Article 9 - Planning and Policy Development For Technical Vocational Education and Training Systems

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\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\qj \li1416\sb0\sl-320\sl
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs27 Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocati
onal \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Education and Training Systems \par\pard\qj \l
i1418\ri3352\sb103\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f2\f3\fs18 R Maclean, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, People\u8217?
s Republic of China \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 M Pavlova, Griffith University,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia \par\pard\ql \li1418\sb150\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs16 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reser
ved.\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5911\colsr160\colno2\colw5689\
colsr160\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql \li1181\sb178\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf4\f5\fs22 Introduction\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb237\sl-239\slmult0\fi
3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Planning and policy d
evelopment in any organization \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 can be analyze
d and understood through a number of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 approac
hes. Traditionally, policy has been conceptualized \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 as a program of action. Any policy has usually been pre-\line \up0 \expnd
tw-1\charscalex100 sented as a \u8216?\u8216?rational plan, consciously articula
ted by an \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 authoritative body, usually a gove
rnment or government \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 agency, codified in tex
t such as law or regulation which \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 articulate
s clear expectations for behaviour\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ba
scia,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : xii). This tidy linea
r process in which policy pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 gresses from on
e stage to another and where policy is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 defin
ed as whatever governments choose to do, or not to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca
lex100 do (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Dye, 1992\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) ha
s been criticized by policy researchers \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from
different theoretical standpoints (e.g., liberal, neolib-\line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 eral, positivist, or post-structural approaches). There is \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 now a considerable body of theoretical and empirical
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 work that views the nature of planning and p
olicy devel-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 opment as \u8216?\u8216?far more
complex, dynamic, and interactive \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 than any
of the traditional linear or staged models suggest\u8217?\u8217? \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex102 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Walford, 2003\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 : 2). The complexity of the process has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 become an important feature of a number of well-known \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 frameworks for policy analysis, for example\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f
7\fs20 Ball\u8217?s (1993, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1994)\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Taylor\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\
f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . (1997)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 m
odels.\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Taylor\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\
nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (1997)\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 focus on three aspects of policy: context (economic, \line \up0

\expndtw0\charscalex107 social, and political factors that give rise to an issue
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 emerging on the policy agenda), text (broadl
y refer to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the content of the policy), and c
onsequences (differences \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in implementation).
\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ball\u8217?s (1993, 1994)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 model of policy as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 text and policy as a di
scourse provides another way to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 understand t
he complexity of policymaking. Both frame-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 wor
ks are widely used in the literature (e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and
\line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Stevenson, 2006; Olssen\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\
f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2004\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ).
For example,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Olssen, \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscale
x94 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex102 (2004)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in developing Ball\u8217?s ap
proach argue that: \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Education p
olicy must be contextualised both nationally \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
and globally as a transformative discourse that can have \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 real social effects in response to contemporary crises of \line \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 survival and sustainability\u8217?\u8217? (p. 3).\par
\pard\qj \li1179\ri141\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Th
e purpose of this article is not to analyze the differ-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 ences between the various approaches to policy develop-\line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex107 ment and policy analysis but to explore a number of \line \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 important considerations in terms of technical and
voca-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tional education and training (TVET) pol
icy develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ment, such as scope, scale, princ
iples, and theoretical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 justifications. The
point that we are making is that\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb218\sl
-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 TVET policy is multidimensional, is v
alue-laden, exists \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in particular contexts, in
teracts with policies in other \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fields, its i
mplementation is never straightforward, and it \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 results in unintended and intended consequences. Policy-\line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 making for TVET is mainly a state activity and the state is \line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 regarded as a complex and nonunitary entity of co
mpet-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ing parts that adds an additional aspec
t to any analysis.\par\pard\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6074\s
b0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23\sb82\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs22 Complexity of TVET\par\pard\ql \li23\sb125\sl230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Scope\par\p
ard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb122\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 The great diversity of TVET systems worldwide illustrate \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 a range of policy options that have been used and
are \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 available to shape and reform them. In
trying to classify \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 existing TVET systems, res
earchers have considered a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 number of factors
, including place of learning (typically, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 voc
ational schools and the workplace/enterprise work-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 shops); type of regulation (government, market, and tra-\line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 dition, see e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Greinert, 1995\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ); or nonformal/informal \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 learning as a leading criterion for classifications.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1
089\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 In reality, combinatio
ns of these patterns across the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 above dimensi
ons can be found in particular countries \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and
all these dimensions should be accounted for when \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 undertaking planning and policy development in particu-\line \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 lar countries.\par\pard\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23\sb26\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn

dtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Scale\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb
122\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ano
ther component of complexity in policy formulation \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 for TVET can be related to the scale of the policy within \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-1\charscalex100 (any) TVET system. Improvements within a TVET sys-\line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tem can be carried out in terms of a particular eleme
nt of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the system, such as qualification stan
dards and specializa-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tion; articulation with
general education; assessment and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 certifica
tion for achievements; methods of curriculum \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscal
ex100 development; governance; labor-market analysis; financing; \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex101 legislation; access and admission; provision of training \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 places; special target groups; institutional arr
angements \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 for delivery; and, information and
guidance. Alternatively, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 improvements can b
e made to the system as a whole which \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 is kno
wn as a systematic reform. Systematic reform is built \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 upon the assumption that changing most or all elements of \line \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 the system is more likely to lead to TVET improvement. \
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \ql \li10315\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315
\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li10315
\sb140\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18
469 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp
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shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpz297\shplid1
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97d62f6baa592dc6997d657771d6d1401fffd9}}}}}
\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\li1292\sb0\sl-207\slmult
0\par\pard\li1292\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx1947 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 470\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Vocational Educa
tion and Training - VET System\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6025
\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \l
i1294\sb152\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\f
s20 Coherence\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb121\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In planning TVET systems and in develo
ping policies, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 coherence across sectors such
as the interests of different \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 institutions
involved and different policies should be \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
0 taken into consideration. TVET is situated at the border \line \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 between education and work. To contribute successfully \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 to economic development TVET policy must outline: \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \u8216?\u8216?coherent and integrated changes in a
range of related \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 institutions, including the
economic, human resources \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and [TV]ET agencie
s of the state, the labour market, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the soci
al organisation of work and in the forms of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 employer and trade union organisation\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6
\f7\fs20 Kraak, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 3).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\
sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 A coherent approach to TVE
T policy development \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 needs to relate it to a
range of other policies and issues, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 includin
g general education policy (both school and uni-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 versity); youth policy; adult education policy; vocational \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 rehabilitation; public service employment and remunera-\line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tion conditions; economic policy; private-secto

r and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 enterprise-promotion policies; indus
trial development \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 policies; and labor-mark
et and employment policies \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf6\f7\fs20 Kronner, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). Thus, TVET policy shou
ld be closely \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 linked with other policy areas
and institutions, in particu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 lar to those de
aling with education, work, employment, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and
economic development.\par\pard\ql \li1294\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li129
4\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb33\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 Globalization\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri143\s
b121\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
The strategic direction of much of education policy is \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex103 frequently justified as a means to enhanced economic \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex103 development leading to a more competitive economy, \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 greater productivity, and increased wealth. Investment
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 in education and training is believed to prov
ide the key \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to national competitiveness. Glo
balization processes and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the pressures for gl
obal uniformity have the tendency \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 to strength
en the Anglo-American influence on policy \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 de
velopment and raise concerns as to the appropriateness \line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 of such an occurrence:\par\pard\qj \li1531\ri381\sb116\sl-238\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 Anglo-American schol
ars continue to exert a dispropor-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tionate inf
luence on theory, policy and practice. Thus a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
relatively small number of scholars and policy makers \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 representing less than 8% of the world\u8217?s population pur-\line \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 port to speak for the rest. (\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f
11\fs18 Walker and Dimmock, 2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 : 15)\par\pard\qj \
li1292\ri140\sb121\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 However, many recent studies have shown that \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 globalization-driven policy developments are sometimes \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 so sharply modified by national contexts that
the output \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 they promise would vary greatly (
\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Rhoten, 2000; Welmond, \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 2002; Astiz\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20
., 2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) if implemented in another context. \line \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Therefore, for the policy formulation, the specific
context \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of a particular country should be tak
en into account to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 identify an adequate respo
nse to immediate and future \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 labor-market nee
ds. It is important to \u8216?\u8216?identify that way \line \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 in which global pressures have driven state restructuring\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf8\f9\fs20 . . . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 and the particular way in which restructuring at the\par\pard\column \qj \
li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 micro-level shapes policy development at an institutional
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 level\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 B
ell and Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 33). What is required are \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the analyses of the state, economy, and models of p
olicy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 development that recognize different cultural
contexts. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Generally, the more \up0 \
expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?loosely-coupled\u8217? state structures \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 are, the more opportunity there is for policy variation at \
up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 the local level\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\
f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 30).\par\pard\ql \
li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \
li22\sb69\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\f
s22 Principles of Policy Planning\par\pard\qj \li20\ri975\sb237\sl-239\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 At the level of global

policy, principles for policy planning \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and a
dministration have been established in the joint doc-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 ument by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the International \line \
up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex91 Labour Organization (ILO):\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs2
0 Technical and Vocational Educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 tion and Tr
aining for the Twenty-First Century\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (\ul0\nosupersub
\cf6\f7\fs20 UNESCO \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and ILO, 2002\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). The document states that policy should \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex108 be directed to both the structural and the qualitative \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex105 improvement of TVET. The partnership between the \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 government and the other interested partners must \
u8216?\u8216?create \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a coherent legislative f
ramework to enable the launching \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 of a nationa
l strategy for change\u8217?\u8217? (para 9 a, p. 13). The \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 UNESCO and ILO document presents five principles:\par\pard\qj \li
438\ri1213\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs18 \u8216?\u8216?Planning should respond to national and, if possible, \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 regional, economic and social trends, to project ch
anges \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 in demand for different classes of goods and
services, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and for different types of skills and k
nowledge in such \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 a way that technical and vocationa
l education may \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 easily adapt to the evolving scient
ific, technological \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 and socio-economic changes. Thi
s planning should \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 also be coordinated with current
and projected training \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 action and the evolution o
f the world of work in both \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 urban and rural areas.
\u8217?\u8217? (para 11, p. 14)\par\pard\qj \li438\ri1213\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Policies for the structural improvement
of technical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and vocational education shoul
d be established within \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the framework of bro
ad policies designed to implement \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the princi
ple of lifelong education through creation of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 open, flexible and complementary structures of educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 tion, training and education and vocational guidance, \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 considering the provisions of modern information \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 technology in education regardless of whether these
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 activities take place within the system of
formal educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 tion or outside it\u8217?\u8217
? (para 13, p. 15)\par\pard\qj \li438\ri1214\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Policy should be directed to ensuring high quality s
o \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 as to exclude discrimination between the differen
t \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 educational streams. In this respect, special ef
forts \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 should be made to ensure that national techni
cal and \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vocational education seeks to meet interna
tional stan-\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 dards\u8217?\u8217? (para 14, p.
16)\par\pard\qj \li438\ri1214\sb2\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
\u8216?\u8216?In order to ensure quality, responsible national autho-\line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 rities should establish criteria and standards, subject
to \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 periodic review and evaluation, applying
to all aspects \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of technical and vocational
education, including to the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\s
hp
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7c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015ed
fb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84a
fdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434
d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00
f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3
f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7
d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15e
dfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f0
63fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff
00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afda
ff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81f
f0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff0043
4d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff
00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d1ff0dc
3f063fe84afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d7f45007c81ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015ed
fb7d7ff434d1ff000dc3f063fe84afdaff00ff0015edfb7d7ff434d7d7f45007c81ff0dc3f063fe8
4afdafff00f15edfb7d7ff00434d7d2be09f18e91f103c2da478c342b3f1558693adc334f6569e36
f02f8dfe1a78a61482eee2cdd757f037c47f0f7853c6be1f99a6b691e1b7d7bc3fa6dc5c5ab5bdfd
bc52d8dd5adc4dd551401fffd9}}}}}
0\par\pard\li1815\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx10315 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109
onal Education and Training Systems\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 471\par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5911\colsr160\colno2\colw5689\colsr160\qj
\li1179\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1597\ri381\sb126\sl-239\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs18 greatest extent possible,
non-formal education\u8217?\u8217? (para \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 15, p. 16
)\par\pard\qj \li1597\ri381\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8
216?\u8216?National policy should foster research related to \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 technical and vocational education, with particular \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 emphasis on its potential within lifelong learn
ing, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 directed to its improvement and rele
vance to the pre-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vailing socio-economic cont
ext. This research should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 be carried out at n
ational and institutional levels, as \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 well as
through individual initiative\u8217?\u8217? (para16, p. 16).\par\pard\qj \li117
9\ri142\sb119\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 These principles highlight the importance of national \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex103 policies aimed at the quality of training, which can be \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 achieved through structural change. These prin
ciples and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 approaches represent a traditional
way of interpreting \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 policy as a rational pl
an of action; therefore, the level of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 effecti
veness of their application will be different for \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 different countries. For example, with a state-guided \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex102 labor market, Singapore might find these principles to \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 be more useful than other countries where the lab
or \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 market is less regulated. These principle
s provide a useful \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 list of general rules that
should be used creatively by \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 governments.\p
ar\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1179\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql \li1181\sb93\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf11\f12\fs22 Theoretical Frameworks\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb237\sl-239\
slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This sectio
n discusses a possible basis for theoretical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
frameworks that could provide a foundation for TVET \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 policy formulation in both developed and developing \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 countries. The first set of theories relates to the structural \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 reform/policy formulation and the second set t
o the the-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ories that shape our understanding
of how humans learn.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 The idea of an alignment between education, training, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 labor market, and economic policies can be unde
rpinned \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 by the theoretical arguments of the
high-skills thesis, com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 bined with what is de
scribed as the joined-up approach \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosu
persub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f
7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). The high-skills thesis has caught t
he \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 imagination of policymakers around the wo
rld (p. 31). It \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 was developed through the wo
rk of a UK team in the late \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 1980s and 1990s
(see\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Finegold and Soskice, 1988; Finegold, \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1991; Ashton and Green, 1996; Brown\ul0\nosupersub\cf
7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 )
. They \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 argued that diversity and variability
in economic perfor-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mance are underpinned by

social, cultural, and historical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 factors. F
inegold (1991) explores the concept of equilib-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 rium in terms of the self-reinforcing nature of the institu-\line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 tional networks that support the continuation of a given \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 skills-formation system and economic development
path. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Any change of one variable without cor
responding shifts \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 in the other institutional
variables is unlikely to lead to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 long-term c
hanges in the social and economic system as \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
a whole. Using this concept, Finegold identified two ideal \line \up0 \expndtw-5
\charscalex100 types of economic and education/training (ET) systems: an \line \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 institutional framework based on low-skills equilib
rium \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (LSE) and one based on high-skills equil
ibrium (HSE). \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Finegold\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9
\fs20 et al.\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 viewed Britain as being typical of an
LSE\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb1
34\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 society where \u8216?\u8216?the
majority of enterprises are staffed by \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 poorl
y trained managers and workers produce low quality \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charsca
lex100 goods and services\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Finegold an
d Soskice, 1988\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 22). LSE \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 institutional factors identified by Finegold discourage and \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 constrain any movement toward a high-skill alternative
. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 They included uncoordinated state policies,
incoherent \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 TVET policies, low educational le
vel of the majority of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 workers, minimal stat
e intervention in TVET, and labor \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 markets. A
nother analysis (see\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs
20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) demon\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 strates that there is some presence of high
skills in Britain. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Thus, joined-up or crosssectoral policy coordination and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 complementa
rity are associated with a high-skills thesis. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 Joining up is essentially an argument about the necessity \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 for educational reforms to interlock with macroeconomic, \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 industrial, and labor-market reforms so that the c
ombined \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 impact would influence the outcome i
n a significant and \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 positive way.\par\pard\qj
\li20\ri1088\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 A high-skil
ls policy has been the center of economic, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 so
cial, and educational policies in many Western coun-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 tries. However, due to differences in context \u8216?\u8216?there is no
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 one recipe or blueprint for developing a hig
h-skills econ-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 omy\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder and Brown, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 37).\ul0\no
supersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder and Brown \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (2006)
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 identified four different types of labor market \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 structures. An occupational labor market where
education \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and training are closely related to
the labor market; an \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 internal labor market
, where high general skills are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 provided
by TVET and specific skilling is undertaken \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
by corporations; and the state-guided labor market \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 which is a demand-led (e.g., specific to Singapore where \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 the state encourages high-end production and innovatio
n \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and matches skills to the demand of the mul
tinational \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 corporations) market structure. Al
l three types of labor \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 markets have in commo
n a close integration of TVET and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the labor m
arket. The fourth type of market, a flexible \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100

labor market, is characterized by a high degree of individ-\line \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 ualism, \u8216?\u8216?in which the fit between education, traini
ng and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the labour market is often problemati
c; there is consider-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 able time spent in job s
earch and work is insecure; and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the flexibil
ity is numerical, so that employers can hire and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 fire as economic conditions change\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs
20 Lauder and Brown, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 : 39). Some authors are less critical of flexible labor \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 market; however, there is agreement that more emphasis \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 on the development of generic skills and good cr
edential-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ing systems are important for this
type of labor market to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 be successful. Each
type of labor market influences policy \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 develo
pment in TVET and the type of skills that are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
emphasized in the policy. If one accepts that the long-\line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex109 term aim of the economy is to achieve an HSE and \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex100 capacity building, then contributing to achieving such a \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 goal should be seen as an important function of TVET
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 policy development.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088
\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Each country can be co
nceptualized within this \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 framework, for example,
high-skills society (Germany), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 developmental high-s
kills society (Singapore), bipolar \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 high-skills/lowskills society \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (UK), and hybrid and \par\pard\s
ect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010101006000600000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101
01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc0
001108000b025d03012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001
02030405060708090a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221
31410613516107227114328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a2526272829
2a3435363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a
0101010101010101010000000000000102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407
05040400010277000102031104052131061241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f015
6272d10a162434e125f11718191a262728292a35363738393a434445464748494a53545556575859
5a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838485868788898a92939495969798999aa2a3a4a5a6
97d62f6baa592dc6997d657771d6d1401fffd9}}}}}
\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\qj \li1292\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \l
i1292\ri142\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 differentiated low-, intermediate-, and high-skills soci-\line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 ety (South Africa) (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Brown,\ul0
\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 2001; Kraak, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex106 TVET policy developers could use this analysis as a \up0 \expndtw-1\char
scalex100 starting point for policy formulation.\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb1\s
l-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Theories about human learning
have shaped our views \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 of the conditions nece
ssary to support curriculum develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ment and
instruction. However, it should be noted that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 learning in TVET as well as learning at work, as such, are \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 seldom the central focus of policy. \u8216?\u8216?Rather, the ty
pical \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 situation is that policies that are ta
rgeted at something else \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 include learning at
work within their scope. In the process, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 le
arning at work is usually assumed to be, in an uncritical \line \up0 \expndtw-7\
charscalex100 and \u8216?common sense\u8217? way, simply the acquisition of disc
rete \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 items of knowledge and skills\u8217?\u8
217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Hager, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 830).

\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex10
0 Recent research on TVET (see, e.g.,\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nos
upersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 ). \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 argued that life-based learning
(not work-based learning) \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 was required for v
ocational education focusing on capa-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 bility d
evelopment and consideration of the learner as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
3 a whole person. According to Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 ., life-based \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 learning is
a win-win situation with benefits to both \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 em
ployee and employer, based on employees taking per-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 sonal responsibility for their learning, based on the provi-\line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 sion of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?rich
learning environments\u8217?\u8217? \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 (p. \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 49), which \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 provides,
according to Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
.: \u8216?\u8216?performance, growth \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and op
portunity. It is adaptive, self-facilitated, based on \line \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 reflexive practice and uses any strategy appropriate to the \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 task\u8217?\u8217? (p. 49). This broad interpretation
of learning views \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 TVET as \u8216?\u8216?a kn
owledge-based industry, where knowledge \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 is i
ts core business\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 : 24). As argued in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the\ul0\nosupersub\cf
8\f9\fs20 Life Based Learning\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 report (\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf6\f7\fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs
20 ., 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ): the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
current period is one of rapid change where new ways of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 working and living are required. Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20
et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . argue that a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
101 learning ecologies metaphor can be used to understand \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 how we might work and live successfully. Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\
f9\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 f
ocus on the tendency of ecological environments to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex102 move to equilibrium as the key to the metaphor. Thus, \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 when there is change (to work or life) this is regarded as a \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 disturbance and we need to work to achieve equi
librium, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and we do that by adapting. Rather
than a model or a set of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 procedures, the foc
us of an ecological approach is orien-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 tation
and thus \u8216?\u8216?it offers a complex, diverse, dynamic and \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 adaptive framework that gives us a fresh perspective on \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 working and learning in contemporary envir
onment\u8217?\u8217? \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\
fs20 Staron\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ., 2006
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 27).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb2\sl-238\slmult0\
fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 These two types of theories, one that relates
to the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 economic aim of achieving an HSE and the ot
her that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 focuses on the learner in coherent ways co
uld provide a \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 useful framework for policy developm
ent.\par\pard\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb219\sl-253\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Cases Around th
e World\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb238\sl-238\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Policy development as a complex and multifa
ceted process \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 can be identified through the p
roduct, the policy docu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ment, and the process
in which implementation is as\par\pard\column \qj \li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\qj \li20\ri972\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 import
ant as formulation. According to\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson

\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (2006)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \u8216?\u8216?
It is important to understand the context in which \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
policy development takes place - how policies emerge, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
04 how they form and take shape, and how they become \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 lived through the actions of those engaged in the policy-\line \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 development process\u8217?\u8217? (p. 25).\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7
\fs20 Smyth (1993)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 has empha-\line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex105 sized the need to recognize the pivotal role of central \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 governments in shaping policy.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb1\sl
-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 This section examines four poli
cies across developed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and developing countrie
s to illustrate the points dis-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 cussed above.
Two examples from England and Australia \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 rel
ate to policy as text or the content of the policy itself. \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex107 They illustrate a capacity-building thesis within the \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 lifelong learning paradigm. Two examples from devel-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 oping countries relate to policy as discourse tha
t gradu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ally builds over time and sets bounda
ries to what actors \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 are allowed to think and
do. Discourses, then, as\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Ball \line \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 (1990)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 summarizes them, \u8216?\u8216?
embody meaning and social \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 relationships, the
y constitute both subjectivity and power \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 rel
ations\u8217?\u8217? (p. 2).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 The first example is the English participation policy
\line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex92 (2007). The English document:\ul0\nosupersub
\cf8\f9\fs20 Raising Expectations: Staying \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 i
n Education and Training Post-16\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 presented to Parlia
ment \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 in March 2007 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs
20 Department for Education and Skills, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 2007\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) argues for the new policy on the basis that \u8216?
\u8216?the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 structure of the economy has chan
ged dramatically, with \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 an ever-growing dep
endence on more highly skilled \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 workers\u8
217?\u8217? (1.5, p. 9). The goal of the policy is: \u8216?\u8216?to stop \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 young people dropping out of education or tra
ining \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 before 18, because of the benefits tha
t higher attainment \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and longer participation
bring, to the individual young \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 person, to th
e economy and to society\u8217?\u8217? (p. 11). Continuing \line \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 in education or training is seen as important to the econ-\line \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 omy, \u8216?\u8216?which will increasingly demand m
ore highly skilled \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 employees\u8217?\u8217? (
2.2, p. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 11) and the aim is to reach 90% \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 participation in education or training among 17-year-\li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 olds by 2015. Measures across different areas al
ready \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 being implemented in England include: r
eforms to the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 14-19 curriculum; changes to K
ey Stage 3; a major expan-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 sion of capacity in
work-based learning; the Education \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Maintena
nce Allowance; the Youth Matters reforms, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
others. Employers are playing an important part in \line \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 providing training or releasing young people from work \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 to undertake training. This policy is closely related t
o a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 high-skills thesis. It is also an example
of a policy that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 addresses one issue across
a number of sectors and posi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tions it within
some existing policies. The pressure of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 glo
balization is presented through the request to increase \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 competitiveness of the economy.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb0\sl-239\s

lmult0\fi239 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Since the 1990s there has been a simi
lar concern across \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Australia that young peop
le are not gaining the right skills \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to compe
te in the global economy. Although the different \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
102 state governments (who have responsibility for educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-8\c
harscalex100 tion) have responded in different ways,\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs20
Australia\u8217?s National \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex89 Strategy for Voc
ational Education and Training \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex88 2004-2010 \par\par
d\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010101006000600000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101
01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc0
001108000b025e03012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001
02030405060708090a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221
31410613516107227114328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a2526272829
2a3435363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a
0101010101010101010000000000000102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407
05040400010277000102031104052131061241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f015
6272d10a162434e125f11718191a262728292a35363738393a434445464748494a53545556575859
5a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838485868788898a92939495969798999aa2a3a4a5a6
\li1179\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1179\ri140\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs2
0 ANTA, 2003\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) developed at the national level, highl
ighted \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 an attempt at a systematic approach toward
TVET devel-\line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 opment in the country. Key object
ives for vocational educa-\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 tion and training
(VET) that are formulated in the National \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Strategy
2004-10 highlighted:\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb119\sl-239\slmult0\tx1408 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex106 1. the global economic competition as the reason for \l
ine\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 skills development (industry will have a h
ighly skilled\par\pard\qj \li1408\ri143\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 workforce to support strong performance in the global \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 economy);\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb1\sl-238\slmult0\tx1408 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 2. the end-user as a focus of the policy (employers and
\line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 individuals will be at the center of VET
); and\par\pard\ql \li1179\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 3. be
nefits for communities (communities and regions\par\pard\qj \li1408\ri141\sb3\sl
-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 will be strengthened economically
and socially \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 through learning and employment
and Indigenous \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Australians will have skills for vi
able jobs and their \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 learning and culture will be s
hared).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb120\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex101 In November 2003, state ministers endorsed the key \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 performance measures for the VET system as part of the \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex101 2004-10 National Strategy. The key performance mea-\line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 sures cover the following critical areas:\par\pard\ql \li1
368\ri143\sb120\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Student participati
on and achievement in VET. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Student employment
outcomes and satisfaction from \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 VET.\par\par
d\qj \li1368\ri552\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Employer eng
agement and satisfaction with VET. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 VET outcomes fo
r Indigenous Australians.\par\pard\qj \li1368\ri367\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 Community engagement and satisfaction with VET. \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 VET system efficiency (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 ANTA
and NTSC, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ).\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb119\sl
-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Some of the strategies identifi

ed include: increase par-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ticipation and achie
vement in TVET, particularly by \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 existing wor
kers; help clients navigate and interact with \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10
0 VET; improve the value, brand, language, and image of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 VET and public recognition of its employment outcomes; \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 strengthen industry\u8217?s role in anticipating skill req
uire-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ments and develop products and services
to meet them; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 make learning pathways seamless
; improve quality and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 consistency; and facil
itate access to international markets. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 This p
olicy is an example of systematic reform, where \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
00 participation (as in the English case) is just one compo-\line \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 nent of the policy.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0
\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Both examples from developed countries repre
sent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 competitiveness-driven TVET policies as govern
ments \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 sought to defend their global competitivenes
s by enhanc-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ing the productivity of the dome
stic labor force.\par\pard\qj \li1179\ri142\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expnd
tw-1\charscalex100 Two examples from developing countries come from \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex103 Africa and Cambodia. Although education policies in \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 developing countries can be closely related to don
or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 priorities and perspectives, these cases p
rovide illustra-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 tions of how policy can be u
sed in different ways. On the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 one hand, inter
national funds can be used to imple-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ment mea
sures that are episodic and lack essential coher-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
106 ence. On the other hand, they can be used to provide \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 partial financial support for a large-scale systematic \line \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 educational reform.\par\pard\column \qj \li6071\sb0
\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1087\sb136\sl-239\slmult0\fi239 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex105 Between the 1980s and 1990s, international donor \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex104 funding in Africa was directed away from TVET and \line \u
p0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 toward support for basic education. TVET provi
sion \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 was marginalized as the attention of pol
icymakers was \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 directed elsewhere (\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf6\f7\fs20 McLean and Kamau, 1999\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). However,
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 during the late 1990s, two factors emerged: a
growing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 crisis of youth unemployment and lo
w levels of economic \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 competitiveness. These f
actors became the main policy \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 drivers in brin
ging skills back into the policy spotlight, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
particularly for the Southern African countries (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Rob
erts, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 50).
One of the challenges facing educational plan-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
4 ners is the need to develop a coherent policy on skills \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 development that articulates well with the economic \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 development plans.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1088\sb0\sl-239\
slmult0\fi239\tldot\tx1472 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 This example can be ana
lyzed within\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Estevez-Abe\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20
et al\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (2001)\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 approach where they distinguish three types of \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 skills: firm-specific (Japan and Korea), industry-s
pecific \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (Germany), and general skills. In an
y economy all three \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 types of skills will be
utilized; however, in some structured \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 econom
ies, the development of one of these skills types \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 will predominate over the others. Firm-specific skills are \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex103 the least portable, industry-specific skills are portable \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 across an industry, while general skills can be
applied \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 across a range of firms and industr

ies. Each type requires \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different type of tr
aining and assumes particular kinds of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 econom
ic development strategies. As argued by\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Lauder \line
\up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 et al\ul0\nosupersub\
cf6\f7\fs20 . (2006)\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \u8216?\u8216?for firm-specifi
c skills a high level of general \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 education i
s desirable. This is then used as the foundation \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 for the in-house development of skills that firms demand. \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 Industry-specific skills require some interaction between \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the education and training system and industry f
or the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 training to be appropriate and up to
date in supplying the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 skills required\expndt
w0\charscalex100\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 For general skills, education
at only a\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mi
nimum level is required for the lower end of the flexi-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\s
l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ble labour market.\u8217?\u8217? (p.
48). Thus, the assumption that an\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 improvement in general education in Africa would pro-\par\p
ard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vide the opportuni
ty for firm-specific training proved to\par\pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 be wrong. This was due to the limited number of firms\
par\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 able to prov
ide such training. The conclusion to be drawn\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 from this is that more emphasis on the developme
nt of\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 industry
-specific skills is required so that the economic\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development plans can be achieved. \u8216?\
u8216?This requires gov-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 ernment commitment in the form of policy development,\par\pard\ql \l
i20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sound skills and human res
ource development planning,\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex101 inter-ministerial co-operation - primarily between edu-\par\pard\q
l \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 cation and labour minis
tries - and financial commitment\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 to developing a skilled population\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Roberts, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 52).\par\pard\ql \l
i260\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Cambodia is an example to
demonstrate the effective-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 ness of a sector-wide education approach presented\par\pard\
ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 through a developed na
tional program for education in a\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex103 developing country. In Cambodia\u8217?s case the approach\pa
r\pard\ql \li20\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 comprised: The
Education Sector Support Program\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 (ESSP) 2001-06. The overall goal of the ESSP was to\par\
pard\ql \li20\sb8\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 contribute to the
\u8216?\u8216?achievement of the Government\u8217?s pov-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb9\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 erty reduction strategy through propoor systematic and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh15860{\shp
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01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
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2a3435363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a
0101010101010101010000000000000102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407
05040400010277000102031104052131061241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f015
6272d10a162434e125f11718191a262728292a35363738393a434445464748494a53545556575859
5a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838485868788898a92939495969798999aa2a3a4a5a6
97d62f6baa592dc6997d657771d6d1401fffd9}}}}}

\colsr160\colno2\colw5575\colsr160\qj \li1292\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \l
i1292\ri142\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 targeted interventions\u8217?\u8217? \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (\
ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Forsberg and Ratcliffe, \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96
2002\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 TVET is
included in this policy. Government flexibility \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 in negotiating a mix of donor-financing modalities helped \line \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 maintain inclusive partnerships. High-level national lead-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ership and authority of the ESSP reform process
has been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 critical and it was provided direct
ly through the minister. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 This is an example
to illustrate when policy development \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is not
a simple case of setting up the priorities. Policy had \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 been seen as a dialectic process in which the government \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 and the donors were involved in shaping its development
. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u8216?\u8216?Policy development is theref
ore both a continuous and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 contested process
in which those with competing values \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and diff
erent access to power seek to form and shape \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
policy in their own interests\u8217?\u8217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell a
nd Stevenson, 2006\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 2).\par\pard\qj \li1292\ri142\sb
0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 These four cases demonstrate
the different ways the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 governments approach
policy development: through the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 high-skills
thesis in Australia and England; and through \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 the combination approach (high skills/low skills) in Africa \line \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 and Cambodia. Systematic approach at different levels has \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 been seen important for the three cases examined
.\par\pard\ql \li1292\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1294\sb217\sl-253\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Conclusions\par\pa
rd\qj \li1292\ri142\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This article analyzes issues, such as the scope, scale, \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and coherence within TVET and across different
sectors \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 within particular countries to demo
nstrate the complexity \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of TVET policy formula
tion. It is argued in the article \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that tensi
ons between the pressures for global uniformity \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 and regional specificity should be considered by policy-\line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex103 makers. It is also argued that any attempt to develop a \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 universal set of principles for policy development sh
ould \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 be adopted with caution, particularly d
ue to differences in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the labor-market structu
res across the countries. Two \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 types of theori
es are proposed to provide the basis for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 und
erstanding how educational policy could be planned. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 They are high-skills thesis and life-based learning. They \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 provide the basis for macro- and micro-level planning.\par
\pard\qj \li1292\ri141\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Th
e issues and theories discussed in the opening section \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 of the article provide the basis for the analysis of policy \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 examples from developed and developing worlds pre-\line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sented in the next section. The conclusion is adva
nced \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that TVET systems policies and planning
should exist as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 part of a system of lifelon
g learning adapted to the needs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of each parti
cular country and to worldwide economic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 deve
lopment. It is important to be aware of the complex-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 ity of TVET and its interdependence with other policy \line \up0 \expndtw
-1\charscalex100 areas. In a modern market economy, governments carry \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 primary responsibility for TVET policy design. However
, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 a partnership between government, employers
, profes-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sional associations, industry, empl
oyees and their repre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sentatives, the local c
ommunities, and nongovernment \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 organizations
should play a crucial role in policy design \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (
UNESCO/ILO, 2002: 9a). The overall conclusion to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
104 be advanced in this article is that policy planning and\par\pard\column \qj
\li6185\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri974\sb134\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 development should be based on research that is directed
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 toward TVET improvement and its relevance to parti
cular \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 socioeconomic contexts.\par\pard\ql \li6185\
sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6185\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb
84\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs22 Bib
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{\rtf1{\fonttbl

ub\cf5\f6\fs20 focus on three aspects of policy: context (economic, \line \up0

\ql \li6074\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23\sb26\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn

\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tion conditions; economic policy; private-secto

up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 At the level of global

in economic perfor-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mance are underpinned by

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217? (\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Hager, 2005\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : 830).

ant as formulation. According to\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Bell and Stevenson

arscalex100 competitiveness of the economy.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri973\sb0\sl-239\s

-239\slmult0\fi236 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Some of the strategies identifi

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0\par\pard\li1292\sb203\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx1947 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \

0 Dye, T. (1992). Understanding Public Policy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:\par\pard\ql

\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs18 Planning and Policy Development for Technical Vocati

and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Administration: Adopting a Cultural

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