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FAS ION
MARKETING & THEORV
G IANPA OLO VIGNALI & CLAUDIO VIGNALI
"Along-awaitedmasterpieceand greatlyappreciated!"
Prof.LeoPaul Dana,Uni versityofCanterbury, NewZealand
"Anessential resourceforanyoneinthefashion business, providingguidancefor
businesssubjectstostayin tunewith whattheircustomerwants."
Dr.SandaRenko,FacultyofEconomics&Business,Zagreb,Croatia
"Easytoread,coveringthemostimportanttheoreticalaspectsoffashion marketingas
well as casestudiesofleadingfashion brands."
Prof. Bernd Britzelmaier,Pforzheim University,Germany
ISBN 978-0-9562471-1- 7
90000
IccessPressUK
9 "780956"247117
FASHION MARKETING & THEORY
CHAPTER5: FACTORSTHAT INFLUENCE
THE BUYING p/ECISION
SUSANAAZEVEDO, MADALENA PEREIRA, JOO FERREIRA & RUI MIGUEL
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GIANPAOLO VIGNALI & CLAUDIO VIGNALI
Consumer behaviour research is the scientific study of the processes consumers use to select, secu re,
use and dispose of products and services that satisfy their needs. Firms can satisfy those needs only to
the extent that they understand their customers. The main objective of this is to study the sex
differences and the valorisation of clothes attributes by consumers they go shopping.
That we intend to study the consumer buying behavour in a context of fashion with a special
highlighting on the differences among male and female consumers and also on the clothes attributes
valorisation. To attain this a survey was and administered across Portugal. The
findings confirm the differences between women and men especially in terms of What, Where, When,
and How they buy.
The relationship between dressng and the idea of individual expression is complex. It may be perceived
in people's daily life through recurrent use of the same clothing colours, brands, fashion tendencies etc.
Many use contrasts and colours that express according to their state of mind. Thus,
the properties, like design, comfort, individuality, a decisive role on apparel's buying
behaviour, which may vary depending on a set of mainly on sex and 1994).
There is a widespread recognition that consumer buying behaviour s the
success. In this way, the field of consumer buying behaviour has been by a diversity of
viewpoints and based on an interdisciplinary science. In this context, the understanding of consumer
buying behaviour could appeals to a set of different areas of knowledge, such as psychological, cultural
social psychological, physio-pyschological, genetics anthropology. The main objective of this chapter is
to study the sex differences in consumer buying behaviour a Portuguese population when they go
shopping to buy apparel products. To attain this objective a survey was developed and administered
across Portugal. The findings confirm the differences between women and men especially in terms of
What, Where, When, and How they buy.
Fashion moves with clothing and integrating the day to day in a broad context
such as political social, others. It styles which may influenced by the
most diversified lt is an ephemeral manner easily changeable of behaviour and especially
through Fashion is a socio-cultural that, at a given moment, expresses values of
society - uses, and to Lipovetsky (1987), fashion is actually a phenomenon
. of modern also associated to values and socialising ways.
Fashion became an object of study in several areas which before were not at ali awaked for it. Areas
such as anthropology, sociology and history started using fashion as a way of understanding society
(Lancioni, 1 In media and in general, fashion also has turned out to be a matter of interest,
even being understood in many different ways, since in this environment fashion is associated
to glamour, to novelty, to consumption and to the definition of an individual through their appearance
1
These factors are very important to understand what fashion really is, although this goes much further,
it is a language which society is related and communicates ones habits, practices and its
culture (Cappetta, Cillo, and 2006). Fashion contains that go behind the continuous
changes of collections, whose explanations are in the context of society, study and reflection.
Transformations that have taken place in the social structure and organization throughout time, coming
from historical movements, wars, revolutions, technological and artistic
confirms the importance of the human research environment. In to disclose movements which
are on the basis of fashion phenomenon and constitute the reason of apparel style changes {Lipovetsky,
Clothes are undoubted/y the way of representing fashion concept, these being
in the most different of areas, such as music and art, many others toa. By definition,
can mean change and also much deeper and behind the actual It also provides an
illusion, contributing to our well being, feeding our insecurities and our confidence (Jones and
Mair, According to Thrassou et aI. (2008), fashion is temporary and a new fashion starts with the
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FASHION MARKETING & THEORY
refusal ofwhat is old and,often, through the impatientadoption ofwhatpreviouslywas taken as ugly;
consequently,itsubtly denies its statementthatthe lastfashion is,in a certain way,adefinite solution
fortheappearanceproblem.However,according toTuncayanq Otnes(2008), fashion is aharmonious
whole more or less indissoluble.It fits to social structure, accehltuating separation between classes;it
conciliatestheconflict between the individualising impulse ofeach one ofus (need ofaffirmation as a
person) and the socialising one (need ofaffirmation as a memberofa group) ;it expresses ideas and
feelings, sinceitisalanguagethatistranslated intoartisticterms" .Notonlyaretheaestheticalelements
importanttocharacterizefashion asitmustbe placed inthe momentand time.Fashion reflectssociety
and the time ofliving (Liu etaI., 2009).
Nowadays,thesocietywherefashionsystemhasbeeninstalledisdrivenbyconsumption,bythechange
and by the individualizing desire, in opposition to societies ruled by habits and tradition.According to
Barnard (2002),garmentsclaimaposition includingrespectabilityand outrageousness(sexualappeal),
economicand socialvalue(st!tus),individualisticlook, political symbol, religious rituais and pleasure.
Women play a betterrole perceiving garmentscommunicative language, also being more engaged in
fashion giving importanceto garmentsand fashion when definingtheiridentity(BakewelletaI., 2006).
Fashion marketing mustanswerto severaIquestions,such as:
1. whatproductlinesmustbe created in the differentseasons?
2.which isthe marketsegment?
3. howmuch productto be produced?
4. atwhatprice?
5. which needsand preferencesofconsumers?
6.which distributionchannelsmustbe used to sell the product?
7.howto organizeand control sales?
In otherwords,fashion marketing hasthe mainobjectiveto actasaguideforthe differentprocessesof
creation, production,distribution, communication, promotion, commercialization,planning and control.
However, since this sctoris quitedynamic and differentiating,fashion marketing mustadapt to each
specificfashion market.
Fashion marketing startsand endsattheconsumer. Thus, according toArriaga (2005), the action must
be focused on them,thisis,itis necessary to identify the way howhedressesthemselves, theproduct
mustbe produced according to their needs and expectations, aswell as produced in ashortperiod of
time, since thefashion cycle is becoming shorterand shorter.In otherwords, companiesmuststudy:
i) the consumerneeds;
ii) the mostadequateconsumersegmentand howapproach it;
iii) the ideal positioning to reach this segment;
IV) the design levei ,colours, qualitythatthe targetsegmentrequires;
v) the priceto establish;
vi) the channel distribution demands;
vi i)themarketing strategiesand policiesthatbestsuitthe marketsegment.
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GIANPAOLO VIGNALI & CLAUDIO VIGNALI
This means, in order to a company to be able to give the best answer to the market0(t must have the
best answers to this question '.
Consurner buying behaviour
There are several factors found in literature to justify the buying behaviour of consumers. Among them,
may be highlighted: organisation's corporate values (Cambra-Fierro et aI., 2007), perceived quantity
and quality of information (Pelsmacker and Janssens 2007), cultural and environmental factors (Dewan
and Dewan, 2007), culture, societal communicating factors (Grant and Spephen, 2005),
According to Arriaga (2005) and Kotler (2003) the main factors influencing the buying behaviour of
consumers are the following: physiological factors, socio-cultural factors, personal factors, psychological
factors, rational factors. For example, the physiological factors relate to physical protection, commodity,
among others. The socio-cultural ones comprise family, friends, work, the social groups with which the
consumer identifies himself and that influences the purchasing behaviour and the looking for a garment
type. Family causes a strong influence on the choice of children garments or, for example, when a wife
chooses a gift for her husband. Friends also play a certain influence on a consumer, as he will try to
follow the tendencies of his group. A consumer pertaining to a given country, geographical region or
a given social class will also end up determining the consumption options. Consumers coming from
different cultures have different preferences respecting to some brands and garment products (Chang,
2005; Lukosius, 2004).
The purchase decision is also influenced by personal factors, namely age, consumer's life cycle stage,
occupation, economical levei, way of life and personality. Concerning age and life cycle stage as a
function of marital status, consumers have specific needs. For example, children, as they are in the
process of growing up, they need garments suitable to their age and physical development (McNeal and
Yeh, 1996). Respecting young persons, usually follow their fashion mind leaders. In respect to the third
age, these are less demanding when choosing their clothes, more lasting, most of the times, although
this tendency had changed in the last few years and, at the moment, they are being considered as a
target market (Capon et aI., 2001). Occupation also influences garment purchasing decision, as an
executive will choose buying more formal garments, while an unqualified worker will buy more practical
ones.
The financiai capacity is evidently a factor that influences the purchasing process, as the higher it is,
the higher the acquisition power and garment consumption. In other words, demographic factors, age,
monthly income, living place, marital status, professional situation ali make an individual to choose
certain brands or stores, instead of others (Paulins and Geisteld, 2003).
The way of life is another factor that influences the consumer buying behaviour, as a given garment
is intended to a given life style. Consumers frequently choose certain kinds of products, services and
activities since these are associated to a certain life style. Thus the fashion industry must pay more and
more attention to life style tendencies.
Personality is another personal factor that influences purchasing, since every consumer has a different
personality. Factors such as self-confidence, domain of himself, good fellowship and autonomy, define
the individuais personality and, consequently, different purchasing processes.
Concerning psychological factors, these play a strong influence on consumers, as some of them choose
a product simply by reliance, sympathy or even designer friendship. To these, motivations like personality
attraction and interest of a consumer for a given fashion product can also be joined (Mittelstaedt, 1990).
Psychological factors also influence the decision of buying products, despite its price. Often, a high cost
is a determing factor leading to acquisition of one product and not of a cheaper one, since this may be
regarded as to increase self-confidence of whom is wearing it. Among several factors, the psychological
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FASHION MARKETING & THEORY
ones are those that bear more attention to companies, although many of these do not have professionals
capable to best understand them.
The rational factors are the most visible ones, they are based on the rational consumer's behaviour, his
way of thinking and decision making, on a reasoning manner. There are several individual and collective
factors that interfere on the purchasing decision, such as the brand of a given fashion product as many
consumers make purchases by influence of a designer or company brando Quality is another factor to
which consumers pay more attention (Acharya and Elliot, 2003; Hanf and Wersebe, 1994). The design
is an important motivation for purchasing and consumption of fashion, since, in a garment, consumers
give more and more relevance to aesthetical appearance, like the line and look, among many others.
The characteristics or attributes of fashion products also influence purchasing, since they interfere on
the value, style and quality of product. (Hong et al.,2002; Wickliffe and Psysarchik, 2001).
Product comfort is a important attribute, as consumers wish comfortable products to satisfy certain
specific needs. The usefulness is also a factor that consumers have in mind when buying garments,
because, for example, if they buy a garment that combines with those of their wardrobes, and they make
their choices also considering aspects such as durability and easy care. The product novelty is a factor
that fashion followers have into consideration, in each season they renew their wardrobes, and they look
for innovation in their wearing way.
Price is a rational factor that influences a lot the purchase of a product since consumers consider a
better product the one with better price (Hanf and Wersebe, 1994). The acceptance of a product is
reached when there is equilibrium between value and price that the consumer is willing to pay for it. In
general , the consumer considers a low price product the one that is outdated or with low quality.
The results reached by Dutton (2006) shows that the products' attributes of styling, brand, price, place,
production and fiber content have a significant effect on the buyer intention of the consumers with a
range age between 15- to 25-years old. May-Plumlee (2006) found that there are thirteen universal
evaluative criteria used when evaluating an apparel product.These criteria include brand/label, price,
color/pattern, style/design/uniqueness, fabrication , fashionability, appearance/attractiveness, care,
construction, durability, fiUsizing, quality, and comfort. Pereira et aI. (2009) used the same attributes of
Dutton to study the valorisat ion of the apparel attributes according to the influence levei of the advertising
on the buying behviour.
Attributes for garment evaluation
Concrete
Attributes (product features)
Abstract Attributes (attitude-based)
Intrinsic (hedonic)
Extrinsic
Aesthetics
Price
Brand
Fun
Style
Color
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GIANPAOLO VIGNALI & CLAUDIO VIGNALI
Countryoforigin
Entertainment
Pattem
FabricIfiber
evaluation
Appearance
Approvalofothers
Need
Fashionability
Coordinationwithwardrobe.
Function
Utilitarian
Durability
Comfort
Quality
Fit
Care
Source: Dutton (2006)
Often, companiesthinkthatpriceisthe mostimportantfactorin the purchasing process, butconsumers
alsoconsider otherkind of such as environment, shop-windows,
catalogues,storemerchandising, productqualityand service. Concerningstoreenvironment,according
to Paulinsand Geisteld (2003), itinfluencesthechoice ofabrandorstore bythe consumer, aswell as
the purchasingdecision.Thismeans, fashion needta improvespacerlo"rIr"tinn
aswellastheirproductturnover.
Consumers' reactions ta a product are influenced by their evaluations of its advertising, over and
abovetheirfeelings aboutthe praductitself. The evaluation ofaproduct can be determined mainly by
the appraisal ofhow itis depicted in marketing communications- consumers da not hesitateta form
attitudestoward products not seed neitherused. Advertising in fashion is relatively less explored than
in other consumer. Normally the communication channels used are Fashion Magazines, newspapers
and itssupplementsoutdooradvertising,specialfashion' televisionadds, salespromotion, radio
internetpopupsand soon (Solomom and Robolt, 2004; 2009)
Fashionisbasedon asbeing beautiful, conquering theemotionalfactors
being on the basis ofconsumer's feelings and emotions. The wish to be involved with fashion is an
emotional factor that leads consumers to buy fashion clothes, as they want them to be modem and
novel. the purchaseoffashion clothes is notdoneby need, butfor
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FASHION MARKETING & THEORY
-::oording to Tay (2008) , the behaviour of the modern consumer lies on looking for pleasure with the
:': "lsumption experience itself. Frequently, he looks for new stimuli, new sensations and, as pleasure is
and personal, consumption is thus oriented by the individual himself.
:'-nducts or services purchasing process goes through several stages (McEnally and Chernatony, 1999;
er and Keller, 2005): First appears the acknowledgement of the need, after the consumer does an
. rmation search, making than an evaluation of alternatives and , at last, the purchase decision and
:..aluation. For these authors, the acknowledgment of a need may take place throughout internai stimuli
. one is hung ry, thursty, tired or has personal interests) or externai ones (generally commercial , incited by
J\er persons, etc.). Also, according to McEnally and de Chernatony (1999), internai stimuli or impulses
:J the individual are known of motivation. The Maslow motivation theory is referred by many authors as
:::-JiB that helps to understand the consumer buying behaviour (Kotler and Keller, 2005; McEnally and
Chernatony, 1999, De Brouwer 2009, Guillen-Royo, 2008) . To these authors, the knowledge of this
:;' -'eory is a need for the marketing professional, for a better understanding of determinant psychological
-:actors to human behaviour and-, thus, of consumers buying behaviour. Kotler and Keller (2005) say that
;ne Maslow theory helps the marketing professional to understand how several products fit in plans,
.:bjectives and life of consumers. This theory is of fundamental importance to understand factors that
:notivate behavioUr and stimulate an individual to act. The motivation theory allows understanding,
mainly the first stage of the purchasing behaviour already mentioned: the acknowledgment of a need.
"he understanding of fashion consumer buying behaviour is required to best answer to needs and
emands of consumers and to satisfy them in an innovative and original manner as, according to Arriaga
(2005), fashion starts and ends at the consumer. This is because, either considering an haute-couture,
prt--porter or mass market product, companies must always bear in mind the consumer's satisfaction,
ensidering loyalty as the major goal.
Consumer Buying Behaviour Approaches
Consumer behaviour research is the scientific study of the processes consumers use to select, secure,
use and dispose of products and services that satisfy their needs. Knowledge of consumer behaviour
directly affects marketing strategy (Anderson et aI. , 2005). This is because of the marketing concept,
i. e., the idea that firms exist to satisfy customer needs (Winer, 2000) . Firms can satisfy those needs
only to the extent that they understand their customers. For this reason, marketing strategies must
incorporate knowledge of consumer behaviour into every facet of a strategic marketing plan (Solomon,
2002) . .
The human behaviour is complex, replete with controversies and contradictions and comes as no
surprise to marketing academicians as well as professionals. There is a widespread recognition that
consumer behaviour is the key to contemporary marketing success (Hawkins et aI. , 2003) . Consumer
behaviour has been legitimized in marketing for it provides the conceptual framework and strategic
thinking for carrying out successful segmentation of markets (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000).
There have been a number of debates between positivistic and interpretive consumer researchers
(Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). In this way, the field of consumer behaviour has been characterized
by diversity of viewpoints; as a result, the entire field now is based on an interdisciplinary science
(Kassarjian, 1995). The understanding of consumer behaviour appeals to a set of different areas
of knowledge/factors: psychological, cultural social psychological, physio-pyschological, genetics
anthropology. One of them is the psychology since consumer behaviour deals with emotions, beliefs
and attitudes. Research on emotions within marketing has evolved three approaches: the categories
approach, the dimensions approach and the cognitive appraisals approach (Watson and Spence, 2007) .
The categories approach groups emotions around exemplars and considers their different effects on
consumption related behaviour.
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GIANPAOLO VIGNALI & CLAUDIO VIGNALI
The dimensions approach uses the affective dimensions of valence and levei of arousal to distinguish
between emotions and the effects they have on consumer behaviour. the cognitive appraisals
approach has used emotions' underlying motivational and evaluative roots to explain their influences
on consumption related behaviours. This approach supposes that underlying evaluations of a situation
(e.g. its desirability, certainty, etc.) combine to elicit specific emotions. This approach may be used to
explain how an extensive range of emotions, including those with similar valence and arousal leveis,
are elicited and how they lead to different behavioural responses. The cognitive approach has been
considered relevant for understanding the emotional responses of consumers in the marketplace
(Johnson and Stewart, 2005) . Bagozzi et aI. (1999) propose that the cognitive appraisals approach
offers a more complete explanation of consumers' behavioural responses to emotions than other one.
What is apparent from the new learning, however, is that we potentially miss those beliefs and attitudes
held at the unconscious or implicit levei that can be crucial to determining consumer behaviour. Also
the memory that people hold on their consumer experiences will drive both aversion and preference
towards products. Aversion behaviour is our avoidance of certain things (brands or marketing offers)
made to us as consumers. .
The importance of the impl icit memory in terms of its capacity to process and store information cannot
be understated. The implicit memory registers vast amounts of input from our surrounding environment
as we move through life. Millions of experiences that we have had throughout our entire lives are stored
away in a particular part of our memory system and can be instantly accessed to help us develop an
intuitive 'feeling' about what we should, or should not do. The criticai issue, however, is that most of the
associations that drive intuition reside in the unconscious part of our brain. They are brought into play
automatically, and are not the subject of conscious awareness. We can't normally articulate the basis of
our intuitions. So consumers often make brand choices intuitively, and cannot tell why they made that
choice.
Fishbein's (1967) attitudinal model has also been widely used in the marketing context (Lilien et aI.,
1992), and this paradigm provides researchers with a useful lens for examining the factors explaining
consumer . purchasing intention and adoption. According to this model, behaviour is predominantly
determined by intention. Other factors like attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural
control also are shown to be related to an appropriate set of salient behavioural, normative, and control
beliefs about thebehaviour. However, Fishbein's model stops at the adoption levei and does not
capture other important factors that explain and predict consumer continuance behaviour (repurchase).
The expectation-confirmation model (Oliver, 1980), on the other hand, focuses on the post-purchase
behaviour. It is a widely used model in the consumer behaviour literature, particularly in explaining
consumer satisfaction and repeat purchase. Satisfaction is the central notion o(this model, which is
formed by the gap between expectation and perceived performance. The expectation-confirmation
theory suggests that if the perceived performance meets one's expectation, confirmation is formed, and
consumers are satisfied. Bhattacherjee (2001) stated that satisfied users are more likely to continue
purchasing the same products.
As regards cultural it is the main externai factors that shape human behaviour. It represents living style,
which came into being after adjustments to the environment, people, and things through generations.
The effect of culture on people's life is so great that it will even affect the motives and choices when
consuming or shopping (Chang, 2005).
Otts (1989) defined culture as "Ali technologies, beliefs, knowledge and fruits that people share and
transfer to next generations. Taylor (1958) believed that culture was everything that an individuallearns in
society. It is a combination of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morais, laws, customs, and any other capabilities
and customs. Culture is one of the main factors to determine behaviour. The two externai factors (culture
and physical environment) and two internai factors (physiological and psychological factors) interact
and form the basic factors to determine human behaviour. Culture also includes three parts, namely
culture, subculture, and social class. Culture is the most basic deciding factor of human desire and
behaviour. Everyone is included in many smaller subculture groups, which provide a clearer sense of
identification and social processo Basically, subculture can be divided into four types: nationality groups,
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FASHION MARKETING & THEORY
us groups, racial groups, and geographical regions.Many subcultures can form some important
etsegments, and providethe decision referenceon productdesignsand marketingcampaignsfor
eting personnelto servethe demandsofconsumers(Jen, 1990).
ugh the interactionsofthe group, differentpeople'sexperienceand individual characteristicswere
mbined.During the combination process, individuaiswould seeksomeonehighlymatched to himself
derto form asubgrouporsmall grouptogether.Schein (1985) believed the subgroupcould form a
..mon historythrough acertain timedevelopment, by sharingexperiences, attitudes,communication
-.ethods,and individualpersonalities, and,in doingso,givebirthtosubculture.Theindividuallifestyleis
;'='e-cted bytheinteraction ofinternaifactorssuchas valueand personalitycharacteristics, and externai
orssuch as societyand culture,and alsoreflectson daily lifeactivities.
-.ccording tothe paradoxofpersonalityin marketing,we ali haveapersonality, butwe do notknowhow
':s systematically related to ourconsumer behaviour(Albanese, 1989). Social psychology is another
''owledge field that helps to understand consumer behaviour. The social psychology focus on the
derstanding ofindividual's behaviourin the presence ofotherindividuais or groups.Concepts such
.,5 social perceptions, social influence, social rewards, peer pressure, social cues, social sanctions,
::c. ali shed lighton the mysteries of consumer behaviour. Approaches to understanding consumer
:>.ehaviour have emphasized externai influences on consumption-related acts.The whole idea behind
' -i sreasoningisthatconsumerbehaviourtakesplacewithinthecontextofgroupsand otherindividuais'
esence which influences consumer's processing ofinformation and decision making (Engel et aI.,
968).
Arl otherareaofknowledge that has been usedto abetterunderstanding ofconsumerbehaviouris the
hysiopyschological one. Physiological psychology is the study ofthe interaction ofthe body with the
indo Itis the study ofthe extentto which behaviouris caused by physical and chemical phenomena
111 the body (Morris 1996).Kroeber-Riel (1980) pointed outthatcognitive and psychological processes
originate from physiological ones.This field holds many promises for explaining consumerbehaviour.
Forinstance, the hypothalamusisthatcenterofthe brainwhich mainlycontrolsconsumption(Zimbardo
and Gerrig, 1996). The chemical changes due to the use/eat of the first product results in a blood
borne input to the brain to activate further consumption. Thus, the individual would order one more
productto use/eat. Such behaviouris explained based on the research findings on thefunctionsofthe
hypothalamusand otherrelated areasofthebrain (ValensteinetaI., 1970; Zhang etaI., 1994). Physio-
psychology providesfascinating waysto help understand consumerbehaviourwithout looking into the
consumer's"blackbox"forhypotheticallybased variableexplanations.
According to genetics approach our genes direct our consumption behaviour. Perhaps humans are
ali programmed to act in certain ways in their consumptive and consumer-related behaviour. Is the
presence ofcertain genesthatcompel us to consume certain kind ofproducts? Genetic science may
very wellcomeup with definitefindingstoexplainconsumerbehaviourandthuswe maystrikeaveinof
truth in finding explanationsand lawsofconsumerbehaviour(Feder,1977).
Businessanthropologyand itsimplementationinconsumerbehaviourstudieshavedemonstratedtothe
businessworld thatanthropological approachasnew perspectivewill bring anewerafortheconsumer
science.The applied anthropologists will becomethe hottestcandidates for business related research
jobsgiven the factthatanthropological methodsare becoming morewidely acceptablein the business
world in general and in consumerstudies particular(Demirdjian and Senguder, 2004) .
63