An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual and organizational goals

DefinitionOrganizationalbehaviour, is
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach. That is, it interprets people organization relationships in ter!s of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social syste!. Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving hu!an ob"ectives, organizational ob"ectives, and social ob"ectives.

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Organizational behavior studies organizations from multiple viewpoints and levels, including behavior within the organization and in relation to other organizations.
Micro organizational behavior refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting. Macro organizational theory studies whole organizations and industries, including how they adapt, and the strategies, structures, and contingencies that guide them.

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OB highlights four central characteristics of the field: It is firmly grounded in the scientific method It studies individuals, groups, and organizations. It is interdisciplinary in nature. It is used as the basis for enhancing orgainsational effectiveness and individual well being. !he study of OB involves: "onsideration of the interaction among the formal structure #organizational conte$t in which the process of management takes place% !he technology employed and the methods of carrying out work !he behaviour of people

 !he process of management !he e$ternal environment Interrelated dimensions influencing behaviour: !he Individual & working environment should satisfy individual needs as well as attainment of organizational goals !he 'roup formal and informal. (nderstanding of groups complements a knowledge of individual behaviour. !he Organisation & impact of organization structure and design, and patterns of management, on behaviour. !he )nvironment & technological and scientific development, economic activity, and governmental actions.
http://www.slideshare.net/clickmyemail/intro-to-ob-ppt Providesa set of toolsthat allow: People to understand, analyze, and describe behavior in organizations Managers to improve, enhance, or change work behaviors so that individuals, groups and the whole organization can achieve their goals

Generalisationsabouthumanbehaviour: > happy workers are productive workers. > Individuals are most productive when the boss is friendly, reliable and unassuming. > behaviour of good leaders is consistent irrespective of the situations they face. > Interviews are effective selection devices. > Everybody likes a challenging job > People will have to be bullied/intimidated to make them to do their jobs. > Money motivates all. > >People are more concerned about their own salaries than others. >Members of effective groups do not quarrel among themselves.

A Short Historyof OrganizationalBehavior The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle addressed the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius in 500 BC are beginning to influence contemporary thinking about ethics and leadership. The writings of 16th century Italian philosopher Niccol Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on

organizational power and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States. They discovered the importance of formal and informal group dynamics in the work place, resulting in a dramatic shift towards the human relations school of thought. Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies is generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried out. After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect . This Human Relations Movement focused on teams , motivation , and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations. Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard , Henri Fayol , Frederick Herzberg , Abraham Maslow , David McClelland , and Victor Vroom. The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist approaches to the study of organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods native to the sciences, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. Influential work was done by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called " Carnegie School & quot; of organizational behavior In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research . An explosion of theorizing, much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality , Informal Organization , Contingency Theory , Resource Dependence , Institutional Theory , and Organizational Ecology theories, among

many others. Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by anthropology , psychology and sociology . A leading scholar was Karl Weick

FrederickWinslowTaylorFrederickWinslowTaylor(18561915) was the first person who attempted to study human behavior at work using a systematic approach. Taylor studied human characteristics, social environment, task, physical environment, capacity, speed, durability, cost and their interaction with each other. His overall objective was to reduce and/or remove human variability Taylor worked to achieve his goal of making work behaviors stable and predictable so that maximum output could be achieved. He relied strongly upon monetary incentive systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated by money. He faced some strong criticism, including being accused of telling managers to treat workers as machines without minds, but his work was very productive and laid many foundation principles for modern management studies Four Principles of Scientific Management 1. Study the way employees perform their tasks, gather informal job knowledge that employees possess, and experiment with ways of improving the way tasks are performed. 2. Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard operating procedures. 3. Carefully select employees so that they possess skills and abilities that match the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the established rules and procedures. 4. Establish an acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level.

The HawthorneStudies Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company near Chicago; 1924-1932 these studies mark the starting point of the field of Organisational Behaviour Initiated as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting affect employee fatigue and performance (i.e., lighting). Found that productivity increased regardless of whether illumination was raised or lowered. Started in 1924 to examine the relationship between light intensity and employee productivity a test group and a control group were used the test group initially did not show any increase or decrease in output in proportion to the

increase/decrease in illumination. The control group with unchanged illumination increased output by the same amount overall by the test group. Subsequent phases brought the level of light down to moonlight intensity: the workers could barely see what they were doing, but productivity increased. The results baffled the researchers. Obviously, something besides the level of illumination was causing the change in productivity the complex human variable. MaryParkerFollett Management must consider the human side Employees should be involved in job analysis Person with the knowledge should be in control of the work process regardless of position Cross-functioning teams used to accomplish projects

DouglasMcGregor: Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Average employee is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possible Managers task is to supervise closely and control employees through reward and punishment Theory Y Employees will do what is good for the organization when committed Managers task is create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for employees to be exercise initiative http://www.slideshare.net/saransuriyan/organisational-behaviour-ppt

ATTITUDE The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. ore precisely attitudes can be de!ined as a persistent tendency to !eel and behave in a particular way toward some object which may include events or individuals as well. Attitude can be characterized in three ways: "irst, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them. #econd, attitudes can !all anywhere along a continuum !rom very !avorable to very un!avorable. Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has !eelings $sometimes called %a!!ect&' and belie!s.

Components of Attitudes

The three basic components o! attitude are (ognitive, )!!ective and *ehavioural part.

Cognitive Component of Attitude re!ers to opinion or belie! part o! attitude. +hen you !orm your opinion or judgment on the basis o! available in!ormation and decide whether you have a !avorable or un!avorable opinion on that, it the cognitive part o! attitude we are talking about. e,: y supervisor gave a promotion to a coworker who deserved it less than me. y supervisor is un!air. Affective Component of Attitude re!ers to the emotional aspect o! attitude. This is perhaps the most o!ten re!erred part o! attitude and decides mostly the desirable or undesirable aspect attitude. e,: - dislike my supervisor. Behaviora Component of Attitude re!ers to the behavioral part o! attitude. -! we have a positive attitude !or a particular object, it is likely to be translated into a particular type o! behavior, such as buying or procuring that object. e,: -/m looking !or other work0 -/ve complained about my supervisor to anyone who would listen.

!ormation of Attitude 1ow attitudes are !ormed2 1ow do you develop your attitude2 3ssentially attitudes are the outward mani!estation o! your inner values and belie!s. These develop over time. )s you grow you watch the signi!icant people around you behaving in a particular way0 you are being told to cherish certain things over others and you learn !rom your teachers and peers and come to value certain thins over other, thus !orming your value system. These in turn give rise to development o! your attitudes. Attitudes he p predict wor" behavior# The !ollowing e,ample might help to illustrate it. )!ter introducing a particular policy, it is !ound !rom an attitude survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. 4uring the subse5uent week it is !ound that the attendance o! the employees drops sharply !rom the previous standard. 1ere management may conclude that a negative attitude toward new work rules led to increased absenteeism. Attitudes he p peop e to adapt to their wor" environment# )n understanding o! attitudes is also important because attitudes help the employees to get adjusted to their work. -! the management can success!ully develop a- positive attitude among the employees, they will be better adjusted to their work.

!unctions of Attitude )ccording to 6atz, attitudes serve !our important !unctions !rom the viewpoint o! organizational behaviour. These are as !ollows. The Ad$ustment !unction. Attitudes often he p peop e to ad$ust to their wor" environment# +ell-treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general while berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. -n other words, attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and !orm a basis !or !uture behaviour. Ego%Defensive !unction# Attitudes he p peop e to retain their dignity and se f% image# +hen a young !aculty member who is !ull o! !resh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members might !eel somewhat threatened by him. *ut they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as 7crazy/ and 7impractical/ and dismiss him altogether. The &a ue%E'pressive !unction. Attitudes provide individua s with a basis for e'pressing their va ues# "or e,ample, a manager who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee who is having a very casual approach towards work. The 6nowledge "unction. )ttitudes provide standards and !rames o! re!erence that allow people to understand,and perceive the world around him. -! one has a strong negative attitude towards the management, whatever the management does, even employee wel!are programmes can be perceived as something 7bad/ and as actually against them. Changing Attitudes Emp oyees( attitudes can be ) changed and sometimes it is in the best interests of managements to try to do so# !or e'amp e* if emp oyees be ieve that their emp oyer does not oo" after their we fare* the management shou d try to change their attitude and he p deve op a more positive attitude in them# +owever* the process of changing the attitude is not a ways easy. There are some barriers wliich have to be overcome i! one strives to change somebody/s attitude. There are two major categories o! barriers that come in the way o! changing attitudes: 8. 9rior commitment when people !eel a commitment towards a particular course o! action that have already been agreed upon and thus it becomes di!!icult !or them to change or accept the new ways o! !unctioning. :. -nsu!!icient in!ormation also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. #ometimes people simply see any reason to change their attitude due to unavailability o! ade5uate in!ormation.

,ome of the possib e ways of changing attitudes are described be ow# -roviding .ew Information# #ometimes a dramatic change in attitude is possible only by providing relevant and ade5uate in!ormation to the person concerned. #canty and incomplete in!ormation can be a major reason !or brewing negative !eeling and attitudes. Use of !ear. )ttitudes can be changed through the use o! !ear. 9eople might resort to change their work habit !or the !ear o! !ear o! unpleasant conse5uences. 1owever, the degree o! the arousal o! !ear will have to be taken into consideration as well. /eso ving Discrepancies: +henever %people !ace %a dilemma or con!licting situation they !eel con!used in choosing a particular course o! action. ;ike in the case where one is to choose !rom& between two alternative courses o! action, it is o!ten become di!!icult !or him to decide which is right !or him. 3ven when he chooses one over the other, he might still !eel con!used. -! some one helps him in pointing out the positive points in !avour o! the chosen course o! action, he person might resolve the his dilemma. Inf uence of friends and peers ) very e!!ective way o! changing one/s attitude is through his !riends and colleagues. Their opinion and recommendation !or something o!ten proves to be more important. -! !or e,ample, they are all praise !or a particular policy introduced in the work place, chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had initial reservations !or that. Co%opting. -! you want to change the attitude o! some body who belongs to a di!!erent group, it is o!ten becomes very e!!ective i! you can include him in your own group. ;ike in the case o! the union leader who are all the time vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that decision making process himsel!. <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< <
How Are Employee Attitudes Measured? The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude surveys.

Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions. Managers present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific information. Individual Responses are then combined and analyzed

Important Attitudes /e ated to 0rganisations: =ob #atis!action > is a set o! !avorable or un!avorable !eelings and emotions with which employees view their work. =ob -nvolvement - the degrees to which a person identi!ies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers per!ormance important to sel!worth. ?rganizational (ommitment - the degree to which an employee identi!ies with a particular organizational and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. =?* #)T-#")(T-?@
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa. Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used interchangeably. Often when people speak of employee attitudes they mean employee job satisfaction. A pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences (Locke, 1976). An employees cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her job

Determinants of Job Satisfaction: Personality (the enduring ways a person has of feeling, thinking, and behaving) Work Situation (the work itself; coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates; physical working conditions, and working hours, pay and job security) Values (intrinsic and extrinsic work values) Social Influence (coworkers, groups, and culture)

The Effectof Job Satisfactionon EmployeePerformance Job Performance Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers are more satisfied! Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers. Absenteeism Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences. Turnover Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers. Customer Satisfaction Satisfied workers provide better customer service Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because: They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. They are less likely to turnover, which helps build long-term customer relationships Organizational Citizenship behavior (OCB) Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job. Workplace Deviance Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize abuse substances, steal, be tardy, and withdraw

CognitiveDissonance A state of tension that is produced when an individual experiences conflict between attitudes and behavior Cognitive Dissonance Theory Leon Festinger Any Incompatibility between 2 or more attitudes or between behavior Internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between 2 or more of their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior

Self Perception Theory Daryl Bem Asserts that we develop our attitudes by observing our own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused them

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93G(39T-?@ is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world (Lindsay & Norman, 1977). Four Stages: 1. Stimulation 2. Registration 3. Organization 4. Interpretation

Broadbent (1958) addressed the concept of perceptual vigilance with his filter model. Broadbent argued that, on the one hand, due to limited capacity, a person must process information selectively and, therefore, when presented with information from two different channels (i.e., methods of delivery such as visual and auditory), an individuals perceptual system processes only that which it believes to be most relevant. However, perceptual defense creates an internal barrier that limits the external stimuli passing through the perception process when it is not congruent with the persons current beliefs, attitudes, motivation, etc. This is referred to as selective perception. Selective perception occurs when an individual limits the processing of external stimuli by selectively interpreting what he or she sees based on beliefs, experience, or attitudes (Sherif & Cantril, 1945). Broadbents filter theory has been updated in recent years. A Selectionfor-Action View suggests that filtering is not just a consequence of capacity limitations, but is driven by goal-directed actions (Allport, 1987, 1993; Neumann, 1987; Van der Heijden, 1992). The concept is that any action requires the selection of certain aspects of the environment that are action relevant and, at the same time, filtering other aspects that are action irrelevant. Therefore, when one is working toward a goal, one will skip over information that does not support ones plan. Recent studies of the brain have also led to new models, suggesting multiple channels of processing (Pashler, 1989) and selective perception as a result of activation of cortical maps and neural networks (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 1998). In any case, people are selective in what they perceive and tend to filter information based on the capacity to absorb new data, combined with preconceived thoughts.

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SocialPerception Social perceptionis how an individual sees others and how others perceive an individual. This is accomplished through various means such as classifying an individual based on a single characteristic (halo effect), evaluating a persons characteristics by comparison to others (contrast effect), perceiving others in ways that really reflect a perceivers own attitudes and beliefs (projection), judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs (stereotyping), causing a person to act erroneously based on another persons perception (pygmalion effect), or controlling another persons perception of oneself (impression management).

Halo Effect The halo effect occurs when an individual draws a general impression about another person based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance. The perceiver may evaluate the other individual high on many traits because of his or her belief that the individual is high in one trait. For example, if an employee performs a difficult accounting task well due to the managers belief of the employees high intelligence, then the manager may also erroneously perceive the employee as having competencies in other areas such as management or technology Opposite to the halo effect is the horn effect, whereby a person evaluates another as low on many traits because of a belief that the individual is low on one trait that is assumed to be critical (Thorndike, 1920). A study on obesity conducted with health professionals and researchers reflects the horn effect concept. Study participants were asked to complete an Implicit Associations Test to assess overall implicit weight bias (associating obese people and thin people with good vs bad) and three ranges of stereotypes: lazymotivated, smartstupid, and valuable worthless. The study respondents were much quicker to pair fat with lazy and other negative traits and/or stereotypes (Schwartz, Chambliss, Brownell, Blair & Billington, 2003). Projection Whereas, contrast effect is the perception of an individual based on the comparison to others, projection is the attribution of ones own attitudes and beliefs onto others. All of us are guilty of unconsciously projecting our own beliefs onto others. Sigmund Freud (1894), along with his daughter Anna Freud (1936), suggested that projection was a defensive mechanism, where we attribute our own attitudes onto someone else as a defense against our feelings of anxiety or guilt. Stereotyping As such, the term stereotype is defined to mean a conventional image applied to whole groups of people, and the treatment of groups according to a fixed set of generalized traits or characteristics. Although stereotyping can be positive because it allows us to Contrast Effects Research has provided evidence that perceptions are also subject to what is termed perceptual contrast effects. Contrast effectsrelate to an individuals evaluation of another persons characteristics based on (or affected by) comparisons with other people who rank higher or lower on the same

characteristics. In other words, the contrast effect relates to how an individual is perceived in relation to others around him or her. The contrast effect not only applies to the perception of attractiveness, but it has also been shown to influence self-esteem, public selfconsciousness, and social anxiety (Thornton and Moore, 1993). Pygmalion Effect The pygmalion effect, or self-fulfilling prophecy, describes a persons behavior that is consistent with another individuals perception whether ornot it is accurate. In other words, once an expectation is made known by another person, an individual will have the tendency to behave in ways consistent with the expectation. . Impression management incorporates what we do, how we do it, what we say, and how we say it as we try to influence the perceptions others have of us. Individuals will try to present themselves in ways that will lead to positive evaluations by others by highlighting their achievements and avoiding the disclosure of failures.

Workplace Communication # COMMUNICATION PROCESS Figure 4-1illustrates the communication process. It shows that the sender is a person, department, or unit of an organization or system who originates the message. A sender uses words and symbols to put forth information into a message for the receiver, the individual(s) receiving the message. Messages are then received and decoded or interpreted by the receiver. Decoding is affected by the receivers prior experiences and frames of reference. Accurate decoding of the message by the receiver is critical to effective communication. The closer the decoded message gets to the intent of the sender, the more effective the communication. However, environmental and personal barriers can hamper the communication process. Details on barriers are described in a later section. To ensure messages are received as intended, feedback is a necessary component of the communication process. The receiver creates feedback to a message and encodes it before transmitting it back to the sender. The sender receives and decodes the feedback. Feedback is the destinations reaction to a message (Certo, 1992). It is an important element of communication since it allows for information to be shared between the receiver and

sender in a two-way communication.

Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior. Feedback can be information related to the productivity of groups in an organization, or the performance of a particular individual. # FEEDBACK Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior. Feedback can be information related to the productivity of Feedback 79 Sender Message Create Encode Sender Message Receive Decode Barriers Environment Personal Feedback Receive Decode Feedback Create Encode Figure 4-1 The Communication Process Source:McShane, S.L., and Von Glinow, M.A. (2003) Organizational behavior: Emerging realities for the workplace revo Descriptive feedback. Feedback that identifies or describes how a person communicates. For instance, Manager A asks Manager B to comment on her behavior at a staff meeting. B indicates that A was specific, clear, and instructive on introducing the staff to the computer database for managing patient accounts. B provides a descriptive feedback of As behavior at the staff meeting. Evaluative feedback. Feedback that provides an assessment of the

person who communicates. In the above case, if Manager B evaluates Manager As behavior and concludes that she is instructive and helpful, and that causes the staff to feel comfortable when going to A for help or asking questions, then B has provided positive evaluative feedback of As interaction with the staff. Prescriptive feedback. Feedback that provides advice about how one should behave or communicate. For example, Manager A asks Manager B how she could have made changes to better communicate her message to her staff. B suggests for A to be friendlier and more cooperative by giving the staff specific times that A is available for help with the new computer database. This type of advice is prescriptive feedback. Task or procedural feedback. Feedback at this level involves issues of effectiveness and appropriateness. Specific issues that relate to task feedback include the quantity or quality of a groups output. For instance, are patients satisfied with the new outpatient clinic? Did the group complete the project on time? Procedural feedback refers to whether a correct procedure was used appropriately at the time by the group. Relational feedback. Feedback that provides information about interpersonal dynamics within a group. This level of feedback emphasizes how a group gets along while working together. It is effective when it is combined with the descriptive and prescriptive forms of feedback. Individual feedback. Feedback that focuses on a particular individual in a group. For example, is an individual in the group knowledgeable? Does he or she have the skills helpful to this group? What attitudes does he or she have toward the group as they work together to accomplish their tasks? Is the individual able to plan and organize within a schedule that contributes to the groups goal attainment? Group feedback. Feedback that focuses on how well the group is performing. Like the questions raised at the individual feedback level, similar questions are asked for the group. Do team members within the group have adequate knowledge to complete a task? Have they developed a communication network to facilitate their objectives? Feedback can be in the form of questionnaires, surveys, and audio # COMMUNICATION CHANNELS Another important component of the communication process is selecting the appropriate communication channel. It is the means by which

messages are transmitted. There are two types of channels: verbal and nonverbal. The various channels of communication and the amount of information transmitted through each type are illustrated in Figure 4-2. Verbal Communication Verbal communication relies on spoken or written words to share information with others. Dialogue is a form of verbal communication. It is a discussion or conversation between people. It is a process in which participants are exposed to new information. The process involves a series of meetings of organizational members that represent different views on issues of mutual interest. Computer-Aided Communication Electronic mail has revolutionized the way we communicate. E-mail allows messages to be rapidly created, changed, saved, and sent to many people at the same time. One can select any part of the message to read and skip to important parts of the message. E-mail is a preferred channel for coordinating work and schedules. Messages can be clearly defined through concrete and specific instructions rather than abstract words or generalization Other Computer-Aided Communication In addition to e-mail technology, other forms of technology have infused healthcare organizations and directly enhance and impact the communication process. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is sharing information without using words to encode messages. There are four basic forms of nonverbal communication: proxemics, kinesics, facial and eye behavior, and paralanguage (Nelson & Quick, 2003). Proxemicsis the study of an individuals perception and use of space Kinesics refers to body language, which is used to convey meanings and messages. BARRIERSTO COMMUNICATION As illustratedin Figure4-1 (page79), severalformsof barrierscan impedethe communicationprocess.Longest,Rakich,and Darr (2000)classifythesebarriersinto two categories:environmentaland personal. Environmentalbarriersare characteristicof the organizationand its environmentalsetting. Personalbarriersarisefromthe natureof individual

EnvironmentalBarriers Examplesof environmentalbarriersincludecompetitionfor attention andtimebetweensendersand receivers.Multipleand simultaneousdemandscause messagesto be incorrectlydecoded.The receiverhearsthe message,but doesnot understandit. Dueto inadequateattentionpaid to the message,the receiveris not really listening.Listeningis a process that integratesphysical, emotional,and intellectualinputsinto the quest for meaningand understanding.

PersonalBarriers Personalbarriersarisedueto an individualsframeof referenceor beliefs andvalues.Theyare basedon onessocioeconomicbackgroundand prior experiencesand shapehowmessagesare encodedanddecoded.Onemay alsoconsciouslyor unconsciouslyengagein selectiveperceptionor be influencedby fear or jealously.

Recognizingthat environmentand personalbarriersexist is the first step to effectivecommunication.By becomingcognizantof their existence,one can consciouslyminimizetheir impact.However,positiveactionsare neededto overcomethesebarriers(see Table4-1). Longestandcoauthors(2000)provideus with severalguidelinesfor overcomingbarriers: 1. Environmentalbarriersare reducedif receiversand sendersensure that attentionis givento their messagesand that adequatetimeis devotedto listeningto whatis beingcommunicated. 2. A managementphilosophythat encouragesthe free flowof communicationis constructive. 3. Reducingthe numberof links(levelsin the organizationalhierarchy or stepsbetweenthe senderin the healthcareorganizationand the receiverwhois an externalstakeholder)reducesopportunitiesfor distortion. 4. Thepower/statusbarriercan be removedby consciouslytailoring wordsand symbolsso that messagesare understandable;reinforcingwordswith actions significantlyimprovescommunicationamong differentpower/statuslevels. 5. Usingmultiplechannelsto reinforcecomplexmessagesdecreasesthe likelihoodof misunderstanding. EFFECTIVECOMMUNICATIONFORKNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Communicationplaysan importantrole in knowledgemanagement. Employeesare the organizationsbraincells, and communicationrepresentsthe nervous systemthat carriesinformationandsharedmeaningto vital partsof the organizationalbody.Effectivecommunicationbrings knowledgeinto the organizationanddisseminatesit to employeeswho requirethat information. The followingsummarizesthesekey elements: An effectivecommunicatormusthavea desireto communicate, whichis influencedboth by onespersonalvaluesandthe expectationthat the communicationwill be receivedin a meaningfulway. An effectivecommunicatormusthavean understandingof how otherslearn, whichincludesconsiderationof differencesin how othersperceiveand processinformation(e.g., analyticvs. intuitive, abstractvs. concrete,verbalvs. written). The receiverof the messageshouldbe cuedas to the purposeof the message,that is, whetherthe messageis to provideinformation, elicit a responseor reaction,or arriveat a decision.

STRATEGICCOMMUNICATION Strategiccommunicationis an intentionalprocessof presentingideasin a clear, concise,andpersuasiveway. A managermustmakean intentionaleffort to master communicationskills and usethemstrategically, that is, consistentlywith the organizationsvalues,mission,and strategy. To planstrategiccommunication,managersmustdevelopa methodologyfor thinking throughandeffectivelycommunicatingwith superiors, staff, and peers. Sperryand Whiteman(2003)provideus with a strategiccommunication plan, whichconsistsof five components. 1. Outcome.Thespecificresult that an individualwantsto achieve. 2. Context. The organizationalimportanceof the communication. 3. Messages.Thekey informationthat staff needto know. StrategicCommunication93 47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/054:51PMPage934. Tactical reinforcement.Tacticsor methodsusedto reinforcethe message. 5. Feedback.Thewaythe messageis receivedand its impacton the individual,team, unit, or organization FLOWSOF INTRAORGANIZATIONALCOMMUNICATION Communicationcan flowupward,downward,horizontally,and diagonallywithin organizations.Upwardcommunicationoccursbetween

supervisorsand subordinates.Downwardcommunicationprimarilyinvolvespassingon informationfromsupervisorsto subordinates.Horizontalflowis frommanagerto manager or fromco-workerto co-worker. Diagonalflowoccursbetweendifferentlevelsof differentdepartments. Longestet al. (2000)providesus with severalformsof intraorganizationalcommunication for healthcareorganizations. UpwardFlow The purposesof upwardcommunicationfloware to providemanagers with informationto makedecisions,identifyproblemareas,collectdata for performanceassessments,determinestaff morale,and revealemployeethoughtsand feelingsaboutthe organization.Upwardflowbecomesespeciallyimportantwith increased organizationalcomplexity. Grievanceprocedure.This allowsemployeesto makean appealupwardbeyondtheir immediatesupervisor.It protectsthe individual fromarbitraryactionby their direct supervisorandencourages communicationaboutcomplaints. Opendoorpolicy. Thesupervisorsdooris alwaysopento subordinates.It is an invitation for subordinatesto comein andtalk to the superioraboutthingsthat troublethem. 94 CHAPTER4 WORKPLACECOMMUNICATION 47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/054:51PMPage94 Counseling,questionnaires,and exit interviews.The departmentof humanresourcesin a healthcareorganizationcan facilitate subordinateinitiatedcommunicationby conductingconfidential counseling,administeringattitudequestionnaires,and holdingexit interviewsfor thoseleavingthe organization.Informationgained fromtheseformsof communicationcan be usedto makeimprovements. Participativedecisionmakingtechniques.Throughthe use of informalinvolvementof subordinatesor formalparticipationprograms suchas qualityimprovementteams,unionmanagementcommittees,andsuggestion boxes,participativetechniquescan improve employeeperformanceand satisfaction.Sinceemployeescan partic Ombudsperson.Theuse of an ombudspersonprovidesan outlet for personswhofeel theyhavebeentreatedunfairly. DownwardFlow Downwardcommunicationinvolvespassinginformationfromsupervisorsto subordinates. This includesverbal and nonverbalcommunication,suchas instructionsfor completing tasks,as well as communications on a one-to-onebasis. Downwardcommunicationsincludemeetingwith

employees,writtenmemos,newsletters,bulletinboards,proceduralmanuals,and clinical andadministrationinformationsystems. HorizontalFlow Upwardand downwardcommunicationsare inadequatefor effectiveorganizational performance.In complexhealthcareorganizations,horizontalflowor lateral communication mustalso occur. The purposeof lateral communicationis the sharingof informationamongpeersat similarlevelsto keep organizationalstaff informedof all currentpractices, policies,and procedures(Spillanet al., 2002). For example,coordinatingthe continuumof patientcare requirescommunicationamongmultipleunits. Furthermore,committees,task forces,and crossfunctional projectteamsare all usefulformsof horizontalcommunication. DiagonalFlow The least usedchannelof communicationin healthcareorganizationsis diagonalflow. Diagonalflowsare growingin importance.Whilediagonalflowdoesnot followthe typical hierarchicalchainof command,diagonal flowis especiallyuseful in healthcarefor efficientcommunicationand coordinationof patientcare. COMMUNICATIONNETWORKS Flowsof communicationcan be combinedinto patternscalledcommunicationnetworks. Thesenetworksare interconnectedby communicationchannels.A communicationnetwork is the interactionpatternbetween andamonggroupmembers.A networkcreatesstructurefor the group becauseit controlswhocan and shouldtalk to whom(Keyton,2002). Groupsgenerallydeveloptwo typesof communicationnetworks:centralizedand decentralized(Figure4-4). Decentralizednetworksalloweachgroupmemberto talk to every othergroupmemberwithoutrestrictions.An open,all-channelor decentralizednetworkis best usedfor groupdiscussions,decisionmaking, andproblemsolving.Theall-channelnetworktendsto be fast and accuratecomparedwith the centralizednetworksuchas the chainor Y-pattern networks(Longestet al., 2000). Nevertheless,a decentralizednetwork can createcommunicationoverload,in whichtoo muchinformationor too complexcommunicationmayoccur(Keyton,2002). Whena communicationoverloadis produced,messagesmayconflict with eachother andresult in confusionor disagreement.To reducecommunicationoverload,a facilitator shouldbe usedto monitorgroupdiscussions. A centralizednetworkrestrictsthe numberof peoplein the communicationchain. In a group settingwherea dominantleadertakesover groupdiscussionsby controllingthe numberof messagesand amountof

informationbeingpassed,groupmembersdo not interactexceptthrough the leader. Sucha networkcan createcommunicationunderload,in which too fewor simplemessagesare transmitted.In this typeof network,group membersfeel isolatedfromgroupdiscussionsandgenerallyfeel dissatisfied.In the chain network,communicationoccursupwardand downwardand followsline authority relationships.An exampleis a staff nurse whoreportsto the chargenurse,whoreportsto the directorof nursing, whoreportsto the vice presidentfor clinicalservices,and whofinally reportsto the CEOof a largehospital. This networkdelineatesthe chain of commandand showsclear linesof authority INFORMALCOMMUNICATION In additionto formalcommunicationflowsand networkswithinhealthcareorganizations, thereare informalcommunicationflows,whichhave their ownnetworks.Employeeshavealwaysreliedon the oldestcommunicationchannel the corporategrapevine.The grapevineis an unstructuredandinformalnetworkfoundedon social relationshipsratherthan organizationalchartsor job descriptions.Accordingto someestimates,75 percentof employeestypicallyreceivenewsfromthe grapevinebeforethey hear aboutit throughformalchannels(McShane& VonGlinow,2003).