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BUDDHIST ESCHATOLOGY ON SILK

-Dr. V. R. Shenoy and Dr. A. R. Shenoy
INTRODUCTION
The Buddhist attitude towards death is well illustrated by a parable which involves
a deliberation between the Buddha and his fellow monks. Thus: -
On one occasion the Buddha asked several of the monks, "How often do you
contemplate death?"
One of them replied, "Lord, I contemplate death every day."
"Not good enough," the Buddha said, and asked another monk, who replied,
"Lord, I contemplate death with each mouthful that I eat during the meal."
"Better, but not good enough," said the Buddha, "What about you?"
The third monk said, "Lord, I contemplate death with each inhalation and each
exhalation."
Death is a subject of great contemplation; to the vast numbers of dying, logic and
rationality many a times do not offer the sugar coated comfort that faith can. The
purpose of religion, in essence, is in addition to living a spiritually good life, to
help one come to terms with the reality of the inevitability of death and when the
time comes, to help one embrace it without fear, with peace and composure.
Buddhism has a much evolved eschatology involving various deities which are
manifestations of the Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva is a being that
compassionately refrains from entering nirvana in order to save others. In common
parlance nirvana is death, but from a spiritual point of view it is the final beatitude
that transcends suffering, karma, and samsara.
The connection between silk and Buddhist eschatology is well known and was the
topic of our earlier article published in Silkmark Vogue. Nevertheless, we would
like to remind our readers that the silk yarn was an instrument of eschatological
significance in Sino-Buddhism which helped the deceased transcend from the
world of the living into the heavens!

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ON MARC AUREL STEIN

The depth of imagination and thought in Buddhist eschatology would not have
been known to the world but for the artifacts obtained by Sir Marc Aurel Stein the
intrepid British archaeologist and explorer of Hungarian descent.
Stein made four major expeditions to Central Asiain 1900, 1906-8, 191316 and
1930. One of his significant finds during his first journey
during 1900-1901 was the Taklamakan Desert oasis of
Dandan Oilik where he was able to uncover a number of
relics. During his third expedition 1913-16, he excavated at
Khara-Khoto. Stein's greatest discovery was made at the
Mogao Caves also known as "Caves of the Thousand
Buddhas", near Dunhuang in 1907. The arid continental
climate of Dunhuang played a great part in the preservation
of the treasures inside the caves.
It was there that he discovered the Diamond Sutra (a photo
of a page from this manuscript with the British Library
appeared in our earlier article on Silk and Buddhism in
Silkmark Vogue), the world's oldest printed text which has a date (corresponding to
AD 868). Most of the illustrations presented in this paper are of silk artifacts
obtained by Stein from Dunhuang and gifted to the British Museum and the
National Museum, New Delhi.
On the basis of a wealth of artifacts mostly gifted by Sir Marc Aurel Stein and
catalogued in the British Museum and National Museum, New Delhi the following
entities are crucial in Buddhist eschatology.
Entity (Boddhisattvas) Significance
Amitabha Amitabha means infinite light, hence he is
the Buddha of infinite light, a celestial budhha.
Avalokitesvara Avalokitesvara is a bodhisattva who embodies
the compassion of all Buddhas. He is is said to
be incarnated in the Dalai Lama, the Karmapa
and other high lamas.
Bhaishajyaguru Bhaishajyaguru is the manifestation of Buddha
as a guru of medicine, healer.
Dharmapala The dharmapala is a wrathful protector of
Buddhism, there are eight dharmapalas and all
have terrifying appearences meant for
frightening the forces of evil. Yama who
SirMarcAurelStein
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represents death is one of the eight

Dharmapalas
Ksitigarbha Ksitigarbha is a bodhisattva primarily revered
in East Asian Buddhism, usually depicted as a
Buddhist monk in the Orient. The name may
be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth
Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth Womb."
Lokapala In Hinduism, lokapla refers to the Guardians
of the Directions associated with the four
cardinal directions. However, in Buddhism,
lokapla refers to the Four Heavenly Kings,
and to other protector spirits, whereas the
Guardians of the Directions are referred to as
the 'dikplas'
Maitreya Maitreya is a future Buddha of this world in
Buddhist eschatology. Maitreya is a
bodhisattva who in the Buddhist tradition is to
appear on Earth, achieve complete
enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma.
Manjusri Manjusri is a bodhisattva associated with
transcendent wisdom, In Esoteric Buddhism he
is also taken as a meditational deity.
Samantabhadra Samantabhadra is a Bodhisattva in Mahayana
Buddhism associated with Buddhist practice
and meditation. Together with Shakyamuni
Buddha and fellow bodhisattva Manjusri he
forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism.
Shakyamuni It is the name given to the historical Buddha.
Vaisravana Vaisravana is the name of the chief of the Four
Heavenly Kings and an important figure in
Buddhist mythology (see lokapala).
Vajrapani Vajrapani means 'thunderbolt or diamond in
the hand'. Vajrapani is protector and guide of
the Buddha, infact, he is the manifestation of
all the Buddhas power. He is also one of the
earliest Dharmapalas and one of the rare
Buddhist deities to be worshiped in the original
Zen Buddhism of the Shaolin Temple.
Virupaksha Virupaksha is one of the four Guardian Kings,
a Buddhist worldly protector and Guardian of
the West.



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IMAGES FROM STEINS COLLECTIONS

From the images of the collections given in the ensuing pages, it will be evident
that silk in Buddhist China and Chinese Central Asia was more than just a tool of
transcending to heavens, it was a means of offering votive prayers, a form of
transmitting eschatological expression in the form of the images of the various
bodhisattvas so that the soul of the deceased could find its way to paradise, even,
free itself from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Buddhist eschatological traditions
are by no means extinct and continue to be robust in South East Asia, Far East,
Ladakh & Arunachal Pradesh in India, and Sri Lanka.
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British Museum Collections

Artifact Description

Avalokiteshvara as Guide of Souls, ink and
colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties, early 10th century AD
To ease the passage of the soul to paradise
The figure of the Buddha Amitabha in the
headdress clearly identifies this figure as
Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of
compassion. He is leading the soul of a female
devotee to the halls of paradise, depicted at
the top of the painting by three bands each
with tiny buildings. Both Avalokiteshvara and
his follower are supported on clouds. He holds
a censer in his left hand, while in his right
hand he holds a long hooked staff from which
a banner is suspended. The streamers are
adorned with small diamonds of gold and the
main panel of the banner simulates writing in
red. The aristocratic lady who follows behind
is drawn on a smaller scale. She wears a
splendid coat with decorative roundels, a
common feature of textiles from the late Tang
dynasty. This can be seen on the patches of
kasaya, Buddhist monastic robes.
Despite the blank cartouche, we know from
another titled painting (also in the Stein
Collection, British Museum) that this work is
of a type known as Yinlu pu, a 'Bodhisattva
Guide of Souls'. This was a popular theme
from the late Tang until the early Song
Dynasty (ninth-tenth century). A work like
this was probably offered by a deceased
person's family to ease the passage of their
soul to paradise.

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Avalokiteshvara as Saviour from Perils, ink
and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties or Northern Song Dynasty,
mid-to late 10th century AD
Belief in help when suffering
Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of
compassion, is show in his six-armed form
seated on a lotus behind an altar. He can be
identified by the small figure of the Buddha
Amitabha seated in his headdress. His two
upper arms hold the sun and the moon, his two
lower arms hold a vase and a rosary and his
two middle arms are in the vitarka mudra
(gesture of teaching).
It was believed that if one called
Avalokiteshvara's name when in danger, he
would come to your aid. This is illustrated in
scenes on either side. On the left from the top
a figure pushed off a high cliff is miraculously
supported by a cloud. In the middle a man
escapes his fetters and at the bottom a man is
preserved from the poisonous bites of a
scorpion and a snake. On the right a sword is
shown breaking into pieces, saving the man
about to be executed. Below, two people are
shown covering their heads to escape bad
weather, and at the bottom a man is seemingly
unharmed in the midst of a fire.
In the lower register of the painting donor
figures are shown: a lady and a child on the
left and two men on the right.
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Avalokiteshvara, a hanging scroll painting

From Korea
Choson dynasty, 14th century AD
Many Buddhist works of art were produced
during the Koryo period (918-1392), when
Buddhism was established as the royal
religion. However, with the fall of the
dynasty, the production and quality of
Buddhist art declined. The newly-established
Choson dynasty embraced Neo-Confucianism
as the official ideology, and persecuted
Buddhism.
This painting of Avalokiteshvara is thought to
have been made in the early Choson period,
when Buddhism was no longer supported by
the court. It is painted in ink and colours on
silk. The background to the figure is plain, and
the style is clearly simpler when compared to
the elaborately decorated paintings of the
Koryo period.
Avalokiteshvara is the bodhisattva of
compassion who served to save all beings in
this life from suffering. The worship of
Avalokiteshvara spread in Korea due to the
popularity and importance of two Buddhist
scriptures (the Lotus Sutra and the Flower
Garland Sutra), which set out in detail
Avalokiteshvara's compassionate nature.
There is also a legend which tells of an
encounter with Avalokiteshvara by the
eminent Korean monk Uisang. This must have
helped to bring him to prominence on the
peninsula.




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Avalokiteshvara, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties, dated the 10th year of Tianfu
(AD 910)
The central figure of Avalokiteshvara, the
bodhisattva of compassion, has his usual
attribute of the Buddha Amitabha in his
headdress. He stands against a background of
bamboo stems, upon a floating lotus. He holds
a willow spray in his raised left hand and a
flask on his right.
The two figures that flank the bodhisattva
have been depicted in great detail, and it is
clear that they were intended as portraits. An
inscription on the back of the painting
identifies the shaven-headed figure on
Avalokiteshvara's right as the Very Reverend
nun Yanhui. The small white cartouche above
the young man to the left identifies him as the
probationary Chamberlain Zhang Youcheng.
The inscriptions were written by his elder
brother, the author of the main dedicatory
inscription in the green cartouche. He makes
an offering for the peace of the empire and on
behalf of his elder sister and teacher and the
souls of his deceased parents.
The inscription within the white cartouche is
dated '... the tenth year of Tianfu reign, year
gengwu, seventh month and fifteenth day ...',
which corresponds to 22 August 910.
However, the Tianfu reign officially ended in
904, and the Tang Dynasty was deposed in
906; Dunhuang's remoteness must have meant
that there were considerable delays in
receiving news of events.

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Bodhisattva as Guide of Souls, ink and

colours on a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties, early 10th century AD
Leading the donor to the Pure Land
The painting is inscribed with the characters
yinlu pu or 'Bodhisattva leading the Way'. It is
one of several examples from Mogao of a
bodhisattva leading the beautifully clad donor
figure to the Pure Land, or Paradise, indicated
by a Chinese building floating on clouds in the
top left corner. The two figures are also
supported by a cloud indicating that they are
flying. The bodhisattva, shown much larger
than the donor, is holding a censer and a
banner in his hand. The banner is one of many
of the same type found at Mogao, with a
triangular headpiece and streamers.
The woman appears to be very wealthy, with
gold hairpins in her hair. Actual examples of
these were found in Chinese tombs. Her
fashionably plump figure suggests that the
painting was executed in the ninth or tenth
century.

Bodhisattva with a glass beaker, ink and
colours on a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
The figure of a bodhisattva is painted on a
narrow piece of silk. Due to the limited space
available, it was usual to only represent a
single figure on banner paintings. Here the
figure is shown standing on a lotus flower in
three-quarter view from behind, with his head
turned sharply and shown in profile. His hair
is shown divided at the neck in two large
locks, typical of the Dunhuang style. The
bodhisattva holds a glass beaker containing a
lotus blossom (The lotus is the symbol of
Buddhism, as the pure flowers always rise
above the mud and murky water they grow
in). Glass was a very popular commodity on
the Silk Road, and this example resembles
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Persian vessels.
This is one of the very few banner paintings
from the Mogao caves to have survived intact.
It has a triangular top and side and tail
streamers with a board at the bottom to ensure
that it was stretched out when hung. Such
paintings could be viewed from both front and
back, as is suggested by paintings where
banners are shown being carried or flown in
the wind. The tail streamers are decorated
with a plant motif which was popular in ninth-
century Chinese art.


Bodhisattva with a glass bowl, ink and
colours on a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, late 9th century AD
This is one of the most beautifully executed
banners from Mogao in the British Museum.
The well-balanced figure of the bodhisattva is
supported by a lotus flower, depicted in fine
detail. The figure's scarves and thick, black
hair fall beautifully following the curves of
the body. The glass bowl and some of the
scarves are shown as transparent with a light
wash of paint, all the details behind it visible.
The body is outlined in an even black line,
with a light red paint wash used to indicate the
inside of the palms and earlobes, folds of the
neck and to pick out the eyes.
The glass bowl resembles actual examples
from Iran. We know that Sasanian glass was
very popular during the Tang dynasty (AD
618-906) in Buddhist temples such as the
famous Famensi temple near Xi'an at one end
of the Silk Road.
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Bodhisattva with censer, ink and colours on
a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, late 9th century AD
A popular subject for worship
This is the painted area of a banner, which has
now lost its triangular top and streamers. The
single figure of a bodhisattva was also the
most popular subject-matter for the banners or
temple flags at Mogao. It is thought that
several of these would be hung in the cave
temples for various rituals.
Here the bodhisattva holds a censer in his left
hand of the type of which actual examples
were excavated in places such as the Famensi
temple near Xi'an. Donors are also often
shown holding similar censers. It is not an
attribute of a specific bodhisattva, and neither
the headdress decorated with flaming jewels
or the empty cartouche give us any further
clues to his identity.
Other banners show almost identical
bodhisattva figures, clearly indicating that
stencils or pounces were used to make such
paintings at Dunhuang.
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From Tibet or southern China
18th century AD
The guardian of Buddhism
The fierce and bull-headed Yama stands on
his buffalo mount, which tramples on a
corpse. He is surrounded by flickering flames
against a black background. He holds a noose
and skull-crested club, with a string of severed
heads hanging from his waist. Yama is the
Indian god of death, who in Tibetan Buddhism
was conquered by Manjushri and made a
protector of the Buddhist dharma ('teachings').
Mahakala is another of the Tibetan protector
deities or dharmapalas.
Tibetan cloth-hangings are usually paintings.
At festival times huge appliqu textiles of
bodhisattvas are draped over hillsides or
temple-walls. This unusual example is silk
embroidery. The subject-matter is Tibetan, but
the technique and manufacture is Chinese,
perhaps from a workshop in southern China.
Silk has been imported to Tibet and made into
religious items since at least the fifteenth
century.
A Tibeto-Chinese style of art emerged in the
early fifteenth century and again in the
eighteenth century. In the latter period large
numbers of objects were produced in China in
the Tibetan manner, including whole temples,
statues, paintings and embroideries such as
this one.
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Embroidered tangka of the dharmapala
Yama
Four manifestations of Avalokiteshvara,
with Samantabhadra and Manjushri, a
painting on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, dated 5th year of Xiantong (AD
864)
The four manifestations of Avalokiteshvara,
the bodhisattva of compassion, in the upper
register are almost identical, though there is
some variation in their haloes and their
Indian-style costume. Each figure is identified
by an inscription in the cartouche to his right.
The second from the left indicates the
devotion of the chief donor, a minor official
named Tang, to the 'eleven-headed'
Avalokiteshvara.
At the next level, Samantabhadra, the special
patron of the followers of the Lotus Sutra and
Manjushri, the bodhisattva of Wisdom, are
riding their respective mounts, the elephant
and the lion. Their entourage comprises other
bodhisattvas in flowing Chinese-style robes
carrying three-tiered canopies and a dark-
skinned Indian groom leading the mount.
Cartouches identify the figures at the base of
the painting (the single monk and three
laymen on the right, and the two nuns and two
women on the left) as a family of donors.
They flank the inscription which records their
dedication of the painting 'First, on behalf of
the present emperor; second, on behalf of his
envoy ... third, on behalf of his departed
parents and all his family .... May they
[escape] both earthly disasters and obstacles to
salvation. Xiantong 5th year [AD 864].'
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Fukkensaku Kannon with two Guardian
Deities, a hanging scroll painting
Japan
Kamakura period, late 12th century - 13th
century AD
The central figure is the three-faced, four-
armed bodhisattva Kannon (Sanskrit:
Avalokiteshvara). In Japanese Buddhism
Kannon is shown in may different forms.
Here, he is shown as Fukkensaku ('with the
Never-empty Noose'), carrying in one hand
the rope with which he captures the hearts and
minds of the faithful. He sits on a white lotus
on a high rock which together suggest the
'Great Womb Mandala', the central image of
Japanese Esoteric Buddhism.
Bottom right stands Bishamon-ten
(Vaishravana), Guardian King of the North,
sword in hand. Bottom left stands the
bodhisattva Shu Kong (Vajrapani) on an
earthen mound grasping a vajra (thunderbolt).
These two figures appear to be based on ninth-
century clay sculptures in Tdai-ji Temple in
Nara.
The painting has some interesting technical
details. The artist has applied white paint
through from the back of the silk (urahaku) to
represent the skin of the central figure, which
he has then shaded rose-colour on the surface
and outlined with vermilion. The lotus petals
are brightened with lines of silver paint, and in
many cases the coloured outlines are drawn
first then filled in. The brushwork of the rocks
is particularly skilful. The back of the silk is
painted with gold to strengthen the colours.
The painting is a fine example of an artist of
the Kamakura period (1185-1333) adapting
the earlier styles of the Nara period (710-94).
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Illustration to the Fumu enzhong jing, ink

and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Northern Song dynasty, late 10th century AD
The Confucian ideal of filial piety in a
Buddhist context
The upper part of the painting is occupied by a
Buddha group with the historical Buddha,
Shakyamuni, in the centre flanked by two
monks and principal and lesser bodhisattvas.
Two of the four Guardian Kings are shown,
one in each of the top corners. The central
section of the painting is made up of scenes
illustrating the Fumu enzhong jing, an
apocryphal sutra that was popular at
Dunhuang in this later period. The text in the
accompanying cartouches corresponds almost
exactly to texts surviving in manuscripts
found at Mogao. This also accounts for the
mountain setting behind the Buddha group, as
the beginning of the sutra is set at Mount
Grdhrakuta.
The sutra describes blessings received from
one's parents. On the right a boy is shown
receiving instructions from his father, and
there is a baby in the arms of his mother. The
relevant text is that in the cartouche to the left
of the scene: 'Father and mother cherish and
hold him making gentle sounds; he smiles but
cannot yet speak. When he is hungry and
needs to eat, were it not for his mother he
would not be given suck.' Another scene (to
the top on the far left) illustrates how old
parents are abandoned after their son marries.
Filial piety was one of the most important
Confucian virtues, and this painting illustrates
that it remained important in Chinese
Buddhism.
Donor figures once occupied the lowest
register, but are now largely destroyed. Best
preserved is the lady on the right whose
clothing, hair style and elaborate make-up is
typical of tenth-century fashion at Dunhuang.
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Illustration to the Vimalakirtinirdesha
Sutra, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, late 8th century AD
Representation of a popular sutra
Vimalakirti, the hero of the
Vimalakirtinirdesha sutra, is a sage who
though has a family and lives in a house in the
town of Vaishali, manages to defeat the
bodhisattvas in a debate about non-duality.
Although written in India, the
Vimalakirtinirdesha Sutra became especially
popular in China, because filial piety -
whereby sons would continue the family line
and worship the ancestors - was very
important, and thus the requirement of
Buddhist monastic life to abandon one's
family and ancestors and not produce heirs
was seen as particularly difficult. Vimalakirti
was an attractive figure, because though a
bodhisattva, he continued to live among his
family and ordinary people.
He is shown on the left side of this painting in
a box-like curtained Chinese bed, indicating
that he was sick and expected visitors. The
Buddha Shakyamuni, who was preaching
nearby, asked his disciples and many of the
bodhisattvas each to visit Vimalakirti in turn,
but they were reluctant, because they had
previously been defeated by his wit.
Vimalakirti is shown here, typically, as a sage
waving a fan to emphasise the main points of
his argument. His main visitor is Manjushri,
the bodhisattva of wisdom, who is also shown
on the back of a sketch (see Related Objects).
Another bodhisattva brings a miraculous bowl
of rice that never emptied and was enough for
all. On the left are the white disk of the moon
and the red disk of the sun either side of a
cosmological mountain rising from
Vimalakirti's hand, who was able to show the
concept of the relativity of space and time by
calling up other universes from within his
room.
Also visible in the foreground are a Tibetan
ruler on the left and a Chinese emperor on the
Page17of66

right. The presence of the Tibetan ruler

suggests a date for the painting to the period
of the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang (AD
781-847).

Kshitigarbha as Lord of the Six Ways, ink
and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Northern Song Dynasty, dated 4th year of
Jianlong (AD 963)
Made for 'the disciple of pure faith Kang
Qingnu'
The bodhisattva Kshitigarbha is shown
wearing a hood and seated on a lotus behind
an altar accompanied by two worshipping
bodhisattvas. On the three lines on each side
of his halo are depicted 'The Six Ways of
Life': gods, animals and hell (top left) and
humans, ashuras (mythical four-armed
figures) and hungry ghosts (right).
In the lower section of the painting are donor
figures, wearing fashionable clothes, the
women with typical tenth-century hair styles
decorated with hairpins and flowers.
According to the inscription, the donor wished
to avoid all bad forms of rebirth: 'The maker
of this painting was the disciple of pure faith,
Kang Qingnu. His body lodges in the House
of Fire and he fears to fall in the Five Evil
Ways. Fortune and disaster are inconstant; his
heart longs to be among the emancipated...'.
Kshitigarbha is depicted and invoked here as
he had vowed to rescue souls even from the
regions of hell, and this offers hope to the
donor and his family.
Page18of66

Kshitigarbha with the Ten Kings of Hell,
ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, late 9th - early 10th century
AD
This painting shows in detail the Chinese
Buddhist concept of the judgement of the soul
after death. By the late ninth century AD, the
bodhisattva Kshitigarbha had come to be
regarded as having powers to rescue souls
from undesirable forms of rebirth. The
apocryphal Sutra of the Ten Kings describes
the ten spheres through which a soul must
pass on its way to rebirth. It was believed that
each was presided over by a king as shown
here.
A painting of this kind would have been
commissioned in order to help the donor and
his family to gain Kshitigarba's assistance
through this long judgement process.
Kshitigarbha is shown seated on a rock in the
centre of the painting. He is flanked by the
Ten Kings of Hell, each behind a desk with
handscrolls on them, and with two attendants.
The lower section is filled with donor figures.
The most interesting scenes are shown just
below Kshitigarbha: the priest Daoming,
accompanied by a lion, is represented next to
a judgement scene; a man wearing a cangue
and led by an ox-headed jailer is confronted
with a huge mirror that reflects his sin, the
slaying of an ox.
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Kshitigarbha, ink and colours on a silk
banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
The bodhisattva shown as a monk
This is one of many examples from Mogao of
a painted banner showing a single bodhisattva
figure under a canopy. The orange cartouche
on the left contains an inscription identifying
him as Dizang Pusa, the Chinese name for
Kshitigarbha.
While other bodhisattvas are usually shown on
the banners from Mogao with long hair and
wearing elaborate Indian jewellery, this figure
is clean-shaven and wears the kashaya, the
robe of Chinese Buddhist monks. Monks were
not supposed to have new clothes, so their
outfits were usually made up of patchwork
squares of supposedly old, but often brand
new materials. Kshitigarbha is the only
bodhisattva shown as a monk. He stands on a
lotus, as is usual for banner paintings of
bodhisattvas from Dunhuang, and holds a
kundika or ritual water sprinkler.
Page20of66

Liu Sahe and scenes from the story of the

miraculous image of Mount Yugu, ink and
colours on silk (fragment)
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 8th -9th century AD
This is a fragment of a much larger painting
(another fragment is in the Muse Guimet,
Paris) showing Shakyamuni preaching on the
Vulture Peak. It shows the monk Liu Sahe and
the construction of the famous Buddha image
in several scenes in the background. Liu Sahe
lived in the fifth century and predicted that a
statue would appear on Mount Yugu and its
completeness would signify peace or turmoil
in the world. In AD 519 a headless statue
appeared, and later the missing head was
found.
The story of Liu Sahe was popular in
Dunhuang, and was also shown on wall
paintings there. The monk is shown next to a
partially destroyed image of the Buddha,
whose outstretched right hand is clearly
visible. In the small scenes behind Liu Sahe
you can see a statue of the Buddha being
constructed which has its hand in the same
position. The left hand holds the Buddha's
robe. It has been shown that this posture -
which is otherwise rare - is used specifically
to show miraculous Buddhist images.
Page21of66

Lokapala, ink and colours on silk

(fragment)
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
This huge fragment - now mounted as a
hanging scroll - was once part of a splendid
composition which was at least two metres
high. All that remains of the lokapala
(guardian figure) is the half-open mouth, the
shoulders, upper body and a hand holding an
arrow. Sensitive, broken lines are used for the
hand, while the beard is shown in very thin
controlled lines. This compares to a painting
of the bodhisattva Vajrapani also from Mogao
(no. 1919,1-1.0.132), though there the
lokapala is much less energetic and
frightening in appearance.
Details such as the metal buckles on the belt
and the floral patterns are meticulously
observed and executed. The beautifully
preserved colours and fine lines show the
excellence of the Mogao workshops, and how
familiar the artists were with the achievements
of Chinese painting in the Imperial court.
Page22of66

Mandala of the Kasuga shrine, a hanging
scroll painting
Japan
Kamakura-Muromachi period, 14th century
AD
The Kasuga shrine was established in AD 709
adjacent to Kfuku-ji Temple in Nara, as the
ancestral shrine of the powerful Fujiwara clan.
The linking of shrines and temples was a
common occurrence after the introduction of
Buddhism in the sixth century and was part of
the process of reconciliation between
Buddhism and the native Japanese religion,
Shint. During the Heian period (794-1185),
in order to lessen tensions between the two
religions, the doctrine of honji suijaku
('manifestation from the original state') was
developed. This presented the Shint gods,
kami, as incarnations of Buddhist deities who
were seen as their benevolent guardians.
Mandala were created as visual
reinforcements of this doctrine.
Along the top are five Buddhist deities, the
honji ('original state') of the five Shint kami
of the Kasuga and Wakamiya shrines that are
their suijaku ('manifestation'). The moon
symbolizes the chief Kasuga deity. The
Buddhist deities are (from right to left): the
bodhisattva Monju (Sanskrit: Manjushri) the
Buddhas Shaka (Shakyamuni) and Yakushi
(Bhaisajyaguru) and the bodhisattvas Jiz
(Ksitigarbha) and eleven-headed Kannon
(Avalokiteshvara). Below these are the Shint
deities with lesser deities issuing from the
temple, represented by the five-storey pagoda.
The Kasuga shrine buildings are prominent in
the upper part of the painting, with the main
red-painted gateway or torii and two pagodas,
and another torii and pilgrim paths towards
Mount Kasuga and Mount Mikasa.
The scene is depicted from a very high
viewpoint in the style of a Yamato-e
landscape and the rich coloration is given
added lustre by the gold applied to the back of
the loosely woven silk ground.

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Painted silk headpiece from a banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties or Northern Song Dynasty,
10th century AD
This square of silk would have been folded
diagonally to form two triangular headpieces
which would have been attached to the top of
a banner. The almost identical images of the
Buddha can then be seen on either side. When
found, the headpiece had a purple silk border
which had faded into brown. Judging from the
diagonal, this would have been attached to a
banner about seventy centimetres wide, larger
than any of the banners that survive in the
Stein Collection in the British Museum.
The silk used for making this headpiece is
figured with a phoenix motif. The palette used
for colouring the Buddha images is limited
and appears to have been sparingly applied.
However, a yellow pigment used beneath the
flesh tones of the face and torso of each
Buddha was strong enough to have seeped
through the back.
Page24of66

Paradise of Amitabha, ink and colours on

silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang,
Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, 9th century AD
Pure Land sutras, which describe the
Paradises of various Buddhas, became very
popular in Dunhuang during the Tang Dynasty
(618-907). The most influential was the
Western Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha.
Pure Land painting also became popular.
Although the condition of this painting is not
as good as others from Dunhuang, it can be
directly compared to wall paintings there. In
this painting the Buddha Amitabha, shown
larger than the other figures, is seated in front
of a Chinese palace setting surrounded by
bodhisattvas and in the lower part of the
painting, subsidiary Buddha figures.
The scenes on the right show the story of King
Bimbishara who was imprisoned by his son
Ajatashatru. Here the story starts with
Bimbishara's sin: he slayed a sage who was
then reborn as a white hare. When Bimbishara
was later put in prison by his evil son his wife,
Queen Vaidehi attempted to save him, only to
be imprisoned herself. In captivity she called
on the Buddha for help. On the left are shown
the sixteen meditations of Queen Vaidehi,
starting with the meditation on the setting sun
to find the right direction to the Western
Paradise.
From Dunhuang and other parts of China Pure
Land painting travelled to Japan, where with
modifications it remains popular for Buddhist
worship to the present day.
Page25of66

Paradise of Bhaishajyaguru, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, 9th century AD
Sutras and rituals connected to Bhaishajyaguru, the Buddha of Healing, were among the most popular in Dunhuang. His
Pure Land or Paradise was often depicted on walls of the caves built during the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907), similar in
style to the central part of this painting. The figures are arranged on terraces above water, and a Chinese palace setting is
indicated by the courtyard shown from above. Bhaishajyaguru himself is seated in the centre of the composition under a
large canopy. Directly in front of him are bodhisattvas playing music and dancing, indicating the pleasures of Paradise,
where according to the sutras the most beautiful sounds can be heard and exquisite fragrances can be smelt. The
accompanying figures are other bodhisattvas and guardians, as well as subsidiary Buddha groups.
In the top of the lowest register of the painting are multi-armed esoteric deities such as Manjushri with the Thousand
Bowls on the top right. The scenes on the sides are divided by lines, as in a modern-day cartoon, with cartouches
containing quotes from the sutra. On the right are scenes of the 'six forms of violent death', for example a hungry soul
dragging somebody away as a punishment for hunting. On the left are the twelve vows of Bhaishajyaguru.
Page26of66

Paradise of Bhaishajyaguru, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, dated AD 836
Synthesis of Chinese and Tibetan painting styles
This large painting is devoted to Bhaishajyaguru, the Buddha of Healing. Dated and inscribed in both Chinese and Tibetan,
is an interesting example of how different modes of painting reached a unique synthesis in the multi-cultural climate of
Dunhuang. The Tibetans occupied Dunhuang from AD 781 to 848 and some of the earliest paintings in the Tibetan
painting style have survived there.
The figures painted in the Tibetan mode have elongated haloes and are much flatter and more decorative than those painted
in the more typical style of the Chinese Tang dynasty. Instead of the more common architectural setting, the Paradise is set
in a landscape, with the figures arranged in a more formalized way, almost like in a mandala. The two bodhisattvas
Samantabhadra and Manjushri - recognisable by their mounts, the elephant and the lion - occupy the middle ground. At the
bottom of the painting we can also see the esotericform of Manjushri shown with a Thousand Bowls.
Page27of66

Paradise of Maitreya, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Late Tang or early Five Dynasties, late 9th - early 10th century AD
Page28of66

The subject of this complex painting can be identified from inscriptions from the Mile xiasheng jing ('Sutra of Maitreya's
Birth'), as the Paradise of Maitreya, the future Buddha. At present, Maitreya is still a bodhisattva who presides over Tusita
Heaven until the time comes for his earthly rebirth and subsequent attainment of Buddhahood.
The central figure of Maitreya sits in a courtyard with two bodhisattvas, two disciple monks representing youth and
maturity and two Guardian Kings, Virupaksha with a sword and Vaishravana with the banner. Along either side of the
borders are two dharmapalas or Law Guardians, another two Buddhas attended by pairs of bodhisattvas. In front of
Maitreya four musicians and a dancer perform and human and celestial beings make floral offerings.
The scenes at the top of the painting - of merrymaking, farming and people at worship - symbolize the peace and
prosperity that Maitreya will bring. At the bottom, the ordination rite of head-shaving is being carried out on a couple of
noble birth. Next to them, two altar tables laden with lavish gifts stand either side of a canopied throne. This represents the
conversions which Maitreya will bring about.
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Paradise of Shakyamuni, with illustrations of episodes from the Baoen Sutra, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, early 9th century AD
In this Pure Land, or Paradise painting, Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, with his hands in the vitarka-mudra (gesture of
preaching), sits between two bodhisattvas. A dancer and an orchestra perform before him. Another group sits below them.
The Buddha has the sun and the moon on his robes, the cosmological emblems of Mount Shumeru. The scene is probably
Page30of66

intended to represent Shakyamuni's cosmic aspect as expounded in the Lotus Sutra. Two mythical creatures standing on
golden islands, the double-headed jiva-jiva and the kalavinka, flank this second group. A row of donors are shown at the
base of the painting.
Along both sides of the painting a sequence of episodes tells the story of Prince Siddhartha from the Baoen-jing, the 'Sutra
of Requiting Blessings Received'. This is a jataka about Shakyamuni's previous incarnation. Prince Siddhartha and his
parents flee their palace upon hearing the murderous intent of a treacherous minister. When their provisions run out,
Siddhartha offers his own flesh to his parents. After his parents have each taken a piece, Siddhartha is left by the roadside.
A hungry lion appears, and the prince offers his final piece of flesh to the creature. The lion turns out to be the god Indra,
who restores him to strength and wholeness.
This painting is a good example of the ways in which sutras were illustrated at Dunhuang. The elegant flowing lines and
uncluttered composition of this painting suggest a date in the early ninth century AD.

Patchwork of silk, probably a kasaya
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, 8th-9th century AD
Page31of66

A Buddhist monastic robe

Sir Marc Aurel Stein originally suggested that this large patchwork was an altar-cloth, though it has now been identified as
a kasaya, a Buddhist monastic robe. The symmetrical arrangement of patches along a central vertical axis is consistent with
the prescribed form for a kasaya. Even though these patches of cloth were originally meant as a sign of humility, a splendid
array of silks has been used in this example.
The patchwork comprises seven vertical columns of fabric enclosed by a border of plain silk printed with blue foliated
scrolls. Within the border are woven or printed silks with a rosette design. The dominating floral motif embroidered in the
centre has largely disintegrated, revealing the silk patches used for strengthening. Only two small white panels of floral
embroidery still remain intact.
The magnificence of the materials used and the presence of purple suggest that the wearer must have been a priest of high
rank. Hong Bian (active in the mid-ninth century), the head priest who is commemorated in the cave where these textiles
were found, had been given the right to wear purple by the emperor. Small pieces of purple silk were also found inside his
statue.
Page32of66

Representations of Famous Buddhist Images, ink and colours on silk (fragments)
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 7th - 8th century AD
Models for passing on Buddhist iconography
These fragments are from a large painting, several parts of which are now in the National Museum in New Delhi, India.
The painting was filled with representations of famous statues of the Buddha and other images. Several studies have been
devoted to identifying the sources of the illustrations, and linking the various images to different centres on the Silk Road.
Page33of66

In this section we can see the halo and aureole of a seated Buddha figure on the left, with a thousand Buddhas appearing
within the circles. On the right a Buddha touches the red disk of the sun, perhaps signifying the powers achieved after his
Enlightenment. Buddhas touching the sun and moon were occasionally represented on the wall paintings at Mogao,
probably indicating links to similar popular and famous images of the Buddha in various ways.

Samantabhadra and Manjushri, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Late Tang or early Five Dynasties, late 9th - early 10th
century AD
These large paintings were originally paired. Although
painted on silk they are very similar to wall paintings of the
same period in their style and iconography. It was common
practice in the Mogao caves for two wall paintings to be
executed facing each other: for example on the two sides of
the cave entrance. For this purpose subjects with two groups
of figures turning towards each other were shown: the
bodhisattvas Samantabhadra and Manjushri were a popular
choice.
Samantabhadra is shown riding on an elephant and
Manjushri on a lion. Neither of these animals was then
native to China, and the artists clearly had no first-hand
experience of them: the white elephant has big, floppy ears
and three tusks on each side; the lion is shown with
decorative features popular in Chinese art.
The two bodhisattvas are depicted at a larger scale than the
attendant figures: other bodhisattvas playing instruments
and red-faced guardians with fierce, bulging eyes. The two
dark-skinned figures represent the attendants of the animals.
In tenth-century paintings they are shown as Central Asians,
not as dark-skinned servants, as here.
The format of the paintings is puzzling, as the tops are
rounded as if made for a vaulted cave. However, there are
no vaulted caves at Mogao. They were very popular further
west, in the Turfan region, at sites such as Bezeklik. Could
it be the case that a workshop at Mogao prepared this
painting for another site? As yet we have no evidence of
such close collaboration, but cultural links are known.
Page34of66

Samantabhadra, ink and colours on a silk banner

From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Tang dynasty, late 8th - early 9th century AD
Banner painting of a popular bodhisattva
The triangular top and the streamers of this temple flag or
banner are missing. The painted central part is occupied by
the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, who is shown seated on a
white elephant whose feet are supported by lotuses. In true
Dunhuang fashion his thick, black hair is lying on his
shoulders. A halo behind his head indicates that he is a holy
figure.
Such votive banners were most probably hung in the caves
and used in worship. Samantabhadra is commonly paired
with Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, and thus this
banner may have had a pair depicting Manjushri.
Page35of66

Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, ink and colours on

a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
This painting was executed in a more sketchy style than
others of a similar subject from the Mogao caves. The
highly finished paintings, where expensive colours and even
gold were used, were reserved for the privileged donors
who paid the most. Those in a simpler style where fewer
colours were used, were probably cheaper and therefore
more readily available to less wealthy donors.
It is likely that this and other banners showing scenes from
the life of the Buddha were part of a series. At the top of
this banner, the Five Companions of Shakyamuni, the
historical Buddha, are shown. They were five ascetics who
were impressed by his fasting and joined him, but left as
soon as he took food. They protect their heads from the bad
weather with their sleeves, while the god of thunder plays
his drums in a cloud above them. In the scene below
Shakyamuni meditates in a rocky cave. His emaciated body
bears witness to the fasting that he has undertaken. Two
stags are lying outside his cave.
The lowest scene represents the time when Shakyamuni
realized that fasting and following a life of extremities
would not lead him to Enlightenment. To the shock of his
followers he went to take a bath in the Nairanjana River. A
spirit supported on a cloud came to his help.

Page36of66

Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, ink and colours on

silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China, Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
Symbols and stories from a Buddhist context
At the time of the birth of the historical Buddha,
Shakyamuni, it was foretold that he would either become a
chakravartin (Universal Emperor) or a Buddha. In Buddhist
art Shakyamuni is often shown with the symbols of the
chakravartin to indicate that he defeated the World of
Suffering. Here they have been combined with scenes from
Shakyamuni's life. On top a Chinese officer represents the
skilled general; a fashionably clad Chinese lady represents
the royal consort; his treasure chest; the Wheel of the Law,
and below a Chinese official representing the faithful
minister, followed by the royal elephant and horse.
The lower section shows two miracles that accompanied
Shakyamuni's birth. Immediately following his birth, cold
and warm water appeared to wash him. In Indian art this is
shown being assisted by naga (snakes), but here Chinese
dragons appear in the clouds. The last scene shows
Shakyamuni taking his first footsteps, in each of which a
lotus flower blossomed. The attendants are plump and look
remarkably similar to representations of women from the
Imperial court from the same period. This indicates the
close links of this outpost on the Silk Road with central
China.

Page37of66

Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, ink and colours on

silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Tang dynasty, 9th century AD
Symbols and stories from a Buddhist context
At the time of the birth of the historical Buddha,
Shakyamuni, it was foretold that he would either become a
chakravartin (Universal Emperor) or a Buddha. In Buddhist
art Shakyamuni is often shown with the symbols of the
chakravartin to indicate that he defeated the World of
Suffering. Here they have been combined with scenes from
Shakyamuni's life. On top a Chinese officer represents the
skilled general; a fashionably clad Chinese lady represents
the royal consort; his treasure chest; the Wheel of the Law,
and below a Chinese official representing the faithful
minister, followed by the royal elephant and horse.
The lower section shows two miracles that accompanied
Shakyamuni's birth. Immediately following his birth, cold
and warm water appeared to wash him. In Indian art this is
shown being assisted by naga (snakes), but here Chinese
dragons appear in the clouds. The last scene shows
Shakyamuni taking his first footsteps, in each of which a
lotus flower blossomed. The attendants are plump and look
remarkably similar to representations of women from the
Imperial court from the same period. This indicates the
close links of this outpost on the Silk Road with central
China.
Page38of66

Shakyamuni preaching on the Vulture Peak, silk embroidery on hemp cloth
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 8th century AD
Page39of66

This is one of the largest known examples of Chinese embroidery. Its layout compares closely with paradise paintings and
the wall murals at Mogao. Shakyamuni is shown preaching the Lotus Stra at Rjagrha on the Vulture Peak, represented
by the rockery. A scattering of flowers and leaves embellishes the background. He is accompanied by two disciples and the
bodhisattvas, Avalokiteshvara and Mahsthmappta. Hovering over this assembly are two apsarasas who flank a jewelled
canopy. At the base, there are two groups of donor figures and a central inscription panel.
The panel was made from three widths of hemp cloth entirely covered with thin closely-woven silk. The outline of the
design was first drawn in ink onto the silk. Its main contours were worked with split stitching of brown or dark blue silk.
The areas enclosed by the outlines were then filled in using closely packed unplied floss silk. The embroidery is generally
well preserved. However, when it was folded for storage in the cave, the two disciples fell along the lines of folding, which
explains the heavy damage to them.

Silk altar valance
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, 8th-9th century AD
Silk valances liek this were originally used on the altars of Buddhist temples, as represented on some of the wall paintings
at Dunhuang. This example, which is missing a few streamers at the right end, is the most complete of three that were
found in Cave 17. It was made from over 56 fragments of fabric stitched together. It includes 16 varieties of plain or
figured silk, 3 different embroideries, as well as printed silk.
The valance is composed of three distinct components:
(a) A broad band with hanging loops at the top comprising pieces of white silk, pink damask, plain blue and red silk.
(b) Triangular tabs with streamers attached behind. Some of the streamers are knotted while others are attached to tassels,
rosettes or stuffed silk figures. There are forty-two pieces in this section.
(c) Ten large panels forming a background of plain and figured silks in yellow, cream, white and green.
Like the foliated embroidered silk panel from Cave 17, this might have been another instance where materials were reused.
Stein had thought that the little stuffed figures on some of the streamers were previously used as votive offerings by people
hoping to have children.
Page40of66

Tejaprabha Buddha and the Five Planets, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, dated 4th year of Qianning (AD 897)
Page41of66

The planets in human form

This painting shows a very rare form of the Buddha, named in the inscription as Tejaprabha Buddha, the 'Buddha of
Blazing Light'. He is seated in a moving chariot, which is also very unusual, as Buddhas were mostly shown seated in a
frontal position.
The sutras evoking the Tejaprabha Buddha all associate him with the planets, stars and constellations. This painting, which
is the earliest dated representation of the subject, shows the Buddha surrounded by the five planets. The planets are
represented in human form, in many ways similar to the way the planets were shown in western culture from Greek times.
Venus is shown as a beautiful woman playing the pipa (Chinese lute), Mars as a red warrior, although here with four arms.
Jupiter is an official carrying flowers. Mercury, associated with information, is shown as a scribe with brush and paper,
although here as always in Chinese art, as a woman. Saturn is an old Indian man, here leading his attribute, the bull. The
other planets wear their animal attributes in their headdresses.
This painting is a good example of the way that various cultural influences shaped the iconography of painting at
Dunhuang, as the planets had not been shown in human form before the arrival of Buddhism in China. Chinese sutras gave
specific descriptions of the human form of the planets, most probably influenced by Indian scriptures, which in turn may
reflect influences deriving from Greece and even Babylon.
Page42of66

The bodhisattva Jiz, a hanging scroll painting

Japan
Kamakura period, late 13th century AD
With the spread of faith in the Jdo (Pure Land) sect of
Buddhism during the Kamakura period (1185-1333), the
bodhisattva Jiz (Sanskrit: Ksitigarbha) was widely
worshipped by the general populace as a salutary deity: Jiz
would rescue them if they were reborn into one of the many
hells vividly described in the doctrines of the sect. He is
shown in the guise of a travelling monk with ringed staff
and sacred jewel, who intercedes in the Six Realms of Birth
to save the faithful and take them to the Western Paradise of
the Buddha Amida (Amitabha).
The bodhisattva directs a calm, benevolent gaze down
towards the distressed believer, and his delicate fingers
gesture with great sensitivity. The halo is outlined in simple
cut gold-leaf (kiri-kane).
It is more common for Jiz to be shown coming towards us
from a distance on a cloud (raig-zu). The pose here,
therefore, with the large figure standing statically on a pair
of lotus-flower pedestals, is unusual. Certain technical and
stylistic features suggest a date in the later thirteenth
century, which is relatively early for Jiz imagery. These
include the generally subdued colouring of the robe and the
monk's stole held with a metal ring at the shoulder (kan-
kesa), as well as the strong, modulating ink outlines of the
drapery.
The ancient silk support is damaged in many places,
particularly the area of Jiz's right arm and shoulder.
Page43of66

The Death of the Buddha, a hanging scroll painting
Japan
Page44of66

Kamakura period, early 14th century AD

The commemoration of the death of the Buddha and his entry into nirvana is the most spiritually profound event of the
Buddhist calendar. It is marked with special ceremonies and readings of stras (nehan-e) on the 15th day of the 2nd month.
Large paintings are known to have been used as the focus of worship in such ceremonies since at least the Nara period
(710-94). They show beasts, lay persons, monks and deities gathering in lamentation around the golden-hued figure of the
Buddha as he lies dying on a jewelled dais.
During the Kamakura period (1185-1333), increasingly large numbers were produced. Some, like this example, give
evidence of renewed stylistic influence from Song dynasty China.
Despite significant areas of loss from the original silk support, many of the assembled figures and animals are still clearly
visible, their expressions of grief movingly rendered. Harder to make out is the group of deities descending from the top
right corner, led by Anritsu Sonja (Sanskrit: Aniruddha), one of the Buddha's sixteen disciples, and with the Buddha's
mother Queen Maya in the centre, wearing a jewelled crown.
In the centre of the sky a full moon shines down through pairs of sal trees (which joined together and turned white at the
moment of the Buddha's nirvana). Behind these flows the Badaiga River (Sanskrit: Ajiravati), the place in central India
where the Buddha is said to have died.
The painting relates technically to works by the celebrated Buddhist painter Ryzen.
From 1998 to 2000 this painting was extensively repaired and restored to its original format as a hanging scroll in the
Usami Studio at the Kyoto National Museum, with assistance from agencies of the Japanese Government.
Page45of66

CourtofKingEmma(Yama)inHell

The Six Realms of Birth, 10 hanging scroll paintings
Japan
Edo period, 19th century AD
From a set of 15
The six realms of birth (rokud), as interpreted by the
Tendai sect monk Genshin (Eshin Szu, 942-1017) in his
seminal Oj ysh (The Foundations of Rebirth, 985), are
full of horrors that contrast with the bliss of the Buddha
Amida's Western Paradise. Until released by enlightenment
from the cycle of rebirth, sentient beings must constantly
incarnate through these six realms of, respectively, hell,
hungry ghosts, warrior demons, beasts, human beings and
heavenly beings.

These ten scrolls come from what must have originally been
a set of fifteen. They are nineteenth-century copies of a
famous set of hell paintings thought to date from the late
thirteenth century, originally from Ryzen-in at Yokawa on
Mt. Hiei and now at Shju Raig-ji Temple, Shiga.
The subjects of the ten scrolls are:
1. Court of King Emma in Hell
2. Equally Reviving Hell
3. Uniting Hell
4. Realm of Hungry Ghosts
5. Realm of Beasts
6. Realm of Bellicose Demons (Ashura)
7. Realm of Human Beings -- Nine Impure Aspects
8. Realm of Human Beings -- Four Painful Aspects of Old
Age, Sickness and Death
9. Realm of Human Beings -- Parting by Death from Wind,
Fire and Water
10. Redemption of Sins and Ascension to Paradise through
the Efficacy of the Nembutsu
Page46of66

Thousand-armed, Thousand-eyed Avalokiteshvara, ink and colours on silk
Page47of66

From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China

Tang Dynasty, early 9th century AD
The bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara, sits upon a lotus throne. He had eleven heads and a complex web of forty
forearms and hands emanating from his body, each holding an attribute or displaying a mudra (gesture). This builds up to a
crowning apex with a pair of hands in anjali-mudra (a gesture of reverence). The surrounding halo of hands, each bearing a
single eye, symbolizes Avalokiteshvara's ability to instantly perceive and aid all who call upon him. He is surrounded by
beings related to his cult, each identified by a cartouche. These include the human representations of Moonlight and
Sunlight, the transcendant Buddhas of Ten Directions (top row) and the Four Guardian Kings (bottom row).
This painting is considered a masterpiece of the Esoteric school. Vajrayana or Esoteric Buddhism became popular during
the period of Tibetan domination at Dunhuang (AD 781-847). For such a painting to produce the desired effect, it had to be
executed precisely in accordance with descriptions in the relevant sutra. Unlike many of the large paintings found at the
Mogao caves, there are no donors depicted here. This was probably because ordinary believers were excluded from the
rituals, and Esoteric doctrine was transmitted directly from master to initiate.
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Thousand-armed, thousand-eyed Avalokiteshvara, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, 8th - early 9th century AD
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Esoteric icon for worship

The figure of the thousand-armed, thousand-eyed bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who can see and hear all the suffering of
the world and help the believer, became very popular during the Tang dynasty (AD 618-906). In this composition the
'thousand hands' form a halo behind the bodhisattva and fill the entire width of the painting. The secondary hands have
eyes in their palms, while the primary hands hold various attributes or are shown in mudras (gestures), all corresponding to
descriptions in sutras also found at Mogao.
The bodhisattva is supported by a lotus with two donor figures worshipping him. At the top Suryaprabha and
Chandraprabha (the bodhisattvas of the sun and the moon) are shown in their respective chariots, but in the wrong order.
The white disk indicates the moon, the red disk the sun. However the horses should belong to the sun (originating from the
Indian sun god Surya), and the geese to the moon.
The carefully executed details and the clothing of the donor figures indicate a relatively early date for this painting within
the material found at Mogao.
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Two standing Avalokiteshvara, ink and colour on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang dynasty, mid-9th century AD
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Devotional painting at a time of hardship

The painting shows two almost identical figures of Avalokiteshvara, one of the most popular of the bodhisattvas,
identifiable by the small figure of the Buddha Amitabha in his headdress. One of the only differences between the two
figures are the attributes that they hold: that on the left holds a flower, that on the right a vase and a willow branch. All
three were popular attributes of Avalokiteshvara.
The inscription in the centre of the painting tranlates in part: 'the disciple of pure faith, Yiwen, on his own behalf, having
fallen [into the hands of the Tibetans], hopes that he return to his birthplace.' The portable paintings found at the Mogao
caves were mostly commissioned to benefit the donor or the donor's deceased parents and relatives. It was believed that the
act of commissioning a painting would bring good karma. Therefore this example was commissioned to ensure a peaceful
life during the period of war with the Tibetans, who finally had to give up Dunhuang in AD 948.

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Vaishravana riding across the waters, a painting on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties, mid-10th century AD
This is one of the best depictions of Vaishravana, Guardian King of the North, from Cave 17 at Mogao. Vaishravana is the
most frequently represented of the four devarajas, the Guardian Kings of the points of the compass, probably because of
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Dunhuang's geographical location.

Vaishravana upholds the Law and defends believers from evil, and is depicted here patrolling his domain with heavenly
troops. He holds a golden halberd in his right hand; to his left, there is a purple cloud supporting a stupa. His procession is
preceded by his sister, Shri Devi, Goddess of Material Blessings, holding a golden dish of flowers. On his right, the rishi
Vasu is portrayed as a white-haired man. The green-robed figure who holds a flaming pearl and the gentleman wearing a
four-pronged crown are probably Vaishravana's sons. Five yaksha warriors bring up the rear. The Garuda in flight
represents those dark forces against which Vaishravana offered protection.

Page54of66

Vajrapani, ink and colours on a silk banner
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From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China

Tang dynasty, late 9th century AD
A typical banner painting
Vajrapani is a Buddhist guardian figure, characteristically shown with a thunderbolt, or vajra to protect Buddha's law.
This banner painting is one of the very few from the Mogao caves to survive intact. It has a triangular top and side and tail
streamers. A board at the bottom ensured that the painting was stretched out when hung. Such paintings could be viewed
from both front and back, as suggested by depictions of banners.
In contrast to the painting of the Bodhisattva holding a glass bowl which was executed in very thin, even lines, this
painting was executed in calligraphic lines of changing width, well suited to representing the energetic figure, who is
barely contained within the narrow frame of the painting. This effect is further emphasised by the addition of the network
of red lines, showing the guardian figure's strong muscles.
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Vajrapani, ink and colours on a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Tang dynasty, early 9th century AD
In the Tibetan style
Although the format of this banner is largely similar to
others found at Mogao, it is very different in style. The
figure represented is the bodhisattva Vajrapani, identifiable
by the small vajra or thunderbolt in his right hand.
The figure is shown in frontally and static, in sharp contrast
to the dynamic representations of Vajrapani on banners
from Mogao painted in the Chinese style. The body is
painted green, with only the palms shown in pink. The
features of the face, especially the large white, almond-
shaped eyes with black centres, are strikingly different from
the standard Dunhuang style. Furthermore the figure's dhoti
(garment) is also very different in appearance: dyed with
many colours and decorated with floral and geometric
patterns, uncharacteristic of art from Dunhuang.
These features have led to this and several other paintings in
the Stein Collection being identified as a Tibetan-style
group and thus important examples of early Tibetan art.
Dunhuang was occupied by the Tibetans between AD 781
and 847. This painting has a small-scale Tibetan inscription
on the right. The silk weave, the hem and the size of the
banners in this group are also different from the Chinese-
style banners
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Vajrapani, ink and colours on silk

From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Tang dynasty, late 9th century AD
Chinese calligraphic painting style in Dunhuang
This painting is an excellent example of the calligraphic
painting style that dominated the art of Dunhuang during
the Tang dynasty (AD 618-906). The figure of the
bodhisattva, grasping a thunderbolt, or vajra in his left hand,
bursts into the narrow picture frame, his speed indicated by
the cloud rising above his head. His clenched fist, bulging
muscles and exaggerated facial features make clear his
fearsome nature as a guardian of the Buddha's law.
The black brushstrokes vary in thickness and end in sudden
hooks, and the long, thick hair that falls over the shoulders
is contrasted with the thin lines of the beard. The figure's
clothing and scarves also fly in all directions.
This style for potraying guardians originated in Central
China and had a far-reaching influence, also appearing in
Japan
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Virupaksha, Guardian of the West, ink and colours on a

silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province,
China
Five Dynasties, 10th century AD
Uygur influence in Dunhuang
Although the bottom streamers are now kept separately, this
banner is preserved in very good condition, with its
triangular headpiece still attached. The Guardian Kings
trampling on demons and supported by clouds were a
popular subject among the paintings found at Mogao. Here
we see Virupaksha, Guardian King of the West, whose
attribute is the sword.
Despite the popularity of the subject, the colouring and
execution differ from the standard Chinese style used in the
ninth century. The figure appears to be very flat, and is
barely contained in the narrow dimensions of the banner.
His arms and legs appear uncomfortably twisted and
flattened out. His armour is densely shaded and decorated,
and he is wearing very decorative shoes instead of the more
usual sandals. These features link this painting to Uygur art,
for example to the wall paintings from Bezeklik in the
Turfan area. The Uygurs were the most important
neighbours of Dunhuang in the tenth century, controlling
the Silk Road both east and west. Dunhuang's Chinese
governors had marriage links with the Ganzhou branch of
the Uygurs, who could, and did, block westward trade with
central China at will

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Given below in tabular format is the Aurel Stein collection of Buddhist silk
artifacts from Dunhuang in the possession of the National Museum, New Delhi.
Artifact Description
1000 buddhas (detail) with devotees
Dunhuang. 9th-10th c. AD. Embroidered silk
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Avalokitesvara
Dunhuang. 8th-9th c. AD. Painting on silk.
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Avalokitesvara (detail)
Dunhuang. 9th c. AD. Painting on silk.
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Avalokitesvara (detail)
Dunhuang. 9th c. AD. Painting on silk.

Donor images From a banner painting of Amitabha in Vitarkamudra
Dunhuang. 9th-10th c. AD. Painting on silk.
And
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From a banner painting of the Buddha in Vatarkamudra
Dunhuang. 949 AD. Painting on silk.

The Paradise of Bhaisajyaguru (detail)
Dunhuang. 10th c. AD. Painting on silk.






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12) R. Fisher, Art of Tibet (Thames and Hudson, 1997)

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invention of a 'miraculous image'', Orientations, 27:10 (November 1996), pp.
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22) Death and Dying by Ajahn Jagaro from the book True Freedom,
Buddhadhamma Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand, 2004