary therapists, and it is the sub(ect of a long)term research study into the effectiveness of integrated medicine. The team comprises three full)time and two part)time family doctors, an osteopath, homeopath, naturopath, acupuncturist, massage therapist and a counsellor. 4onventional medicine is still the foundation of the practice, but doctors have the option of suggesting a therapy if they consider it appropriate for the patients condition. 8r. 6ue Aorrison, who is in charge of the practice, says that she could not now imagine wor ing without complementary therapies. FWe have found that we can contain problems ; emotional as well as physical ; that are usually difficult to loo after in normal practice.G Integrated medicine may also be a part of the reason why the Aarylebone Health 4entre has a low referral rate to specialists and a drug)prescribing rate that is half of the national average. &t the Aarylebone Health 4entre, patient care is Frelationship)centredG, meaning that the alliance of patient and practitioner is central to all treatment and healing, which is a ey element in integrated medicine. ***The hygiene hypothesis was first described in +,@, by 8avid !. 6trachan, a British epidemiologist, who noticed that the more children in a family, the lower the rates of allergies and ec7ema. 4hildren in large families tend to e"change colds and other infections more often than children with fewer siblings, and this increased e"posure to pathogens perhaps protected these children from allergies. That same year, 1ri a von Autius, an epidemiologist at Aunich /niversity, was loo ing into the effect of hygiene on asthma. 4hildren from dirtier 1ast Dermany, she was shoc ed to find, had dramatically less asthma than their West Derman counterparts living in cleaner, more modern circumstances. The 1ast Derman children had li ely been e"posed to many more viruses and bacteria. &ccording to the hygiene hypothesis, e"posure in early childhood to infectious agents programs the immune system to mount defences against disease)causing viruses, bacteria and parasites. Better sanitary conditions deprive the immune system of this training, so the body fights against harmless particles as if they were deadly threats. The resulting allergic reaction leads to the classic signs of asthma. However, although much data supports the hygiene hypothesis for allergies, the same cannot be said for asthma. 4ontrary to e"pectations, asthma rates have increased drastically in urban areas in the /6 that are not particularly clean.

*** !sychologys involvement in health dates bac to the beginning of the .-th century, but at that time, few psychologists were involved in medicine. The psychosomatic medicine movement sought to bring psychological factors into the understanding of disease, but that view gave way to the biopsychosocial approach to health and disease. By the +,?-s, psychologists had begun to develop research and treatment aimed at chronic disease and health promotion. This research and treatment led to the founding of two new fieldsE behavioural medicine and health psychology. Behavioural medicine is concerned with applying the nowledge and techniques of behavioural research to physical health, including prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation. Health psychology strives to enhance health, prevent and treat disease, identify ris factors, improve the health care system and shape public opinion regarding health issues. Health psychology overlaps with behavioural medicine, and the two professions have many common methods of diagnosis and treatment. However, behavioural medicine is an interdisciplinary field, whereas health psychology is a speciality within the field of psychology that is concerned with issues of physical health.

*** FKou are what you eatG says an old proverb. Ket, what if it were literally trueH What if material from our food actually made its way into the control centres of our cells, ta ing charge of fundamental gene e"pressionH That is in fact what happens, according to a recent study in 4hina of plant)animal micro*2& transfer. Aicro*2&s are short sequences of nucleotides ; the building bloc s of genetic material. 3or the study, blood samples from .+ volunteers were tested for the presence of micro*2&s from crop plants, such as rice, wheat, potatoes and cabbage. The results of the study revealed that the sub(ects bloodstream contained 0different micro*2&s from commonly eaten plants, and it appears that they alter cell function. 3or e"ample, a specific rice micro*2& was shown to inhibit the genetic receptor that controls the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream. The suggestion that plant micro*2&s play a role in controlling human physiology highlights the fact that our bodies are highly integrated ecosystems. These findings may also illuminate our understanding of co)evolution, a process in which genetic changes in one species trigger changes in another. 3or e"ample, our ability to digest the lactose in mil arose after we domesticated cattle. 4ould the plants we cultivated have altered us as wellH

*** Insulin, a hormone released from the pancreas, controls the amount of sugar in the blood. When people eat or drin , food is bro en down into materials, including the simple sugar glucose, that the body needs to function. 6ugar is absorbed into the bloodstream and stimulates the pancreas to produce insulin. Insulin allows sugar to move from the blood into the cells. 'nce inside the cells, it is converted to energy, which is either used immediately or stored as fat or glycogen until it is needed. The levels of sugar in the blood vary normally throughout the day. They rise after a meal and return to normal within about . hours after eating. 'nce the levels of sugar in the blood return to normal, insulin production decreases. The variation in blood sugar levels is usually within a narrow range, about ?- to ++- milligrams per decilitre $mgId5% of blood. If people eat a large amount of carbohydrates, the levels may increase more. !eople over C: tend to have slightly higher levels, especially after eating. If the body does not produce enough insulin to move the sugar into the cells, the resulting high levels of sugar in the blood and the inadequate amount of sugar in the cells together produce the symptoms and complications of diabetes.

***& ey strategy in eeping the body free from infection is to prevent the entry of harmful organisms in the first place. Barrier, or passive immunity, acts as a first line of defence against pathogens, providing protection via the physical and chemical barriers presented by the various surfaces of the body. These include both e"ternal surfaces such as the s in and mucus)lined internal surfaces li e the airways and the gut. 1ach body surface forms an initial physical barrier to infection, and this is then supplemented by a variety of secreted substances that e"hibit antimicrobial properties such as en7ymes, which brea down bacteria. &dditional vital mechanisms function to e"pel or flush out microbes from the body li e coughing, sweating and urination. If barrier immunity is breached, for instance by a s in wound, and pathogens enter the body, the innate immune system then becomes actively involved. Pey to this is the activation of an inflammatory response and the deployment of immune cells. Tissue damage results from inflammation, which helps to prevent microbes from spreading. The capillary walls in the affected area become more penetrable, enabling immune cells to access the infected tissue. 8amaged cells release chemicals that attract immune cells once they have migrated from the bloodstream.

DS SOSYAL 2012 LKBAHAR

*** 6tudies reveal that even subtle, artificial or seemingly unimportant e"clusion can lead to strong emotional reactions. & strong reaction ma es sense when you are re(ected or ignored by your family or close friends, because they are important to you. It is more remar able that intense feelings of re(ection can emerge even when people close to us are not involved. We can feel awful even after people we have never met simply loo the other way. This reaction serves an important function. It warns us that something is wrong, that there e"ists a serious threat to our social and psychological well)being. !sychologists argue that belonging, self) esteem, a sense of control over your life and a belief that e"istence is meaningful constitute four fundamental psychological needs that we must meet to function as social individuals. 1"clusion threatens all these needs. 1ven in a verbal or physical dispute, individuals are still connected. Total e"clusion, however, cuts all bonds. Worse than this, the imposed silence forces us to thin about the event in detail, generating self)critical thoughts in our search for an e"planation. This forced isolation also ma es us feel helplessE Kou can fight bac , but no one will respond. 3inally, e"clusion ma es our very e"istence feel less meaningful because this type of re(ection ma es us feel isolated and unimportant.

*** 8o people everywhere e"perience embarrassment in the same wayH This is a difficult question to address empirically. Aost cross) cultural research has focused on peoples self)reports of their e"periences, feelings and e"pressions, which may or may not correspond to what actually happens in social interactions. &nother tric y issue is how to translate terms for emotions into different languages. In 1nglish, there are separate terms for shame and embarrassment, and research suggests that the two emotions are different. 1mbarrassment tends to be over less serious errors and almost always happens in the presence of others. 6hame seems to be reserved for more serious social violations and can be e"perienced alone. 6miling, which readily occurs in embarrassment, is unli ely to follow a shameful event. However, the boundary between events that elicit embarrassment or shame is undefined. In many cultures, the same word is used to describe both. 3or e"ample, in 'riya, a language in India, the word Fla(yaG refers to a variety of emotional states, including embarrassment as well as shame. Aany &sian languages also use one word for the two emotions, although some &sian cultures have multiple words that deal with saving face, shame and so on.

*** & symbol is a term or a picture that may be familiar in daily life, yet possessing specific connotations in addition to its obvious meaning. It implies something vague or hidden from us. Thus, a word or an image is symbolic when it implies something more than its immediate meaning. It has a wider FunconsciousG aspect that is never precisely defined or fully e"plained. &s the mind e"plores the symbol, it is led to ideas that lie beyond the grasp of reason. 6ince there are many things beyond the range of human understanding, we use symbolic terms to represent concepts that we cannot define or fully comprehend. This is one reason why historically all religions have employed symbolic language or images. However, this conscious use of symbols is only one aspect of a psychological fact of great importance. Aan also produces symbols unconsciously and spontaneously, in the form of dreams. It is not easy to grasp this point, but we must if we are to now more about the ways in which the human mind wor s.

*** Kasuni 2ational !ar in 1cuador is considered by many scientists to be the single most biodiverse spot on the planet, but one in danger of being lost. 'il companies have found rich deposits beneath the par s trees and rivers worth billions of dollars. 1cuador is a small country in which a third of the population lives below the poverty line and petroleum already ma es up more than half of its e"port revenue. It badly needs the money that oil companies and consumers will be only too happy to provide if further drilling is allowed to go forward. If 1cuador follows the usual path of development, thats e"actly what will happen, with disastrous consequences for the par . However, there may be another way. 1cuadorian !resident *afael 4orrea told the international community that his country would be willing to cease drilling and leave Kasuni intact in e"change for donations equal to O0.C billion over +0 years, or about half the e"pected mar et value of the par s oil deposits. The Kasuni !lan, while conserving the par s unique biodiversity, would be a first for global environmental policy, recogni7ing that the international community has a financial responsibility to help developing nations preserve nature.

*** The economic realm of human activity, loo ed at from the perspective of the entire human e"perience, can best be seen not simply as a progressive development of freedom, but rather as a series of phases in which new freedoms are made possible only by determining new limits and new responsibilities. 6o long as human ind respects those new lines of authority, freedom prospers. Without those limits, on the other hand, freedom dies. 5egislative bodies around the world that fail to pass environmental laws in the name of freedom have an understanding of freedom that is ultimately self)destructive. We must learn, before it is too late, that the gift of freedom does not mean tearing down walls but relocating them. #ust as a line is defined by the empty space that surrounds it, so is freedom defined by the boundaries around its edges. If we fail to appreciate this basic law of nature, if we continue to demand ; on the level of the nation)state ; freedom without limits and responsibility, we ris punishing our children or our childrens children.

*** 4hina and India need to fi" their economies and societies, and to do so, they have to deal with some grim news. Drowth is slowing, though in 4hinas case that helps cool an overheated economy. In both countries, e"ports are falling, inflation is at painful levels, income inequality is reaching great proportions, and in(ustices li e land grabs are spar ing widespread protests. The two countries have lifted countless millions of the unemployed out of poverty, but countless other millions ; youths, wor ers and farmers ; remain marginali7ed and desperate for decent livelihoods. While 4hina does not follow the rules, India has too many rules to follow. 4hina is struggling to contain assets, deal with bad loans and to rebalance its economy away from state)directed investment to consumer)led growth. Indias reputation, meanwhile, has been so damaged by bureaucratic corruption that the countrys top corporations have hired /6 consultancy firms to ma e a so) called Fcredible IndiaG campaign. However, it seems that India needs to do lots of wor to overcome its bad reputation and there is no guarantee that it will be able to do so.

DS FEN 2012 SONBAHAR *** We humans long assumed that our visual system stood at the top of evolutionary success. 'ur nowledge of colour vision was primarily based on what humans seeE researchers easily performed e"periments on colour perception in humans. &lthough scientists obtained supporting information from a variety of other species by recording the firing of neurons, we remained unaware until the early +,?-s that many vertebrates, mostly animals other than mammals, see colours in a part of the spectrum that is invisible to humansE the ultraviolet. In fact, the discovery of ultraviolet vision began with studies of insects conducted by 6ir #ohn 5ubboc , who discovered sometime before +@@. that in the presence of ultraviolet light, ants would pic up their young and carry them to dar areas or to areas illuminated by longer wavelengths of light. In the mid)+,--s, Parl von 3risch and his students showed that bees and ants not only see ultraviolet light as a distinct colour but use ultraviolet in s ylight as a compass. The finding that a great number of insects perceive ultraviolet light misleadingly gave rise to the idea that this spectral region provides a private sensory channel that avian predators li e eagles and vultures cannot see. 2othing, however, could have been further from the truth. 6ubsequent research showed that birds, li7ards, turtles and many fish have ultraviolet receptors in their retinas. *** &stronomers have a reputation for bringing us stunning discoveriesE new planets and gala"ies on the edge of the nown universe. But now they are on the trail of the most notable finding of allE evidence for a whole new universe beyond our own. 3or millennia, philosophers have insisted everything we see is part of the all)encompassing totality called the universe. &nd for centuries, astronomers have been mapping its immensity, using more and more powerful telescopes to probe deeper into space. It seemed clear, however, that there was a limit to what they could see, as they were e"amining what was comprehensible for them. 6ince the discovery of cosmic e"pansion, they believed there must be a final frontier, but today, there is mounting e"citement that it may be possible to probe beyond this far hori7on. &ccording to the latest theories in cosmology, what has been regarded as the universe might be (ust one of an infinite number ma ing up something far grander ; the Aultiverse. But the Aultiverse model is highly problematic< the biggest difficulty is that the e"istence of such parallel universes can be neither verified nor falsified. 2o less ama7ing, an orbiting observatory, named !lanc , has revealed many features about our universe such as its age and si7e since it was launched in .--,, and astronomers believe it may be able to travel the Aultiverse and do even more.

*** 6cientists have urged national leaders for years to tac le climate change, based on the assumption that all nations should ta e steps in harmony for the success of their prevention efforts. But as anyone who has watched the past +: years of international climate negotiations can attest, most countries are still reluctant to ta e meaningful steps to lower their production of greenhouse gases, much less address issues such as how to help developing countries protect themselves from the e"treme effects of climate change. Aayors and urban managers are ta ing over as they have a eener sense about how changing weather patterns will affect their cities political and economic futures. Indeed, within months after Hurricane Patrinas landfall, the 49- 4ities 4limate 5eadership Droup launched in 5ondon in 'ctober .--:, and the World Aayors 4ouncil on 4limate 4hange $WA444% got its start in Pyoto that 8ecember. &s of #une .-++, more than +,- mayors and other local authorities, representing some 0-- million people from around the world, have also signed a voluntary pact sponsored by the WA444 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. They are tac ling climate change, as their cities are suffering from floods, rising sea levels and heat waves. They are innovating ways to reduce carbon dio"ide emissions, prevent further changes in weather patterns and benefit from transportation systems that protect the environment.

*** 3or decades, nets and sprays have been the only effective methods for controlling the mosquitoes that cause malaria. However, 6panish chemist !ilar Aateo thin s she can do better with her invention of embedding pesticides in microcapsules stirred into house paints at her Jalencia company. The insecticides are released from the paint slowly, remaining effective for two to four years, while sprays need to be reapplied at least every si" months. FThe paint acts li e a vaccine for houses,G she says. The amounts of pesticides released from the paint are harmless to people but are devastating to insects, according to the tests made by scientists. The paint has already been approved for use in fifteen countries, including 4hina and 1ngland. Aateo is see ing approval in the /6 and a recommendation from the World Health 'rgani7ation. 6he says she has received offers to buy her patent but refuses to sell out. Instead, her new venture, another company in &frica, will produce it commercially at a factory in Dhana and employ a great number of wor ers. FBy ta ing production outside 6pain, we can reduce the cost and ma e it more accessible,G she says. Her idea is to sell the paint as an affordable alternative to sprays. &fter years of donating paint to poor people in 5atin &merica, Aateo wants to fund her broader humanitarian efforts. FIts not (ust the insects that are the problemG, she says, FIts the poverty.G

*** 3orget drilling into the ocean floor to tap into ever)decreasing supplies of oil, because there could soon be a new fuel source beneath the waves ; seaweed. & technique has been developed to convert sugars in seaweed into a fuel that can be used to power cars. Biofuels are currently produced from crops such as corn and sugar cane, but these sources are also in demand for use as food, and their production requires large amounts of land, fresh water and fertiliser. 6eaweed requires none of these and has the advantage of not containing lignin, a strong strand of sugars that stiffens plant stal s but is difficult to turn into biofuel. *esearchers at Bio &rchitecture 5ab in 4alifornia have been able to produce bioethanol from ombu, an edible brown seaweed. Bioethanol can be blended with petrol and used in engines with little or no modification. Brown seaweed has high sugar content and also grows more quic ly than the red or green species. The only potential stumbling bloc is growing enough of the stuff. 6everal thousand tonnes are farmed annually for food, but if it is going to be used widely as a fuel, billions of tonnes would be required. But Bio &rchitecture 5ab is still forging ahead, launching a seaweed biofuel pilot pro(ect in .-+0. It hopes to commerciali7e seaweed)sourced fuels within three to four years.

*** Typing in passwords could be a thing of the past, than s to technology that can read your thoughts. & new discovery brings cognitive biometrics very close to reality. In cognitive biometrics, the response of your nervous system to a stimulus is measured, then used to identify you. & series of letters or images are flashed up on a screen and your !0-- wave ; a type of electrical activity in the brain ; is measured using electrodes attached to your head. When a pre)defined word, letter or image is shown, recognition by the user generates their signature, !0-- wave. /ntil now, users have been shown different letters or symbols in different parts of a screen. But tests at the universities of 1sse" and Wolverhampton have found that the system identifies individuals most accurately if all characters appear in the same location. This also reduces the chances of criminals spotting the brain word by trac ing eye movement. &s there is no eyboard involved, it is much harder for someone intent on fraud to get access to a password. FKou still have to eep your password secure,G says 8r. !alani *amaswamy. FIts (ust that the way of entering the password is more resistant to fraud.G &ccuracy still needs to be improved before cognitive biometrics can come into mainstream use. F'nce accuracy is close to +-- percent, it can be used for high)security military applications and financial transactions as well,G he maintains.

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*** &l7heimers disease is a chronic, degenerative condition of the brain cells. 6ome ris factors can be avoided, but others, such as increasing age and genetic properties, are inevitable. It is now the third most common cause of death in the developed world, with more women than men affected. The first symptom is often an impaired memory for recent events, which can be difficult to distinguish from the normal age)related decline in memory. &s the disease progresses, forgetfulness may hinder routine activities such as coo ing and household chores. Those affected may be aware of their memory difficulties, so they can deal with the problem by, for e"ample, writing notes or letting someone else manage decisions for them. In the late stages of the disease, the changes in memory and behaviour are mar ed. 6ufferers cannot compensate for their memory lapses and become confused. They may develop paranoid behaviour li e (ealousy or accusations of theft, and may e"perience visual hallucinations. !eople in advanced stages cease to recogni7e even their family members and close friends. They may also refuse to eat, develop unsteadiness and increasingly lose weight.

*** Jitamin 4 boosts the immune system by strengthening the action of white blood cells that destroy harmful bacteria and viruses, such as cold and flu viruses. It is also an important antio"idant, protecting the watery internal parts of cells from the damaging effects of e"cess free radicals, and it wor s in partnership with vitamin 1 which protects the fatty outer part of the cells. Aoreover, vitamin 4 can help to prevent cholesterol from becoming o"idised, a phenomenon now thought to be the precursor to the furring of arteries ; the reduction of blood flow through arteries. High inta es of vitamin 4 are also lin ed with lower levels of stomach cancer. In addition, vitamin 4 improves the absorption of iron from non)meat sources, so ensuring a regular inta e is useful if you are a vegetarian. &lso, it has mild antihistamine properties, thus allergy sufferers may find it helpful. 3urthermore, when we are under physical or mental stress, vitamin 4 is depleted from our adrenal glands< it plays a regulatory role in the production of the hormone cortisone that helps us cope with the pressures of life.

*** 1nvironmental health has biologic, chemical, physical and sociological components, including the immediate and future conditions in which people live. In colonial &merica, little attention was paid to community hygiene and sanitation, and there was almost a complete lac of community organisation for better health services. 8uring this time, epidemics of cholera, smallpo" and dysentery continually occurred. &lthough such epidemics were attributed to environmental health ha7ards such as overcrowding, inadequate housing and impure water, little was done to improve these conditions. 1arly attempts to ensure environmental health included a law in +C+- that prohibited the throwing out of water from dirty clothes into the street, and required people to do the necessities of nature outside the town. Those who violated the law were often sub(ected to strict penalties. 6uch measures were more concerned with the aesthetics of the environment than with related health consequences, and environmental practices were frequently directed at eeping the environment attractive.

*** #ust a few decades ago, doctors would dispense sleeping pills as if they were sweets. Today, sleeping pills are no longer considered to be an appropriate solution to chronic sleeplessness. &s they treat only the symptoms of insomnia, any improvement in sleep can only be temporary, thereby perpetuating the cycle of insomnia and drug)induced sleep. Ironically, many people initially turn to sleeping pills, as insomnia has left them helpless and out of control. However, pills can become a trap that escalates feelings of dependency, lowered self)esteem and guilt. Then insomniacs end up having to cope with two stressful problemsE insomnia and dependency on sleeping pills. Aost patients prefer non)drug approaches li e avoiding caffeine and nicotine, but they do not now how best to escape the sleeplessness. However, some doctors guide their patients by prescribing the smallest possible dose, to be used only after two consecutive nights of bad sleep. &s an alternative to supplement the pills, professionals provide such sleep aids as antihistamines which produce drowsiness as a side effect. &lso, synthetic melatonin has recently been mar eted and publici7ed as a natural sleeping pill. &lthough several studies found that melatonin was effective for promoting sleep, the studies focused on normal sleepers, not insomniacs. &ll in all, it seems that careful implementation of new behavioural patterns provides the most promising results to sufferers. *** There are several factors that increase the ris of cancer. Autations that affect genes are believed to contribute to the development of cancer. These genes produce proteins that regulate growth and alter cell division and other basic cell properties. 4ancer)causing genetic mutations may result from the damaging effects of drugs and viruses. &dditionally, environmental factors such as air pollution and radiation increase the ris of cancer. 6ome chemicals li e pesticides are nown to cause cancer, and many others are suspected of doing so, but more study is needed to identify those chemicals that increase the ris . The threat of cancer may also vary according to geographical features. This geographic variation in cancer ris is multifactorialE a combination of genetics, diet and environment. 3or e"ample, the #apanese, who follow a diet that mainly includes smo ed foods, have high rates of colorectal cancer. When they immigrate to the /6 and eat a Western diet, the ris level declines to that of the /6. &ge is another ris factor. While some cancers li e Jilms tumor occur almost e"clusively in children, cancers of the lungs and idneys are more common in older people, probably due to constant e"posure to carcinogens and wea ening of the bodys immune system. However, not all people who are e"posed to carcinogens or who have other ris factors develop cancer.IIII

*** 8igestible microchips embedded in drugs may soon tell doctors whether a patient is ta ing their medications as prescribed. These sensors are the first ingestible devices approved by the /6 3ood and 8rug &dministration $38&%. To some, they signify the beginning of an era in digital medicine. The sandparticle si7ed sensor consists of a minute silicon chip containing trace amounts of magnesium and copper. When swallowed, it generates a slight voltage in response to digestive (uices, which conveys a signal to the surface of a persons s in where a patch then relays the information to a mobile phone belonging to a health care provider. 4urrently, the 38& and the analogous regulatory agency in 1urope have only approved the device based on studies showing its safety and efficacy when implanted in placebo pills. But scientists hope to have the device approved within other drugs in the near future. Aedicines that must be ta en for years, such as those for drug) resistant diabetes, and for the elderly with chronic diseases, are top candidates. !roponents of digital medical devices predict they will provide alternatives to blood tests, A*Is and 4&T scans. 'ther gadgets in the pipeline include implantable devices that wirelessly in(ect drug at pre)specified times and sensors that deliver a persons electrocardiogram to their smartphone.

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*** &lthough &eschylus is considered to be the first great innovator of Western drama, it is sometimes difficult to (udge the full e"tent of the innovations he introduced, since no plays by his predecessor, Thespis, have been preserved. What we now about Dree drama before &eschylus suggests that it had developed gradually out of choral lyrics, occasionally interrupted by short dialogues between the chorus and a single spea er or singer representing an individual character. &eschylus too the decisive step of introducing a second actor, thus enabling for the first time a dialogue or conflict between two individuals to ta e place on the stage and in front of an audience. The innovations made possible by &eschyluss introduction of a second character are very significant. In addition, an actor could leave the stage and reappear in the guise of another character, thus permitting an increase in the overall number of persons represented. In his later plays, &eschylus used three actors, allowing him to feature a large number of characters, as in The 5ibation Bearers, the second play of the 'resteia trilogy.

*** & credit rating agency measures credit worthiness of institutions from companies to governments and assesses their ability to pay bac a loan. The top three credit rating agencies are 6tandard and !oors $6_!%, 3itch *atings and Aoodys. 1ach rating agency has developed its own rating system. 3itch *atings developed its system in +,.9, which was later adopted by 6_!. Both use a system of letter sliding from the best rating B&&& to the lowest B8 for borrowers already defaulting on payments. In detail, B&&& represents the best quality borrowers that are reliable and stable without any foreseeable ris to future payments, while B8 means the institution has defaulted on payment obligations, having failed to pay bac the loans ; 6_! and 3itch *atings assert it will eep on doing so. Aoodys follows a different rating system. It argues that their ratings have a superior approach that considers not only the li elihood of default, but also the severity of the default. In addition, 6_! and 3itch *atings are only interested in how li ely a borrower is to default, whereas Aoodys cares how long the default is li ely to last. Aost importantly, 6_! does not care what the recovery value will be ; the amount of money that the lender will end up with after the borrower has defaulted. Aoodys, by contrast, tries to figure out the e"pected losses, which ma es it more preferable. *** Today, the 1uropean /nion is home to more than .- million immigrants, who represent about 9 percent of the total 1/ population and ma e valuable contributions to 1uropean society. These new arrivals fill gaps in the labour mar et that 1/ wor ers cannot or do not wish to fill, helping to address the demographic decline in 1uropes wor ing age population. !roperly managed, immigration can help contribute to the 1/s long)term economic development and competitiveness. &t the same time, ensuring the security and prosperity of the 1/ population remains vital. The ey is to streamline and simplify the legal immigration process, enforce measures against illegal immigrants, secure the e"ternal borders and support the Aember 6tates efforts to promote the integration of immigrants so they become full participants in 1/ society. 'ne of the 1/s more remar able achievements is the creation of its single mar et, where people, goods, services and capital move freely throughout the .? 1/ Aember 6tates. The flip side of this free movement, however, is that the reduced internal border controls necessitate strengthened e"ternal borders. 1ach border state bears a particular responsibility for defending its portion of the 1/s borders and with it, the security of the entire 1/.

*** 'utside forces have played a ma(or part in the birth and development of Aiddle 1astern states as well as in shaping the environment in which these states have operated. 6ince 2apoleons intervention in 1gypt in the late +@th century, 1uropean powers have been an important part of the Aiddle 1asts ma e)up ; its politics, socio)economic development and e"ternal orientation. It was the 1uropean powers who too control of significant areas of the region from the +,th century, and they gave rise to the downfall of the 'ttoman 1mpire and shared its spoils in the early .-th century. It was the same set of 1uropean powers that formed new states from territories under their control. But in the second half of the .-th century, the nature of outside intervention changed somewhat. &s a penetrated regional system, the Aiddle 1ast, for all its active internal dynamics $nationalism, the &rab)Israeli War, etc.%, was by the +,:-s sub(ect to the influence of strategically)driven calculations made by the worlds two superpowersE the /6 and the /66*. The superpowers calculations not only directly affected politics of the region, but also the environment where the local forces were ta ing shape. 3or over a generation, the 4old War between superpowers was the framewor of the Aiddle 1asts regional system, from 2orth &frica in the west to the borders of the 6oviet 4aucasus and 4entral &sia.

*** *ecent research suggests that not only can children differentiate between two languages at an early age, but also show cognitive benefits from being e"posed to a second language starting as early as infancy. In a study in .--, of Bcrib bilinguals, cognitive psychologists &gnes Pov^cs and #acques Aehler used a visual test to measure cognitive fle"ibility in preverbal seven)month) olds. Pov^cs and Aehler wanted to see how quic ly the infants could adapt to changing rules. They taught the infants a pattern consisting of speech)li e sounds. &t the end of the sequence, a visual reward in the form of a puppet would appear in one part of a computer screen. The infants were e"pected to learn that a given sound pattern predicated the appearance of the puppet in that location. Both bilingual and monolingual infants showed that they associated the sound sequence with the puppets location equally well by loo ing in the right place for the puppet to appear. But when Pov^cs and Aehler modified the sequence ; and moved the puppet ; the bilingual infants ad(usted, switching their anticipatory ga7e to the new location. The monolingual infants, however, continued to loo for the puppet in the original location.

*** Humans are preoccupied with vitality< that is, a concern with the generation, transmission, continuation and protection of life itself. The obvious social tie formed around this preoccupation is the family. However, numerous individual families of a nation understand themselves to be (ust that< thus, the continuation of the nation into the future is regarded as entailing the continuation of the families into the future. &nthropological studies reveal that humans have always formed not only families, but also larger groups of which families are a part. !arents transmit to their own offspring not only their flesh and blood ; genetic properties in a broader term ; but also their cultural inheritance< the language, traditions, customs and so forth ; of the larger group, of the nation. This cultural inheritance is usually viewed by the parents as being quite precious to their e"istence. This intergenerational transmission of ones culture may be part of the reason for the tendency to view the nation as a form of inship, because what is being transmitted is a part of ones self to ones descendants.

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