High Strain-rate Testing: Tension and Compression

In this paper, the authors present a split-pressure-bar method for obtaining complete stress-strain curves at strain rates in the order of 1000 sec -~ in either tension or compression by U. S. Lindholm and L. M. Yeakley

ABSTRACT--Details of the split Hopkinson pressure-bar method for obtaining complete stress-strain curves a t strain rates on the order of 1000 sec -~ in either tension or compression are presented. I n compression, a gage for measuring radial strain and, therefore, Poisson's ratio is also described. Some typical results are presented for aluminum, and various factors pertaining to the accuracy of the results are discussed.

Introduction
T h e s p l i t H o p k i n s o n p r e s s u r e - b a r m e t h o d for obtaining stress-strain curves at very high strain rates w a s first i n t r o d u c e d b y K o l s k y ~ in 1949. S u b s e q u e n t l y , m o d i f i c a t i o n s of K o l s k y ' s o r i g i n a l t e c h n i q u e h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y D a v i e s a n d H u n t e r , ~Lindholm ~ and Hauser. 4 At present, many laboratories are using the basic method with only slight v a r i a t i o n s in t h e m a n n e r of l o a d i n g a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e m e t h o d to d a t e h a s b e e n p r i m a r i l y in t h e c o m p r e s s i o n o f s h o r t c y l i n d r i c a l s p e c i m e n s . Since t h i s g e o m e t r y offers only a planar discontinuity between the pressure bars and the specimen, the associated one-dimens i o n a l w a v e m e c h a n i c s of t h e c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t a r e comparatively simple. While several suggestions h a v e b e e n m a d e on w a y s to use t h e m e t h o d in t e n sion, t h e y h a v e r e q u i r e d t h e use o f t h r e a d e d c o n n e c tions between the specimen and the pressure bars, a s well a s c o m p l e x b a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s in o r d e r t o obtain the tensile loading. These factors add uncert a i n t y to t h e w a v e m e c h a n i c s o f t h e p r o b l e m a n d , t h u s , r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r u e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e s p e c i m e n . T h e r e f o r e , few r e a l r e s u l t s h a v e y e t b e e n p u b l i s h e d for t h e t e n s i l e t e s t . I n t h i s p a p e r , t h e a u t h o r s w o u l d like to p r e s e n t a s p l i t - p r e s s u r e - b a r m e t h o d of t e n s i l e t e s t i n g which, we feel, a v o i d s t h e difficulties m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a n d
U. S. Lindholm and L . M . Y e a k l e y are Manager, Engineering Mechanics Section and Research Engineer, respectively, Department of Mechanical Sciences, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex. P a p e r was presented at 1967 S E S A Can. on M a y 16-19. Spring Meeting held in Ottawa, Ont.

is o f t h e s a m e a c c u r a c y a s t h e c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t . Since b o t h m o d e s o f o p e r a t i o n , t e n s i o n a n d c o m p r e s sion, a r e b a s e d u p o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s , a u n i f i e d p r e s e n t a t i o n will be m a d e h e r e for t h e s a k e o f c o m p l e t e n e s s . Also, since t h e a c c u r a c y o f r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h i s a n d s i m i l a r m e t h o d s s t i l l a p p e a r to be t h e s u b j e c t o f s o m e d i s c u s s i o n , we will t r y t o o u t l i n e s e v e r a l r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t c h e c k s conc e r n i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d assumptions made.

Basic Experimental Procedure

B e f o r e d e s c r i b i n g t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e m e t h o d , we might comment briefly on the general approach to t h e d y n a m i c t e s t . I t is d e s i r e d to find a f u n c t i o n a l relationship between the independent variables of stress, a, s t r a i n , ~, s t r a i n r a t e , ~ a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , T. E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , we w o u l d like to o b t a i n i n d e p e n dent measurements of each of these quantities duri n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s . Also, t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d b e m a d e a t a p o i n t or o v e r a v o l u m e element through which the independent variables do n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y . G e n e r a l l y , t e m p e r a t u r e is t a k e n a s t h e i n i t i a l equilibrium temperature of the specimen* and t h e r e f o r e p o s e s no e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o b l e m s . S t r e s s c a n o n l y be m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s o f a n e l a s t i c e l e m e n t in series w i t h t h e s p e c i m e n . F o r t h e d y n a m i c t e s t s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , w h e r e s t r e s s w a v e s a r e generated, the elastic element takes the form of a long b a r so t h a t t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e l o a d i n g is less t h a n t h e w a v e t r a n s i t t i m e in t h e bar. T h i s a v o i d s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o m p l i c a t i n g r e f l e c t e d w a v e s in t h e r e c o r d e d signals. S i n c e t h e p r e s s u r e b a r r e m a i n s e l a s t i c t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e s t , i t c a n also give t h e displacement and velocity of the interface between the specimen and the bar. The use of two pressure b a r s o n e i t h e r side o f t h e s p e c i m e n a l l o w s r e c o r d i n g of the displacement, velocity and stress boundary conditions on each end of the specimen. If the
* H e a t generated during the deformation process is usually neglected, although a change from isothermal to adiabatic conditions occurs with increasDTg rate of deformation.

W o r k was supported partially by the A r m y Research Ol~ce, Durham, and the U. S. A i r Force Mttterials Laboratory, Wright-Patlerson A i r Force Base, Oh io.

Experimental Mechanics J 1

TRANSMITTER

PRESSURE

BAR

INCIDENT PRESSURE

BAR

STRIKER BAR

~A ,G N E T I C
PICKUP

~i
L

,ll--II---;
115 VAC SO cps

\AMP/

-L =~---gov

,11

STRESS

STRAIN

STRAIN RATE

TRIGGER

VELOCITY

RADIAL STRAIN

Fig. 1--Schematic of pressure bars and associated recording circuitry

specimen is sufficiently lower in strength t h a n the pressure bars, relatively large plastic deformations can be produced. T h e d y n a m i c test then becomes quite analogous to the s t a n d a r d quasi-static test, i.e., strain and strain rate are recorded from relative "crosshead" displacements a n d velocities, while stresses are obtained from series connected " d y n a m o m e t e r " bars (load cells). Also, averaging occurs over a gage length, in this case the length of the specimen. T h e main concern relating to the technique is the a d e q u a c y of these average values in representing true material response. This adequacy is dependent: upon how close stress equilibrium in the specimen is approached during the loading. This will be c o m m e n t e d u p o n during subsequent developm e n t of the test technique and presentation of results. The a r r a n g e m e n t of the pressure bars and the associated electronic circuitry is shown in Fig. 1. The specimen is sandwiched between the two long incident and t r a n s m i t t e r pressure bars which remain elastic t h r o u g h o u t the impact. T h e loading is init i a t e d by impacting the incident pressure bar with the striker bar, producing a constant-amplitude stress pulse whose duration is determined b y the length of the striker bar. T h e applied loading and deformation of the specim e n are determined from the displacements a n d forces at the two faces of the pressure bars in continuous contact with the specimen. These m a y be determined from the s t r a i n - t i m e histories in the

two elastic pressure bars by means of resistancestrain-gage measurements. Three separate strain pulses are recorded: the incident loading pulse, e~, the reflected pulse, eR, from incident pressure barspecimen interface, and the t r a n s m i t t e d pulse, eT, propagated into the t r a n s m i t t e r pressure bar. Oscilloscope records of these three pulses are shown in Fig. 2 (the gain on the t r a n s m i t t e d pulse is 2.5 times t h a t of the incident pulse). F r o m these three s t r a i n - t i m e histories and the application of one-dimensional elastic-wave-propagation theory, one can determine the displacement, velocity a n d pressure at b o t h faces of the specimen as functions of time. Since both modes of operation, tension and compression, are based on the same principles, a single derivation will be made here. I f we denote b y subscripts 1 a n d 2 the incident a n d transmitter side of the specimen, respectively, we can derive the following relations from simple one-dimensional elastic-wave-propagation theory. Displacements:
ul = Cofo

T(41
erdt

eR)dt

(1)

us

= Co

fo ~

Velocities:
vl = co(ez - - eR)

(2)

V2 = CoET

I January1968

Forces:
P1 = E A ( e ~ P~ = E A e r

+ eR)

(3)

m a t i o n s on t h e r i g h t - h a n d side of t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n s are b a s e d on t h e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u i v a l e n c e of t h e forces on b o t h faces, so t h a t PI-~P2 or el q- e ~ er (7) T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n c a n be c h e c k e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y b y d i r e c t l y s u m m i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d signals. F o r t h e specimen m a t e r i a l s a n d d i m e n s i o n s used, t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n is v a l i d to w i t h i n e x p e r i m e n t a l accuracy. Using t h e a p p r o x i m a t e expressions on t h e r i g h t of eqs (4) a n d (5), t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves m a y be rec o r d e d d i r e c t l y on a n x - y oscilloscope. T h e reflected pulse, e~, is i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a n o p e r a t i o n a l amplifier to y i e l d a signal p r o p o r t i o n a l to es while eT is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to as. Since t h e t w o s t r a i n - g a g e s t a t i o n s are e q u i d i s t a n t f r o m t h e specimen, these t w o signals a r e t i m e coincident. Reco r d s f r o m t h e o u t p u t of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l amplifier a n d a t y p i c a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve in t e n s i o n (not to failure) are given in Fig. 2. C a l i b r a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m is o b t a i n e d in one s t e p b y c o m p a r i n g t h e c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e of t h e i n c i d e n t pulse w i t h t h e i m p a c t velocity. T h e s e a r e l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d b y the expression V ~ = -2co

where E = Young's modulus co = wave v e l o c i t y A = cross-sectional area of t h e pressure bars. I f lo a n d A o are t h e i n i t i a l l e n g t h a n d crosss e c t i o n a l a r e a of the specimen, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e a v e r a g e stress, s t r a i n a n d s t r a i n r a t e in t h e s p e c i m e n are given b y :
es = u l - u~ lo
_

Co f r lo

(~

-- eR -- e~)dt T 2co lo

e~dt

(4)

is -

v~ -

v~ _

~_ co

2Co

(6)
The =E signs designate compression or tension, compression being taken as positive. The approxi-

(8)

if t h e i m p a c t a n d pressure b a r s are t h e same m a t e rial a n d h a v e t h e s a m e cross-sectional area. T h e

Speci men

Striker Bar Incident Bar

Transmitter Bar

,. tl

ER(t)

E
Time Interval Counter

-.,-Stress -.,-Strain--

X - Y Oscilloscope

Fig. 2--Typical oscilloscope records from pressure-bar system

Experimental Mechanics

] 3

GuardRings( Brass) ~ . ..... ~./~,Z,~,.~/Z,~

~
I I I' /li @/ Iii

[--Epoxy
%/)'/I

,I/

Teflon /--Suppo rt Ring

///'~

Incident ~ PressureBar ~

Transmitter PressureBar

SupportRing j

F / / , / / , ~ H / , Z ~ / , ~/'.~,'Y..'fi~/X','~] / . .

Initial Loading
(a)

Reloading OfSame Specimen

Case( Brass )~

ActiveCapacitance Ring Compression [-Specimen

~\\\\\\\\\\\\\]

( (~
..... ....

. Inc'dent Pressure Bar

.......

~ ~

Transmitter I Pressure Bar /

\t

ItRl
El --2% O
v

F ' / K ~'4,~ ~ , ' < , ' \ \ \ ' - , - , \ \ \ \ ' - , \

Tension
Fig. 3--Compression- and tension-specimen configurations

1 1 3 Xj_ R 2 n
0.5501 "'~l-r~--.~:.~3132 R -

1
00. 50

9 fERdt =

I'-

dt (b)

"

0.80 -----~

Fig. 4--Details of tension specimen

Fig. 5--(a) Typical stress-strain records for 1100-0aluminum in compression; (b) relationship between record and strain amplitudes in pressure bars

impact velocity, V, is measured from the inducedvoltage signal (see Fig. 2) of two fixed grooves on the striker bar passing a magnetic pickup. T h e time interval between the zero crossings of this signal are recorded on an electronic counter. T h e specimen a n d pressure-bar configurations for compression and tension are shown in Fig. 3. T h e compression specimen is a simple cylinder sandwiched between two identical pressure bars. T h e diameter of the specimen is smaller t h a n the bars to allow for radial expansion during plastic deformation. The interface between the specimen and the bars is lubricated with MoS.2 in order to minimize frictional b o u n d a r y restraint. Concentric with the compression specimen is shown a capacitance ring used to measure radial displacement and which will be described later. T h e tensile specimen is hat-shaped, fitting between a solid cylindrical incident bar and a tubular transmitter bar. Detailed dimensions of this specimen are given in Fig. 4. These dimensions allow use of incident a n d t r a n s m i t t e r bars of equal cross-sectional area so t h a t eqs (4), (5) and (6) remain applicable. Thus, the measuring system is unchanged

for either tension or compression testing. The actual gage section of the tensile specimen has four equal arms, each with a length-to-width ratio of approximately 2 to 1. Because of the somewhat unusual geometry of the " h a t " specimen, its static stress-strain behavior was compared with an A S T M s t a n d a r d 0.250-in.-diam r o u n d tensile-test specimen of the same material, 1100 = 0 aluminum. Stressstrain curves for two specimens of each geometry were found to be coincident up to 30-percent strain, indicating no significant geometrical effects of the " h a t " specimen. Failures in the " h a t " specimen occur normally near the midsection. Specimens which initiate failure at the fillets are discarded. Some typical oscilloscope records, this time in compression, are shown in Fig. 5a for 1100 - 0 aluminum. An initial stress-strain curve and a reloading of the same specimen are shown in order to illustrate a soft and work-hardened specimen. Note t h a t the complete unloading curve is traced. Oscillations, particularly evident in the reloading curve, are due to P o c h a m m e r - C h r e e ringing in the pressure bars. Figure 5b shows how all the required information can be obtained from the stress-strain

4 I January 1968

1.6

where V = v o l t a g e on gage Cg = t o t a l c a p a c i t a n c e of gage i n c l u d i n g leads

1.4-

C~CI Cx = series c o m b i n a t i o n of C~ a n d Cd Ci H- CI
1o2 C~ = d-c b l o c k i n g c a p a c i t o r Cf = f e e d b a c k c a p a c i t o r A = gain of o p e r a t i o n a l amplifier Hence, t h e o u t p u t signal is o n l y a f u n c t i o n of t h e a p p l i e d voltage, V, f e e d b a c k c a p a c i t a n c e , CI, a n d t h e c a p a c i t a n c e change in t h e gage. A c a l i b r a t i o n c a p a c i t o r consisting of a p u s h r o d w i t h a s t e p p e d d i a m e t e r a n d a coaxial c a p a c i t a n c e r i n g was inc o r p o r a t e d to m a k e c a l i b r a t i o n easier. T h e feedb a c k network, RrC~, is a h i g h - p a s s filter to give d-c stability. The capacitance between the specimen and the a c t i v e ring of t h e gage can be easily c a l c u l a t e d , neglecting a n y small a m o u n t of fringing n o t t a k e n care of b y the g u a r d rings, b y t h e r e l a t i o n

o/1o
0.8
ca

lO
1

0.~

0.2

0, ~'J

0.4

0.8

1.2 ~], (%)

CR = 27reoIR [ln ' ; ] -1 = k~ [ln ;R] -I

,02,

(10)

where CR = c a p a c i t a n c e from ring to specimen e0 = p e r m i t i v i t y of air l R = l e n g t h of a c t i v e ring rR = r a d i u s of a c t i v e ring r = r a d i u s of specimen D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eq (10) gives

1.6

2.0

2.4

Fig. 6--Radial strain and longitudinal stress vs. longitudinal strain from a dynamic compression test of prestrained 1100-0 aluminum

trace, elimi~ating the t i m e v a r i a b l e completely.

Radial Strain Measurement

W i t h t h e cylindrical compression specimen, r a d i a l s t r a i n m a y be m e a s u r e d d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e coaxial c a p a c i t a n c e gage shown in Fig. 3. T h i s measurem e n t serves as a n i n d e p e n d e n t check on t h e axial s t r a i n m e a s u r e m e n t o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e pressure bars. Also, a d y n a m i c P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o m a y be d e t e r m i n e d from the two m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e cap a c i t a n c e gage consists of an a c t i v e ring m o u n t e d coaxially inside a h e a v y brass case with g u a r d rings on e i t h e r side. T h e rings are m o u n t e d a n d elect r i c a l l y isolated with a n epoxy cement. A n o p e r a t i o n a l amplifier was used to form a charge amplifier for m e a s u r i n g the small c a p a c i t a n c e change during d e f o r m a t i o n of t h e specimen. T h i s circuit is shown in Fig. 1. T h e g u a r d rings are charged directly, a n d t h e a c t i v e ring t h r o u g h a 10m e g o h m resistor b y a 90-v b a t t e r y . A single c a p a c i t a n c e feedback converts t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a m plifier into a charge amplifier. I t can be shown t h a t t h e change in o u t p u t voltage, Ae0, is given b y

dr r

1 kl

EIn r;~]2 dCR

CRo _ l n r ~ (

= k~CR ~

dCR
~ (11)

I n t e g r a t i n g this r e s u l t over t h e l i m i t s ro -- r, C~0 CR, we get e~ = ksCR where e~ = t r u e r a d i a l s t r a i n ro, C~o = i n i t i a l specimen r a d i u s a n d i n i t i a l r i n g capacitance T h u s , t h e o u t p u t of the charge amplifier (a linear f u n c t i o n of ACR) is a n o n l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of strain. F o r v e r y s m a l l strains, however, t h e following app r o x i m a t i o n m a y be used: In r~
ro

ACR

CRC~o

ro \CRo + AC~]

e~ ~
CR O + 2

ACR

~12)

A CR (lIlaX)

Aeo =

AVAC~ ~.~ VAC~ (1 + A)C~ + Cg C~

Ci >> C f >>C,, A (9)

where

ACR(m~x) = m a x i m u m change in c a p a c i t a n c e during test. I n t h e r a d i a l s t r a i n tests, a r e c o r d of the o u t p u t of t h e c a l i b r a t i o n b u t t o n was a l w a y s t a k e n a n d used

A>>I

Experimental Mechanics t 5

as the calibration for the ACR signal while the initial capacitance, CRo was determined from the measurem e n t of the initial specimen radius, the ring radius, :and the value of kl. T h e m a x i m u m strains in most o f the tests were small so t h a t the linear approximation of eq (12) could be used. For example, in the test of Fig. 6, the initial capacitance was 1.50 pf, ~he m a x i m u m change in capacitance was 0.04 pf so t h a t the m a x i m u m error in using eq (12) would be less t h a n 1.5 percent. Figure 6 shows the results of a compression test on a prestrained 1 1 0 0 - 0 aluminum specimen (similar to Fig. 5a), including the radial strain measurement. T h e experimental points are plotted at uniform time increments of 6.5 ~sec below 0.5percent strain and 16.3 ~sec above 0.5-percent strain. Several interesting features can be noted. For the stress-strain curve, we can follow b o t h t h e loading a n d unloading. Elastic moduli of 107 psi for a l u m i n u m are drawn to indicate the relative accuracy of the results. The experimental loading modulus is seen to be considerably in error. This is expected because of the finite time it takes to come to stress equilibrium across the length of the specimen t h r o u g h the process of numerous internal wave reflections. D u r i n g unloading, the elastic modulus is in very close agreement, indicating t h a t the stress relaxes fairly uniformly over the gage length of the specimen. T h e curve for radial strain, er, vs. longitudinal strain, et, shows three distinct linear regions: the initial slope during elastic loading which suffers from the same inaccuracies as the loading modulus, a slope of 0.50 during plastic deformation, and an unloading elastic slope of 0.32 which is close to the elastic Poisson's ratio for aluminum. I f we assume the plastic deformation to be incompressible, the measured ratio of 0.50 indicates t h a t both the capacitance gage a n d the pressure bars are accurately measur:ing the deformation.
Elevated-temperature Tests

same m a n n e r as just described, with the exception t h a t a cylindrical, electric-resistance-type oven is placed symmetrically around the specimen and a short portion of the pressure bars adjacent to the specimen. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e is controlled from a thermocouple on the specimen to 5=2 ~ F. T h e oven produces temperature gradients in the incident and t r a n s m i t t e r pressure bars which are roughly exponentially decreasing with distance from the specimen a n d symmetric a b o u t the specimen. These gradients have two effects on the elastic waves: a continuous change in wave velocity and a continuous change in amplitude. Since the straingage stations are equidistant from the specimen and the t e m p e r a t u r e profile is symmetric, the wave transit time from the specimen to each gage station will be the same, i.e., the changes in wave velocity will not produce error in the recorded signals. T h e change in signal amplitude between the gage station and the specimen, however, must be accounted for. A correction factor of the form eo = (1 -k Ca3/~);
~T

Ca -- a 2 ( T -- To)
al

(13}

was derived f r o m previous work 5 on elastic-wave p r o p a g a t i o n in a bar with a t e m p e r a t u r e gradient of the form
T To = T s e - g x ; T > To

a n d a linearly t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t modulus
E = al A - a 2 ( T To)

1.30

1.20

i. I0 ~ Theory

E l e v a t e d - t e m p e r a t u r e tests pose a problem with the pressure-bar m e t h o d s in that, if t e m p e r a t u r e gradients exist along the length of the pressure bars, the p r o p a g a t i o n of elastic waves is affected t h r o u g h the effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on the modulus a n d the wave velocity of the bar material. Since the entire a p p a r a t u s is v e r y long, it is impractical to bring the whole s y s t e m to an equilibrium temperature. I t was also found to be impractical to bring the specim e n alone up to temperature, insert the cold pressure bars, and then perform the impact rapidly. W i t h this procedure, it was found from thermocouple measurements t h a t the rate of heat loss from the specimen was too rapid, especially in the case of the tensile specimen, to yield reliable results. Thus, it became necessary to correct elevatedt e m p e r a t u r e data for the t e m p e r a t u r e gradients in the pressure bars. Elevated-temperature tests are performed in the

T T 1.00 - o

Vo

0.90

o- Experimental

0.80

0 0

I 200

I 400

I 600

I 800

1000

Temperature (~ Fig. 7--Ratio of particle velocity at strain-gage station to particle velocity at heated end; comparison of theory with experiment

6 I January1968

24 2O

12
I I 0 0 - 0 Aluminum 8 4
Fig. 8 - - S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u rves f o r 1100-0 a l u m i n u m in tension and c o m p r e s s i o n

E-- 1.8 x lO~ F

I

25 20
I I

15
I

I0
I

5
I

Compression
t I I I

Tension
4 -

I0 15 20 Strain (%)

25

a: 3.0 x lO-3(sec-')~j

12 15 20
24
I I I I I I I I I I 1240

where a~, a2 a n d K = c o n s t a n t s To ambient temperature

T~. = ( T T,).~=o

T h e r a t i o eo/'eT is t h e r a t i o o f t h e s t r a i n r e c o r d e d a t t h e gage s t a t i o n , w h i c h is a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e To, to t h e a c t u a l s t r a i n a t t h e s p e c i m e n w h i c h is a t t e m p e r a t u r e T. In order to check the relative accuracy of this correction factor, a simple experiment was run. The elastic and strength properties of the bar mater i a l were d e t e r m i n e d . T h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h d e t e r mines the upper limit of impact velocity that can be u s e d a n d also l i m i t s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e . T h e elastic-wave velocity was measured from wave t r a n s i t t i m e s in b a r s o f fixed l e n g t h a n d u n i f o r m temperature. I n o r d e r t o c h e c k eq (13), a c o m p a r i son of velocity rather than strain was made between t h e gage s t a t i o n o n t h e i n c i d e n t b a r a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e free e n d o f t h e i n c i d e n t b a r w h i c h was h e a t e d b y t h e s p e c i m e n o v e n . V e l o c i t y o f t h i s free e n d w a s m e a s u r e d w i t h a c a p a c i t a n c e - t y p e velocity pickup. The velocity at the strain-gage s t a t i o n is g i v e n b y t h e s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e e l a s t i c - w a v e speed. T h u s , t h e v e l o c i t y - r a t i o c o r r e c t i o n is g i v e n b y
Vo
UT
-

A c o m p a r i s o n of t h i s e x p r e s s i o n w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s is g i v e n in Fig. 7. T h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is seen to be s m a l l o v e r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e considered and agrees reasonably with the experim e n t a l d a t a ( a c t u a l l y is w i t h i n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t ) . T h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e corr e c t i o n is in a g r e e m e n t w i t h C h i d d e s t e r a n d M a l vern ~ who used a more laborious numerical procedure. T h i s c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r h a s b e e n u s e d for e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e t e s t s to 750 ~ F.

Results
Tests are currently being performed on a large n u m b e r o f m e t a l s o f t e c h n i c a l i n t e r e s t . O n l y a few i l l u s t r a t i v e r e s u l t s will b e p r e s e n t e d here. F i g u r e 8 s h o w s s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for 1 1 0 0 - 0 a l u m i n u m in b o t h t e n s i o n a n d c o m p r e s s i o n a t v a r i o u s s t r a i n rates. The lower strain-rate tests were performed on a standard Instron testing machine with the same specimen geometries as the dynamic tests. Figure 9 shows the same type of data plotted as compressive a n d t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t c o n s t a n t s t r a i n vs. s t r a i n r a t e . For the comparison between the tension and comp r e s s i o n d a t a , all v a l u e s o f s t r e s s , s t r a i n a n d s t r a i n rate are true values. For very low strain rates, the stress levels in t e n s i o n a n d c o m p r e s s i o n agree, a l t h o u g h t h e inc r e a s e in flow s t r e s s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s t r a i n r a t e differs in d e t a i l . T h e q u e s t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a r i s e s

co
CT

(1

Ca) '~I4

Experimental Mechanics

I 7

",I

V') (I.) ~>

em

E O ~.)

n V'}
,v,

w..-* (j')

"5
(-<D I---

"" i0 -3

I0 -2

i0-'

I0 ~

I0'

I0 z

10 3
i241

10 4

Average Strain Rate (sec-')

Fig. 9--Effect of strain rate on the flow stress of 1100-0 aluminum in tension and compression

w h e t h e r this difference in r a t e d e p e n d e n c e is real or a f u n c t i o n of t h e t e s t a n d s p e c i m e n g e o m e t r y . A t present, we m u s t conclude t h a t it is real, since for other, n o n r a t e - s e n s i t i v e m e t a l s we o b t a i n t h e same s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve d y n a m i c a l l y or s t a t i c a l l y . T h e difference could r e s u l t f r o m previous, n o n i s o t r o p i c work h a r d e n i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l . T h e s p e c i m e n s were a n n e a l e d to 650 o F before testing. F i g u r e 10 shows compression s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves for 6061-T6 a l u m i n u m alloy for which t h e wide v a r i a t i o n in s t r a i n r a t e a p p e a r s to h a v e negligible effect on the stress levels. T h i s is found to be t r u e for o t h e r h i g h - s t r e n g t h a l u m i n u m alloys as well. I n this case, t h e equivalence of t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from the split H o p k i n s o n pressure b a r with t h a t o b t a i n e d a t low s t r a i n r a t e s on a n I n s t r o n m a c h i n e can be t a k e n as one i n d i c a t i o n t h a t wave p r o p a g a t i o n effects in t h e d y n a m i c t e s t are n o t c o n t r i b u t i n g a n y significant error to t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s .

80

O O

60

)~o0

c]

5O

o# ~
40 [] 30

<>
20
O []

O[39

E=2 ~=2

X I 0 -~ sec-l x 10-z sec-'

, ~ = 2 x 10-5 sec-~

0A-

E= 780 see-' t=960 sec-~

Discussion
T h e s p l i t H o p k i n s o n m e t h o d has the a d v a n t a g e s of s i m p l i c i t y of e x p e r i m e n t a l e q u i p m e n t , direct dyn a m i c c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m f r o m meas u r e m e n t of t h e i m p a c t velocity, a n d c o n t i n u o u s m e a s u r e m e n t of forces a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s on b o t h faces of a s h o r t specimen. T h e m a i n q u e s t i o n con-

io
o I

!
]
40~0

0.02

0.04

0.06 Strain

0.08

0.10

0.12

O. 14

Fig. 1 0 - - S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s f o r 6061-T6 a l u m i n u m pression at several strain rates

in c o m -

8 I January1968

c e r n i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e is the a d e q u a c y of t h e a v e r a g ing process over t h e gage l e n g t h of t h e specimen. N o n u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress or s t r a i n over t h e v o l u m e of t h e specimen m a y r e s u l t f r o m e i t h e r frict i o n a l r e s t r a i n t of t h e specimen a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s or i n e r t i a l r e s t r a i n t due to p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n s in b o t h t h e axial a n d r a d i a l directions. These res t r a i n t s could l e a d to m e a s u r e d stresses higher t h a n would occur if t h e y were not present; t h e high stress being falsely i n t e r p r e t e d as r e s u l t i n g f r o m a s t r a i n r a t e effect. However, a n u m b e r of s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t checks on t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e are a v a i l a b l e a n d can be s u m m a r i z e d as follows: (1) V a r y i n g either t h e l e n g t h or t h e l e n g t h - t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o of t h e specimen w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e b o u n d s has no significant effect on t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves o b t a i n e d (see Ref. 3). I f f r i c t i o n a l or inert i a l effects were significant, specimen dimensions s h o u l d be influential. T h e r e are, of course, b o u n d s on t h e specimen length. I t m u s t be s h o r t e n o u g h to achieve stress e q u i l i b r i u m in a t i m e which is s h o r t c o m p a r e d to t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e test, a n d long e n o u g h to a v o i d m e a s u r a b l e influence from t h e b o u n d a r y conditions. We n o r m a l l y use specimens of ~,/4 to ~,/2 in. in l e n g t h a n d d i a m e t e r s less t h a n a/~ in. (2) T h e specimen is a s s u m e d to be in plane stress w i t h the d e f o r m a t i o n uniform along its length. I n compression, d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s c o n d i t i o n can r e s u l t from frictional b o u n d a r y r e s t r a i n t . W i t h p r o p e r l u b r i c a t i o n of t h e specimen--pressure b a r interfaces, the interface shear stress can be r e d u c e d so t h a t there is no d e t e c t a b l e v a r i a t i o n in r a d i a l d e f o r m a t i o n (barreling) a t s t r a i n s up to 15 p e r c e n t in the d y n a m i c test. There is evidence t h a t t h e efficiency of t h e l u b r i c a n t is e v e n greater in t h e d y n a m i c t e s t t h a n in the q u a s i - s t a t i c t e s t because of t h e insufficient t i m e a v a i l a b l e for t h e l u b r i c a n t to flow f r o m the interface. As in a q u a s i - s t a t i c test, a short specimen compressed b e t w e e n p o o r l y lubric a t e d or fixed boundaries, will d e f o r m w i t h a complex i n t e r n a l s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n (see, for instance, HilF). I n such cases, surface s t r a i n on t h e free surface of t h e specimen will be m u c h less t h a n t h a t c a l c u l a t e d from t h e r e l a t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e t w o faces. T h i s effect a p p e a r s to t h e a u t h o r s to be t h e cause of the d i s c r e p a n c y between surface s t r a i n a n d " a v e r a g e " s t r a i n r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d b y Bell s for p r e s s u r e - b a r t e s t s of " g l u e d " a n d " u n g l u e d " specimens. (3) I n d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e m e n t of r a d i a l s t r a i n on t h e specimen itself with the c a p a c i t a n c e gage is in good a g r e e m e n t w i t h l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e pressure b a r s if t h e plastic d e f o r m a t i o n is incompressible, i.e., P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o is 0.50. (4) T h e p e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n of t h e specimen as d e t e r m i n e d from its change in l e n g t h is in agreem e n t w i t h t h e m a x i m u m s t r a i n r e c o r d e d from t h e pressure bars. Thus, one point on t h e s t r a i n - t i m e curve is k n o w n to be correct. (5) T h e equivalence of t h e pressure on t h e t w o

faces of t h e s p e c i m e n a f t e r t h e first few m i c r o s e c o n d s of t h e t e s t i n d i c a t e s t h e absence of significant res u l t a n t i n e r t i a l forces w i t h i n t h e specimen, i.e., t h e stress closely a p p r o a c h e s e q u i l i b r i u m across t h e l e n g t h of t h e specimen. (6) E n e r g y is c o n s e r v e d in t h e s y s t e m , i.e., t h e e n e r g y loss in t h e pressure b a r s is equal to t h e p l a s t i c work done on t h e specimen. T h e energy, U, assoc i a t e d w i t h a p r e s s u r e pulse in t h e elastic p r e s s u r e b a r is given b y U = AEco ~2dt

where A, E a n d Co are t h e b a r area, m o d u l u s a n d wave speed, a n d ~ is t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s t r a i n a m p l i tude. T h e t i m e i n t e g r a l is t a k e n over t h e t o t a l period, T, of the pulse. T h e e n e r g y loss in t h e splitp r e s s u r e - b a r s y s t e m will be t h e difference in e n e r g y b e t w e e n the i n c i d e n t pulse a n d the reflected plus t r a n s i m t t e d pulses, i.e., E n e r g y loss = U(el) [U(eR) + U ( e r ) ] T h i s e n e r g y loss in t h e pressure b a r s m u s t t h e n be equal to t h e t o t a l p l a s t i c work done on t h e specimen, as given b y
1

d o

where A,, a n d t0 are the i n i t i a l d i m e n s i o n s of t h e specimen, a n d a~ a n d <sp are t h e d e r i v e d stress a n d plastic s t r a i n in t h e specimen from eqs (4) a n d (5). T h e i n t e g r a l is, of course, j u s t the area u n d e r t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve. T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves g e n e r a t e d can be shown to be c o m p a t i b l e with the e n e r g y loss in the s y s t e m . ~7) I t can s i m i l a r l y be shown t h a t t h e m o m e n t u m in the s y s t e m is conserved, i.e., the m o m e n t u m of the incident pulse is equal to the sum of t h e mom e n t u m of the reflected a n d t r a n s m i t t e d pulses. (8) F o r n o n s t r a i n - r a t e - s e n s i t i v e m a t e r i a l s , t h e s p l i t - p r e s s u r e - b a r s y s t e m will r e p r o d u c e t h e quasis t a t i c s t r e s ~ s t r a i n curve o b t a i n e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l methods. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n e r t i a forces or b o u n d a r y r e s t r a i n t s are n o t i n t r o d u c i n g d e t e c t a b l e error into the m e a s u r e m e n t s . I n all cases, d a t a from different m a c h i n e s h a v e p r o d u c e d c o m p a t i b l e results, References
1. l~olsky, H., "'An Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of Materials at Very High Rates o[ Loading," Proc. Phys. Soc., Sec B. 62, 676-700 (1949). 2. Davies, E. D. H., and Hunter, S. C., "'The Dynamic Compression Testing o~ Solids by the Method of the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar," d. Mech. and Phys. of Solids, 11, 155-179 (1963). 3. Lindholm, U. S., "'Some Experiments with the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar," J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids, 12, 317-335 (1964). 4. Hauser, F. E., "Techniques for Measuring Stress-Strain Relations at High Strain Rates," F*XPERIMENTALMECHANICS, 6, S, 395--402 (1966). 5. Francis, P. H., "'Wave Propagation in Thin Rods with Quiescent Temperature Gradients," g. Applied Mechanics, 33, 3, 702-704 (1966). 6. Chiddester, g. L., and Malvern, L. E., "'Compression Impact Testing of Aluminum at Elevated Temperatures," EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS, 3~ 81-88 (1963). 7. Hill, R., "'The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity," Oxford Univ. Press, 226 (1956). 8. Bell, J. F., " A n Experimental Diffraction Grating Study of the Quasistatic Hypothesi,.~ of the Split Hopkinson Bar Experiment," J . Mech. and Phys. of Solids, 14,309-327 (1966).

Experimental Mechanics I 9