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ChapLer 1 - 8evlew of Ceneral
ChemlsLry
uan WhlLehead
1he SLrucLure of an ALom
roLons are posluvely charged.
neuLrons have no charge.
LlecLrons are negauvely charged.

ALomlc number = # of proLons
ALomlc number of carbon = 6
neuLral carbon has slx proLons
and slx elecLrons.
Mass number = # proLon + #
neuLrons
Isotopes differ in the number of
neutrons
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1he ulsLrlbuuon of LlecLrons ln an ALom
- 1he rsL shell ls closesL Lo Lhe nucleus.
- 1he closer Lhe aLomlc orblLal ls Lo Lhe nucleus, Lhe
lower lLs energy.
- WlLhln a shell, ! < "#
WhaL ls an ALomlc CrblLal?
The Lobes of a p Orbital Have
Opposite Phases
electrons cannot be in node
electrons will be in dumbbells on either side of
nodal plane
nodal plane
Lobes are shaded differently because they are in
opp
different phases
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1he 1hree " CrblLals
-Aumau prlnclple: An elecLron goes lnLo
Lhe aLomlc orblLal wlLh Lhe lowesL energy.

-aull excluslon prlnclple: no more Lhan
Lwo elecLrons can be ln an aLomlc orblLal.
(opposlLe splns)

-Punds rule: An elecLron goes lnLo an
empLy degeneraLe orblLal raLher Lhan
palrlng up.
8ules for lllllng CrblLals
LlecLron Congurauon of Carbon
Carbon aLomlc #: 6 (6 proLons, 6 elecLrons)

LlecLron congurauon: 1s
2
2s
2
sp
2
1s
2s
2px 2py 2pz
Energy
1st shell
2nd shell
1s^2,2s^2,2p^2
Degenerate - same energy level
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1ypes of 8onds
- lonlc - bond formed by elecLrosLauc auracuon beLween
Lwo charged aLoms
- CovalenL - bond formed by Lwo aLoms sharlng elecLrons
- olar covalenL - bond formed by sharlng elecLrons, buL
one aLom holds elecLrons more closely Lo Lhelr nucleus

- Why do aLoms form bonds?
CcLeL 8ule (Lewls) - aLoms Lend Lo glve up, accepL, or
share elecLrons ln order Lo have elghL elecLrons ln
Lhelr valence shell.
lonlc 8onds
1s
2s
2px 2py 2pz
Energy
1st shell
2nd shell
3s
3px 3py 3pz
also 5 degenerate 3d orbitals
3rd shell
na: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
1
Na Na
+
+ e
-
CompleLe valence shell ocLeL
lonlc 8onds
l: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
3
CompleLe valence shell ocLeL
1s
2s
2px 2py 2pz
Energy
1st shell
2nd shell
one electron shy
of a full octet/closed
shell
F + e
-
F
-
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CovalenL 8onds
ALoms share elecLrons Lo compleLe ocLeL (or closed
valence shell)
C: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2

P: 1s
1
C H
H
H
H
form four
covalent bonds
H
C
H
H H
CP
4
, meLhane
olar CovalenL 8onds
ALoms share elecLrons Lo compleLe ocLeL (or closed
valence shell), buL Lhey don'L share equally

- LlecLrons are held more ughLly on Lhe more
elecLronegauve aLom (Lo Lhe rlghL and up on Lhe
perlodlc Lable)


$%# PCl
H Cl
!
+
!
"
SLrucLural 8epresenLauons
Electronegative increases up and right
More electronegative=hog electrons
Kekule structures are the same except lone pairs
are left off
Condensed structures write in hydrogens in
superscript
Stick structures-every terminus or angle indicates
C
a carbon and accompanying Hs
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lormal Charge
Formal Charge = (# valence e
-
) (# lone pair e
-
+ 1/2 # bonding e
-
)



lormal Charge


An easler way Lo calculaLe formal charge:

!"#$%&'( * ('+'$ ,-. /%$' 0,-( %(' 1%(#
2-$1%( * 3%4$ 1%(#. 0% 1' ('40$-56 ('+'$ ,-.
/%$' 0,-( 3%4$
780$%&'( * 9,$'' 1%(#. 0% 1' ('40$-5
:;"&'( * 0<% 1%(#. 0% 1' ('40$-5
!-5%&'(. =>?25?@$?AB * %(' 1%(# 0% 1' ('40$-5
neuLral Carbon lorms lour 8onds
if carbon does not form four bonds, it has a charge
(or it is a radical)
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neuLral Cxygen lorms 1wo 8onds
Cxygen has Lwo lone palrs.
If oxygen does not form two bonds, it is charged.

neuLral nlLrogen lorms 1hree 8onds
lf nlLrogen does noL form Lhree bonds, lL ls charged.
Nitrogen has one lone pair.
Pydrogen and Lhe Palogens
lorm Cne 8ond
A halogen has Lhree lone palrs.
if hydrogen or halogen does not form one bond, it has a charge
(or it is a radical)